i I t'-j -. HUGHE'S CITY HIGH SCHOOL, CINCINNATI. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE; CONTRIBUTIONS THE IMPROVEMENT OF SCHOOL-HOUSES THE UNITED STATES. BY HENRY BARNARD. LL. D v SUPERINTENDENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS IN CONNECTICUT FIFTH EDITION NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY CHARLES B. NORTON. No. 71, CHAMBERS STREET. 1854. PREFACE. AT the National Convention of the Friends of Public Education, held in Philadelphia, on the 17th, 18th, and 19th of October, 1849, and of which Hon. Horace Mann was President, ,Prof. James Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington City, Hon. Elisha R. Potter, Commissioner of Public Schools of Rhode Island, and Greer B. Duncan, Esq. of New Orleans, were appointed a Committee to report to the next Convention on the subject of School Architecture, including the location, size, ventilation, warming, and furniture of buildings intended for educa- tional purposes. At the second Convention held in Philadelphia, on the 23d, 24th, and 25th of August, 1850, and of which Rev. Dr. Nott, of Union College, was President, the following Report, prepared by Mr. Potter, of Rhode Island, was submitted by Prof. Henry, with some introductory re- marks on the general subject of American Architecture. The Report was ordered to be printed with the Proceedings of the Convention. REPORT. The subject of School Architecture has not, till within a comparatively recent period, received that attention from the public generally, or from practical educators in particular, which its important bearings, direct and indirect, on the health, manners, morals, and intellectual progress of chil- dren, and on the health and success of the teacher, both in government and instruction, demand. The earliest publication on the subject in this country, which has met the notice of the Committee, maybe found in the School Magazine, No. 1, published as an Appendage to the Journal of Education, in April, 1829. In 1830, Mr. W. J. Adams, of New York, de- livered a lecture before the American Institute of Instruction, " an School houses and School Apparatus " which was published in the first volume of the transactions of that association. Stimulated by that lecture, the Di- rectors of the Institute in the following year offered a premium of twenty dollars for the best " Essay on the Construction of School-houses." The premium was awarded by a committee of the Institute to the Essay by Dr. William A. Alcott, of Hartford, Conn., now residing in West New- ton, Mass. This " Prize Essay" was published in the second annual volume of lectures before the Institute, as well as in a pamphlet, and was widely circulated and read all over the country. In 1833, the Essex County Teachers' Association published a " Report on School-houses" prepared by Rev. G. B. Perry, which is a searching and vigorous ex- posure of the evils resulting from the defective construction and arrange- g PREFACE. ment of School-houses. From this time the subject began to attract public attention, and improvements were made in the construction and Furniture of school-rooms, especially in large cities and villages. In 1838 Hon. Horace Mann submitted a Report on School-houses' as supplementary to his First Annual Report as Secretary of the Board ol Education in Massachusetts, in which the whole subject and especially that of ventilation, is discussed with great fullness and ability. 1 his Ke- portwas widely circulated in a pamphlet form, and in the various educa- tional periodicals of the country, and gave a powerful impulse to improve- ment in this department, not only in Massachusetts, but in other states. In the same year. Hon. Henry Barnard prepared an <; Essay on School Architecture," in which he embodied the results of much observation, experience and reflection, in a manner so systematic and practical as to meet the wants of all who may have occasion to superintend the erection, alteration, or furnishing of School-houses. This Essay was originally prepared and delivered as a lecture in the course of his official visits to different towns of Connecticut, as Secretary of the Board of Commis- sioners of Common Schools. It was first published in 1841, in the Con- necticut Common School Journal, and in 1842 was submitted, with some modifications and numerous illustrations, as a Report on School-houses, to the Legislature. It may be mentioned as an evidence of the low apprecia- tion in which the whole subject was regarded at that time, in a State which prides herself on the condition of her common schools, and on the liberality with which her system of public education is endowed, that the Joint Standing Committee on Education, on the part of the Senate and House, refused to recommend the publication of this Essay, although it is by far the most thorough, systematic and practical discussion of the subject which has appeared in this country or in Europe. And it was. only through the strenuous efforts of a few intelligent friends of school improve- ments that its publication was secured, and then, only on condition that the author should bear the expense of the wood-cuts by which it was illustrated, and a portion of the bill for printing. Since its first publica- tion more than one hundred thousand copies of the original Essay have been printed in various forms and distributed in different states, without any pecuniary advantage to the author. In 1842, George B. Emerson, Esq., in Part Second of the School and Schoolmaster, devoted a Chapter to " The School-house," in which sound and practical views of the location, size, and ventilation and warming of edifices ibr school purposes, are presented and illustrated by appropriate cuts. A copy of this valuable work was presented to each of the 11,000 school districts in the State of New York, and each of the 3,400 districts in Massachusetts. In 1846, Nathan Bishop, Esq., Superintendent of Public Schools in the City of Providence, published a Report on the School-houses of that city, with numerous wood-cuts illustrative of the peculiarities of the furniture and internal arrangements of the buildings devoted to each grade of school. These houses were constructed after an exam ination'of the latest improvements which had been introduced in the School-houses of Boston, Salem, and other large cities and villao-es in Massachusetts, and have been much consul ted by committees and build- ers as models. In 1848, Mr. Barnard republished his Essay, with plans and descrip- tions of numerous School-houses which had been erected under his direc- node Island and Connecticut, and including by permission all of the plans ol any value, which had been published by Mr. Mann, Mr. Emerson, Mr : Bishop, and other laborers in this field -with the title of School Architecture, or Contributions to the Improvement of School- ne* m .the United States." As the title conveys a very inadequate view of the fullness and completeness of this valuable work, the Committee PREFACE. 7 feel that they can not better promote the object of their appointment than by calling the attention of the Convention to the general views with which the subject was approached by this Author, and to the table of contents which will be found appended to the extracts which we have been permitted to make from this volume. " The subject was forced on the attention of the author in the very out- set of his labors in the field of public education. Go where he would, in city or country, he encountered the district School-house, standing in dis- graceful contrast with every other structure designed for public or domes- tic use. Its location, construction, furniture and arrangements, seemed intended to hinder, and not promote, to defeat and not perfect, the work which was to be carried on within and without its walls. The attention of parents and school officers was early and earnestly called to the close connection between a good school-house and a good school, and to the great principle, that to make an edifice good for school purposes, it should be built for children at school, and their teachers ; for children differing in age, sex, size, and studies, and therefore requiring different accommoda- tions ; for children engaged sometimes in study and sometimes in recita- tion ; for children whose health and success in study require that they shall be frequently, and every day, in the open air, for exercise and rec- reation, and at all times supplied with pure air to breathe ; for children who are to occupy it in the hot days of summer, and the cold days of winter, and to occupy it for periods of time in different parts of the day, in positions which become wearisome, if the. seats are not in all respects com- fortable, and which may affect symmetry of form and length of life, if the construction and relative heights of the seats and desks which they occu- py are not properly attended to ; for children whose manners and morals, whose habits of order, cleanliness and punctuality, whose temper, love of study, and of the school, are in no inconsiderable degree affected by the attractive or repulsive location and appearance, the inexpensive out- door arrangements, and the internal construction of the place where they spend or should spend a large part of the most impressible period of their lives. This place, too, it should be borne in mind, is to be occupied by a teacher whose own health and daily happiness are affected by most of the various circumstances above alluded to, and whose best plans of order, classification, discipline and recitation, may be utterly baffled, or greatly promoted, by the manner in which the School-house may be located, lighted, warmed, ventilated and seated. With these general views of school architecture, this essay was originally written." The volume will be found on examination to contain: 1. An exposition, from official documents, of common errors in the loca- tion, construction, and furniture of School-houses as they have been here- tofore almost universally built, even in states where the subject of edu- cation has received the most attention. 2. A discussion of the purposes to be answered, and the principles to be observed, in structures of this kind. , 3. Descriptions of a variety of plans, adapted to schools of every grade, from the Infant School to the Normal School, in a variety of styles, hav- ing a Gothic, Elizabethan, or classic character, and on a large or small scale of expense ; either recommended by experienced educators, or fol- lowed in buildings recently erected in this country or in Europe. 4. Numerous illustrations of the most approved modes of constructing and arranging seats and desks, and of all recent improvements in appa- ratus for warming and ventilating school-rooms and public halls generally. 5. A catalogue of maps, globes, and other means of visible illustra- tion, with which each grade of school should be furnished, with the price, and place where the several articles can be purchased. 6. A list of books, with an index or table of contents to the most impor- g PREFACE. tant volumes on education, schools, school systems, and methods of teach- ing, suitable for school libraries, with reference to catalogues from which village libraries may be selected. 7. Rules and regulations for the care and preservation of School-houses, grounds, and furniture. 8. Examples of exercises suitable to the dedication of School-houses to the sacred purposes of education. 9. A variety of hints respecting the classification of schools. It will not be necessary to specify further the official reports and peri- odicals in which the subject has been discussed within a few years past, or to mention in detail the various improvements which have been intro- duced in the construction of school furniture, and in modes of ventilation and warming, Most of the plans which have been brought before the public, and which have been found on trial to be valuable contributions to plans before published, are embodied in the recent editions of Mr. Barnard's work. In conclusion, the Committee beg leave to present the following summary* of the Principles of School Architecture, which the author of that work has drawn up at their request, as presenting the result of his observations and practical knowledge in this department of educational improvement. He has also placed at the disposal of the Committee nu- merous plans for schools of different grades, selected from his book, or prepared for subsequent editions, which are herewith communicated as a part of this Report PhiladelpKia, Aug. 23, 1850. The above Report was published as an Introduction to an abridg- ment of this work, under the title of Practical Illustrations of the Prin- ciples of School Architecture, and is adopted in this revised and en- larged edition, of the original treatise, because it contains not only a brief and accurate sketch of the various publications on the subject of School Architecture, but a summary of the aims and contents of this volume. HENRY BARNARD. Qff.ce of Superintendent of Common Softools. HARTFORD, CONN., February 1st, 1854. CONTENTS, PAGE. PREFACE. Report of Committee on School-houses, to the National Convention of the Friends of Education, in 1850 5 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. I. COMMON ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED. Extracts from Official School Documents, showing the condition of School-houses in Connecticut, 16 Massachusetts, 26 New York, 29 Vermont, - 34 New Hampshire, 36 Maine, 37 Rhode Island, 38 Michigan, 39 New England, generally, 44 lUitttratitnw, School-houses as they are, 45 II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED. 1. Site, 47 2. Yard, 47 3. Size of Building, 47 4. Size of School-room, 47 5. Class room, 47 6. Light, 47 7. Warming, 47 8. Ventilation, 47 9. Desk, 47 10. Seats, 48 I 1. Aisles, 48 12. Accommodation for Teacher, 48 13. Library and Apparatus, 48 14. External Appearance, 48 15. Residence for Teacher, 48 16. Privies, 48 17. Gymnastic and Calisthenic Exercises, 48 PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES. Circumstances to be regarded, 49 One school of scholars of different ages, 49 Two school-rooms, 49 Two or more schools, 49 Different systems, 49 PLANS or SCHOOL-HOUSES WITH ONE SCHOOL-ROOM. District Schools, General Condition, 50 Infant and Primary Schools, do 50 Locution, Yard, and Play Ground, 51 Play Ground of Infantand Primary School, 52 Apparatus for Gymnastic Exercises, 56 Russell's Gymnasium, New Haven, 58 Bell, Wood, or Coal-house, and Privy, 63 Illustrations, Play Ground of Infant School, 53 Climbing Stand, 56 Horizontal Bars, 56 PAGE. Parallel Bars, 57 Wooden Swing, 57 Double Inclined Plane, 58 Wooden Hone, 58 Slanting Ladder, 58 Plan of Russell's Gymnasium, 59 Inclined Ropes, 60 Vaulting Bar, 60 Rotary Swing 54 Water-closet, 63 PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES RECOMMENDED BY PRACTICAL TEACHERS AND EDUCA- TORS. Plan by Dr. William A. Alcott, Illustration, School-room for 56 pupils, Plan by Horace Mann, Illustrations, School-room, , Location in Union District,. . . 64 65 64 65 65 66 66 67 68 70 70 71 72 72 73 73 74 73 74 75 76 Plan of Octagonal School-house near Lon- don, 76 Illustration, School-room, 76 Plan for Village School, by Dr. Dick, 77 Illustration, Plan of Yard, &c 77 Plans of School-rooms for different systems of instruction, 79 Plan for Infant School 78 Illustration, School-room and Grounds, 78 Plan by Wilderspin, 55 Plan for Schools on the Monitorial System, 81 Illustrations, School-room on the plan of Lancaster, 82 School-room on the plan of Dr. Bell,. . 82 Plans for Schools on the Mixed System, re* commended by Committee of Council on Education, 83 Plan by George B. Emerson, General Principles to be observed, Illustrations, Perspective of School-house, &.C., Front Projection, with Trees, &c.,... Movable Blackboard, Section of Fire-place, Ventilating Apparatus, School-room for 120 pupils, School-room for 48 pupils, Plan by Messrs. Town and Davis, Advantages of the Octagonal shape,.... Mode of lighting by skylight, Illustrations, Perspective of octagonal School-house, School-room, Section of smoke and ventilating pipe, Design in the pointed style, 10 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Organization of Schools in parallel groups of Desks, c "stehwi-r^m, with Movable Partition, . 83 Bchool-room, with four Class rooms,. . H Fection of Desk, b Arrangement of Curtain to separate Classes, B Plans of School-rooms, with Classes sepa- rated bv Curtains, '.V* V*J No. 1. "School for 48 boys and girls, in 4 classes, <*> 2. School for 48 boys and girls, with class room, 3. School for 72 boys or girls, in 5 daises, 89 4. School for 72 boys and girls, 89 5. " " 120 " or " in 5 classes, 9 6. School for 1C8 boys or girls, 90 7 " "240 " in 8 classes,.. 91 a Infant School, 91 Plan of Village National School, 92 Illustrations, Perspective, 92 Ground Plan, 92 Plans for Rural and Village School, recom- mended by Massachusetts Board of Edu- cation 9 Mode of Ventilation, 9 Directions for making Black-plaster Wall,. 93 HinU for the iirrangement of School-rooms, 94 Illurtration*, Plans f>r Rural and Village Schools,. . 94 No. 1. School-room ; building 46 by 30 94 2. " " 36 by 26 95 3. PACK. Perspective, ........................ Seat and Desk, ..................... { Ground Plan, ....................... J1/ Plan of District School, 34 by 25 .......... 113 Illustration, Ground Plan, ....................... * Plan of District School-house, 36 by 27,. . . 118 Illustration, Ground Plan, ....................... U Plan of District School-house, 50 by 30 ---- 119 Illustration, Ground Plan, ...................... IW Plan of District School-houses in Michigan, 119 Illustration, Ground Plan, ....................... 119 Plans of District School-houses recently erected in New Hampshire, ........ Illustration.'', District School-room in Dublin, ...... 120 " " Greenland N. H. 121 120 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 0. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 i:.. 4* by 30 96 40 by 28 97 50 by 42 98 44 by 48 99 44 by 48 100 40 by 52 101 60 by 48 102 45 by 60 103 40 by 60 104 35 by 62 105 52 by 70 106 37 by 40 107 37 by 38 107 Section exhibiting Mode of Ventilation, 108 Plan by Dr. A. D. Lord, 109 School-room, 109 PLAXS or SCHOOL-HOUSES RECENTLY ERECTED. Remarks on Plans furnished or sanctioned by the Author, Ill PLAXI TOR DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSES, CM: BTURY num. Plan of School-house, 30 by 20, in Bloom- field, Conn 112 Illattration- , Front Ktevatinn, Plan of Wnriiiing and Ventilation,. . . . Ground Plan, Plan of School-house, 34 by 22, in Wind- tor, Conn., H4 Jlluntration*, Perspective, 114 Ground Plan, 115 Plan of DHtrirt Prhool-house, 40 by 25, in fOotrtitoitit, PLANS or SCHOOL-HOUSES TOR LMOH OR GRADED SCHOOLS. Classification of Schools 123 Plan of School-house for two schools in Centerdale, R. I., 133 Illustrations, Elevation, Trees, &c , 133 Ground Plan, 26 by 51, 133 Plan of School-house for two schools in Washington Village, R. I., 134 Illustration. Ground Plan, 134 Plan of School-house for two schools in Warren, R. I., 135 Illustrations, Location and Yard? 136 First Floor, 62 by 44, 137 Second Floor, 137 Plan of School-house for three schools in Chepachet 133 Illustrations, Side and Front Elevations, 138 First Floor, 50 by 34, 139 Second Floor, 139 Plan of School-house for four schools in Pawtucket, R. I., 140 Illutttrations, Perspective, 140 First Floor, three schools, 14i Second Floor, 141 Plans of School-houses for schools of dif- ferent grades in Providence, 11. I., 14~i Primary School-house, 142 llliiftrntiuns, Perspective of a Primary School-house, 14- Ground Plan, 143 Tops of desks for two pupils, 144 Section of seat and desk for two pupils, 144 Intermediate School-house, 144 Illustrations, Perspective of Inter. School-house,... 14o Section of Ventilators, 144 Internal arrangement 17G Section of Writing Desk and Seat, 177 Grammar School-house, 148 Illaatratimis, Perspective of Grammar School-house, 149 Plan of Yard, Basement, &c., do 150 First Floor, Primary and Inter. Schools, 151 Second Floor, Grammar School, 152 Section, 153 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PAOK. High School-house, 154 lUtutratiom, Perspective, 155 Basement, 156 First Floor, 157 Second Floor, 157 Movable Seat and Desk for two, 158 Vertical Section of Furnace, 158 Plan of Graded School-house in Arsenal District, Hartford, 160 Illustrations, Front Elevation, 160 Ground Plan 160 Perspective, for two Schools, 161 Plan of Graded School-house in South Dis- trict, Hartford, 162 Illustrations, Perspective, 162 First Floor, 163 Second Floor 164 Third Floor, 165 Plan of High School-house in Hartford,.. . 166 List of Apparatus, 168 Illustrations, Perspective, 170 Plan of Yard and Basement, 171 First Floor, 172 Second Floor 172 Section showing Ventilation, 173 Seat and Desk, 173 Plans of School-houses recently erected in Boston, 174 Organization of Public Schools, 174 Ingraham Primary School-house, Boston,.. 176 Educational value of School decorations,.. 189 Specifications for building Primary School- house 191 Composition for making Black Wall, 197 Illustrations, Play Ground and First Floor 177 Internal arrangements, Second Floor... 179 Third Floor, 180 Primary School Chair, 181 View of Front Wall, 181 Section of Smoke Flues, 182 Section of Ventiducts 183 Position of Flues and Ventiducts, 184 Ventilation, &c., of Privies, 186 Plan of Brimmer Grammar School-house,. . 198 Illustrations, First and Second Floor, 198 Third Floor, 199 Plan of Bowdoin Grammar School-house, 200 Illustrations, First and Second Floor, 201 Third Floor, 201 Plan of Quincy Grammar School-house,.. 202 Illustration, First Floor, 203 Remarks at Dedication of (Juincy Grammar School, 204 Classification of large schools in Boston, . . 206 Internal Arrangement of School-houses,. . . 206 Form of Specification, 207 Plan of Putnam Free School-house, New- buryport, 210 Illustrations, First Floor, 212 Second Floor, 213 Plan of East Public School, Salem, 114 Illustration, First Floor, 116 Second Floor, 1]7 Kimball's Chair and Desk, 115 11 PAOK. Description of Latin and English High School, Salem 218 Plans of School-houses in city of New York 220 History of Public Schools, 220 Plan of Public School-house, 222 Illustrations, Primary Department, 223 Second Floor, 224 Plan of Primary School-house, 225 Illustrations, Section of Gallery, 226 Seat and Desk, 226 Mott's Patent Revolving Chair, 227 Plan of Ward School, No. 29, 228 Illustrations, Perspective, 228 Basement, 230 Primary Department, 233 Ink-box and Well, 231 Plan of Ward School-house, No. 30, 232 Illustrations, Front Elevation, 232 Basement 233 First Floor, 234 Second and Third Floor, 235 Primary School Chair and Desk, 235 Teacher's Desk, 235 Cover to Ink-well, 234 Plan of Free Academy-building 236 Illustrations, Perspective, 218 Mode of Warming and Ventilation,.. 238 Basement, 239 First Floor, 240 Second and Third Floor, 241 Desk and Chairs 241 Plan of Academy-building, Rome, N. Y.,.. 243 Illustrations, Perspective, 243 Basement, 243 Desk and Chairs, 244 First Floor, 245 Second FJoor, 245 Plans of School-houses recently erected in Philadelphia, 246 History and Condition of Public Schools,. . 246 Plans of Jefferson Grammar School-house, 248 Illustrations, Perspective, 248 First Floor, 249 Plans of North-East Grammar School-house, 250 Illustrations, Perspective, 250 First Floor, 251 Plans of Warner Grammar School-house,. 252 Illustrations, Perspective, 252 First Floor, 252 Plans of Greenwood School-house, 253 Illustrations, Perspective, 253 First Floor, 253 Plans of Central High School,. 254 Mode of Ventilation, 256 Influence of the School, 258 Occupations of Pupils, 259 Illustrations, Perspective, 254 Basement, 255 First Floor, 256 Second and Third Floor, 256 12 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PAOK. HatorY of Public Schools of Cincinnati,.. 261 Hughes City High School, w JUuitrationf, Ofi0 Perspective, ,. Basement Laboratory, -" First Floor, Z Second Floor, * High Schools, their place in a System of Public Instruction, - 400 Plans for Normal Schools and Schools of Practice, j21 History of Normal Schools, *' Plans of Normal School Buildings in Mass., 274 Illustrations, Bridgewater State Normal School, " Front Elevation, .274 First Floor, *| Second Floor, 27o Westfield State Normal School, 2ji7 Front Elevation, 2/7 First Floor, 2,8 Second Floor S 7 " Franiinghain State Normal School,... 280 Front Elevation, 280 First Floor, 281 Plans of State Normal School Building at Albany, N. Y., 282 Illustrations, Perspective, 282 Basement, 283 First Floor, 284 Second Floor, 285 Third Floor, 286 Fourth Floor, 287 Desk and Chairs,.... 286 Plan* of State Normal School at New Brit- ain, Conn., 288 lUtiftratiuns, Perspective, 288 Basement, 290 First Floor, 291 Second Floor, 292 Third Floor, 293 Plans of City Normal School, Philadelphia, 294 Illuttrationt, Perspective, 294 Cellar Furnaces, 294 First Floor, 295 Second Floor, 295 Third Floor, 295 Plans of Normal and Model School Building at Toronto, Upper Canada, 296 illustration.*, Front and Side View, 297 Ground Plan, 299 Second Floor, 301 Rear and Side View, 300 Plans of Kneller Hall Training School, Eng- land 3K Illustration, Perspective, VBNTILATIOII AND WARMINO. General Principle" 30 Report of Dr. II. G. Clark on Ventilation of Grammar School in Boston, 30" General Rules of Boston Committee, 31 Construction of Ventiducts 33 Mode recommended by J. YV. Ingraham,. . If Mode adopted by Prof. Hart, 24 Mode recommended by G. B. Emerson, 35 lltuitrationt, Eiample of imperfect Ventilation, .... 3] Plan in Elicit School-house, Boston, .. 3] 14 Endicott School-house, 3] PAOK. General Plan in Grammar Schools, ... 314 Section of Chilson's Furnace, 317 Section of Ventilating Stove, 317 Emerson's Ejecting Ventilator, 318 " Injecting Ventilator, 319 Elevation of Ventiducts 320 Cold-air Ducts and Smoke Flues, JiJO Section of Apparatus in a building two stories 321 First Floor of do., 322 Second Floor of do., >* Section of Ingraham School-house, ... 1W4 Section of Hartford High School-house, 173 Plan recommended by D. Leach 109 Vpparatus for Warming, 324 ulver's Hot-Air Furnace, *-4 " Portable Furnace, !5 lirections for using, 326 'ulver's Laboratory Furnace, J~ lott's Ventilating School Stove, 330 Joston Ventilating Stove, 331 Ihilson's Portable Furnace, 331 " Air Warming and Ventilating F,,rnnPP .. 332 Directions for setting Chilson's Furnace,. . 334 " for using, do., 334 " for making Ventiducts, 338 ^ushnell's Hot-air Furnace, 339 Jouble Fire-place, 340 Illustrations, Double Fire-place horizontal section, 340 " " perpendicular " 340 Mott's Ventilating School Stove 329 Boston Ventilating Stove, 33 Chilson's Trio Portable Furnace, 331 " School Stove, 331 " Ventilating Furnace, 332 Plans for setting Chilson's Furnace,. . . 334 Section ground and plan, 334 " position and thickness of walls, 335 Culver's Hot-air Furnace, 324 BushneU's Hot-air Furnace, 339 SCHOOL FCRNITURE. General Principles, 341 Scale of Dimensions, 343 Illustrations, Bench with Back, 344 Gallery for Infant School, 344 Sand Desk 344 Gallery used in National Schools, 345 Gallery in Burough Road School, 345 Closing Gallery,. v 345 Desks and Seats made of wood, 34ti Range of Seats and Desks, 346 Shattuck's Primary School Chair, 349 Boston High School Desk and Chair,.. 34(i Mott's School Chair and Desk 348 Hartford School Chair and Desk, 347 Wales' Improved School Furniture,. . . 350 No. 1. American School Chairs, 350 2. do., with desk for two pupils, 350 3. do., " one pupil, 354 4. New England School Chairs,.. 351 5. do., with desk for two pupils, 351 6. do., do., one pupil, 352 7. Bowdoin School Chairs, 352 8. do., with desk for two,.. 352 9. do., do., one,.. 353 10. Washington School Chair 358 11. do., with desk for two pupils, 353 12. do., do.. one pupil, 354 13. Normal School Desk for two,.. 354 14. do., do., do., one,.. 353 15. Improved Writing Stools, 355 16. Primary School Chair, 355 17. Basket Primary School Chair,.. 555 18. Improved Settees, 356 19. Improved Lyceum Settees,.... 356 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 13 FADE. Teacher's Arm Chair, 356 do. do., with cushions, 357 Teacher's table without drawers, 357 do. do., with one drawer, 357 do. do., with two drawers, 358 Movable Skeleton Desk, 358 " Portable Desk, 358 Teacher's Desk, 358 do. with drawers and table top, 358 do. and top desk, 358 two drawers and ta ip desk, ble top, do. and top des p, 5 k, 35 four drawers and table top, 359 do. and top desk, 359 six drawers and table top, 360 do. and top desk, 360 with bookcase in front, 360 do. do. 361 do. do. 361 Teacher's desk, with bookcase, 361 Drawing Desks, Illustrations, A Leaf and Drawing Desk, Bracket to support Leaf, Ross' Movable Drawing Desk, Drawing Desk and Board recommended in Schools of Practical Art, England, Movable Support and Drawing Board,. ... Ross' American School Furniture, Scale of Heights, Illustrations, No. 1. N. Eng. Primary School Chair, 2. N. Y. Primary School Chair,.. 3. N. Eng. Pri. Sch. Basket Chair, 4. do. Pri. Sch. Desk and Chair, 5. do 6. do. Intermediate, 7. do. do. 8. N.Y. Pri. double desk and chair, 9. Village desk, with seat attached, 10. Improved Writing Stool, 11. Improved sand top Chair, 12. Sin. Gram. sch. desk and chair, 13. Double do 14. Single high school desk, with lid, 15. Double do 16. Desk and chair for young ladies, 17. do. with portfolio, 18. do 19. do 20. do 21. Lowell Institute Drawing Desk, 22. Improved Ink Well, 23. " " " 24. Settee for Recitation Room,. . . 25. Teacher's Chair, 26. " " 27. " " 28. Recitation Room Tuble, 29. Primary School Table, 30. " " " 31. Teacher's Table with drawer,. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Desk APPARATUS. General Arrangements, 383 Articles indispensable in every school, 384 " for Primary and District Schools, . 384 PAOX Articles for Grammar Schools, 397 " High School 401 Illustrations, Movable Lesson Post, 384 Gonigraph, 391 Allen's Spelling and Reading Table,.. 385 Hanging Blackboard and Shelf, 386 Movable Blackboard, 387 Easel, or Movable Stand for Black- board, 387 Map Exhibitor, 387 Sponge Box or Damper, 390 Box and Cover for Glass Ink Well,. . . 391 Arithmeticon or Numeral Frame, 391 Geometrical Forms and Solids, 392 Block to illustrate Cube Root, 394 Drawing Slate 394 Terrestrial Globe, 395 Hemisphere Globe, , .. 395 Tellurian, 396 Planetarium, 396 Inertia Apparatus, 398 Collision Balls and Stand, 398 Laws of Motion, 399 Mechanicals, 400 Hydrostatics, 400 Hydraulics, 401 Pneumatics, 401 Electricity, 402 Composition for Blackboard, 387 Directions for making Blackboard, 387 " " Black Plaster Wall,. 389 " " " " Canvas, 388 " " " Crayons, 389 " " procuring Large Slates, 390 Goodyear's applications of Metallic Gum to school purposes, 403 Book Binding and Covers, 403 Maps and Charts, 403 Globes, 403 Blackboard, 404 Calisthenic Exercises, 404 Set of Apparatus cost, $50, 403 " " " 100 404 " " 200 406 " " 400, 407 " " 500, 408 " " 700 409 " " 1000, 410 List of Examples and Casts for Drawing Classes, 411 LIBRARY. Arrangements for a School Library, 413 Catalogue of Books on Education, 413 CARE AND PRESERVATION OP SCHOOL- HOUSES. Rules adopted in Rhode Island, 435 Suggestions respecting Fires, Sweeping, Dusting, 436 Regulations of Chauncey Hall School, Boston, 438 Remarks of Mr. Thayer, 440 DEDICATORY EXERCISES. School Celebration at Salem, Mass., 402 Remarks of G. B. Emerson, 402 " " G. F. Thayer 405 Dedication of School-house, N. Providence, 450 Address of President Wayland, 450 Dedication of High School, Cambridge,... 457 Remarks of President Everett 459 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE, IN treating of School Architecture, it will be convenient to pie ent I. Common Errors to be avoided. II. General Principles to be observed. Ill Plans and directions for erecting and fitting up school-houses adapted to the varying circumstances of country and city, of a small, and a large number of scholars, of schools of different grades and of different systems of instruction. I. COMMON ERRORS IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Under this head it will be sufficient to enumerate the principal features of school-houses as they are. They are, almost universally, badly located, exposed to the noise; dust and danger of the highway, unattractive, if not positively repul- sive in their external and internal appearance, and built at the least possible expense of material and labor. They are too small. There is no separate entry for boys and girls appropriately fitted up ; no sufficient space for the convenient seating and necessary movements of the scholars ; no platform, desk, or re- citation room for the teacher. They are badly lighted. The windows are inserted on three or four sides of the room, without blinds or curtains to prevent the in- convenience and danger from cross-lights, and the excess of light falling directly on the eyes or reflected from the book, and the dis- tracting influence of passing objects and events out of doors. They are not properly ventilated. The purity of the atmosphere is not preserved by providing for the escape of such portions of the air as have become offensive and poisonous by the process of breath- ing, and by the matter which is constantly escaping from the lungs in vapor, and from the surface of the body in insensible perspiration They are imperfectly warmed. The rush of cold air through cracks and defects in the doors, windows, floor and plastering is not guarded against. The air which is heated is already impure from having been breathed, and made more so by noxious gases arising from the burning of floating particles of vegetable and animal matter coining in contact with the hot iron. The heat is not equally dif- SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. fused so ne ortion of a school-room is frequently overheated, . l 1 are turned from the teacher, and a portion of them at east are "mpted constantly to look out at the windows,-or the seats are at- 3d to th\ walfon opposite sides, and the scholars sit facing each other The aisles are not so arranged that each scholar can go to and from his seat, change his position have access to his book. ,, a - tend to his own business, be seen and approached by the teacher, without incommoding any other. They are not provided with blackboards, maps, clock, thermometer and other apparatus and fixtures which are indispensable to a wel regulated and instructed school. They are deficient in all of those in and out-door arrangements which help to promote habits of order, and neatness, and cultivate delicacy of manners and refinement of feeling. There are no ver- dure, trees, shrubbery and flowers for the eye, no scrapers and mats for the feet, no hooks and shelves for cloaks and hats, no well, no gink, basin and towels to secure cleanliness, and no places of retire- ment for children of either sex, when performing the most private officer of nature. LEST the author should be thought to exaggerate the deficiencies of school-houses as they have been heretofore constructed, and as they are now almost universally found wherever public attention has not been earnestly, perseveringly, and judiciously called to their improvement, the following extracts from recent -official school documents are inserted, re- specting the condition of school-houses in states where public education has received the most attention. CONNECTICUT. EXTRACT from the " First Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board of Commissioners of Common Schools for 1838-39. " In the whole field of school improvement there is no more pressing need of immediate action than here. I present with much hesitation, the result of my examinations as to several hundred school-houses in dif- ferent parts of the State. I will say, generally, that the location of the school-house, instead of being retired, shaded, healthy, attractive, is in gome cases decidedly unhealthy, exposed freely to the sun and storm, and in nearly all, on one or more public streets, where the passing of objects, the noise and the dust, are a perpetual annoyance to teacher and scholar, that no play-ground is afforded for the scholar except the highway, that the size la too small for even the average attendance of the scholars, that not one in a hundred has any other provision for a constant supply of that indispensable element of health and life, pure air, except the rents and crevices which time and wanton mischief have made ; that the SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 17 seats and desks are not, in a majority of cases, adapted to children 6T different sizes and ages, but on the other hand are calculated to induce physical deformity, and ill-health, and not in a few instances (I state this on the authority of physicians who were professionally acquainted with the cases,) have actually resulted in this and that, in the mode of warming rooms, sufficient regard is not had either to the comfort and health of the scholar, or to economy. That 1 have not stated these deficiencies too strongly, I beg leave to refer you to the accompanying returns, respecting the condition of school- houses in more than eight hundred districts in the State, and in more than forty particulars in each. These returns were made from actual inspection and measurement of school-houses by teachers and others. An abstract of them in part will be found annexed, together with ex- tracts from letters received from school officers on the subject. I might accumulate evidence of the necessity of improvement here for every district in the State. Without improvement in many particulars which concern the health, the manners and morals of those who attend school, it is in vain to expect that parents who put a proper estimate, not only on the intellectual, but the physical and moral culture of their children, will send to the district school. The following extracts are taken from official documents, published in 1846 and 1847, and fair specimens of the manner in which school-houses are spoken of, in the reports of local commjttees, from different parts oi the State. " In one district the school-house stands on the highway, with eighty pupils enrolled as in attendance, in a room nineteen and a hah 1 ' feet square, without any outbuildings of any kind. In another in the same town, the school-house is less than seven feet high, and the narrow slab seats are twenty-one inches high, (four inches higher than ordinary chairs. ) The walls, desks, &c., are cut and marked with all sorts of images, some of which would make heathens blush. In another, the room is fourteen feet square, and six feet five inches high. The walls are very black." " In this town there is one of the most venerable school servants in the State. The room is small, and less than seven feet high. Slab seats extend around three sides of the room, and are too high for men. The skill of several generations must have been expended in illustrating the walls with lamp smoke and coal images. The crevices of the floor will admit any quantity of cold air. The door sill and part of the house eill have rotted away. The day I visited it, the teacher and pupils were huddled around the stove." " In one district, the house stands near the travelled road, is low and email, being only seventeen feet by seventeen, and seven feet two inches high, for the accommodation of sixty or seventy pupils. The seats on the outside are from seventeen to eighteen inches. The walls, door, and sides of the house are disfigured with obscene images." " There are only three good school-houses in the society ; only three that have any out-houses. The rest of 'the school-houses are in a miser- able condition. One is thirty-five or forty years old. Most of them have only slab seats, with the legs sticking through, upwards, like hatchel-teeth, and high enough to keep the legs of the occupants swing- ing. They are as uncomfortable to little children as a pillory. Seats and desks are adorned with every embellishment that the ingenuity of professional whittlers can devise." 2 SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 18 Two of our school-houses, those in the two largest districts, are in a bad condition, old, unpainted and inconvenient. They are built and con structed inside on the old Connecticut plan. Only one row of desks, and that fastened to the wall of the school-room, running quite around it ; and loner forms, without backs to rest on, the scholars sitting with their backs to the centre of the room. The other two are in better condition, though one is constructed on the same plan as above. The out-buildings are in bad condition generally. One school-house has no out-building nor wood-house. One school-house only is painted outside." " Of the nine school-houses in this society, not one is really what they all ought to be, for the morals, health, and intellectual improvement of the pupils. Four of them are considered tolerably good, having one out- building, the other five are hardly passable. The desks in most or all of them are where they never ought to be, against the sides of the room and against one end. and with few exceptions, all of a height, with poor accommodations for loose clothes, hats, &c.; all located on or near some highway ; no play-ground attached to any of them, except the highway." " A part of our school-houses are comfortable buildings, but destitute of every thing like taste or ornament in the grounds, structure, or the furni- ture of the rooms. Being generally built in the. public highway or close by its side, they are. one and all, without enclosures, ornamental or shade trees. But the want of ornament is by no means the greatest defect of our school-houses ; a majority of them are not convenient. Although there has been some improvement in those recently built, yet they are not so good as would be desirable. The out-buildings in too many cases are in a neglected condition, and in some districts are not provided at all, in- dicating an unpardonable neglect on the part of parents and guardians." East Windsor. " It appears that a great proportion of the school-houses are in a sad condition and of bad architecture. Architectural drawings should, there- fore, be scattered over the state, so that in the buildings to be erected those abominations may be avoided which are now so abundant." Glas- tenbury. " The internal construction of most of our school-houses is bad. and occa- sions great inconvenience and hindrance to the prosperity of our schools. Let as much be done as can be, to remove those miserable prison-houses for our children, and in their stead let there be good, large, and conven- ient school-houses." Suffield, 2d. ' None of our school-houses have play-grounds attached ; they generally stand in the highway, and some on a corner where several roads meet." oethany. 'Another evil is the poor, cold, inconvenient and gloomy school-houses :h we find in many districts. There is one in this society not more jtive than a barn, for comfort and accommodation in a cold day : the :an say about it is. it is thoroughly ventilated." Lebanon, m with only one into the entry. A portion of the entry is used for ZS W ,h K Mr gthr0 u W , nagainst the Plastering, lays bare the lathing, making the building, while yet new, bear the tokens of age. In a few in- the in many instances, SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 25 nent benches with backs. The windows, in all cases perhaps, in the new houses, have made a sensible step downward toward the floor ; and the desks and seats of the larger scholars, have also been brought down from their inconvenient and dizzy heights, that their occupants may not be " while in, above the world." Where change has been wrought in the fixtures of the room, the desks are almost always clumsy, occupying unnecessary portions of the room, and rendering them inconvenient lor the evolutions of the school. Ventilation has received a passing thought in the erection of most of the new houses, yet its importance is not probably fully appreciated, nor the best methods of securing it clearly understood. Some ventilate from the windows so successfully, as to part with the warm air almost entirely, and at the same time to retain the offensive gases and odors of the room. Some ventilators are placed in the ceiling in the corners of the rooms, others are placed immediately over the stove pipe, some are movable, and moved with a cord. others are simply a scuttle, expected to rise by the expansive power of the gases, as safety valves of engines operate by accumulation of steam. The substitution of stoves (mainly box stoves.) for the engulphing fire place, as a means of warming school-rooms, is noticed in the new houses. OF SCHOOL-HOUSES GENERALLY. To ascertain if improvement has been effected in this class of structures in the state, we must resort to one or two devices of the astronomer, in observing the motions of the heavenly bodies, viz., to notice their respective positions at different and remote periods of time. The progress of improvement has been so slow, (if im- provement has been made in school-houses.) that an observer from year to year only, might be at a loss to know that such was the fact; but a comparison of the structures fifteen or twenty years a^o, with the build- ings now occupied for schools, will doubtless enable one to say that pro- gress has been made. It is stated on very creditable authority that in some societies and some towns, one, and in some instances, more than one house has been built, and one or more has been painted. The contributions upon old hats, upon writing books that are " writ through." &c., &c., are levied less frequently than formerly to repel the winds at the windows ; fewer clapboards are now seen swinging gaily by a single nail, than in bye-gone days ; the asthmatic wheezing of the winds through the uncounted apertures is hushed, and the pupils enjoy an irrigation through the roof less frequently than formerly. Curtains are occasionally found to protect the eyes of the pupils from the blinding rays of the sun ; the comfort of the smaller children is materially increas- ed by the addition of backs to their hard seats; the desks and seats of the larger pupils have descended toward the floor; the use of stoves giving a comfortable temperature to the rooms, instead of the former equatorial heat and the polar cold ; in rare instances the ingenious designs in chalk and charcoal upon the walls and ceiling have retired behind a coating of whitewash, and the yawning fire-place has been plastered over. All these movements distinctly indicate that vitality at least exists among the people of this commonwealth, and that the best good of their children, as they tell us, lies nearest their hearts. It is earnestly hoped that all persons will be open to conviction and receive the above statement of facts as a perfect demonstration of the earnestness of the community for the well being of the schools. When we come to the et ceteras of the school-rooms, such as shovel and tongs, brooms, brushes, bells, globes, sinks, wash-basins, towels, pegs, hooks and shelves for hats, clothing, &c., it is feared such great, such mo- mentous changes, such rapid advances, will not appear to have been made ; probably not three districts in the county have gone so fast, or so 2 g SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. far in advance of the others as to have procured all these articles ; proba- bly not more than half a dozen districts have supposed it important, that even a mat and scraper are necessary for pupils to use after walking, per- haps a mile in the mud ; yet we should be doing them injustice m not supposino- that they really feel this quenchless interest which they repre- sent themselves as possessing for their children, and should greatly mis- judge them if we supposed them not doing all in their po\ver to encourage their children in obtaining useful knowledge, and in cultivating the minor virtues while in school. OUT-BUILDINGS. An appalling chapter might be written, on the evils, the almost inevitable results of neglecting to provide these indispensable appendages to school-houses in our state. Who can duly estimate the final consequences of the first shock given to female delicacy, from the necessary exposure, to which the girls in the public schools are inevitably subjected ; and what must be the legitimate results of these frequent ex- posures during the school-going years of youth ? What quenchless fires of passion have been kindled within the bosom of the young of both sexes by these exposures, fires that have raged to the consuming of personal happiness, to the. prevention of scholastic improvement, and to the de- struction of personal character ? again, what disgust has been created in both sexes by the results of not having the appropriate retirements which nature imperiously demands? and finally, may not the disinclination, the aversion of large numbers of families, of mothers especially, to sending their daughters to the public schools, have been created by the sufferings they themselves have endured, from the above cause ; and an unwilling- ness to subject the delicacy of their daughters to the obnoxious trial? Were the question not so peculiar as almost to defy examination, it is apprehended this ^vould be found to be the truth. Will it not seem in- credible, even to Connecticut men, to be informed that less than one-halt of the school-houses in this commonwealth are without these necessary buildings? yet such is probably the fact ; thus dooming thousands of girls to bear a loathsome burden of mortification, which they cannot remove without withdrawing from the schools. I have no exact data for the above estimate, yet it is probably not far below the truth, if indeed it is at all. So filthy are most of those that are provided, that they are not only quite useless, but disgusting in the extreme. In one society of nine schools but one out-house was provided, and that, I was informed, could only be reached in dry weather, such was its location ; nor could it be used even then, such was its condition. This state of things, it would seem, should be utterly changed, and that speedily." MASSACHUSETTS. EXTRACTS from the "Report of the Secretary (Hon. Horace Mann) of the Board of Education for 1846." "For years the condition of this class of edifices, throughout the State, ten as a whole, had been growing worse and worse. Time and decay were always doing their work, while only here and there, with wide spaces between, was any notice taken of their silent ravages : and, in fewer instances, were these ravages repaired. Hence, notwith- standing the improved condition of all other classes of buildings, general SduE was the fate of these. Industry and the increalinj pecu- mary ab.hty which it creates, had given comfort, neatness, and even afctlv rCh r eUU1 f- ? ubll " C S P irit h * the room not clean; seats and desks well arranged, but cut and marked ; no ventilation ; the children healthy, but not clean. No. 3 has an old frame building, but warm and comfortable. No. 4 has a very poor, dilapidated old frame school-house, though the inhabitants are generally wealthy . for that country. No. 5 has a frame school-house, old and in bad condition; school-room not clean ; seats and desks not convenient ; No. 6 has a frame school-house, old and in bad condition; the school-room is not clean; no cup or pail for drinking water. No. 7 has a log school-house, in a very bad condition; desks and seats are inconvenient. 'Here, too,' say the visiters, ' society is good, and people mostly in easy circumstances, but the school-house very unbecoming such inhabitants. It does not com- pare well with their dwellings.' No. 8, say the visiters, is ' a hard case.' No. 9 has a frame house in good condition and in a pleasant location, but is 'too small for the number of children.' No. 10 has a log school-house. No. 11 has a 'log shanty for a school-house, not fit for any school.' No. 12 a log house. No. 13 has a log shanty, in bad condition, not pleasantly located, school-room not clean. ' The school-house or hovel in this dis- tnct is so cold in winter, so small and inconvenient, that little can be done towards preserving order or advancing education among so many schol- ars ; some poor inhabitants and some in good circumstances ; might have a better school-house.' No. 14 has a good frame house, in good condi- tion, pleasant location, with ample and beautiful play-ground ; school-room in clean condition. The visiters add, ' In this district the inhabitants are SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. Door and the scholars attend irregularly ; the house was built by one man mlow circumstances, who has a large family of boys to educate; a noble act' No 15 has a frame house, in a good, warm, and comiortable con- dition, with a pleasant and retired location and a play-ground. No. 16 has a loo- shanty for a school-house. No. 17, 'no regular school-house other than some old log house.' No. 18, no school-house. No. 19, a log shanty. No 20 and 21 are new districts. No. 22 has a frame school-house, in good repair and pleasantly situated. Thus, out of twenty-two school- houses, not more than Jive are reported as respectable or comfortable ; none have any proper means of ventilation ; eight are built of logs ; and but one of them, according to the visiters, has a privy Report (1840), p. 142. It is also a subject of frequent complaint in these reports, that the seats are too high (too high, say the visiters in one case, for a man of six feet, and all alike), and are, therefore, uncomfortable for the children, as well as productive of much disorder. ' We have found,' says the report from one town, ' except in one school, all the seats and desks much too high, and in that one they were recently cut down at our recommendation. In many of our schools, a considerable number of children are crowded into the same seat, and commonly those seated beyond the entering place have no means of getting at their seats but by climbing over those already seated, and to the ruin of all regard to cleanliness.' ' We have witnessed much uneasiness, if not suffering, among the children, from the dangling of their legs from a high seat, and, with the one exception, have seen them attempting to write on desks so high that, instead of .the elbow resting to assist the hand in guiding the pen, the whole arm has, of necessity, been stretched out ; for, if they did not this, they must write rather by guess than sight, unless some one may have the fortune to be near-sighted, and, from this defect, succeed in seeing his work. This is a great evil, and ought to be remedied before we complain of the incompetency of teachers.' Report (1841), p. 38. These specimens will serve to show how far many of the school- houses, in this state, are pleasant places of resort, or study, and in what degree they are likely to inspire a respect for education, or a desire to enjoy and improve its advantages. The condition and aspect of the building, with its appendages and surrounding landscape, are inseparably associated, in a child's mind, with his first day at school, and his first thoughts about education. Is it well, then, that these earliest, most lasting, and most controlling associations, should be charged with so much that is offensive ? Is it to be expected, that the youthful mind can regard that as the cause, next to religion, most important of all others, which is upheld and promoted, in such buildings, as the district school- house usually is ? Among the most comfortless and wretched tenements, which the pupil ever enters, he thinks of it with repugnance ; the tasks which it imposes, he dreads ; and he at length takes his leave of it, as of a prison, from which he is but too happy to escape. This seems to me to be the greatest evil connected with our school- houses. But their deleterious effect on health, is also to be considered. Air which has been once respired by the lungs, parts with its healthy properties, and is no longer fit for use. Hence a number of persons, breathing the air of the same apartment, soon contaminate it, unless the space is very large, or unless there is some provision for the introduction of jrcsh, as well us the exclusion of foul air. This ventilation is espe- cially important for school-houses, since they are usually small in propor- tion to the number of scholars ; the scholars remain together a lono- while at once, and are less cleanly in their personal habits than adults. Yet, important as it is, probably not one common school in fifty, in this state, SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 33 will be found supplied with adequate means to effect it. The cracks and crevices, which abound in our school-houses, admit quite enoigh of cold air in winter, but not enough of fresh. What is wanted at that season, for both health and economy, is a constant supply of fresh warm air ; and this is easily obtained by causing the air, as it enters from without, to pass through heated flues, or over heated surfaces. It is also important, to the health of scholars and teachers in common Bchools, that the rooms should be larger and have higher ceilings ; and that much more scrupulous attention should be paid to the cleanliness of both the room and its inmates. ' An evil,' say the visiters of one of the towns, ' greater than the variety of school-books or the want of necessary appap,tus. is having school-rooms so unskilfully made and arranged. Of our 13 school-rooms, only 3 are ten feet high, and of the residue only one is over eight feet. The stupidity arising from foul, oft-breathed air, is set down as a grave charge against the capacity of the scholars or the energy of the teacher. A room for 30 children, allowing 12 square feet for each child, is low at 10 feet, and for every additional ten children an extra foot in elevation is absolutely necessary, to enable the occupants of the room to breathe freely.' Report (1841), p. 38. Are common schools so conducted, as to promote habits of neatness and order, and cultivate good manners and refined feelings ? From the quotations already made from the reports of visiters, it appears that the school-rooms, in many cases, were not clean ; and the same thing is often alleged of the children. I will add but one other passage, to which I happen to open on p. 39 of the Report (1840). It relates to a town containing 24 school districts, of which 16 were visited. Of these 16, one quarter are represented to have been almost entirely regardless of neatness and order. vi. : No. 4 ' has a dirty school-room, and the appearance of the children was dirty and sickly.' No. 2 'has a dirty school-room, inconveniently arranged, and ventilated all over ;' the children ' rather dirty,' and no means of supplying fresh water except from the neighbor's pails and cups. No. 3 has ' an extremely dirty school- room, without ventilation, the children not clean, and no convenience for water.' No. 24 ' has a school-house out of repair, dirty, and inconvenient in its arrangements.' It is also a subject of almost universal complaint, that the school-houses are without ^privies. On an average, probably not more than one in twenty, of the school-houses throughout the state, has this appendage; and in these, it was almost invariably found, by the visiters, to be in a bad state, ^his fact speaks volumes, of the attention, which is paid at these schools, to delicacy of manners, and refinement of feeling. None but the very poorest families think of living without such a convenience at home; and a man, who should build a good dwelling-house, but provide no place for retirement when performing the most private offices of nature, would be thought to give the clearest evidence of a coarse and brutal mind. Yet respectable parents allow their children to go to a school where this is the case ; and where the evil is greatly aggravated bv the fact, that numbers of both sexes are collected, and that, too, at an age of extreme levity, and when the youthful mind is prone to the indulgence of a pru- rient imagination. Says one of the visiters (Report, 1840, p. 77), ' In most cases in this town, the scholars, male and female, are turned promis- cuously and simultaneously into the public highway, without the shelter of so much (in the old districts) as a ' stump' for a covert to the calls oS nature. The baneful tendency, on the young and pliant sensibilities, of this barbarous custom, are truly lamentable.' So the visiters of one of the largest and oldest counties: ' We regret to perceive that many of the districts have neglected to erect privies for the use of the children at 3 , SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. school This is a lamentable error. The injury to the taste and morals of the children which will naturally result from this neglect, is of a char- acter much more serious than the discomfort which is obviously produced by it' (Report, 1840, p. 131.)" VERMONT. EXTRACT from the First Annual Report of the State Superintendent (Hon. Horace Eaton,} of Common Schools, October, 1846," made to the Legislature. "It might occur to any one in travelling through the fcjtate, thj* our school-houses are almost uniformly located in an uninteresting and un- suitable spot, and that the buildings themselves too generally exhibit an unfavorable, and even repulsive aspect. Yet by giving some license to the imagination it might be supposed that, notwithstanding their location and external aspect were so forbidding, the internal appearance would be more cheerful and pleasant or at least, that the arrangement and con- struction within would be comfortably adapted to the purposes which the school-house was intended to fulfil. But an actual inspection of by far the greatest number of the school-houses in the State, by County Super- intendents, discloses the unpleasant fact, that or linarily the interior does but correspond with the exterior, or is, if possible, still worse. A very large proportion of these buildings throughout the State must be set down as in a miserable condition. The melancholy fact is established by the concurrent report of all our County Superintendents, that in every quarter of the State they are, as a class, altogether unsuited to their high purposes. Probably nine-tenths of them are located upon the line of the highway; and as the geographical centre of the district usually determines their situation, aside from the relation with the road, it is a rare chance that one is not placed in an exposed, unpleasant and uncom- fortable spot. In some cases especially in villages their location seems to be determined by the worth, or rather by the worthlessness of the ground on which they stand that being selected which is of the least value for any other purpose. Seldom or never do we see our school- houses surrounded by trees or shrubbery, to serve the purpose which they might serve so well that of delighting the eye, gratifying the taste, and contributing to the physical comfort, by shielding from the scorching sun of summer, and breaking the bleak winds of winter. And from buildings thus situated and thus exposed, pupils are turned out into the streets for their sports, and for other purposes still more indispensable. What better results could be expected under such a system than that our ' girls should become hoydens and our boys blackguards ?' Indeed it would be a happy event, if in no case results still more melancholy and disastrous than this were realized. But this notice of ordinary deficiencies does not cover the whole ground of error in regard to the situation of school-houses. In some cases they are brought into close connection with positive nuisances. In a case which has fallen under the Superintendent's own personal observation, one side of the school-house forms part of the fence of a hog-yard, into which, during the summer, the calves from an extensive dairy establish- ment have been thrown from time to time, (disgusting and revolting spectacle.!) to be rent and devoured before the eyes of teacher and pu- pilsexcept such portions of the mutilated and mangled carcasses as were left by the animals to go to decay, as they lay exposed to the sun and Btorm. It is true the windows on the side of the building adjoining the yard, were generally observed to be closed, in order to shut out the SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 35 almost insupportable stench which arose from the decomposing remains. But this closure of windows could, in no great degree, ' abate the nui- sance ;' for not a breath of air could enter the house from any direction but it must come saturated with the disgusting and sickening odor that loaded the atmosphere around. It needs no professional learning to tell the deleterious influence upon health, which must be exerted by such an agency, operating for continuous hours. Such cases, it is hoped and believed, are exceedingly rare. But it is much to be feared that the usual exemption enjoyed by teachers and pu- pils, from even such outrages upon their senses and sensibilities, as have been detailed, is to be attributed to the fact that such arrangements are not ordinarily convenient, rather than to any prevailing conviction of their impropriety, or any general and settled purpose to avoid them. The case is named as at least strong evidence that the pertinency of con- siderations, involving a regard either to taste, comfort, or even health it- self, is generally overlooked or disregarded, in fixing upon a site for a school-house. At all events these purposes are all exposed to be violated under the prevailing neglect of districts to secure the possession of suf- ficient ground for a yard around the school-house. But it would seem unnecessary to urge, beyond the bare suggestion, the importance of pro- viding for school-houses, a comfortable location, a sufficient yard and play-ground, a wood-house and other out-buildings, a convenient access to water, and the surrounding of the premises with shade-trees which might serve for shelter, as well as delight the eye, and aid to render the school-house what it should be one of the most attracting and delight- ful places of resort upon the face of the earth. It should be such, that when the child shall have changed into the gray-haired man, and his memory wanders back through the long vista of vanished years, seeking for some object on which it may repose, this shall be the spot where it shall love to rest. In the construction of the school-house embracing its material, style of architecture, and finish as little care and taste are exhibited, as might be expected from the indifference manifested in regard to its loca- tion and surrounding circumstances. Cheapness of construction seems, in most cases, to be the great governing principle, which decides upon its materials, its form, and all its internal arrangements. No complaint on this score could justly be made, if the general condition of these build- ings were clearly and fairly attributed to want of ability. But while our other edifices, both public and private, have improved in elegance, con- venience, and taste, with the increasing wealth of our citizens, our school- houses linger in the rear and bear the impress of a former age. In this respect ' That which in days of yore we were We at the present moment are. ' Low walls might be instanced as one of the prevailing defects in school-house architecture. The quantity of air contained in a school- room of the usual height, is so small as to be soon exhausted of its oxy- gen; and the dullness, headache and depression which succeed to this result, are but too well known and too often felt, although they may fail of being attributed to their true cause. And why should our children be robbed of a comfortable supply of that pure and wholesome air, with which our Creator, in the largeness and richness of his bounty, has sur- rounded the earth and filled the sky ? But if the condition of the house is such, as in part to prevent the injurious effects arising from a deficiency of pure air, by means of broken windows and gaping crevices--then colds, coughs and as the ultimate and crowning result consumption ,, SCHOOL HOUSES A3 THEY ARE. 00 ( and of this disease, what thousands of cases have had their foundations laid in the school-house !) must be the consequence of this sort ot ex oosure This is true in regard to all classes and conditions of pupils. But it should be distinctly kept in mind, although it is ordinarily overlooked and forcrotten, that children accustomed to be comfortably protected acrainst cold or vicissitudes of temperature, at home, will inevitably suffer the more when exposed to them in the school-house. And here is an ad- ditional reason why these structures should be improved, as our dwelling houses are generally becoming more comfortable. But there is not room here for details not even to exhibit this topic in all its important bearings. And it has been thus hinted at only to prove that the general charge of faulty construction is not wholly unfounded. It was the purpose of the Superintendent to discuss at some length, the pernicious influence exerted, both upon the health of pupils, and their progress in learning, by the miserable structures in which the State abounds, but the extent 'of the remarks already made precludes it. One cause of the prevailing fault in regard to the construction and in- ternal arrangement of school-houses, doubtless, is the want of proper models. Districts, when about erecting a school-house, cannot well do more than follow the examples before them. To form the plan of a proper school-houseone well adapted to all the various ends which should be sought, such as the convenience, comfort, and health of pupils, convenience for supervision and conduct of the school, and facilities for the most successful prosecution of study-'-would require such an extent of observation and so full an acquaintance with the laws of health, of mind and morals and then such a skill in designing a structure in which all the necessary conditions should be observed and secured, that it would be unreasonable to expect that a district could command them, without an opportunity to avail itself of the experience and observation of others. And districts have almost universally felt this lack of guidance. But it is believed that hereafter, information on the subject of school-house architecture, will be more accessible ; and if, as a first step, some one district in every town in the State would avail itself of the necessary information, and make a vigorous effort to secure the erection of a well located, well planned, and well constructed school-house, they would per- form an act of high public beneficence, as well as confer upon themselves an inestimable blessing. And shall not one or two years realize the ac- complishment of this noble purpose? What district will lead the van ? NEW HAMPSHIRE. EXTRACTS from the "Report of the Commissioner, (Prof. Haddw}*. nf Dartmouth College) of Common Schools, to the Legislature oj ^'.c,^ Hampshire, June Session. 1847." " The success of our whole system depends as much on a thorough re- form in the construction and care of school-houses as upon any other single circumstance whatever. It is wonderful, and when their attention is called to it, strikes the in- habitants of the Districts themselves as really unaccountable, that care- ful and anxious parents have been content to confine their children for so many hours a day through a large part of the severest and most tryino- sons ol the year, in houses so ill constructed, so badly ventilated, so imperfectly warmed, so dirty, so instinct with vulgar ideas, and so utterly repugnant to all habits of neatness, thought, taste, or purity. There are multitudes ot houses in the State, not only inconveniently located, and awkwardly planrted, but absolutely dangerous to health and morals. SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 37 And it has struck me with the greater surprise, that this is true not only of the thinly peopled parts of the State, but of flourishing villages. In one of the largest towns the principal District School was kept, the last win- ter, in a dilapidated, rickety, uncouth, slovenly edifice, hardly more com- fortable than some barns within sight of it. In one enterprising village the school-house, as I looked at it from a little distance, appeared deci- dedly the shabbiest and most neglected building, not to say dwelling, within reach of my eye. I have been in houses, which no scrubbing could keep clean; they were never made to be clean: and this, in places where private taste is adorning the town with the ornaments of architec- ture and enriching the country with the fruits of rural industry. It is, however, encouraging to find, that a better feeling is coming to prevail on this subject. Many districts are rebuilding, and, in most in- stances, upon an improved plan. Some examples have been set of good judgment and liberal expenditure for this important object. And it is liop'ed, that other districts will be stimulated to imitate them. Whenever a new house is to be erected, it should first be carefully lo- cated, so as best to accommodate the whole district, and by all means, on an open, healthy, agreeable site, with ample room about it on all sides, and out of the way of floods of water or of dust. MAINE. EXTRACT from a special "Report of the Secretary of the Board of Ed ucation, upon the subject of School-Houses" " It is worthy of note, and of most serious consideration, that a ma- jority of the returns speak of ill-constructed school-houses as one of the most prominent 'defects in the practical operation of the law establishing common-schools.' The strength and uniformity of the language made use of, as well as the numerous applications to the members of the board, and their secretary, for information upon this subject, leave no room for doubt as to the existence of a wide-spread evil'; an evil, the deleterious influence of which, unless it is reformed, arid that speedily, is not to be con- fined to the present generation, but must be entailed upon posterity. In remarking upon this subject, as long ago as 1832, it was said by the board of censors of the American Institute of Instruction, that ' if we were called upon to name the most prominent defect in the schools of our country ; that which contributes most, directly and indirectly, to retard the progress of public education, and which most loudly calls for a prompt and thorough reform, it would be the want of spacious and con- venient school-houses.' From every indication, there is reason to believe that the remark is applicable to our school-houses, in their present con- dition, as it was when made. For the purpose of contributing, in some small degree, towards effecting a reform for which so urgent a necessity exists, and rendering some assistance, in the way of counsel, to those who are about erecting new school-houses, or remodelling old ones, this report is prepared, under the direction of the board. It makes no claim to origi- nality of thought or language ; it is, in fact, a mere compilation of the thoughts and language of others who have given the subject a carefu investigation, whose opinions are the result of close observation and long experience, and are therefore entitled to our confidence and respect. To save the necessity of giving credit, upon almost every page of this report for borrowed language, as well as ideas, it may here be remarked, that the principal sources from which the information herewith communicated has been compiled, are, the reports upon the subject of school-houses, by Hon. Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, Esq., and ' The School-master,' by Mr. George B. Emerson ; gentlemen to whom, for their efforts in the og SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. cause, a large debt of gratitude is due from the friends of education ; a debt which can be discharged in no manner more acceptable to them, than by entering into their labors, a-nd adopting and reducing to practice their very valuable suggestions." RHODE ISLAND. EXTRACTS from " Report on the condition and improvement of the Pub- lic Schools of Rhode Island, submitted Nov. 1, 1845, by Henry Barnard, Commissioner of Public Schools." " The condition of the school-houses, was. in my circuit through the schools, brought early and constantly under my notice, and to effect an immediate and thorough reform, public attention was early and earnestly called to the subject. The many and great evils to the health, manners, morals, and intellectual habits oi children, which grow out of their bad and defective construction and appurtenances, were discussed and ex- posed, and the advantages of more complete and convenient structures pointed out. In compliance with the request of the Committee on Edu- cation, a law authorizing school districts to lay and collect a tax to repair the old. and build new school-houses, was drafted and passed ; and in pursuance of a resolution of the General Assembly, a document was pre- pared embodying the results of my observations and reflections on the general principles of school-architecture, and such plans and descriptions of various structures recently erected, for large and small, city and coun- try districts, and for schools of different grades, as would enable any com- mittee to act understandingly. in framing a plan suitable to the wants of any particular district or school. The same document was afterwards abridged and distributed widely, as one of the 'Educational Tracts,' over the state. I have secured the building of at least one school-house in each county, which can be pointed to as a model in all the essential features of location, construction, warming, ventilation, seats and desks, and other internal and external arrangements. During the past two years, more than fifty school-houses have been erected, or so thoroughly repaired, as to be substantially new and most of them after plans and directions given in the above document or fur- lushed directly by myself, on application from districts or committees." "Of these, (three hundred and twelve school-houses visited.) twenty- nine were owned by towns in their corporate capacity; one hundred and >rty-seyen by proprietors; and one hundred and forty-five by school dis- I two hundred and eighty school-houses from which full re- is were received, including those in Providence, twenty-five were in very good repair; sixty-two were in ordinary repair; and eighty-six were pronounced totally unfit for school purposes ; sixty-five were located in the pub ic highway, and one hundred and eighty directly on the line le road without any yard, or out-buildings attached ; and but twenty- had a play-ground inclosed. In over two hundred school-rooms, the ntho" ff W f CSS than r eight feet ' without anv P enin S in the ceil- SLhSdLm CtU l me f ns for ventilation; the seats and = desks were Serom nnlT ^ ntW pUpl ' S > arran ged on two or three sides of w * Sn It h" I fV nstances > where ^e results of actual measurement r eter ' and0n!yfive Were r vide with a --per and SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 39 "Such was the condition of most of the places where the public schools were kept in the winter of 1843-44, in the counties of Kent, Washington and Newport, and in not a few districts in the counties of Providence and Bristol. In some districts, an apartment in an old shop or dwelling-house was fitted up as a school-room ; and in eleven towns, the school-houses, such as they were, were owned by proprietors, to whom in many in- stances, the districts paid in rent a larger amount than would have been the interest on the cost of a new and commodious school house. Since the passage of the Act of January, 1844. empowering school districts to purchase, repair, build and furnish school-houses, and since public atten- tion was called to the evils and inconvenience of the old structures, and to better plans of construction and internal arrangement, by public addresses, and the circulation of documents, the work of renovation in this depart- ment of school improvement has gone on rapidly. If the same progress can be made for three years more, Rhode Island can show, in proportion to the number of school districts; more specimens of good houses, and fewer dilapidated, inconvenignt and unhealthy structures of this kind, than any other state. To bring about thus early this great and desirable result, I can suggest nothing beyond the vigorous prosecution of the same measures which have proved so successful during the past two years. 1. The public mind in the backward districts must be aroused to an active sense of the close connection of a good school-house with a good school, by addresses, discussions, conversation and printed documents on the subject, and by the actual results of such houses in neighboring dis- tricts and towns. 2. Men of wealth and intelligence in their several neighborhoods, and capitalists, in villages where they have a pecuniary interest, can continue to exert their influence in this department of improvement. 3. School committees of every town can refuse to draw orders in favor of any district which will not provide a healthy and convenient school- room for the children of the district ; and to approve plans for the repairs of an old, or the construction of a new house, which are to be paid for by a tax on the property of the district, unless such plans embrace the essen- tial features of a good school-house. 4. The Commissioner of Public Schools must continue to furnish gra- tuitously, plans and directions for the construction and arrangement of school-houses, and to call the attention of builders and committees to such structures as can be safely designated as models. Districts should make regulations to "preserve the school-house and appendages from injury or defacement, and authorizing the trustees to make all necessary repairs, without the formality of a special vote on the subject." MICHIGAN. EXTRACTS from "Annual Report of the Superintendent (Hon. Ira May hew,) of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan, submitted Decem- ber 10, 1847." " The place where our country's youth receive their first instruction, and where nineteen twentieths of them complete their scholastic training claims early attention. We may then profitably dwell upon the condi- tion of our common school-houses. In some instances school-houses are favorably located, being situated on dry, hard ground, in a retired though central part of the district, in the midst of a natural or artificial grove. But they are usually located with- out reference to taste, or the health and comfort of teacher or children. They are generally on one corner of public roads, and sometimes adja- SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. the school-house, leaving it on a small triangle, bounded on all sides by public roads. At other times the school-house is situated on a low and worthless piece of ground, with a sluggish stream of water in its vicinity, which sometimes even passes under the school-house. The comfort and health even of children are thus sacrificed to the parsimony of their parents. Scholars very generally step from the school-house directly into the highway. Indeed, school-houses are frequently one half in the highway, and the other half in the adjacent field, as though Jhey were unfit for either. This is the case even in some of our principal villages. School-houses are sometimes situated in the middle of the highway, a portion of the travel being on each side of them. When scholars are en- gaffed in their recreations, they are exposed to bleak winds and the in- clemency of the weather one portion of the year, and the scorching rays of the meridian sun another portion. Moreover, their recreations must be conducted in the street, or they trespass upon their neighbors' premi- ses. Such situations can hardly be expected to exert the most favorable influence upon the habits and character of the rising generation. * * Although there is a great variety in the dimensions of school-houses, yet there are few less than sixteen by eighteen feet on the ground, and fewer still larger than twenty-four by thirty feet. Exclusive of entry and closets, when they are furnished with these appendages, school-houses are not usually larger than twenty by twenty-four feet on the ground, and seven feet in height. They are, indeed, more frequently smaller than larger. School-houses of these dimensions have a capacity of three thousand three hundred and sixty cubic feet, and are usually occupied by at least forty-five scholars in the winter season. Not unfrequently sixty or seventy, and occasionally more than a hundred scholars occupy a room of this size. A simple arithmetical computation will abundantly satisfy any person who is acquainted with the composition of the atmosphere, the influence of respiration upon its fitness to sustain animal life, and the quantity of air that enters the lungs at each inspiration, that a school-room of the preceding dimensions does not contain a sufficient quantity of air to sus- tain the healthy respiration of even forty-Jive scholars, three hours, the usual length of each session ; and frequently the school-house is imper- fectly ventilated between the sessions at noon, or indeed, for several days in succession. . The ordinary facilities for ventilating school-rooms, are opening" a door, or raising the lower sash of the windows. The prevailing practice with refrence to their ventilation, is opening and closing the door, as the schol- ars enter and pass out of the school-house, before school, during the re- cesses, and at noon. Ventilation, as stick, I may-safely say, has not hitherto been practiced in one school in fifty. It is true, the door has been occasionally set open a few minutes, and the windows have been raised, but the object has been, either to let the smoke pass out of the room, or to cool it when it has become too warm, not TO VENTILATE IT. Ventila- tion, by opening a door or raising the windows, is imperfect, and fre- quently injurious. A more effectual and safer method of ventilation, is to lower the upper sash of the windows, or, in very cold or stormy weather, to open a ventilator in the ceiling, and allow the vitiated air to escape into the attic. In this case, there should be a free communication etween the attic and the outer air, by means of a lattice window, or >therwise A ventilator may be constructed in connection with the wumney, by carrying up a partition in the middle. One half the chim- SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 41 ney, in this case, may be used for a smoke flue, and the other half for a ventilator. There are few school-houses the internal construction of which is in all respects alike ; yet, by far the majority of them will rank in one of the three following classes : 1. The first class embraces those which are constructed with one or two tiers of desks along each side of the house, and across one end of it ; the outer seat having the wall of the house for its back, and the front of each tier of desks constituting the back to the next inner seat. There is usually an alley on each side of the house and at the end of it, leaving the seats of sufficient length to accommodate from five to eight scholars. Those sitting next the alleys can pass to and from their seats without discommoding others. All the rest, (usually riot less than three-fourths the entire number.) disturb from one to five or six scholars every time they pass to or from their seats; unless, (which is about as commonly practiced, especially with the scholars most distant from the alleys,) they climb over the desks in front of them. Occasionally the des1 to an altitud * *> great GYMNASTIC APPARATUS. 59 JD _D E J? Ground Plan of Gymnasium attached to Russell's Collegiate and Commercial Institute, New Haven. 60 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. E, la a pair of parallel bars, both horizontal and slanting. The exercises upon this machine widen the shoulders, open the chest, and strengthen that and the shoulders. They are somewhat difficult, but exceedingly strengthening. The bars are large enough to grasp, say two and a half inches in thickness by three and a half deep, set upon strong uprights, so framed that the uprights at their insertion do not extend beyond the bars. About five feet is a proper height for the upper side of the bars. F, is a pair of inclined ropes, with their sliding-boxes. The windlass at Y, with a stout ratchet, is used to keep the ropes strained tight. This machine is not very useful ; the principal operation to be performed upon it being to put the suding-boxes under the arms, and progress up the ropes by swinging the body. e & i The machines marked G, H, 7, K, O, e, d, and e, are fixed between timbers *-piecfs, whose places are shown by dotted lines, and the ground. G. G. ' weights They run in wooden tubes, and are suspended upon ropes, at the other end of wh.ch are rings for handles, seen hanging down in the cut. inese are used to exercise the arms; and the exercisers upon them are capable of rap.dly developing the muscles of the fore arm, upper arm, shoulder and chest. re performed by drawing or pushing out the weights with the fingers, hands, or feet, m various positions. H, is a slanting ladder, such as was above described! running rope, running over two sheaves set in a cross-piece upon PLAY-GROUND AND GYMNASTIC APPARATUS. 61 the timbers overhead, and with a stout wooden handle, hung by the middle, at each end ; so that these handles hang loose, perhaps six feet apart, and five or six feet from the ground. Two persons, of nearly equal weight, are best fitted to use this machine. One jumps up a few inches, while the other weighs down upon his end of the rope so as to keep it strained tight ; and as the first comes down again, the second jumps in his turn ; the motion being increased, if desired, until the jumps carry the hands up to the timber overhead, and the lower of the two pupils crouches down to the ground. K, is a single and double vaulting bar. The bars are movable in slips in the uprights, and are set at any desired height by iron pegs running in holes in the uprights and through the bars. The bars, either alone or together, are used for performing jumps from the ground, with the hands on the bar, and for various other exercises with the feet off the ground. The vaulting exercises strengthen the lower limbs and give elasticity ; the re- maining ones are chiefly calculated, as indeed are the majority of the apparatus exercises, to strengthen the body above the waist, and the arms. O, is a trape- zium or bar-swing ; a hard-wood cross-bar, hung by two ropes, and which should be about five and a half or six feet from the ground. The trapezium exercises are numerous, and consist of jumping, swinging, and turning, in many ways. gn SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. They are not very difficult, and quite pleasant to perform, e, e, are two upright ropes for climbing, and d is a perpendicular pole for the same purpose. These should be as high as the building arrangements will allow, c, c, are upright poles, with pegs in them fitting loosely into holes. These poles are to be climbed by taking a peg in each hand and- setting them one after another into the holes. At b in the large cut, are two upright poles at about the width of the shoulders apart. These may be used for climbing, and for exercising the chest, by holding the poles, one in each hand, nearly shoulder high, and pushing the head and shoul- ders 'through between them. P, is a wide spring-board for jumping forward. R, is a rope swing. S, is a pair of iron rings, hung upon single ropes from a bar overhead, about as high as the trapezium ; and the exercises upon them are of the same character, though more varied, difficult, and pleasant. They demand and develope great quickness, and strength of arm and chest, and, if practiced with care, are among the most useful of the gymnastic exercises. T, is a spring-beam set firmly into the wall, and resting upon a fulcrum a short distance from it, so as to furnish considerable elastic force. It is used for perpen- dicular jumping. U, is a flying-machine or rotary-swing, which is described on page 86. V, is a movable leaping -stand, for standing or running jumps. It consists of two light uprights, set in heavy bases, so as to stand firmly, and with a row of holes, an inch or two apart, at corresponding heights in each. Pegs fit into these, over which, at any desired height, may be hung a string with a weight of about five pounds at each end. By this means all danger of catching the feet in jump- ing is avoided, as a light touch throws the string off" the pegs. A', (which does not appear on the large cut) is a horizontal beam ; a stout square stick of hard wood about twenty feet long, with tenons at each end, running in slits in the uprights. Iron pins pass through the uprights, and through holes in the tenons, and hold the beam at any height desired. The uprights may stand about four feet above the surface of the ground, and the holes in them may be three inches apart. The beam should be not less than four inches square. This machine is used for various leg exercises, which are of considerable value. Exercises in marching, military drill, walking, and running, should be combined with the apparatus exercises, as these latter generally serve as to strengthen and develope the body and arms more than the legs. Mr. Russell has found a most healthy and valuable disciplinary influence in the military drill constantly practiced by his pupils. It gives them promptness, an upright and graceful car- riage, and habits of regularity and quick obedience. They exercise with cadet muskets, which are stored in a small loft in one end of the gymnasium, and are organized into a very neat uniform company. All gymnastic apparatus should be made of the best materials and put together in the best manner, in order to withstand the great strain to which it is subject, and to prevent accidents from breaking. Most or all of the uprights should be strongly framed, and braced into mud-sills at least two feet under ground. No exercises should be ordinarily allowed in the gymnasium, except in the presence and under the directions of a competent and reliable teacher. The exercises should be reduced to a regular and progressive system, and should be performed nth as much regularity and care as those of the school recitations ; according to the instructor's directions, and by no means according to the caprice of the pupils. This precaution will almost certainly prevent the accidents whose occurrence is so often used as an argument against gymnastics, and ill-directed efforts to perform 3 harder exercises before the easier are mastered ; it will likewise insure a proper amount of drilling thorough acquisition, and the utmost pleasure and ad- vantage to the pupils. PLAY GROUNDS AND PRIVIES. 63 Every school-house should be provided with a room, where the pupila can resort, before and after school and during recess, in unpleasant weather ; with a shed, or other suitable place for fuel, which should be supplied of the best quality, in due season, and in the right condition for use ; with a well, or other mode of furnishing pure water ; and with a bell, large enough to be heard over the district from which the school is gathered. No department of school architecture among us requires such imme- diate and careful attention as the arrangement and construction of pri- vies. In none is there now such niggardly economy, or outrageous dis- regard to health, modesty, and morals, practiced. Over this portion of the school premises the most perfect neatness, seclusion, order, and pro- priety should be enforced, and every thing calculated to defile the mind, or wound the delicacy or modesty of the most sensitive should be immediatly removed, and any vulgarity in respect to it, on the part of the pupils, should receive attention in private, and be made a matter of parental advice and co-orporation. Neglect in this particular, on the part of the community, in providing suitable buildings and premises, or of the teacher, in enforcing proper regulations, has been followed with the most disastrous results to the health and happiness of thousands of pupils. There should be one provided for each sex, widely separated from each other inclosed from the general play ground, and accessible by a covered walk, and, if practicable, from the basement, or clothes-room appropriated to each sex, and kept locked, except during school-hours. They should be ventilated, and frequently and thoroughly cleansed. Where water closets can be introduce^!, it will be a wise economy to adopt them. The following plan is copied from " Richson's School- Builder's Guide." A Cross sections, without the end wall and entance. a The seat, with water channel to the level of the floor. At the back and front of a, dipping 1 inch into the water, is a Valentia slate, 1 inch thick. The channel, although here drawn angular, would be better of an oval form. b The level of floor. B Longitudinal section. C Cistern, supplied by ball tap, with sliding valve to lift and flush the chan- nel G. E (With line above) a sloping Valentia slate, 1^ feet high, to form urinal, dip- ping 1 inch into the water. n A sliding valve to lift and let off water. tn An inclined trough or drain to carry off water when the channel is flushed by opening valves c and n. d An escape pipe, bent to form a trap at m ay be the dock ; ^n of scholars' desks, should be not less than seven or eight feet wide ; ten or twelve would be much better. The sides and front of this space hould be furnished with seats ten or eleven inches wide, for recitation. 13y means of a large movable black- board, this space may be, in case of need, converted into two, so that two classes may recite at a time. In a school intended to accommo- date more than 64 pupils, there ought also to be a space for recita- tion in the south end of the room, separable by movable blackboards into two. The entry should be lighted by a window, and be furnished with wooden or iron pins for the accom- modation of hats, bonnets, and cloaks ; and there should be a wood- closet large enough to contain two or three cords of wood, which may, if it is preferred, be used as a recita- tion room. Movable Blackboard. By making the ceiling of the entry and wood-closet only seven feet high, two commodious rooms for recitation may be formed above them, lighted from the window over the front door, and accessible by stairs from within the school-room. Warming. In a suitable position, pointed out in the plates, near the door, let a common brick fireplace be built. Let this be inclosed, on the back and on each side, by a casing of brick, leaving, be- tween the fireplace and the casing, a space of four or five inches, which will be heat- ed through the back and jambs. Into this space let the air be admitted from beneath by a box 24 inches wide and 6 or 8 deep, leading from the external atmosphere by an opening beneath the front door, or at some other convenient place. The brick casing should be feontinued up as high as six or eight inches above the top of the fireplace, where it may open into the room by lateral orifices, to be commanded by iron doors, through which the heated air will enter the room. If these are lower, part of the warm air will find its way into the fireplace. The brick chimney should Fireplace. A. Horizontal section. D. Perpendicular section, c. Brick walls, 4 inches thick. d. Air space between the walls, e. Solid fronts of masonry. /. Air box for supply of fresh air, extending beneath the floor to the front door. ? . Openings on the sides of the fire- e heated air to pass into the room. h. Front of the fireplace and mantelpiece, i / Fl' d ' a meter. j. Space between the fireplace and wall. k. Par- PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE, BY MR. G. B. EMERSON. 71 rise at least two or three feet above the hollow back, and may be surmounted by a flat iron, soap-stone, or brick top, with an opening for a smoke-pipe, which may be thence conducted to any part of the room. The smoke-pipe should rise a foot, then pass to one side, and then over a passage, to the oppo- site extremity of the room, where it should ascend perpendicularly, and issue above the roof. The fireplace should be provided with iron doors, by which it may be completely closed. The advantages of this double .fireplace are, 1. the fire, being made against brick, imparts to the air of the apartment none of the deleterious qualities which are produced by a common iron stove, but gives the pleasant heat of an open fireplace ; 2. none of the heat of the fuel will be lost, as the smoke-pipe may be extended far enough to communicate nearly all the heat contained in the smoke ; 3. the current of air heated within the hollow back, and constant- ly pouring into the room, will diffuse an equable heat throughout every part ; 4. the pressure of the air of the room will be constantly outward, little cold will enter by cracks and windows, and the fireplace will have no tendency to smoke ; 5. by means of the iron doors, the fire may be completely controlled, increased or diminished at pleasure, with the advantages of an air-tight stove. For that purpose, there must be a valve or slide near the bottom of one of the doors. If, instead of this fireplace, a common stove be adopted, it should be placed above the air-passage, which may be commanded by a valve or register in the floor, so as to admit or exclude air. Ventilation. A room warmed by such a fireplace as that just described, may be easily ventilated. If a current of air is constantly pouring in, a cur- rent of the same size will rush out wherever it can find an outlet, and with it will carry the impurities wherewith the air of an occupied room is always charged. For the first part of the morning, the open fireplace may suffice. But this, though a very effectual, is not an economical ventilator ; and when the issue through this is closed, some other must be provided. The most effective ventilator for throw- ing out foul air, is one opening into a tube which incloses the smoke- flue at the point where it passes through the roof. Warm air natu- rally rises. If a portion of the smoke-flue be inclosed by a tin tube, it will warm the air within this tube, and give it a tendency to rise. If, then, a wooden tube, opening near the floor, be made to communicate, by its upper extremity, with the tin tube, an upward current will take place in it, which will always act whenever the smoke-flue is warm. It is better, but not absolutely es- sential, that the opening into the [Scale 8 feet to an inch.] wooden tube be near the floor. The Ventilating Apparatus, carbonic acid thrown out by the A - Air box > 1 foot square, or 24 inches by 6, lungs rises, with the warm breath, covered by the pilaster, and opening at the floor, and the perspirable matter from the i n ., th . e base of the pilaster. B. Round iron tube fli A ** -ui 15 inches in diameter, being a continuation of &km, with the warm, invisible va- the air boX) th h ^ cent | r of which passes por, to the top of the room. There c. The smoke flue, 8 inches in diameter. D both soon cool, and sink towards Caps to keep out the rain, the floor ; and both carbonic air and the vapor bearing the perspirable matter are pretty rapidly and equally dif- fused through every part of the room. Seats and Desks. Instead of a seat and desk for each pupil, Mr. Emer- son recommends that two seats should be contiguous. In his drawings, tho desk is perfectly level like^a table, and the back to the seat is perpendicular. 72 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. SCHOOL FOR ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY PUPILS. 51 feet by 31 feet outside.] [Scale 16 feet to the inch. D. Entrance door. E. Entry. F. Fireplace. C. "Wood closet. T. Teacher's plat- form. a. Apparatus shelves. I. Air tube beneath the floor, d. Doors, g. Globes. Z. Li brary shelves, m. Master's table and seat. p. Passages, r. Recitation seats, s. Schol- ars' desks and seats, rs. Stairs to recitation rooms in the attic, v. Ventilator, w. Win- dows. 6. Movable blackboard, a s. Air space behind the fireplace. SCHOOL FOR FORTY-EIGHT PUPILS. f. Globes. E ' .] lc. n F " F u irc P lac ". C. Wood closet, or recitation room / I ! , a '. A PP arat shelves - ' Air tube beneath the floor. d. Doors Ll^ 'T i helve f' m ' Master 's table and seat. p. Passages, r. Recitation ft^tSiT^ : Ventilator, w. Windows. \Movableblack- Air space behind the fireplace. OCTAGONAL PLAN FOR DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE. 73 PLANS, &c., OP AN OCTAGONAL SCHOOL-HOUSE. Furnished for the "School and School-master," by Messrs. Town and Dams, Fig. 1. THIS design for a school-house intends to exhibit a model of fitness and close economy. The principles of fitness are, 1. Ample dimensions, with very nearly the least possible length of wall for its inclosure, the roof being con- structed without tie beams, the upper and lower ends of the rafters being helo by the wall plates and frame at the foot of the lantern. The ceiling maj show the timber-work of the roof, or it may be plastered. 2. Light, a uniform temperaliire, and a free ventilation, secured by a lantern light, thus avoiding lateral windows (except for air in summer,) and gaining wall-room for black- boards, maps, models, and illustrations. Side windows are shown in the view, and may be made an addition by those who doubt the efficiency of the lantern light. (The lantern is not only best for light, but it is essential for a free ventilation.) With such a light, admitted equally to all the desks, there will be no inconvenience from shadows. The attention of the scholars will not be distracted by occurrences or objects out of doors. There will be less expense for broken glass, as the sashes will be removed from ordinary acci- dents. The room, according to this plan, is heated by a fire in the center, either in a stove or grate, with a pipe going directly through the roof of the lantern, and finishing outside in a sheet-iron vase, or other appropriate cap. The pipe can be tastefully fashioned, with a hot-air chamber near the floor, so as to afford a large radiating surface before the heat is allowed to escape. This will secure a uniform temperature in every part of the room, at the same time that the inconvenience from a pipe passing directly over the heads of children, is avoided. The octagonal shape will admit of any number of seats and desks, (according to the size of the room,) arranged parallel with the sides, constructed as described in specification, or on such principles as may be pre- ferred. The master's seat may be in the center of the room, and the seats be BO constructed that the scholars may sit with their backs to the center, by which their attention will not be diverted by facing other scholars on the op- posite side, and yet so that at times they may all face the master, and the whole school be formed into one class. The lobby next to the front door is made large, (8 by 20) so that it may serve for a recitation-room. This lobby 74 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. is to finish eight feet high, the inside wall to show like a screen, not rising to the roof, and the space above be open to the school- room, and used to put away or station school ap- paratus. This screen-like wall may be hung with hats and clothes, or the triangular space next the window may be inclosed for this purpose. The face of the octagon oppo- site to the porch, has a wood-house attached to it, serving as a sheltered way to a double privy beyond. This woodhouse is open on two sides, to admit of a cross draught of air, preventing the possibility of a nuisance. Other wing-rooms (A A) may be Fig. 2. attached to the remaining sides of the octagon, if additional conveniences for closets, library, or recitation-rooms be desired. The mode here suggested, of a lantern in the center of the roof for lighting all common school-houses, is so great a change from common usage in our country, that it requires full and clear explanations for its execution, and plain and satisfactory reasons for its general adoption, and of its great excellence in preference to the common mode. They are as follows, viz. : 1. A skylight is well known to be far better and stronger than light from the sides of the building in cloudy weather, and in morning and evening. The difference is of the greatest importance. In short days (the most used for schools) it is still more so. 2. The light is far better for all kinds of study than side light, from its quiet uniformity and equal distribution. 3. For smaller houses, the lantern may be square, a simple form easily constructed. The sides, whether square or octagonal, should incline like the drawing, but not so much as to allow water condensed on its inside to drop off, but run down on the inside to the bottom, which should be so formed as to conduct it out by a small aperture at each bottom pane of glass. 4. The glass required to light a school-room equally well with side lights would be double what would be required here, and the lantern would be se- cure from common accidents, by which a great part of the glass is every year broken. 5. The strong propensity which scholars have to look out by a side win- dow would be mostly prevented, as the shutters to side apertures would only be opened when the warm weather would require it for air, but never in cool weather, and therefore no glass would be used. The shutters being made very tight, by calking, in winter, would make the school-room much warmer than has been common ; and, being so well ventilated, and so high in the cen- ter, it^ would be more healthy. 6. The stove, furnace, or open grate, being in the center of the room, has great advantages, from diffusing the heat to all parts, and equally to all the also admits the pipe to go perpendicularly up, without any incon- venience, and it greatly facilitates the ventilation, and the retention or escape of heat, by means of the sliding cap above. C0>w*ruc/z0n. Foundation of hard stone, laid with mor- ptar; the superstructure framed and covered with \\ plank, ,;^ tongued, grooved, and put on vertically, with a fillet, chamfered ; OCTAGONAL PLAN FOR DISTRICT SCIIOOL-HOUSE. 75 at the edges, over the joint, as here shown. In our view, a rustic character is given to the design by covering the sides with slabs ; the curved side out, tongued and grooved, without a fillet over the joint ; or formed of logs placed vertically, and lathed and plastered on the inside. The sides di- minish slightly upward. A rustic porch is also shown, the columns of cedar boles, with vines trained upon them. The door is battened, with braces upon the outside, curved as shown, with a strip around the edge. It is four feet wide, seven high, in two folds, one half to be used in inclement weather. The cornice projects two feet six inches, better to defend the boarding ; and may show the ends of the rafters. Roof covered with tin, slate or shingles. Dripping eaves are intended, without gutters. The roof of an octagonal building of ordinary dimensions may with ease and perfect safety be con- structed without tie beams or a garret floor (which is, in all cases of school- houses, waste room, very much increasing the exposure to fire, as well as the expense.) The wall-plates, in this case, become ties, and must be well secured, so as to form one connected hoop, capable of counteracting the pres- sure outward of the angular rafters. The sides of the roof will abut at top against a similar timber octagonal frame, immediately at the foot of the lan- tern cupola. This frame must be sufficient to resist the pressure inward of the roof (which is greater or less, as the roof is more or less inclined in its pitch,) in the same manner as the tie-plates must resist fhe pressure outward. This security is given in an easy and cheap manner ; and may be given en- tirely by the roof boarding, if it is properly nailed to the angular rafters, and runs horizontally round the roof. By this kind of roof, great additional height is given to the room by camp-ceiling ; that is, by planing the rafters and roof- boards, or by lathing and plastering on a thin half-inch board ceiling, immedi- ately on the underside of the rafters, as may be most economically perform- ed. This extra height in the center will admit of low side-walls, from seven to ten feet in the clear, according to the size and importance of the building, and, at the same time, by the most simple principle of philosophy, conduct the heated foul air up to the central aperture, which should be left open quite round the pipe of the stove, or open grate standing in the center of the room. This aperture and cap, with the ventilator, is shown by the figure adjoining, which is to a scale of half an inch to a foot. The ventilator is drawn raised, and the dot- ted lines show it let down upon the roof. It may be of any required size, say two feet .vide and twelve inches high, sliding up and i.nvn between the stovepipe and an outward <-;ise, forming a cap to exclude water. This cap may be pushed up or let down by a rod affixed to the under edge, and lying against the smokepipe. In the design given, the side-walls are ten feet high, and the lantern fifteen feet above the floor ; eight feet in diameter, four feet high. The sashes may open for additional ventilation, if required, by turning on lateral pivots, regulated by cords attached to the edges above. The breadth of each desk is seventeen inches, with a shelf beneath for books, and an opening in the back to receive a slate. The highest desks are twenty- seven inches, inclined to thirty, and the front forms the back of the seat be- fore it. The seat is ten to twelve inches wide, fifteen high, and each pupil is allowed a space of two feet, side to side. For the sake of variety, we have given a design in the pointed style, revised from a sketch by , an amateur in architecture. Any rectangular plan will suit it ; and the principles of light and ventilation dwelt upon in the de- scription of the octagon design, may be adapted to this. The principal light SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ' Fig. 3. is from one large mullioned window in the rear end. The side openings are for air in summer not glazed, but closed with tight shutters. The same ven- tilating cap is shown, and height is gained in the roof by framing with collar ieams set up four or five feet above the eaves. The sides, if not of brick or stone, may be boarded vertically, as before described. "f The following PLAN OF AN OCTAGONAL SCHOOL-HOUSE represents the School Practice annexed to St. Mark's Primary College, near London. In the cen- ter (6) is thefire-place and ventilating apparatus. On the four sides of the brick- ork, forming the ventilating apparatus and the chimneys, blackboards, maps, and niu s .cal tablets, are suspended, so as to be seen by the classes in the square or recesses oppose Each of the four recesses is 20 feet square, and accommodates ibout 60 pupils, d.yided into two classes separated by a curtain (c.) In one is a gallery (a) for an infant class. PLAN OF VILLAGE SCHOOL-GROUND BY DR. DICK. 77 PLAN OF SCHOOL-ROOM AND GROUNDS FOR A VILLAGE SCHOOL. The following sketch by Dr. Dick, (author of Mental Illumination), of the plan and accommodations of a Village School is copied from the Pennsylvania Common School Journal, vol. 1, p. 120. A. B Covered walks for exercise in winter and rainy days. C. D. E. F Plats for flowers, shrubs, evergreens, and a few forest trees. G. H Circles with twelve compartments each, for a different class of plants. I. K Yards divided with a wall, with suitable accommodations for either sex. L Portion of ground, smoothed and graveled for play-ground, with circular swing, Ate. M Room, 50 by 30 feet, and 14 feet high. N. N . Class-rooms, 18 by 15. S. T. Closets for apparatus, &c. /j.g SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN, &c., OF SCHOOL-ROOM AND GROUNDS FOR AN INFANT SCHOOL. The following plan and explanations are condensed from a valuable manu- al for teachers in infant and primary schools, entitled " Infant Education," one of Chambers' Educational Course, published at Edinburgh, in 1840. It is nearly similar to the plan recommended by Mr. Wilderspin in his " Infant School System," and his " Education for the Young," and by Mr. Stow, in the " Manual on the Training System for Infant and Juvenile Schools." CO ****** Play Ground 80 ft. by 60. Flower Border. 1 -I a^.?I|-s f E'O o *"t O M) - V O o ^.2~ -oo" .5 c'J=:2 t~ ~ w , -= i C *- C co-jociwpw o->- >~ a >T3 ' ' *> S;5 Pi ^ w H K SP---o"S^ c z --?.=; S ,, c ft E u o o E 3 F> g ^ a r T .= o 50 , c Cl = >M - . sf^or l 1 ^/^ lJ&l^> ""= S^ J J w"a '* II o-S.5 Sj"-! -c _=2 ^o c ^ 9 feMgl -* -^^3 . 7; * C s . b c rt tso- -; i r" > r sfJ f.-ss^^g C^: C5 C ^ O t= |||^5|S i I'M! if c|^^^ 5 ^ P c o "~ "M. " ^2 = " s-r~ a -^ = -il* K T o~^:JS-d j= o-B * 2 g g *~ "" ~ r& '" ' ^sl| J-fls . ^ ir ,., o ^ U ~ -3 - >> t " 3"Zc-~'-j2aJ" J -2 Si g 5 S~3 s rsg^c^oS-^ g~-stl- ^: = SOM-^ -Z ^ ^ _^ -- ^- -^ ^ ^O"5 5 ftj- ? e fs are to be made round, in order that the children may not hurt themselves. The general rules for fitting up school-rooms are, I. One foot for the space or passage between a form and the next desk. 2. Three inches for the horizontal space between a desk and its form. 3. Nine inches for the breadth of a desk, and six for the breadth of a form. 4. Twenty-eight inches for the height of a desk, and sixteen for the height of a form. 5. Eighteen inches in length of the desk for every child to occupy while seated upon his form. 6. From five to six feet for the passage between the walls and the ends of the forms and desks. The semi-circles for the reading classes are formed opposite to the wall, and are marked by an incision in the floor. Dimensions of school-rooms for 300 children, length, 62| ft., breadth, 34 feet ; for 200~ do. 55 by 28 ; for 150 do. 52| feet by 25. The following suggestions are abridged from the " General Observations on the construction and arrangements of school-rooms, 4~c.," published by the National Society, London. The form of the room should be ob- long. If the room is built large to ac- commodate boys and girls together, it may be divided by a frame partition, made to slide upon rollers in an iron groove. The superficial area should include 7 square feet for each child : hence, 50 children will require 350 ft ; 80 do. 560 ft. ; 100 do. 700 ft., &c. The desks are generally attached to the wall, and consist of a horizontal ledge two or three inches wide to re- ceive the inkstand, and an inclined plane ten inches wide, made to let down by hinges and movable brackets. The benches or forms are ten inches wide, and supported by standards of cast iron. The benches for the classes in reci- tation, are arranged in the floor with- out desks. The floor is entirely level. School-room for 56 scholars. D D D D D PLANS FOR SCHOOLS ON THE MIXED SYSTEM. PLANS, &c., FOR SCHOOLS ON THE MIXED AND FACHER SYSTEM. 83 y The two plans on the preceding page^for schools of 56 children, arranged on the monitorial or mutual system, are taken from the " Minutes of the Com- mittee of Council on Education, 1840, relative to Plans of School-houses." In each plan, given in the " Minutes," the arrangement of the school-room is delineated, 1. according to the system of 'mutual instruction, distinguishing, as above, that of the National Society from that of the British and Foreign School Society ; and 2. according to the mixed method, in which a modifica- tion of the mutual system, through the agency of better instructed and paid monitors, or pupil teachers, is employed in combination with the simultaneous method. Thus, on the same sheet, with the school-room for 56 children on the mutual system, there is also the following plan on the mixed system. The school-room is 18 feet wide by 31 long, the space (20 feet by 12) occupied by the desks and seats being divided into two parts, one for boys and the other for girls, by a mova- ble partition. The desks and benches are arranged on a series of platforms, rising each 6 inches above the preceding one. The school, if taught on the mixed method recommended would be divided into four class- es, the boys of the first class occupying the first bench on one side, and the girls, do. on the other, &c., and employing one pupil teacher and four monitors. The teacher would give general instruction from the platform to the whole school, and hear any class separately, arranged in a circle around him. Two other classes might be heard in the entry, or class rooms attached. C^ie plan in this cut is modified slightly from the original inprint when it is connected with the dwelling house.) The " Minutes" contain four series of plans, each presenting a different arrangement. In the first series, there are five plans for schools varying from 30 to 56 scholars, each with the classes arranged and seated as above, and two of them presenting additional accommodations for an infant department, one of 20, and the other of 30 children. In the second series, there is a separate range of desks for each class, with five varieties of arrangements, to accommodate 60 to 100 children, with a separate room for an infant school in two. In this series preference is ex- pressed for the plan copied from the model school of the Normal School of Dejon. In this plan, the room is 56 feet by 16, divided into two apartments, each 28 by 16, one for 55 boys and the other for 55 girls. Each department is divided into three classes, one class occupying a group of desks, rising on platforms directly in front of the teacher, and the other two, one on the left, and the other on the right, so that they form a sort of amphitheater around the level portion of the floor occupied by the teacher. Each class can be taught separately, occupying its own group of desks, as arranged around the teacher's desk. In the third series the accommodations ascend from 144 children, and 150 infants, to an indefinitely greater number, by a larger or smaller number of class-rooms arranged on each side of a central school-hall, which is lighted by sky-lights. 84 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The following plan of a building exhibits the arrangement of a school forthree hundred children, including one hundred and fifty in an infant school. A is a private room or study for the principal. B is the school hall (54 ft. by 27) for the as- semblage of the whole school for morning and evening prayers, and other general exercises, and for the occupancy of the infant school, and C the gallery of the latter. D, D, D, D, are four class-rooms, (each 19 by 17) each again divided by a partition into two, so that both can be superintended by one assistant teacher, and one pupil teacher. Each subdivision of class-room will accom- modate about 40 scholars each. The boys and the girls under eleven years arranged according to attainments, each on separate benches are taught together, while those over eleven years are taught separately in class-rooms appropriated to each. This arrangement affords greater facilities for giving to the instruction of the older children such a particular character as will prepare them for the application of their knowledge to the actual duties of life. Such knowledge must differ, in a class of boys, from that given in a class of girls. In the fourth series, the same principles of arrangements are observed, ex- cept that the boys and girls occupy rooms on different floors. In all of the plans recommended in the " Minutes," of the Committee, ac- commodations are provided for 1. the technical instruction of the children in classes carefully arranged according to their intellectuaf proficiency; 2. for the general instruction and exercises of the whole school ; and, 3d, for the residence of the teacher. This last feature is common to almost all school houses in Europe, and the use of the same constitutes a part of the teacher's compensation. In the larger structures of Prussia and Saxony, there is an entire room appropriated to each class. Thus in a school-house for 600 chil- dren, at Berlin, there are eight rooms, and in these rooms the children are classed according to their ages, capacities and attainments. Eight masters are employed, besides auxiliary masters for special purposes ; and two mis- tresses, for teaching at certain hours sewing and knitting to the girls. ^ The " Minutes" contain many valuable suggestions respecting the location, ventilation, and warming of school-rooms, similar to what has been already printed. The following section exhibits three forms of desks. The stand ards are of wrought or cast iron. Desk with Lid. Simple Desk. Desk with Shelf. PLANS RECOMMENDED BY COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL. 35 In the <: Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education for 1851-52," under the general head of Organization of Schools, the follow- ing memorandum and diagrams "respecting the organization of schools in parallel groups of benches and desks." are published to aid commit- tees in determining the internal dimensfrjn of school-rooms, and the best modes of fitting them up, in reference to schools organized on the plan recommended by the committee. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. "Before a school-room is planned, and the observation applies equally to al- terations in the internal fittings of an existing school-room, the number of chil- dren who are likely to occupy it, the number of classes into which they ought to be grouped, whether the school should be ' ; mixed, " or the boys and the girls should be in different rooms, should be carefully considered, in order that the ar- rangements of the school may be designed accordingly. A. Every class, when in operation, requires a separate teacher, be it only a monitor acting for the hour. Without some such provision it is impossible to keep all the children in a school actively employed at the same time. The apprenticeship of pupil-teachers, therefore, is merely an improved method of meeting what is ; under any circumstance, a necessity of the case ; and, where such assistants are maintained at the public expense, it becomes of increased im- portance to furnish them with all the mechanical appliances that have been found by experience to be the best calculated to giv.e effect to their services. B. The main end to be attained is the concentration of the attention of the teacher upon his own separate -class, and of the class upon its teacher, to the ex- clusion of distracting sounds and objects, and without obstruction to the head mas- ter's power of superintending the whole of the classes and their teachers. This concentration would be effected the most completely if each teacher held his class in a separate room ; but such an arrangement would be inconsistent with a proper superintendence, and would be open to other objections. The common school- room should, therefore, be fitted to realize, as nearly as may be, the combined ad- vantages of isolation and of superintendence, without destroying its use for such purposes as may require a large apartment. The best shape (see diagrams an- nexed) is an oblong about eighteen feet in width. Groups of desks are arranged along one of the walls. Each group is divided from the adjacent group or groups by an alley, in which a light curtain can be drawn forward or back. Each class, when seated in a group of desks, is thus isolated on its sides from the rest of the school. The head master, seated at his desk placed against the opposite wall, or standing in front of any one of the classes, can easily superintend the school ; while the separate teacher of each class stands in front of it, where the vacant floor allows him to place his easel for the suspension of diagrams and the use of the black- board, or to draw out the children occasionly from their desks, and to instruct them standing, for the sake of relief by a change, in position. The seats at the desks and the vacant floor in front of each group are both needed, and should therefore be allowed for in calculating the space requisite for each class. C. By drawing back the curtain between two groups of desks, the principal teacher can combine two classes into one for the purpose of a gallery lesson ; or a gallery (doubling the depths of rows) may substituted for one of the groups. For simultaneous instruction, such a gallery is better than the combination of two groups by the withdrawal of the intermediate curtain ; because the combined width of the two groups is greater than will allow the teacher to command at a glance all the children sitting in the same line. It is advisable therefore always to provide a gallery. The drawings annexed to the following rules purport simply to show the best internal dimensions of school-rooms, and the best mode of fitting them up, the doors and windows being placed accordingly. The combination of such rooms with others of the same kind, with teachers' residences, and with the remainder of the school premises, as well as the elevations which may thereby be obtained, SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. OD depending, as they always must, upon local circumstances, are not intended to bo here shown.* ' The Committe of Council do not recommend that the benches and desks should be immovably fixed to the floor in any schools. They ought to be so coustructed as to admit of being readily removed when necessary, but not so as to be easily pushed out of place by accident, or t be shaken by the movements of the children when seated at them. The reasons of the following rules will be readily inferred from these preliminary explanations. 1. In planning a school-room, if it be not more than 18 feet in width, about 8 or 9 square feet will be sufficient for each child in actual attendance. If the width be greater, there must be a proportionate increase of area allotted to each child. 2. A school not receiving infants should generally be divided into at least four classes. (The varying capacities of children between seven and thirteen years old will be found to require at least thus much subdivision.) 3. Parallel benches and desks, graduated according to the ages of the children, should be provided for all the scholars in actual attendance, (see Preliminary Re- marks, B. ;) and therefore a school-room should contain at least four groups of parallel benches and desks. (See Rule 2.) 4. A group should not contain more than three rows of benches and desks, (otherwise the distance of the last row is to great for the teacher to see the children's slates, and he must also raise his voice to a pitch which is exhausting to himself and adds inconveniently to the general noise.) 5. As a general rule, no group of benches and desks should accommodate more than twenty-four children, z. e. eight children in each of the three rows of the group, (otherwise the width is too great. See Preliminary Remarks, C.) 6. The proper lengths are 7 feet 6 inches for five children in a row ; 9 feet for six in a row; 10 feet 6 inches for seven in a row; 12 feet for eight in a row; t. e. 18 inches for each child. [The other dimensions and details are shown in the annexed drawings.] 7. Each group of desks must be separated from the contiguous group, either by an alley for the passage of the children, or by a space sufficient for drawing and withdrawing the curtains. It will be sufficient to provide an alley for the passage of children at one end only of each group. At the other end a space of 3 inches will suffice for drawing and withdrawing the curtains. [Alleys intended for the passage of children must not be less than 18 inches wide in the smallest school, and need not be more than 2 feet wide in any school, unless where a door or fireplace requires a greater interval.] 8. The best width for a school-room, intended to accommodate any number of children between 48 and 144, is 17 or 18 feet. This gives sufficient space for each group of benches and desks to be ranged (with its depth of three rows; along one wall, for the teachers to stand at a proper distance from their classes, and for the classes to be drawn out, when necessary, in front of the desks around the mas- ter or pupil-teachers. (No additional accommodation being gained by greater width in the room, the cost of such an increase in the dimensions is thrown away.) 9. Where the number of children to be accommodated is too great for them to be arranged in five, or at most, six groups, an additional school-room should be built, and placed under the charge of an additional schoolmaster, who may. how- ever, be subordinate to the head master, or a large school may be built on the plan of diagram No. 6. Where neither of these arrangements can be accomplished, the school-room should not be less than 32 feet wide, and the groups should be arranged along both sides of the room, the children in all cases facing the centre. (But such an arrangement is very inferior to that of the single row along one wall. The opposite classes see each other, and their several teachers have to stand too close, together. See Preliminary Remarks, B.) 10. A curtain, capable of being readily drawn and withdrawn, should separate * Specimen of the plans recommended by the committee, combining the foregoing object may be seen on page PLANS RECOMMENDED BY COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL. Q7 the several groups ; but not so as, when drawn, to project into the room more than 4 inches in fropt of the foremost desk. 11. If the school-room be lighted from above, which is the best possible mode, great care should be taken to prevent the skylights from leaking, and to provide channels for the water which the condensation of the children's breath will deposit on the inside of the glass. 12. All sashes, both upper and lower, should be hung ; and all windows, whether in the roof or elsewhere, should be made to open. 13. It is better to have a few large and well placed windows than many small ones. 14. It is important to provide that the faces of the children and teachers, and also the blackboards and diagrams, should be placed in full clear light. 15. If the school-room be not lighted from above, there should be windows, if possible, at each end and on one side of the room. The windows should be car- ried up as high as possible ; and those which are placed at the backs of the chil- dren, an arrangement which should be avoided as far as possible, should not come down within 5 feet 6 inches, or at least 5 feet, from the floor. 16. When the benches and desks are arranged on both sides of the room, it should be lighted from above, or there should be, if possible, windows in each of the side walls. 17. Except when a school-room is very Abroad, there should be no fireplace in the center of an end wall. [A good place for a fireplace is under a window.] 18. The desks should be either quite flat or very slightly inclined. The objec- tions to the inclined desks are, that pencils, pens, &c., are constantly slipping from it, and that it San not be conveniently used as a table. The objection to the flat desk is, that it obliges the children to stoop. A raised ledge in front of a desk interferes with the arm in writing. 19. A large gallery for the simultaneous instruction of two or more classes, with- out desks, may advantageously be provided in a class-room or at one end of the school-room. Such a gallery may be better placed along than across the end of the school-room, for the reason stated in the Preliminary Remarks, B. 20. No such gallery, nor any gallery in an infant school-room, should be placed in front of a window, unless it be very high up above the heads of the children when they stand on the top row of the gallery. 21. No infant gallery should hold more than eighty or ninety infante. 22. An infant school should (besides a large gallery) have a small group of benches and desks, for the occasional use of the elder infants. 23. The alleys leading to a gallery should be at its sides, not in its center. (See Rules 5 and 6.) 24. Great care should be taken that the valves which admit the fresh air into the school-room should be placed so as not to create draft where the teachers and children sit. 25. An easel and a blackboard should be provided for each class, and a larger blackboard for the gallery. 26. The dimensions shown in the drawings annexed to this memorandum, are adapted to children of from 11 to 12 years of age. It is very important that these dimensions should be graduated to suit the sizes of the elder and younger children in a school. " Although the following diagrams of the internal arrangements of school-rooms are drawn in reference to schools organized on a peculiar plan, as set forth in the foregoing memorandum, they will suggest valu- able hints to a judicious architect or committee. There are some features in them, which we do not approve, and we think will not be found in practice as convenient as several of the more recent plans embodied in this volume. 88 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. No. 1. A School for 48 children of one sex, in 4 classes ; with a class-room having a gallery capable of containing two of the classes. . 1^ . No. 2. A School for 48 boys and girls, in 4 classes ; with a class-room having a gallery capable of containing two of the classes. PLANS OF COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL. 39 No. 3. A School for 72 children of one sex, in classes ; with a class-room having a gallery capable of containing two of the classes. r z z E i- o 8 " fl' /7 /X 9 /' / rr 39. 3" x 18 te'HICH No. 4. A School for 72 boys and girls, in 4 classes ; with a class-room having a gallery capable of containing two of the classes. s:a". /;, c Ventilating tubes, 12 by 10 inches each. They should be placed within the room, and made of thin boards, perfectly tight, and smooth on the in- side. They should be united in the attic, and lead through the roof. PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS. 95 t, i Settees for recitations, o, o, o, o Doors. , , u Windows. Blackboards should be placed entirely around the room except in the narrow spaces between the windows. They should be from 4 to 5 feet wide for large scholars, and 3 or 3^ for small ones. The lower edge should he from 2^ to 3 feet from the floor. Every school-house designed for both sexes should have two entrances, one for each sex. There should also be two separate backyards, in- closed with a high tight fence. The entrance to the water-closets should be through the basement, or through doors on the outside 1 which should be kept locked. This is a very important arrangement, and has too generally been over- looked. The best interest of a school can not be secured without it. It is desira- ble that there should be a basement under every school-house. The bottom may bo covered with a floor, with brick, or with hydraulic cement. The basement should be divided into two parts, one for each sex. There should be a well in the center, and a pump and sink in each part. A part of it can conveniently be used for storing fuel, &c. The best mode of heating a school-room is by coal or wood furnaces in the basement. When stoves are used, the pipe may be con- ducted through the floors, well protected by soap-stone, into a chimney in the attic. In this way valuable room may be saved, which would otherwise be occu- pied by the chimney. It is also desirable that the teacher's desk be placed at the end of the building at which the pupils enter. Single desks are generally to be preferred to double ones. The whole expense for room and desks is about twenty per cent. more. When practicable, the house should be so placed, that pupils as they sit, may face the north. In rooms to be used in summer as well as winter, it would be better that there should be no win- dows* on the south. In all cases there should be outside or inside blinds. Out- side blinds are to be preferred to keep a room cool. Inside blinds can be more easily managed to modify the light. The gable end should also be toward the south, since by this arrangement the roofs would be much less^heated in summer. On the ceiling of every school-room the four points of the compass should be painted in distinct colors, with letters designating the several points. PLAN ISTo. 2. 36ft. ft. This plan is essentially the same as the preceding one, excepting in size. It is 36 by 26 feet inwde. This can be adopted when it is desirable to sacrifice conveni- ence for economy. It will be perceived that the outer aisles are much narrower * It will be better to provide curtains and shutters to modify, rather than a blank wall to exclude altogether the cheerful sunlight. H. B. 96 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. than those in the Plan Number One. Wide aisles are much more convenient for scholars to stand in during recitations, and to work at the blackboard without being annoyed by others passing them. It .is also important that the aisles be wide enough to accommodate settees on days of examination, &c. PLAN No. 3. 30ft. cL f This represents the ground floor of a building two stories high. It is 48 by 30 feet inside. The description of Plan Number One will apply to this, with the ex- ception of the entries. e, e Entries, one for each sex, 16 by 8 feet, a Anteroom. The one on the lower floor communicating with the boys' entry, the upper one communicating with the girls' entry. There never should be winding stairs in a school-house. hey should be made as represented on the plan, or in some form with broad B if PS i j u / landm S P lace should ne ver be directly opposite the door. The rooms d be from 11 to 13 feet in height. In large schools the outside door should wing outward, to enable the pupils to rush out easily in case of an alarm. PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS. PLAN No. 4. 28ft. This differs from Number Three chiefly in its size. Its dimensions are 40 by 28 feet inside. It has no anteroom, and the entrances are on the sides. There should always be a basement under houses constructed after this plan. This should be divided into two rooms, which should be well finished, warmed, and lighted. 98 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN No. 5. a 15X12. e 15X9.- (L 15X12. This represents the lower room of a building two stories high. Its dimensions are 50 by 42 feet inside, and contains two rooms and two anterooms that may be used for recitations ; and two entries, one for each sex. The doors are at the end, but when it is practicable it would be better to have them on the side. , e Entries, 15 by 9 feet each, a, a Ante-rooms, 15 by 12 feet each. c, c Closets for books and apparatus. The windows should be so placed as not to be directly opposite to the teacher. Neither pupils nor teachers should be com- pelled to face a strong light. PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS. 99 PLAN No. 6. 44ft. This is a plan of the upper room of a building, the lower floor of which has been described in Number Five. It contains one school-room, 44 feet by 31, two recitation rooms, and two entries. The school-room will accommodate 96 pupils. The recitation rooms can be used as an assembly-room by the pupils, in the morn- ing and at noon. There are many serious objections to large rooms, excepting for advanced pupils, who learn most of their lessons out of school. The testimony of nearly all experienced teachers is against large rooms for schools in which there are numerous classes. 100 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN No. 7. 44 t. 16X11. a 16X11. This is a plan of the lower floor of a building 48 by 44 feet. It contains two rooms for primary or intermediate scholars. Two modes of arranging the seats are pre- sented, that either may be adopted. The entrances are on the sides. The form of the stairs differs from the preceding plans, and has some advantages. There are two anterooms, 16 by 11 feet each. PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS. 101 PLAN No. 8. dLOA. a, The dimensions of the building represented by this plan are 52 by 40 feet inside. There are two rooms on the lower floor, for small scholars. The en- trances are on the sides. There are two anterooms, with closets, in which there is a sink and a pump, communicating with each. This and Number Nine are regarded as the best plans for houses two stories high, containing four rooms each. There are many advantages in having the stairs as represented on the plan, as they occupy less room and there will be much less disturbance by pupils going up and down. 102 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE PLAN No. 9. 48ft. 80*30 This is similar in its outline to Number Eight. Its dimensions are 60 by 48 feet inside. The entries, anterooms, and closets, are the same in form as Num- ber Eight. It has also a large recitation room or library, (marked L) communi- cating with both rooms. This combines more advantages, perhaps, than are to be found in any of the plans presented. If the building is built two stories and a half high, a large upper room might be finished for assembling the whole school at stated times, or one or both of the partitions might be made to slide up by weights. PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS. 103 PLAN No. 10. 45 ft. The dimensions of this building are 60 by 45 feet inside. The entrances are on the end. The form of the stairs is similar to Number Seven. In other re- spects it resembles plans already described. 104 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FLAN No. 11. 40ft 1 The dimensions of this building are 60 feet by 40. It differs from the preceding chiefly in the size of the entries, and in the form of the stairs ; also, in having much smaller anterooms. The entrances are also on the sides. PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS. PLAN No. 12. 105 An excellent plan, when furnished with a suitable basement, where pupils cuu assemble before and after school, and at recess, when the weather is unpleasant. The sexes enter on the opposite sides of the house. The entrances to the water- closets should be from the basement. Plan No. 13, represents the lower floor of a building, with three rooms on the lower floor. The arrangements of the rooms are the same as already described. 106 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN No. 13. u, 42ft. PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS. 107 108 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN OF VENTILATION. , v Ventiducts or ventilating tubes. These should be at least 14 inches square for a room containing 50 scholars, a, a Apertures into the ventiducts p Cast iron smoke flue, resting on soapstone in the attic floor, c, c Chimney surrounding the smoke flue. This should contain as many square inches as the ventiducts leading into it, after deducting the space occupied by the Hue. The inside of the chimney should be circular, and plastered perfectly smooth. This mode of ventilating is applicable to any method of heating, either by stoves or by furnaces. The heat of the smoke flue will rarefy the air in the chimney, and produce a strong draught in the ventiducts. This is regarded as the most effective, and, at the same time, the most economical mode of ventilation. The lower aperture should always be kept open. The upper aperture should be closed, excepting near the close of the morning and afternoon session, when it should be opened. It has been ascertained, by repeated experiments, that carbonic gas diffuses itself rapidly into every part of the room. In a room of 50 scholars, from 200 to 500 cubic feet of air are vitiated every minute, and unless some effectual means are devised for expelling the impure air, the most serious consequences must ensue. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 109 PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-ROOM, RECOMMENDED BY DR. A. D LOUD, COLUMBUS, OHIO. The following plan and description are copied from the Ohio School Journal, Vol. II., edited by Dr. Lord, Superintendent of the Common Schools of Columbus, Ohip. The building here presented should be 20 by 3G feet on the ground, or, at least, 25 by 35 feet inside. The plan is drawn on a scale of ten feet to the inch. A C Entries 8 feet square, one for each sex. B Library and apparatus room, 8 by 9 feet, which may be used for a recita- tion room for small sized classes. D Teacher's platform, behind which, on the wall, should be a blackboard 13 feet long by 5 feet wide. E E E E Recitation seats, those on the sides placed against the wall, those in front of the platform having backs and being movable. F F F Free space, at least two feet wide, next the wall on three sides of the room. G Desk, for two pupils, four feet long by 18 inches wide. H Seat, " " do " " 13 " " I Centre aisle two feet wide ; the aisles on either side of this should be from 18 to 21 inches wide. The area on either side and in front of the Teacher's platform, is intended for reading and spelling classes, and any other class exercises in which the pupils stand; and the space next the wall may be used to arrange the greater part of the school as one class in any general'exercises requiring it. Four windows are represented on each side of the house, and two on the end opposite the Teacher's stand. The door to the Library-room opens from one of the entries, and the room is lighted by a large window in the front end of the house. PRINCIPLES OF SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES RECENTLY ERECTED. Under this head will be found plans and descriptions of a few of the best school-houses, which have been recently erected in Connecticut and Rhode Island, for schools of different grades, from designs or directions furnished by the author of this treatise. They are not presented as faultless specimens of school architecture, but as embracing, each, some points of excellence, either in style, con- struction, or arrangement. Although the author, particularly as Commissioner of Public Schools for Rhode Island, was consulted in almost every instance by the local building committee, and was always gratified in having opportunities to furnish plans, or make suggestions, yet he was seldom able to persuade the committee or the carpenters to carry out his plans and suggestions thoroughly. Something would be taken from the height, or the length, or the breadth ; some objections would be made to the style of the exte- rior or the arrangement of the interior ; and particularly the plans recommended for securing warmth and ventilation were almost in- variably modified, and are in many instances entirely neglected. He desires, therefore, not to be held responsible for the details of any one house as it now stands, for, being thus held responsible, he should probably receive credit for improvements which others are as much entitled to as himself, and should in more instances be held accountable for errors of taste, and deficiencies in internal arrange- ments, against which he protested with those having charge of the construction. He wishes the reader to bring all the plans published in this volume, no matter by whom recommended, or where erected, to the test of the principles set forth on pages 47 and 48. If in an}' particular they fall short of the standard therein established, so far they differ from the designs which the author desires to see followed in houses erected under his own eye. But, with some reservation, most of the school-houses recently erected in Rhode Island, (and the same may be said of the new houses in Hartford, described in this volume,) can be pointed to as embracing many improvements in school architecture. Although the last state in New England to enter on the work of establishing a system of common schools, it is believed, she has now a system in operation not inferior in efficiency to any of her sister states. Be that as it may, Rhode Island can now boast of more good school-houses, and fewer poor ones, in pro- portion to the whole number, than any other State more than one hundred and fifty thousand dollars having been voluntarily voted for this purpose in less than three years, by school districts, not includ- ing the city of Providence. To Thomas A. Teft, Esq., Architect, of Providence, much credit is due for the taste which he has displayed in the designs furnished by him, and for the elevations which he drew for plans furnished or suggested by the Commissioner. He should, not, however, be held responsible for the alterations made in his plans by the committees and carpenters having charge of the erection of the building. With all their imperfections of execution, Mr. Teft's plans are among the best specimens of School Architecture. 112 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 2. PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES RECENTLY ERECTED. The following school-houses are selected for representation and descrip- tion, not because they are superior to all others, or are unexceptionable in every respect, but because the plans could be conveniently obtained, and in them all, the great principles of school-architecture are observed. PLANS, &c., OF SCHOOL-HOUSE, DISTRICT No. 6, WINDSOR, CT. The building stands 60 ft. from the highway, near the center of an ele- vated lot which slopes a little to the south and east. Much the larger por- tion of the lot is in front, affording a pleasant play ground, while in the rear there is a woodshed, and other appropriate buildings, with a separate yard for boys and girls. The walls are of brick, and are hollow, so as to save expense in securing the antaes or pilasters, and to prevent dampness. This building is 33 ft. 6 inches long, '21 ft. 8 inches wide, and 18 ft. 9 inches high from the ground to the eaves, including 2 ft. base or under- pinning. The entries A A, one for boys and the other for girls, are in the rear ol the building, through the woodshed, which, with the yard, is also divided by a partition. Each entry is 7 ft. 3 inches, by 9 ft. 3 inches, and is supplied with a scraper and mat for the feet, and shelves and hooks for outer gar- ments. The school-room is 24 ft. 5 inches long, by 19 ft. 4 inches wide, and 15 ft. 6 inches high in the clear, allowing au area of 472 ft. including the re- cess for the teacher's platform, and an allowance of 200 cubic feet of air to a school of 36. The teacher's platform B, is 5 ft. 2 inches wide, by 6 ft. deep, including 3 ft. of recess, and 9 inches high. On it stands a table, the legs of which are set into the floor, so as to be firm, and at the same time movable, in case the platform is needed for declamation, or other exercises of the DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE, WINDSOR. 113 scholars. Back of the teacher is a range of shelves b, already supplied with a library of near 400 volumes, and a globe, outline maps, and other apparatus. On the top of the case is a clock. . A blackboard 5 ft. by 4, is suspended on weights, and steadied by a groove on each end, so as to admit of being raised and lowered by the teacher, directly in front of the book case, and in full view of the whole school At the bottom of the blackboard is a trough to receive the chalk and the sponge, or soft cloth. The passages D D, are 2 ft wide, and extend round the room ; E E are 15 inches, and allow of easy access to the seats and desks on either hand. F is 5 ft. 3 inches, and in the center stands an open stove 0, the pipe of which goes into one of the flues, a. The temperature is regulated by a ther- , mometer. . Each pupil is provided with a desk G, and seat H, the front of the former, constituting the back or support of the latter, which slopes 2-J- inches in 16. The seat also inclines a little from the edge. The seats vary in height, ~~f?~~f? "j"HJf from 9 inches to 17, the youngest L\ vT y( ^\ children occupying those nearest the platform. The desks are 2 ft. long by 18 inches wide, with a shelf beneath for books, and a groove on the back side b, (Fig. 4) to receive a slate, with which each desk is furnished by the district. The upper surface of the desk, except 3 inches of the most distant portion, slopes 1 inch in a foot, and the edge is in the same perpendicular line with the front of the seat. The level portion of the desk has a groove running along the line of the Top of Desk. Section of Seat and Desk. slope a, (Fig. 4) so as to prevent pencils and pens from, rolling off, and an opening c, (Fig 8) to receive an inkstand, which is covered by a metal- lic lid. The windows, I, three on the north and three on the south side, contain each 40 panes of 8 by 10 glass, are hung (both upper and lower sash) with weights so as to admit of being raised or lowerea conveniently. Ti A SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN or SCHOOL-HOUSE IN MEADOW DISTRICT, IN BLOOMFIELD, CONN. The new school-house in Meadow District, in the town of Bloomfield, for loca- tion, neatness, mode of seating, warming, and ventilation, is a good specimen of a cheap, convenient, and attractive edifice for a small country district. It is built of brick, and the cost, excluding the land, and including fences, appendages, and fur- niture, was about $500. The style and arrangement of the seats and desks are indicated in Figs. 3 and 4. The building is 30 feet by 20. The district is indebted mainly to Hon. Francis Gillette for his zeal and determination in getting up the plan, and superintending the work. The room is heated by Mott's Ventilating School Stove, designed both for wood and hard coal. Fresh air is introduced from outside of the building by a flue beneath the floor, and is warmed by passing along the heated surfaces of the stove as indicated in the following section. FIG. 2. A. A chamber, for coal or wood. B. A revolving grate with a cam motion, by which the ashes are easily detached and made to drop into the ash-pit be- low. C. Ash-pit, by which also the draught can be regulated, and the stove made an air-tight. D. Duct, or flue under the floor, by which fresh air from with- out is admitted under and around the stove, and circu- lates in the direction indi- cated by the arrows. DISTRICT SCHOOL HOUSE IN BLOOMFIELD. 115 The smoke-pipe is carried in the usual way, high enough to prevent any injurious radiation of heat upon the heads of the pupils below, to the centre of the opposite end of the room, where, after passing through the ceiling.it enters the ventilating flue, which, commencing at the floor, is carried up through the attic and out above the roof, as shown in Figures 3 and 4. The heat of th<} smoke-pipe produces a lively upward current of the air in the upper portion of the ventilating flue, suflicienl to draw off' the lower stratum of air near the floor, and at the same time draw down, and diffuse equally through the room, the fresh air which is introduced and warmed by the stove at the opposite end. A Front entrance. B Girls' Entrance and lobby. C Boys' do. do. D Teachers' platform. E Seat and desk, for the pupils. S Mott's ventilating school stove. V Flue for ventilation. F Seats for classes at recitation. d Teacher's desk. e Library of reference in front of teacher's desk. c Closets for school library and ap- paratus. f Fence dividing back yard. 116 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN BAE.RINGTON, R. I. The above cut represents in perspective the new school-house in District No. 2, in the town of Harrington, Rhode Island the most attractive, convenient, and complete structure of the kind in any agricultural district in the Stale and. it is believed, in New England. The house stands back from the highway in a lot, of an acre in extent, and commands an extensive view up and down Narraganset Bay, and of the rich cultivated fields for miles in every other direction. The building is 40 feet long by 25 wide, and 12 feet high in the clear, and is built after working plans drawn by Mr. Teft, of Providence. The school-room is calculated to accommodate 64 pupils, with seats and desks each for two pupils, similar to the folowing cut, and arranged as in Figure 3. The end-piece, or supports, both of the desk and seat, are of cast-iron, and the wood-work is attached by screws. They are made of eight sizes, giving a seat from ten inches to seventeen, and a desk at the edge next to the scholar from seventeen to twenty-six inches from the floor. Each pupil, when properly seated, can rest his feet on the floor without the muscle of the thigh pressing hard upon the front edge of the seat, and with a support for the muscles of the back. DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN BARRINGTON. 117 The yards and entrance for the boys and girls are entirely separate, and each is appropriately fitted up with scraper, mats, broom, water-pails, sink, hooks and shelves. A Front entrance. B Girls' entrance and lobby, fitted up with mats, scrapers, hooks, shelves. C Boys' entrance. D Teacher's platform. S Boston Ventilating Stove. -V Flue for ventilation surmounted, by Emerson's Ejector. L Cases for library. E Closets for apparatus, &c. The school is well supplied with blackboards, maps, globes, and diagrams, and such other instrumentalities as are necessary and useful in the studies usually taught in a district school. There is abundance of unoccupied space around the sides of the room and between the ranges of desks lo allow of the free movements of the teacher and of the pupils, in passing to and from their seals. There is also a district library of about 600 volumes, containing a large number of books of reference, such as Dictionaries, Encyclopedia, and a va- riety of the best text books in the several studies of the school, to enable the teacher to extend his knowledge, and illustrate his recitations by additional information. There are about one hundred volumes selected with reference to the youngest class of children, and about 400 volumes in the different departments of useful knowledge, calculated for circulation among the older pupils, in the families of the district generally. The maps, apparatus and library were purchased by the Commissioner ol Public Schools at an expense of $250, which was contributed by five or six individuals. The building, furniture and land, cost about $1200. The school-room is warmed and ventilated under the direction of Mr.Gard- ner Chilson, Boston, by one of the Boston Ventilating Stoves, and by a flue constructed similar to those recently introduced into the Boston Public School houses by Dr. Henry G. Clark, and surmounted by Emerson's Ejector. A cut and description of this stove, and of MotCs Ventilating Stove for bum- ing wood as well as coal, is given on the next page. The flue for ventilation is carried up in the partition wall, and is constructed of well seasoned boards, planed smooth on the inside. 118 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. More than sixty District school-houses have been erected in Rhode Island on the same general plan as that presented in the cuts of the Barrington and Glocester school-house, with some slight variations required by the nature of the site, or the peculiar views of the majority of the district, or of the building committee, in each case. The following plans present some of these modifi- cations. The first is 34 ft. by 25, and the second, 36 ft. by 27. PLAN OF SCHOOL-HOUSE IN DISTRICT No. 10, CRANSTON. \ . $ ., i-D I c I ^ - V t^.^j. f f >,;.s /, -, . _ u. fo fl O F -^ o C ] A n fc Q \fczz. . o n o y | A Front entrance. B Girls' entrance. C Boys' do. D Teacher's platform. E Library. S Worcester Ventilat- ing Stove. V Flue for ventilation. F Seat and desk with iron ends, g Cold air duct. V o o o o I o o o o V 1 ^ 'I i !< w !] ![ B J L -. . . , D c F PLAN OF SCHOOL-HOUSE AT CLAYVILLE, SCITUATB. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN OF SCHOOL-HOUSE IN CENTREVILLE, WARWICK, R. I The following plan presents a mode of seating a District School-House sim ilar to that adopted in several public school-houses in the city of New York. T I T . o O " "O O O o O o o o r> ooooo ooooo ooooo oooo O r. o B 1 1 "3 C o o o ','; o O E D 3 A o o. O p D o D 3 b ooooo o o o oooo oooo o Q D OOOC o o o n r> ; > ' 1 u -' O o o V '' p=T 1 O The building is 50 feet long Cbeside'the porch 5-^ feet in front) by 30 feet wide A Porch. R Recit"ation-room for assistant. B Girls' entrance and lobby. S Stove. C Boys' do. T Smoke flue. D Teacher's platform. V Flue for ventilator. E Mott's school desk and chair. The above mode of seating has been adopted in other districts, and in one in- stance, with the desks attached at one end to the wall, as in the following plan recommended by Hon. Ira Mayhew. There are serious objections 10 this ar- rangement of the seats and desk. D, entrance and inner doors. W, windows. E, entries, lighted over doors, one for boys and the other for girls. A, teacher's platform. B, blackboard, reaching entirely across the end of the house. T, teacher's desk. H, desks 1 1 feet long, except the two next the entrance doors. C, Mott : s patent cast-iron chairs. S stove. O, an air tube under the floor, through which pure air from without is introduced beneath the stove. L, shelves for library, apparatus, etc. 120 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES RECENTLY ERECTED IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. The following plans, and the descriptions of the same, are taken, by permission, from the "Third Annual Report of the Commissioner of Com- mon Schools (Hox. R. S. RUST,) to the Legislature of New Hampshire, Jamuiry, 1849." PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN DUBLIN, N. H. The building is 42 by 32 feet on the ground, and 11 feet high in the clear. The school-room of 29 by 35 feet inside, and is furnished with 64 seats (1,1,1,) and as many desks (H,H,H.) The desks are made of birch board, and painted green, each 2 feet long and from 10 to 18 inches wide, and are all numbered. The supports at the end of the desks are framed down through the floor into the sleepers, or joints under the floor. The seats are in the form of wooden chair bottoms, and are 16 inches down to 10 in height, and are placed at the left hand of the writing desk, so as to make it convenient for the scholar in writing, and give him space to stand within the line of his desk. The outside aisles are 18 inches, the center 24 inches, and the outer 16 inches wide. There are movable seats (N,N,) in front, and on either side of the teacher; for recita- tion. The entrances (G,G,), one for boys and one for girls, are fitted up for hats, bonnets, &c., and can be used for recitation rooms. Back of the teacher's platform (A,) is a small room for a library, apparatus, and the use of the teacher. The room is heated by one of the Worcester Common School Stoves, which cost about $18. By means of a flue under the floor, the air is introduced beneath the stove, and circulates through heated tubes before it is admitted into the room, on the principle of a furnace. The ventilation of the room is partially secured by openings into the attic, and hence into the open air. SCHOOL-HOUSES IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. J21 PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN GREENLAND, N. H. The building is 50 feet long by 30 feet wide, and 12 feet high in the clear. It is built of brick. A large entry (E), is partitioned off from the school-room, and fitted up not only to receive the hats, bonnets, &c., of the pupils, but to accommodate all the pupils in rainy weather during recess, as well as those who reside at a distance, when they arrive at the school-house before the school-room is opened, and those who may be obliged to stay during recess. The entry and the school-room is heated by a large stove (S) placed in the partition. The teacher's platform (P) is placed at the end of the school-room, and is raised one step above the floor. Back of the teacher, along the wall, are cases (B) for apparatus, and a well-selected library of 200 vols. There are 48 separate desks of different heights, framed on posts permanently fixed to the timbers of the floor, and fitted with seats of corresponding heights set in cast iron frames secured to the floor ; both seats and desks are stained and varnished. 122 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PRIMARY SCHOOL ix WESTERLY, R. L VILLAGE SCHOOL-HOUSE IN ALLENDALE, N. PROVIDENCE, R. L UNION SCHOOLS. 123 PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES FOR UNION SCHOOLS. BEFORE describing a few of the best school-houses which have been recently erected in the large villages of Rhode Island, for two or more schools of different grades in the same building, a brief con- sideration of the importance of classification, or gradation, as ap- plied to the schools of a district, or town, cannot be deemed irrelevant. To enable children to derive the highest degree of benefit from their attendance at school, they should go through a regular course of training in a succession of classes, and schools arranged according to similarity of age, standing, and attainments, under teachers pos- sessing the qualifications best adapted to each grade of school. The practice has been almost universal in Nefr England, and in other states where the organization of the schools is based upon the division of the territory into school districts, to provide but one school for as many children of both sexes, and of all ages from four to sixteen years, as can be gathered in from certain territorial limits, into one apartment, under one teacher ; a female teacher in summer, and a male teacher in winter. The disadvantages of this practice, both to pupils and teachers, are great and manifold. There is a large amount of physical suffering and discomfort, as well as great hinderarices in the proper arrangement of scholars and classes, caused by crowding the older and younger pupils into the same school-room, without seats and furniture appropriate to either ; and the greatest amount of suffering and discomfort falls upon the young, who are least able to bear it, and who, in consequence, ac- quire a distaste to study and the school-room. The work of education going on in such schools, cannot be appropriate and progressive. There cannot be a regular course of discipline and instruction, adapted to the age and proficiency of pupils a series of processes, each adapted to certain periods in the development of the mind and character, the first intended to be fol- lowed by a second, and the second by a third, the latter always depending on the earlier, and all intended to be conducted on the same general principles, and by methods varying with the work to be done, and the progress already made. With the older and younger pupils in the same room, there cannot be a system of discipline which shall be equally well adapted to both classes. If it secures the cheerful obedience and subordination of the older, it will press with unwise severity upon the younger pupils. If it be adapted to the physical wants, and peculiar tem- peraments of the young, it will endanger the good order and habits of study of the more advanced pupils, by the frequent change of pbsture and position, and other indulgences which it permits and requires of the former. With studies ranging from the alphabet and the simplest rudiments of knowledge, to the higher branches of an English education, a variety of methods of instruction and illustration are called for, which are seldom found together, or in an equal degree, in the same 124 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. teacher, and which can never be pursued with equal success in the same school-room. The elementary principles of knowledge, to be made intelligible and interesting to the young, must be presented by a large use of the oral and simultaneous methods. The higher branches, especially all mathematical subjects, require patient ap- plication and habits of abstraction, on the part of the older pupils, which can with difficulty, if at all, be attained by many pupils, amid a multiplicity of distracting exercises, movements and sounds. The recitations of this class of pupils, to be profitable and satisfactory, must be conducted in a manner which requires time, discussion and explanation, and the undivided attention both of pupils and teachers. From the number of class and individual recitations, to be attended to during each half day, these exercises are brief, hurried, and of little practical value. They consist, for the most part, of senseless repetitions of the words of a book. Instead of being the time and place where the real business of teaching is done, where the ploughshare of interrogation is driven down into the acquirements of each pupil, and his ability to comprehend clearly, remember accu- rately, discriminate wisely, and reason closely, is cultivated and tested, where the difficult principles of each lesson are developed and illustrated, and additional information imparted, and the mind of the teacher brought in direct contact with the mind of each pupil, to arouse, interest, and direct its opening powers instead of all this and more, the brief period passed in recitation, consists, on the part of the teacher, of hearing each individual and class in regular order, and quick succession, repeat words from a book ; and on the part of the pupils, of saying their lessons, as the operation is significantly described by most teachers, when they summon the class to the stand. In the mean time the order of the school must be maintained, and the general business must be going forward. Little children without any authorized employment for their eyes and hands, and ever active curiosity, must be made to sit still, while every muscle is aching from suppressed activity ; pens must be mended, copies set, arithmetical difficulties solved, excuses for tardiness or absence re- ceived, questions answered, whisperings allowed or suppressed, and more or less of extempore discipline administered. Were it not a most ruinous waste of precious time, did it not involve the deaden- ing, crushing, distorting, dwarfing of immortal faculties and noble sensibilities, were it not an utter perversion of the noble objects for which schools are instituted, it would be difficult to conceive of a more diverting farce than an ordinary session of a large public school, whose chaotic and discordant elements have not been reduced to system by a proper classification. The teacher, at least the con- scientious teacher, thinks it any thing but a farce to him. Com- pelled to hurry from one study to another, the most diverse, from one class to another, requiring a knpwledge of methods altogether distinct, from one recitation to another, equally brief and unsatis- factory, one requiring a liveliness of manner, which he does riot feel and cannot assume, and the other closeness of attention and abstrac- GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 125 tion of thought, which he cannot give amid the multiplicity and variety of cares, from one case of discipline to another, pressing on him at the same time, he goes through the same circuit day after day. with a dizzy brain and aching heart,. and brings his school to a close with a feeling, that with all his diligence and fidelity, he has accomplished but little good. But great as are the evils of a want of proper classification of schools, arising from the causes already specified, these evils are aggravated by the almost universal practice of employing one teacher in summer, and another in winter, and different teachers each successive summer and winter. Whatever progress one teacher may make in bringing order out of the chaotic elements of a large public school, is arrested by the termination of his school term. His experience is not available to his successor, who does not come into the school until after an interval of weeks or months, and in the mean time the .former teacher has left the town or state. The new teacher is a stranger to the children and their parents, is unacquainted with the system pursued by his predecessor, and has himself but little or no experience in the business ; in consequence, chaos comes back again, and the confusion is still worse confounded by the introduction of new books, for every teacher prefers to teach from the books in which he studied, or which he has been accus- tomed to teach, and many teachers cannot teach profitably from any other. Weeks are thus passed, in which the school is going through the process of organization, and the pupils are becoming accustomed to the methods and requirements of a new teacher some of them are put back, or made to retrace their studies in new books, while others are pushed forward into studies for which they are not pre- pared ; and at the end of three or four months, the school relapses into chaos. There is constant change, but no progress. This want of system, and this succession of new teachers, goes on from term to term, and year to year a process which would in- volve any other interest in speedy and utter ruin, where there was not provision made for fresh material to be "experimented upon, and counteracting influences at work to restore, or at least obviate the injury done. What other business of society could escape utter wreck, if conducted with such want of system, with such constant disregard of the fundamental principle of the division of labor, and with a succession of new agents every three months, none of them trained to the details of the business, each new agent acting without any knowledge of the plan of his predecessor, or any well settled plan of his own ! The public school is not an anomaly, an excep- tion, among the great interests of society. Its success or failure de- pends on the existence or absence of certain conditions ; and if complete failure-does not follow the utter neglect of these conditions, it is because every term brings into the schools a fresh supply of children to be experimented upon, and sweeps- away others beyond the reach of bad school insrfuction and discipline ; and because the minds of some of these children are, for a portion of each day, left 126 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE to the action of their own inherent forces, and the more kindly influ- ences of nature, the family and society. Among these conditions of success in the operation of a system of public schools, is such a classification of the scholars as shall bring a larger number of similar age and attainments, at all times, and in every stage of their advancement, under teachers of the right qualifi- cations, and shall enable these teachers to act upon numbers at once, for^years in succession, and carry them all forward effectually together, in a regular course of instruction. The great principle to be regarded in the classification, either of the schools of a town or district, or of scholars in the same school, is equality of attainments, which will generally include those of the same age. Those wjio have gone over substantially the same ground, or reached, or nearly reached the same point of attainment in several studies, should be put together, and constitute, whenever their num- bers will authorize it, one school. These again should be arranged in different classes, for it is seldom practicable, even if it were ever desirable, to have but one class in every study in the same grade of school. Even in very large districts, where the scholars are pro- moted from a school 6f a lower grade to one of a higher, after being found qualified in certain studies, it is seldom that any considerable number will have reached a common standard of scholarship in all their studies. The same pupil will have made very different prog- ress in different branches. He will stand higher in one and lower in another. By arranging scholars of the same general division in different classes, no pupil need be detained by companions who have made, or can make less progress, or be hurried over lessons and sub- jects in a superficial manner, to accommodate the more rapid ad- vancement of others. Although equality of attainment should be regarded as the general principle, some regard should be paid to age, and other circumstances. A large boy of sixteen, from the deficiency of his early education, which may be his misfortune and not his fault, ought not to be put into a school or class of little chil- dren, although their attainments may be in advance of his. This step would mortify and discourage him. In such extreme -cases, that arrangement will be best which will give the individual the greatest chance of improvement, with the least discomfort to himself, and hindrance to others. Great disparity of age in the same class, or the same school, is unfavorable to uniform and efficient discipline, and the adaptation of methods of teaching, and of motives to application and obedience. Some regard, too, should be had to the preferences of individuals, especially among the older pupils, and their probable destination in life. The mind comes into the requisitions of study more readily, and works with higher results, when led onward by the heart ; and the utility of any branch of study, its relations to future success in life, once clearly apprehended, becomes a power- ful motive to effort. Each class in a school should be as large as is consistent with thoroughness and minuteness of individual examination, and practi- GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 127 cable, without bringing together individuals of diverse capacity, knowledge, and habits of study. A good teacher can teach a class of forty with as much ease as a class of ten, and with far more profit iO each individual, than if the same amount of time was divided up among four classes, each containing one-fourth of the whole number. When the class is large, there is a spirit, a glow, a struggle which can never be infused or called forth in a small class. Whatever time is spent upon a few, which could have been as profitably spent on a larger number, is a loss of power and time to the extent of the number who were not thus benefited. The recitations of a large class must be more varied, both as to order and methods, so as to reach those whose attention would wander if not under the pressure of constant excitement, or might become slothful from inaction or a sense of security. Some studies will admit of a larger number in a class than others. The number of classes for recitation in the same apartment, by one teacher, should be small. This will facilitate the proper division of labor in instruction, and allow more time for each class. The teacher intrusted with the care of but few studies, and few recita- tions, can have no excuse but indolence, or the want of capacity, if he does not master these branches thoroughly, and soon acquire the most skillful and varied methods of teaching them. His attention will not be distracted by a multiplicity and variety of cares, pressing upon him at the same time. This principle does not require that every school should be small, but that each teacher should have a small number of studies and classes to superintend. In a large school, properly classified, a division of labor can be introduced in the department of government, as well as in that of instruction. By assigning the different studies to a sufficient num- ber of assistants, in separate class-rooms, each well qualified to teach the branches assigned, the principal teacher may be selected with special reference to his ability in arranging the studies, and order of exercises of the school, in administering its discipline, in adapting moral instruction to individual scholars, and superintending the operations of each class-room, so as to secure the harmonious action and progress of every department. The talents and tact required for these and similar duties, are more rarely found than the skill and attainments required to teach successfully a particular study. When found, the influence of such a principal, possessing in a high degree, the executive talent spoken of, will be felt through every class, and by every subordinate teacher, giving tone and efficiency to the whole school. To facilitate the introduction of these, and similar principles of classification, into the organization and arrangements of the schools of a town or district, as fast and as far as the circumstances of the population will admit, the following provisions should be engrafted into the school system of every state. 1. Every town should be clothed with all the powers requisite to establish and maintain a sufficient number of schools of different grades, at convenient locations, to accommodate all the children re- |23 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. siding within their respective limits irrespective of any territorial division of the town into school districts. 2. Should provision be made for the creation of territorial school districts, a gradation of districts should he recognized, and every district having over sixty children of an age to attend school, should be obliged to maintain a primary school under a female teacher for the young pupils, and provide a secondary school for the older and more advanced pupils. 3. No village, or populous district, in which two or more schools of different grades for the younger and older children respectively, can be conveniently established, should be sub-divided into two or more independent districts. 4. Any two'or more adjoining districts, in the same, or adjoining towns, should be authorized to establish and maintain a secondary school for the older and more advanced pupils of such districts, for the whole, or any portion of the year. 5. Any district, not having children enough to require the perma- nent establishment of two grades of schools, should be authorized to determine the periods of the year in which the public school shall be kept, and to determine the age and studies of the children who sliall attend at any particular period of the year, and also to send the older pupils to the secondary school of an adjoining district. The extent to which the gradation of schools can be carried, in any town or district, and the limit to which the number of classes in any school ca.n be reduced, will depend on the compactness, number, and other circumstances of the population, in that town or district, and, the number and age of the pupils, and the studies and methods of instruction in that school. A regular gradation of schools might embrace Primary, Secondary and High Schools, with Inter-' mediate Schools, or departments, between each grade, and Supple- mentary Schools, to meet the wants of a. class of pupils not provided for in either of the above grades. 1 . Primary Schools, as a general rule, should be designed for children between the ages of three and eight years, with a further classification of the very youngest children, when their number will admit of it. These schools can be accommodated, in compact villa- ges, in the same building with the Secondary or High School ; but in most large districts, it will be necessary and desirable to locate them in different neighborhoods, to meet the peculiarities of the pop- ulation, and facilitate the regular attendance of very young children, and relieve the anxiety of parents for their safety on their way to and from school. The school-room should be light, cheerful, and large enough for the evolutions of large classes furnished with appropri- ate seats, furniture, apparatus and means of visible illustration, and haying a retired, dry and airy play-ground, with a shelter to resort to in inclement weather, and with flower borders, shrubbery and shade trees, which they should be taught to love and respect. The play- ground is as essential as the school-room, for a Primary School, and is indeed the uncovered school-room of physical and moral educa- GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 129 tion, and the place where the manners and personal habits of children can be better trained than elsewhere. With them, the hours of play and study, of confinement and recreation, must alternate more fre- quently than with older pupils. -To teach these schools properly, to regulate the hours of play and study so as to give varjety, vivacity, and interest to all of the exercises, without over-exciting the nervous system, or over-tasking any faculty of mind or body, to train boys and girls to mild dispositions, graceful and respectful manners, and unquestioning obedience, to cultivate the senses to habits of quick and accurate observation and discrimination, to prevent the forma- tion of artificial and sing-song tones, to teach the use of the voice, and of simple, ready and correct language, and to begin in this way, and by appropriate exercises in drawing, calculation, and lessons on the properties and classification of objects, the cultivation of the intellectual faculties, to do all these things and more, require in the teacher a rare union of qualities, seldom found in one in a hun- dred of the male sex, and to be looked for with the greatest chance of success among females, "in whose ^own hearts, love, hope and patience, have first kept school." The earlier we can establish, in every populous district, primary schools, under female teachers, whose hearts are made strong by deep religious principle, who have faith in the power of Christian love steadily exerted to fashion anew the bad manners, and soften the harsh and self-willed perverseness of neglected children, with patience to begin every morning, with but little if any perceptible ad- vance beyond where they began the previous morning, with prompt and kind sympathies, and ready skill in music, drawing, and oral methods, the better it will be for the cause of education, and for ev- ery other good cause. 2. Secondary Schools should receive scholars at the age of eight years, or about that age, and carry them forward in those branches of instruction which lie at the foundation of all useful attainments in knowledge, and are indispensable to the proper exercise and devel- opment of all the faculties of the mind, and to the formation of good intellectual tastes and habits of application. If the primary schools have done their work properly, in forming habits of attention, and teaching practically the first uses of language, in giving clear ideas of the elementary principles of arithmetic, geography, and the sim- plest lessons in drawing, the scholars of a well conducted secondary school, who will attend regularly for eight or ten months in the year, until they are twelve years of age, can acquire as thorough knowl- edge of reading, arithmetic, penmanship, drawing, geography, history, and the use of the language in composition and speech, as is ever given in common or public schools, as ordinarily conducted, to chil- dren at the age of sixteen. For this class of schools, well qualified female teachers, with good health, self-command, and firmness, are as well fitted as male teachers. But if the school is large, both a male and female teacher should be employed, as the influence of both are needed in the 'training of the moral character and manners. 9 130 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Schools of this grade should be furnished with class-rooms for reci- tations, and if large, with a female assistant for every thirty pupils. 3. High Schools should receive pupils from schools of the grade below, and carry them forward in a more comprehensive course of instruction, embracing a continuation of their former studies, and especially of the English language, and drawing, and a knowledge of algebra, geometry and trigonometry, with their applications, the elements of mechanics and natural philosophy and chemistry, natural history, including natural theology, mental and moral science, politi- cal economy, physiology, and the constitution of the United States. These and other studies should form the course of instruction, modi- fied according to the sex, age, and advancement, and to some extent, future destination of the pupils, and the standard fixed by the intelli- gence and intellectual wants of the district a course which should give to every young man a thorough English education, preparatory to the pursuits of agriculture, commerce, trade, manufactures, and the mechanical arts, and if desired, for college ; and to every young woman, a well disciplined mind, high moral aims, and practical views of her own duties, and those resources of health, thought, manners and conversation, which bless alike the highest and lowest stations in life. All which is now done in private schools of the highest grade, and where the wants of any considerable portion of the community create such private schools, should be provided for in the system of public schools, so that the same advantages, with- out being abridged or denied to the children of the rich and the educated, should be open at the same time to worthy and talented children of the poorest parent. In some districts a part of the studies of this grade of schools might be embraced in the Secondary Schools, which would thus take the place of the High School ; in others, the High School could be open for only portions of the year ; and in others, two departments, or two schools, one for either sex, would be required. However constituted, whether as one depart- ment, or two, as a distinct school, or as part of a secondary school, or an ordinary district school, and for the whole year, or part of the year, something of the kind is required to meet the wants of the whole community, and relieve the public schools from impotency. Unless it can be engrafted upon the public school system, or rather unless it can grow up and out of the system, as a provision made for the educational wants of the whole community, then the system will never gather about it the warmth and sustaining confidence and patronage of all classes, and especially of those who know best the value of a good education, and are willing to spend time and money to secure it for their own children. 4. Intermediate Schools or departments will be needed in large districts, to receive a class of pupils who are too old to be continued, without wounding their self-esteem, in the school below, or interfering with its methods of discipline and instruction, and are not prepared in attainments, and habits of study, or from irregular attendance, to be arranged in the regular classes of the school above. Connected with this class of schools there might be opened a GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 131 school or department for those who cannot attend school regularly, or for only a short period of the year, or who may wish to attend exclusively to a few studies. There is no place for this class of scholars, in a regularly constituted, permanent school, in a large village. . 5. Supplementary Schools, and means of various kinds should be provided in every system of public instruction, for cities and large villages, to supply deficiencies in the education of individuals whose school attendance has been prematurely abridged, or from any cause interfered with, and to carry forward as far and as long as practicable into after life, the training and attainments commenced in childhood. Evening Schools should be opened for apprentices, clerks, and other young persons, who have been hurried into active employment without a suitable elementary education. In these schools, those who have completed the ordinary course of school instruction, could devote themselves to such studies as are directly connected with their several trades or pursuits, while those whose early education was entirely neglected, can supply, to some extent, such deficiencies. It is not' beyond the legitimate scope of a system of public instruc- tion, to provide for the education of adults, who, from any cause , in early life were deprived of advantages of school instruction. Libraries, and courses of familiar lectures, with practical illustra- tions, collections in natural history, and the natural sciences, a sys- tem of scientific exchanges between schools of the same, and of different towns, these and other means of extending and improving the ordinary instruction of the school-room and of early life, ought to be provided, not only by individual enterprise and liberality, but by the public, and the authorities entrusted with the care and advance- ment of popular education. One or more of that class of educational institutions known as " Reform Schools," " Schools of Industry," or " Schools for Juvenile Offenders," should receive such children, as defying the restraining influence of parental authority, and the discipline and regulations of the public schools, or such as are abandoned by orphanage, or worse than orphanage, by parental neglect or example, to idle, vicious and pilfering habits, are found hanging about places of public resort, pol- luting the atmosphere by their profane and vulgar speech, alluring, to their own bad practices, children of the same, and other conditions of life, and originating or participating in every street brawl and low- bred riot. Such children cannot be safely gathered into the public schools ; and if they are, their vagrant habits are chafed by the re- straints of school discipline. They soon become irregular, play truant, are punished and expelled, and from that time their course is almost uniformly downward, until on earth there is no lower point to reach. Accustomed, as many such children have been from infancy, to sights and sounds of open and abandoned profligacy, trained to an utter want of self-respect, and the decencies and proprieties of life, as exhibited in dress, person, manners and language, strangers to those motives of self-improvement which spring from a sense of so- 132 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. cial, moral and religious obligation, their regeneration involves the harmonious co-operation of earnest philanthropy, missionary enter- prise, and sanctified wisdom. The districts of all our large cities where this class of children are found, are the appropriate field of home missions, of unobtrusive personal effort and charity, and of systematized plans of local benevolence, embracing friendly inter- course with parents, an affectionate interest in the young, the gather- ing of the latter into week-day, infant, and primary schools, and schools where the use of the needle, and other forms of labor appro- priate to the sex and age of the pupils can be given, the gathering of both old and young into Sabbath schools and worshipping assem- blies, the circulation of books and tracts, of other than a strictly religious character, the encouragement of cheap, innocent and hu- manizing games, sports and festivities, the obtaining employment for adults who may need it, and procuring situations as apprentices, clerks, &c., for such young persons as may be qualified by age, capacity and character. By individual efforts and the combined efforts of many, working in these and other ways, from year to" year, these moral jungles can be broken up, these infected districts can be purified, these waste places of society can be reclaimed, and many abodes of penury, ignorance and vice can be converted by ed- ucation, economy and industry, into homes of comfort, peace and joy. DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN CENTREMILL. 133 FLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN CENTREMILL, NORTH PROVIDENCE, R. I. This house was erected after designs by Mr. Teft, of Providence. It etands back from the highway, on an elevated site, in the midst of a grove, and for beauty oi design and convenience of arrangement, is not surpassed by any similar structure in New England. It is 26 feet by 51, and 13 feet high in the clear, with two departments on the same floor. A, Boys' entry, 6 feet by 10. B, Girls' ditto. C, Primary department, 20 feet by 25, with desks and seats attached for 70 pupils. D, Secondary, or Grammar depart- ment, 25 feet by 25, with desks and chairs for 04 pupils; see p. 120. r, Register for hot air. v, v, Flues for ventilation. c, Closets for dinner pails of those who come from a distance s. Sink. The smoke pipe is carried up be- tween the ventilating flues, and the top of the chimney is finished so as to accommodate the bell. o o O o o o o o o O o o O O' O o o o o o o o o o o r O o o O O o o r , r T c. \ - c\ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O o o o o o o o o a ft o o o o o o o o O o o o o o o 134 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN OF SCHOOL-HOUSE AT WASHINGTON VILLAGE IN COVENTRY, R. L The following cut presents the ground plan of the new school-house in the village of Washington, in the town of Coventry, R. I. The location is on the high ground in the' rear of the village, and commands an extensive prospect in every direction. The site and yard, occupying one acre, was given to the dis- trict by Governor Whipple. The whole structure, without and within, is an ornament to the village, and ranks among the best school-houses in Rhode Island. A Boy's entrance. B Girl's entrance. C Primary school-room. D Secondary, or Grammar Depart- F Desks for two, with iron end-piece. G Chairs supported on iron pedestal. H Register lor hot air. R Flue for ventilation, within which is carried up the smoke-pipe. ment. E Teacher's platform. The two school-rooms can be thrown into one, for any general exercise of the two schools, by sliding doors. The two rooms are uniformly heated by a furnace in the basement. There is a well, sink, basin, mats, scrapers, bell, and all the necessary fixtures and appendages of a school-house of the first class. The cost of the building and furniture was $2,300. The district possesses a library of upwards of four hundred volumes, the cost of which was raised by subscription in the District. ALBANY NORMAL SCHOOL CHAIR AND DESK. PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE. 135 PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSE m WARREN, R. I. Fig. 1. THE above cut exhibits a front view of the Public School-house erected in the village of Warren, at the expense of the town, in 1847-48, after drawings made by Mr. Teft, of Providence, under the directions of a committee of the town, who consulted with the Com- missioner of Public Schools, and visited Providence, Boston, Salem, Newburyport and other places, in order to ascertain the latest im- provements in school architecture, before deciding on the details of the plan. To this committee, and particularly to two of its members, Mr. E. W. Burr and Mr. G. S. Gardiner, is the town largely indebted for the time and personal supervision which they devoted to this public improvement, from its first inception to its completion, without any other reward than the realization of their wish to secure for their town the best school-house, for the amount of money,expended, in the State. The Commissioner of Public Schools remarked, in his address at the dedication of the house, in September, 1848, " that, for location, style, construction, means of warming, ventilation, and clean- liness, and for the beauty and convenience of the seats and desks, he had not seen a public school-house superior to this in New England. It is a monument at once of the liberality of the town, and of a wise economy on the part of the committee." The town appropriated $10,000, and the committee expended $8,594. The opening of the Public School in this edifice was followed by a large increase of attendance from the children of the town. 136 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The lot is 225 deep and 100 feet wide for a depth of 125 feet, and 161 feet wide for the remaining G4 feet. It is divided into three yards, as exhibited in the ground plan, (Fig. 2,) each substantially inclosed, and planted with trees and shrubbery. The dimensions of the building are 62 feet by 44 on the ground. It is built of brick in the most workmanlike manner. Most of the details of construction, and of the arrangement in the interior, are similar to those described on page 214. Each room is ventilated by openings controlled by registers, both at the floor and the ceiling, into four flues carried up in the wall, and by a large flue con- structed of thoroughly seasoned boards, smooth on the inside, in the partition wall, (Fig. 3, x.) The whole building is uniformly warmed by two of Culver's furnaces placed in the cellar. Every means of cleanliness are provided, such as scrapers, mats, sink with pump, wash basin, towels, hooks for outer garments, umbrella stands, tec. The tops of the desks are covered with cloth, and the aisles are to be cheaply carpeted, so as to diminish, if not entirely prevent, the noise which the moving of slates and books, and the passing to and fro, occasion in a school-room. A Front yard, B Girls' yard. C Boys' yard. P Privies. W Well. F Culver's Furnace. PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE IN WARREN. Fig. 3 FIRST FLOOR. 137 A Front entrance. B Girls' entrance, with mats, scra- pers, hooks for clothes, a sink, pump, basin, &c. C Boys' entrance do. R Recitation rooms, connected by sliding doors. R, P Platform for recitation, with a blackboard in the rear. T Teacher's platform. S Seats and desks ; see page 205. Q. Library and apparatus. w Windows, with inside Venetian blinds, c Flues for ventilation in the outer wall. x Flue for ventilation, lined with smooth, well seasoned boards, y Bell-rope, accessible to the teacher by an opening in the wall, r Hot air registers. ijr. 4. SECOND FLOOR. nnn! u LJoUoUoL DOKDCDO Q P loi b id A - VXX. 138 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. UNION SCHOOL-HOUSE, AT WOONSOCKET AND CHEPACHET, R. I. By the school law of Rhode Island, two or more adjoining school districts in the same, or adjoining towns, may, by concurrent vote, agree to unite for the purpose of maintaining a secondary or grammar school, for the older and more advanced pupils of such associating districts. Under this provision the four school districts in the town of Cumberland, which comprise the village of Woonsocket, voted to unite and provide a school-house for the more advanced pupils, leaving the younger to be accommodated in their respective districts. The Union school-house is located on a beautiful site, the donatioif of Edward Harris, Esq., and is built substantially after the plan of the Warren Public school-house, already described, at a cost of $7,000. The following are the front and side elevations, as originally drawn by Mr. Teft, but not adopted by the committee. SIDE ELEVATION. _ FRONT ELEVATION. Under the provision above cited, the three districts into which the village of Chepachet, in the town of Glocester, is divided, voted to establish a Union School, and to provide a suitable house for the same. The building is 50 feet by 34, with two stories, and stands in the centre of a large lot, a little removed from the main street, and is the ornament and pride of the village. The lower floor is divided into two apartments ; one for the Primary, and the other for an Inter- mediate School, for the younger pupils of the village, while the Union or Sec- ondary School occupies the whole of the second floor. UNION SCHOOL-HOUSE IN CHEPACHET. Fig. 1. PLAN op FIRST FLOOR. 139 V < 1 i \\ 2 mmrnmrnrr II i 1 1 11 1 ^^ LULULULJjLULL p nnmmn 1 [ Uli III LL T i m A . annnnn 1 mmm 1 mmnTTTTP' E ! 1 ' F [ [ r Dffl Dffi irn I T m m mm ffl D m D m L r I I Ji Ml I Ji 1 II Ml i mrnmrnrnrr L r JLJJ nrn LL- LULU rrm jj paa. \ r B 1 LULiJLiJLLJLlJLL L LJuJ " uJLU rf vl ' 1 I t l i A Entrance for Girls to Secondary School. U. B " " Boys " C " " Girls to Primary, E, and Intermediate School, F. D " " Boys " " " " " E Primary School-room. F Intermediate " U Secondary " L Manton Glocester Library of 900 volumes. R Recitation room. S Stove. V Flue for ventilation. G Seat and desk attached, for two pupils, with iron ends. Fig. 2. PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR. Oi D -A U 140 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN, &c., OF UNION SCHOOL-HOUSE IN PAWTUCKET, R. I V Fig. 1 PERSPECTIVE. This school-house is calculated to accommodate, on the first floor, a Pri- mary School, (D,) with seats and desks for one hundred and sixty pupils; two Intermediate Schools, (E, E,) lor sixty-four pupils each ; and on the second floor a High School, (F,) for one hundred and seventy pupils. The building is warmed and ventilated by a furnace in the cellar, from which the hot air is conveyed into the several apartments, as indicated by the regis- ters, (r, r, r, r ; ) in Figs. 2 and 3, and discharged by flues carried up in the walls, as seen at v, v, v, v. Each school-room is furnished with an appropriate place for outer garments, and with scrapers, mats and other means of neatness and cleanliness. The boys and girls have each a separate yard in the rear, and separate en- trances into the school- rooms. The High School is furnished with seats and desk having cast-iron end pieces similar to those described on page 282. The Primary and Intermediate school-rooms are furnished with the patent Revolving Pivot Chair, and School-desk, manufactured by J. L. Mott, 264 Water street, New York. The seat of the chair is wood; all other parts are of cast- iron. The seat and back turn on a pivot, while the pedestal is screwed fast to the floor. The height of the lower part of the top of the desk is just equal to the highest part of the back of the chair, so as to allow it to pass under. The front edge of the seat is in a perpendicular line with the edge of the top of the desk, so that the scholar is required to sit erect when engaged in writing or studying, and the same time that part of his back which requires support is fully in contact with the chair. Since the chairs above described were placed in this house, Mr. Mott has modified the patterns so as to carry the back piece higher, and thus give sup- port to the muscles above the small of the back. The iron can be covered with felt, and thus the rapid conduction of heat from the body, especially from the spinal column, in children thinly clad, and of delicate constitutions may be prevented. UNION SCHOOL HOUSE IN PAWTUCKET. 141 UNION SCHOOL- HOUSE IN PAWTUCKET. Fig. 2. PLAN OP FIRST FLOOR. F \ COOOOOOO OOOOOOOO ! r c OOCOOOCO OOOOOOOO r 1 II 1 OOOOOCOO OOOOOOOO ; i i ; i oooooooooooooooooot OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOO 1 11 1 1 ><* ooooooooooooooooooc 1 E ''\ ' 9 9 A Ifl oooooooooooooooooo OOOOOOOQOOOOOOOOOO( 1 _A_ E j OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOO ! oooooooooooooooooo w* B 1 1 1 1 OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOO , 1 11 1 OOOOOOOO ^OOOOOOOO l*^_ l'EL3-.-l \W.;/;l > -W\ VfAOt \,-'tf< , A Entrance to High School. B Entrance for Boys to the Primary and Intermediate Schools. C Entrance for Girls to the Primary and Intermediate Schools. D School-room, 30 feet by 24, for Primary School. E, E " " 40 feet by 16, for Intermediate Schools. F '' " 40 feet by 40, for High School. G Room for Apparatus, &c. H Recitation room to High School, 20 feet by 1G. I K Entrance room, one for Boys and the other for Girls, fitted up with hooks, shelves, wash-stand, &c. T Teacher's desk without any platform. Fig. 3. PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR HIGH SCHOOL. 142 PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSES, PROVIDENCE. PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSES IN PROVIDENCE, R. I. PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSES. THESE buildings are located in different parts of the city, and are designed for the accommodation of children from four to six or seven years of age, or until they are prepared to enter the intermediate schools. No. 1. View of a Primary School-House. These school-houses stand back from thirty to sixty feet from the line of the street, and near the center of lots varying from eighty to one hundred feet in breadth, and from one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet in length. Each lot is inclosed by a neat and substantial fence, six feet high, and is divided into two yards one for boys and the other for girls with suitable out-buildings, shade trees, and shrubbery. > These houses are each forty feet long by thirty-three feet wide, with twelve- feet posts, built of wood, in a plain, substantial manner, and, with the fences, are painted white, presenting a neat and attractive exterior. The entrance is into a lobby [A] and thence into an open area, where stands the stove [a]. A portion of the lobby is appropriated to bins for charcoal, [c] and anthracite D/], which is the fuel used in all the schools; the remainder [Bj is occupied by a sink, and as depositories for brooms, brashes, &c. Each room is arched, thereby securing an average height of thirteen feet, with an opening in the center of the arch, two feet in diameter, for ventilation. The ventilator is controlled by a cord passing over a pulley, and descending into the room near the teacher's desk [l>]. In each end of the attic is a circular window, which, turning on an axis, can be opened and closed by cords, in the same manner as the ventilator. PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE. 143 No. 2. Interior of a Primary School-House. The teacher's platform [C] is five feet wide, twenty feet long, and seven inches high, with a black-board ten feet long and three feet wide on the wall in the rear. The floor is of inch and a half plank, tongued and grooved ; and, for the purpose of securing warmth and firmness, and avoiding noise, is laid on cement. The windows, eleven in number, of twenty-four lights, of seven by nine glass, are hung with weights, and furnished with inside blinds. The sides of the room and entries are ceiled all round with wood as high as the window- sills, which are four feet from the floor. The rest of the walls are plastered, and covered with white hard finish. Each room is provided with sixty seats [s] and desks [t,], placed in six ranges ; each range containing ten seats and desks, of three different sizes, and each seat and desk accommodating two scholars, or one hundred and twenty in all. The center aisle is three feet and a half wide, and each of the others about two feet. The desks are over three feet long, by sixteen inches wide, with a shelf beneath for books. The upper surface of the desk [a], except about two '"nches at the top [b], slopes one inch and a half in a foot. 144 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. No 3. View of Top of a Desk, and Sectional View of Primary Seats and Desks. The front of the desk, constituting the back of the next seat, slopes one inch in a foot. The seat also inclines a^ery little from the edge. The seats are of four different sizes, varying from seven to ten inches wide, and from nine to fourteen inches in height, the lowest being nearest the teacher's platform. INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL-HOUSES. All the buildings of this class are two stories high, affording accommoda- tions for two schools, a primary and an intermediate. These houses are generally in pleasant situations, on large lots, varying in size from one hundred feet wide by one hundred and twenty feet long, to one hundred and fifty by two hundred feet. Rows of shade trees, consisting of elms, lindens, and maples, are planted along the side-walks and the fences inclosing the yards ; and evergreens, the mountain ash, and other ornamental trees, are placed within the inclosures. These houses are forty-four feet long, by thirty-three feet wide. Some of them are built of wood, the remainder of brick, and all in a tasteful and substantial style. The rooms are large, and easily ventilated, being twelve feet in the clear, with large openings in the ceiling of the upper room, and on the sides in the lower room, leading into flues in the walls, which conduct the foul air into the attic, from which it escapes at circular windows in the gables of the buildings. These flues and windows can be opened and closed by -cords passing over pulleys, and descending into the rooms below, where the teachers can control them with ease. No. 5. Sections of Ventilators. In this cut, the cord [?'], passing over the pulley [?'], raising [h], hung on hinges at M, opens wholly or partially the ventilator [/], a circular aperture three feet in diameter. The plan of ventilating the lower rooms is shown on 10 146 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. the other part of the diagram, in which [a] represents a cord running over a pulley, and attached to [c], a board three feet long by one foot wide, opening the space between [&], the top of the lower room, and [d], the floor of the upper, leading into the flue [c], ascending to the atiic. The windows, nine in number in each school-room, of twelve lights, of ten by sixteen glass, are hung with weights, so as to be easily opened at top and bottom, and furnished with Venetian blinds inside, to regulate the amount of light admitted. The floors are of hard pine boards, an inch and a half thick, and about six inches wide, tongued and grooved, and laid on mortar, as a protection against fire, for the prevention of noise, and to secure warmth and firmness. All the rooms, entries, and stairways are ceiled up with matched boards about four feet, as high as the window-sills. The remaining portions of the walls are plastered, and coated with white hard finish. o o o o o o cm cm cm o o c o o o Q O cm o o o o -p o o cm cm o o cm o o cm OO OO o o cm o o cm o o cm OO o o cm o o cm O O o o o cm o o cm O O o o cm o o O O cm o o czn o o o o cu B SO OS O O ' O Q czu OO cm o o 1 \m. O O BB B B B B B B B B B IB B czi dj czi czzi O E No. 6. Interior of an Intermediate School-House. The walls of some of these buildings are solid stone-work, faced with bnck ; others are built with double brick walls, as above shown, connected by ties of iron or brick. INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE. 147 As the rooms in the lower stories of this class of buildings are appropriated to primary sckools, and are furnished in the same manner as those already described, the preceding cut is intended to serve the double purpose of exhibit- ing on the first floor only the improvements on the former plan, and, on the second, the whole view of a room for an intermediate school. The steps [], is a little smaller than the lower, which is fastened to the floor by five strong screws, rendering the chair almost immovable. The largest size seats [e] in these rooms are fourteen inches in diameter and fifteen inches high, wilh backs, twenty-eight inches from [g] to the top, slanting an inch and a quarter to a foot. These backs are made with three slats, fastened by strong tenons into a top-piece, like some styles of common chairs, and screwed to the seat, while the middle one extends down into a socket on the foot of the iron standard. The seats, like the desks, are diminished one inch for the middle size, and two for the smallest, preserving the proportions in the different sizes, which adapts them to the sizes of the desks. GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSES. There are six buildings of this class, constructed on the same plan, and of the same size. They are seventy feet long by forty wide, with a front pro- jection, twenty-eight feet long by fourteen feet wide. They are located on very large lots, varying from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet long from a hundred and twenty to a hundred and fifty leet wide. All of them, except one, are on corner lots, and all have large open spaces around them. These, and all the other public school-houses in the city, are protected with GLuimby's lightning-rods, and each is furnished with a bell, which can be heard in the remotest parts of its district. In the accompanying view, No. 9, the engraver has represented a. few trees, a little larger than any at present around these buildings, because he could not crowd all the trees and shrubbery into the picture, without obscuring the lower part of the house. The cut on p. 91, No. 10, is a ground plan, on a reduced scale, of a Grammar School-House, including a general view of the cellar, yards, fences, gates, sidewalks, &c. The yards around each of the grammar school-houses contain from 18,000 to 20,000 square feet, or between a third and half an acre. These grounds are inclosed, and divided into three separate yards, by substantial close board fences [/,/,/, f], six feet high, neatly made, and painted white. The boys' play-ground [Bl and that of the girls [G], are large; but the front yard [E] is small, and, not being occupied by pupils, is planted with trees and shrubbery. The graveled sidewalks [s, s, s], running on two sides of all the grammar school lots, and on three of some of them, are shaded by rows of elms, maples, and lindens, set near the curb-stones. The gates [A, C, D] and the graveled walks [d, d,d] lead to the front and the two side doors of the school-house; and [/] is a large gate for carting in coal, &c. The out-buildings [i,i] are arranged with a large number of separate apartments on both sides, all well ventilated, each furnished with a door, and the whole surrounded with evergreens. In the plan of the projection [H] the stairway [r] leads to the cellar, which is seven feet in the clear, and extends under the whole of the main building. These cellars are well lighted, having eight windows [ W, W], with ten lights t seven by nine glass. The windows, being hung with hinges on the upper 150 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. No.10 . Ground Plan, &c., of a Grammar School-House. side, and fastened with hooks and staples at the lower edge, may be opened by raising them intc a horizontal position, where they are fastened with hooks as when closed. With this arrangement, it is easy to keep the cellars well ven- tilated at all seasons. The openings for the admission of coal into the bins [0,0], one for anthracite, and the other for charcoal, are furnished with sheet- iron shutters, fastening on the' inside. Every school-house has, in the cellar, an abundant supply of good water, obtained from a fountain, or from a well, which is generally outside of the building, the water being brought in by a pump [P]. A supply of good water for a school-house should not be consid- ered merely as a convenience, but as absolutely necessary. The horizontal section of a furnace [F] shows merely the ground plan. The cold air passes through [] to the air-chamber, where it is warmed by the fires in [p, p], two cast-iron cylinders, fourteen inches in diameter. The evaporator []. The three rooms [C, D, F] are appropriated to the department for girls. They are easy of access to the pupils, who, ascending the broad flight of staiis, terminating at [B], can pass readily into their respective rooms. The course of instruction in the school occupying three years, the room [D] is appropriated to the studies for the first, [E] to those of the second, and [F] to the course for the third year. In each room there are three sizes of seats and desks, and their arrangement in all is uniform. The largest are on the back side of the room. The largest desks are four feet eight inches long, and twenty-two inches wide on the top; the middle size is two inches smaller, and the other is reduced in the same proportions. The largest seats are as high as common chairs, about seventeen inches, and the remaining sizes are reduced to correspond with the desks. The passages around the sides of the rooms vary from two to four feet wide, and those between the rows of desks, Irom eighteen to twenty-four inches. On the raised platforms [P, P, P, P] are the teachers' tables [d,d,d,d], covered with dark woolen cloth, and furnished with four drawers each. The registers [/,/,/,/] admit the warm air from the furnace, and the pipes [p,p, p] conduct it into the rooms in the upper story. The passage [i] leads into the back yard, which is ornamented with a variety of shrubbery. HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE. 157 O O JQ-CL O Q O O O f] l O O OO DO o O O O O r i run cm cm i i b o 'oo o o o o o o LUD LZZJ dm CHI C_~ o o o o o o F o o o o ! i ,TH I 1 C~] 00 'Q O O O 0~1T oo OO L OO oo o o No. 1G. Plan of the First Story of the High School. The door leading from the room [F] i? used only for teachers and visitors, except when the two departments assemble in the hall. In the room [C] the bays pursue the studies prescribed for the first year; the other rooms in this department are TH the next story. Pupils ascending from the area'fc], by two circular stairways, land on the broad space [a, c], from which, by a short flight of stairs, they reach [A], in the following cut, the floor of the upper story, which is sixteen feet in the clear. O O 00 00 00 i i cm i i i i O (; o O O O O O O O O Q O O O O O U 00 O O O O O O O O No. 17. Plan of the Second Story of the High School-House 158 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The room [B] is appropriated to the middle class, and [C] to the senior class. The arrangement of the seats and desks are the same as in the other rooms, except they are metafile being screwed to a frame not fastened to the floor, as shown in this cut. The cross partition [a] see cut No. 17 is com- posed of four very large doors, about fourteen feet square, bung with weights in such a manner that they maf be raised into the attic, thus throwing the whole upper story into one large hall an arrangement by which one room can be changed into three, and three into one, as the occasion may require. On all public occasions, such as Quarterly Examinations, and Annual Exhibitions, the rooms are thus thrown together, and the seats and desks turned so as to face the platform [P], in [E], the principal hall. Observation and experiment, relative to the modes of -warming the public school-rooms, have proved that very large stoves, eighteen inches in diameter, render the temperature of the rooms more uniform and pleasant, and that they are also more economical, both in regard to the amount of fuel consumed, and the amount of repairs required. It is a general principle, that a warming apparatus, containing a large quantity of fuel, undergoing a slow combustion, is better than one containing a small quantity of fuel, in a state of rapid com- bustion. The stoves in the small buildings, and the furnaces in the large ones, are constructed on this principle. In regard to the construction of furnaces for wanning public buildings or private dwellings, so much depends upon circumstances, that no specific plan can be given which would be successful in all cases* One familiar with the principles which regulate the motions of currents of air at different tempera- tures, can, with an ordinary degree of good judgment and mechanical skill, make a furnace in any place, where one can be made at all, that will accom- plish all which the laws of nature will permit. The following cut is intended to illustrate two plans for a furnace. No. 18. A Vertical Section of a Furnace In the first, the cold air is admitted at [], through the outside walls of the building, and descends in the direction described by the arrows, to [r], and thence rises to the top of the furnace, as shown by the arrows. At this place, the cold air diffuses itself over the whole upper surface, about eight feet by ten, and passes down between the double walls of the furnace, in the spaces [t, (], which extend all around the furnace, and rises from beneath, through a HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE. 159 large opening [A], into the air-chamber, where it is heated and conducted to the rooms by largp pipes, [/, h]. The object of this mode of taking in air is two-fold. In the first place, the constant currents of cold air, passing over the top of the furnace, keep that surface comparatively cool, and also keep the floors above the furnace cool, thus removing all danger of setting fire to the wood-work over the furnace. In the second place, as the inside walls are constantly becoming heated, and the currents of cold air, passing down on all sides of the walls, become ranh'ed by their radiation, and thus, as it were, take the heat from the outside of the inner walls, and bring it round into the air-chamber again, at Id]. This is not mere theory, but has been found to work well in practice. On this plan, the outside walls are kept so cool, that very little heat is wasted by radiation. In the second plan, the cold air is admitted as before; but, instead of ascending from [r] to the top of the furnace, it passes through a large opening, directly from [r], to [p,p,p], representing small piers, supporting the inside walls, and thence into the air-chamber at [b], and also up the spaces [/, t~\, to the top [s], from which the air warmed by coming up between the walls is taken into the rooms by separate registers, or is let into the sides of the pipes [ /, A]. By this plan, the air passes more rapidly through the air-chamber, and enters the rooms in larger quantities, but at a Imcer temperature. This is the better mode, if the furnace be properly constructed with large inlets and outlets for air, so that no parts become highly heated ; otherwise, ihe wood-work over the furnace will be in some danger of taking fire. The general defects in the construction of furnaces are : too small openings for the admission of cold air too small pipes for conveying the warm air in all horizontal and inclined directions and defective dampers in the perpendicular pipes. A frequent cause of failure in warming public buildings and private dwellings may be found in the ignorance and negligence of attendants. A single remark will close this report, which has been extended, perhaps too far by specific details a want of which is often complained of by me- chanics who are engaged in building school-houses. It is believed to be best, and, all things considered, cheapest, in the end, tc build very good school-houses to make their external appearance pleasan and attractive, and their internal arrangements comfortable and convenient- to keep them in first-rate order, well repaired, and always clean. The amount of damage done to school property in this city has uniformly been least in those houses in Mjhich the teachers have done most to keep ever; thing in very good order. The very appearance of school property well taker care of rebukes the spirit of mischief, and thus elevates the taste and char acter of the pupils. Respectfully submitted. N. BISHOP, Superintendent of Public Schools. PROVIDENCE, August, 1846. 160 ARSENAL DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE. PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN HARTFORD, CONN. Fig. 1. The above cut represents the front elevation of a new school-house erected in Arsenal District, in Hartford, after designs by Octavius Jordan, Architect. As originally planned there were to be two rooms, as shown in side elevation, (Fig. 3.) The largest (Fig. 2) room is forty-five feet long by twenty-five wide, with a recitation-room (C) fourteen feet by twelve, and two entries, one for boys (A) and one for girls, (B), each twelve feet by six, furnished with sink, nooks, &c. There are thirty-two desks, each for two pupils, with sixty-four chairs, (page 141, Fig. 2), and thirty-two chairs for young children, (Fig. 3, page 30.) The room is warmed by Mott's School Stove, (page 146,) and ven- tilated by flues in the walls, opening at the top and boltom of the room, which is fifteen feet high in the clear. The material is brick, and the cost $1800. Pig. 2. GROCND PLAN. f=* n D n n n n n n n D n n D D D D POOD a D n D D D D D anno n o n o nn o n o [T o l>U o LlUUU< nononono, U UUo[Jl n o n o n o nn o n o n o n UU U ULI U C IJ U SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 161 Fig. 3. SIDB ELEVATION. I it- 3 *< r CO c;a> p a B " 5 II n a c o 1 S-3L H-. ^Jj O f^ 3" S2. .go" 3 O CD -^O- P ^^ O (X CD 1 PLAN OF SOUTH DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE. 163 PLANS OF THE SOUTH DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN THE CITY OF HARTFORD. The house, illustrated in Figs. 1, 2, 3,4, 5, and 6, was erected in 1851, after plans by E. D. Tiffany, Esq., at an expense, including lot, inclosure, building, and furniture, of $13,000. The location is both central and retired, on the east side of Wadsworth street, having a front of 320 feet, and depth of 150, and is rendered surpassingly attractive and beautiful by a number of fine old majestic oaks and graceful elms. The building is of br'ek, 70 fret by 58, exclusive of the towers, and is three stories high, and was designed to accommodate 450 pupils but owing to the attraction of the house and popularity < f the school, provision has been made in it for 500 pupils classified into five departments. FIG. 2. PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR. ifl oooooooo oooooooo oooooooo oooooooo oooooooo oooooooo oooooooo oooooooo Ig D'i I II DODDD DDDDD DDDDD DDDDO DDDDD DDDDD DDDDD K, DDODD I A Girls' entrance. B Boys' do. C Primary No. 1 . Seated with chairs. (Fig. 5.) D Primary No. 2. Seated as No. 1. E E Clothes rooms for Upper Department. F F Culver's Furnaces in basement. G Coal-room, extending under Primary No. 1. II Girls' passage to play ground. S S Stairs. c Clothes room for boys. d Clothes room for girls. g Stairs to Furnaces, &c. 1 1 Teacher's table. r Registers for heated air. v Flues for ventilation surmounted by Emerson's Ejector. 164 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FIG. 3. PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR. I Primary Xo. 3. Seat and desk for two pupils. (Fig. 6.) K Intermediate School seat and desk for one pupil. i Clothes room for boys. k Clothes room for girls. FIG. 5. PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR. PLAN OF SOUTH DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE. 165 FIG. 4. PLAN OF THIRD FLOOR. M Upper Department, seats and desks for two pupils. (Fig. 6.) L L Library and Apparatus. FIG. 6. HARTFORD SCHOOL DESK. JQQ SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE, HARTFORD, CONN. The Public High School-House of Hartford was built after more than ordinary search for the best plan, (a committee having visited Boston, Lowell, Salem, Newburyport, Worcester, Providence, and Middletown, for this purpose,) under the constant oversight of a prudent, practical and intelligent building committee, and with due regard to a wise economy. , The committee were limited in their expenditure for lot, building, and fixtures, to $12,000 ; and when it was ascertained that a suitable building could not be constructed for that sum, individuals on the committee immediately contributed $2,400 out of their own pockets to complete the house with the latest improvements. The committee have now the satisfaction of knowing that their contributions and personal oversight have been mainly instrumental in erecting and furnishing the most complete structure of the kind in New England, when the aggregate cost is taken into consideration. The High School is designed for both males and females, and the arrange- ments of the buildings, and the grounds, are made with reference to the separa- tion of the sexes, so far as this is desirable in the same school. The lot on which the building stands is at the corner of Asylum and Ann streets, and is at once central, and large enough for the appropriate yards. The yards are separated by a close and substantial board fence, and the grounds are well laid out and properly inclosed ; they will also soon be planted with trees and shrubbery. The building is of brick, three" stories high, upon a firm stone basement. Its dimensions aie 50 by 75 feet. The basement is 13 feet in the clear, six feet of which are above the level of the yard. This part of the build- ing is occupied hyfurnac.es, coal bins, sinks, pumps, entrance rooms, &c. At one end, and on two opposite sides of the building, a stair case eleven feet in width extends from each of the two entrance rooms, to the upper story, with spacious landings on the first and second floors. Two rooms, each 1 1 by 14 feet, are be- tween the stair cases, the one on the first floor being used for a front entry to the building, and the one on the second floor being appropriated to the Library and Apparatus. Two closets, eleven by four feet on the first floor, and imme- diately beneath the stair cases, receive the outer garments, umbrellas, &c., of the teachers. An aLsle of four feet four inches in width extends between the desks and outer walls of the rooms, and between every two ranges of desks is an aisle of two feet four inches in width. An aisle of eight feet in width passes through the mjddle of the rooms, parallel to the narrower passages. A space of five feet in width is likewise Deserved between the remote seats in the ranges and the partition wall of the rooms. Around the sides of the rooms, tastefully con- structed settees are placed for occasional recitations, and for the accommodation of yisiters, and in the upper room for the use of the pupils of the room below, during the opening and closing exercises of the school. The pupils, when seated, face the teachers' desks and platforms,which occupy the space between the entrance doors of each room. A blackboard, or black plaster surface, forty feet long, and five broad, ex- tends between the doors leading to the recitation rooms, which are also lined with a continuous blackboard. There is also a blackboard extending the entire length of the teachers' platform in the lower room, and two of smaller di- mensions in the room above, a part of the space being occupied by the folding doors leading to the library and apparatus room. Twenty chairs,' of small di- ions and sixteen inches in height, are placed around each recitation room, hirteen inches apart and seven inches from the walls, and securely fastened to the floor. A clock, with a circular gilt frame and eighteen-inch dial plate, is PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL HARTFORD. 167 placed over the teachers' platform in each school room, in full view of the pupils. A small bell is also placed above the teachers' platform in the lower room, with a wire attached, passing to the desk of the Principal, in the room above, by which the time of recesses, change of recitation classes, &c., are signified to the members of the lower rooms. The school-rooms in the first and second stories are 50 feet square, and 13 feet in height to each of which, two recitation rooms 12 by 23 feet are attached. The large rooms are furnished with " Kimball's improved School Chairs and Desks," placed in six ranges, extending back from the teachers' platforms, ten esks forming a range, and two chairs attached to each desk, furnishing accom- odations in each room for 120 pupils 60 of either sex. Ample room yet emains in front of these ranges to increase the number of desks when the wants of the school demand them. The desks are four feet in length and one -foot four inches in breadth, constructed of cherry, oiled and varnished. The moderately inclined tops arejixcd to the end supporters, and the openings for books are in front of the pupils. Glass inkstands are inserted in the tops of the di-'sks, and the ink protected from dust and the action of the atmosphere by mahogany covers turning on pivots. The chairs are constructed with seats (>f basswood, hollowed, and backs of cherry, moulded both to add beauty to the fonn of the chair, and to afford support and comfort to the occupants. All < r |Jol i o n a nn o n a i ol olJoLJoMoLJo Fig. 4 PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR. PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL, HARTFORD. ^73 Figs. 5 and 6. PLANS EXHIBITING MODS OF VENTILATION. Fig. 5. Transverse section exhibiting the manner in which the ventiducts or hot air flues are carried up on the inside of the walls, under the roof, till they discharge into the Stationary Top or Ejector. Fig. 6. Lateral section of the ventiducts or foul air flues, showing the man- ner in which the fl ues are packed together and carried up separately from the floor of each room until they discharge into the common Ejector. The cut does not represent properly the manner in which the flues are carried under and out of the roof. Fig. 2. Each desk is fitted up with a glass ink-well (Fig. 2,) set firmly into the desk, and covered with alid. The ink-well may be set into a cast iron box (Fig. 3,) having a cover ; the box being let in and screwed to the desk, and the ink-well being removable for convenience in filling, cleaning, and emptying in cold weather. 1Y4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN BOSTON. The system of public schools in Boston originated in a vote of the town, in 1642, by which " Brother Philemon Purmont was entreated to be- come school-master for the teaching and nurturing of children with us," and the first records of the town contain a sum voted for the " maintenance of a free school-master." By the Act of the General Court passed 1647, " to the end that learning should not be buried in the graves of our fore- fathers," every town having one hundred householders was required to maintain a " free grammar school ; the master whereof being able to in- struct youth so far as they may be fitted for the university." In that year the present Latin School was founded, but was known as the Gram- mar School till 1713, when it took the name of the South Latin School, a new Grammar school having been established in that year, called the North Latin School, and now known as the Eliot school. In 1684, a class of free schools called writing schools were founded, to teach children to " read and write." Of this class there were four in 1785. In 1789, the schools were remodeled. One (the North) of the Latin Schools were discontinued, and "reading schools" (now known as depart- ments under the Grammar master) were established in separate depart- ments from the " writing schools ;" and the whole placed under the direction of a School Committee chosen annually by the town. Previous to this, the schools were under the inspection of the Selectmen, " and of such gentlemen of liberal education, together with the reverend minis- ters" as should be appointed for the purpose. In 1812, a separate school for colored children was established, and called the Smith School. In 1818, the School Committee were instructed by a vote of the town to appoint three persons from each ward, whose duty it was made collec- tively, to provide instruction for children between the ages of four and seven years, out of the sum of $5000, appropriated for the purpose for that year. This was the origin of the Primary Schools of Boston, and of this class of schools in this country. Previous to this date, no child could be sent to the Grammar schools, until he could read the English language. In 1821 the English High School for boys was begun, and its success was such, as to lead to the establishment in 1825 of the High School for girls. This last school was discontinued in a few years. Its place is in part supplied by allowing the girls to remain two years longer than the boys in the Grammar school. But the fact that near two-thirds of all the scholars in the private schools are females, shows that there is- a defi- ciency in the system of public schools in reference to female education. In 1828 ten schools, one in each primary district, were designated te receive children who were over seven years, and were not prepared for the Grammar schools. In 1851, after repeated recommendations of the School Commitee, the City Council authorized that body to elect a Superintendent of Pub- lic Schools, whose duty it is made, " to study the school system, and the condition of the schools ;" "to keep himself acquainted with the progess of instruction and discipline in other places, in order to suggest appropri- ate means for the advancement of Public Schools in this city ;" " to ex- amine the schools semi-annually, and report to the Board respecting them;" "to consult with the different bodies, who have control of the building and altering school-houses, and with alt those through whom, either directly or indirectly, the school money is expended, that there may result more uniformity in their plans, and more economy in their expenditures." To this office Nathan Bishop, Esq., was elected in May, 1851, and has already signalized his administration by suggesting many practical improvements which have been adopted by the ^committee. PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN BOSTON. j7g All of the Public Schools of the city are under the care and superin- tendence of a Board or Committee, consisting of the Mayor, the Presi- dent of Common Council, and twenty-four other persons, annually elected, two for each ward. The Board employs a Superintendent, to act under their control and direction, at a salary of twenty-five hundred dollars; a Primary School Committee, to take particular charge of the Primary Schools; a commit- tee of five members on the Latin and English High School; a com- mittee of three members on each Grammar School, arid a committee on school-houses, also of three members. The teachers are elected an- nually by the Board, and their salaries are fixed for the year. The system now (1854) embraces 196 Primary Schools. 22 Grammar Schools, 1 English High School. 1 Latin School, and 1 Normal School. The Primary Schools were instituted in 1818. and now include about 12,000 children, over 4 and under 8 years of age. under female teachers. In these schools, the alphabet, pronouncing and spelling words, numera- tion and combination of numbers, the stops and marks, mental arith- metic, and reading are attended to. The cost of these schools, in 1853, for the salaries of teachers, was $62508.82, or $5.45 per scholar; for inci- dental expenses, $22231.46, or $1.85 per scholar; or $7.31) per scholar, exclusive of expenditures for school- houses. There are at present 22 Grammar Schools, (including three independ- ent schools in the same building, and bearing the same name with other schools,) with 10.237 scholars. These schools are not at present organ- ized on a uniform plan; but efforts are making to constitute each Gram- mar School of about 700 to 800 children, divided into twelve or thirteen equal divisions, of about sixty pupils each, and each division into four .large classes. Each school is to be under the charge of one principal teacher, with a requsite number of assistants, one to each room. The course of instruction embraces the common branches of an English edu- cation. In these schools the boys remain until they are 15 years of age, or until they pass to the English, High, or Latin School. Girls can remain till they are seventeen. In 1852-3. the cost of the Grammar Schools, for salaries arid teachers, was $130.531.18, or $12.63 per, scholar; $35.849.82 for incidental expenses ; or $3.47 per scholar; or $16.10 per scholar, exclusive of the expenditures on school-houses. The English High School, was instituted in 1821, and receives pupils who can pass a strict examination in spelling, reading, writing, arith- metic, English grammar, modern geography, and the history of the United States. The course of study embraces three years, and the privilege of remaining one year longer. It embraces ancient geography, general history, algebra, book-keeping, rhetoric, moral philosophy, natural theol- ogy, evidences of Christianity, political economy, drawing, English lan- guage, and literature French and Spanish languages, astronomy, higher mathematics, and their applications to surveying, engineering, &c. The Latin School was instituted in 1635, and receives boys who have attained the age often years, and takes them through a course of studies occupying six years, preparatory to entering the most respectable col- lege. It includes the English, as well as the Latin and Greek languages. The Normal School was instituted in 1852, with the design of furnishing to those pupils who have passed through the usual course of study at the grammar schools for girls, and other girls' schools in the city, an opportu- nity of qualifying themselves in the best manner for the duties of teachers. Candidates must be over 16. and not more than 19 years of age. The school embraces two departments one consisting of pupils preparing themselves to be teachers, and the other a model school, composed of children of the age and qualification of pupils in the fourth classes ot the Grammar Schools. The course of study embraces two years. j^g SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF A PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. Three new Primary School-houses were erected in Boston, in 1847, under the direction of, and on plans furnished by, JOSEPH W. INGRAHAM, Esq., Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Primary School Board, and Chairman of their Committee on School-houses. Mr. Ingraham is also a member of the Massachusetts Board of Education. He has devoted himself assiduously, and without compensation, for upwards of twenty-five years, to the Primary Schools of Boston, and the cause of Education generally ; and no one is better acquainted than he with what the wants and conveniences of both pupils and teachers require in edifices for this class of schools. The following very minute description and plans were kindly furnished, on appli- cation, by him. The plans are copied from those appended to his Address at the Dedication (March 27, 1848) of one of the School-houses, that in Sheafe street. They will be found worthy the attention of all who are inter- ested in school architecture. The distinguished Secretary of the Massachu- setts Board of Education, (Mr. Mann,) who was present at the dedication of this building, in his remarks at the subsequent dedication of another School-house in Boston, referred to this as " perfect of its kind," and said it " might well be called the model School-house of the State, and in School- houses Massachusetts was a model for the world." The teachers in one of these buildings, after having occupied their rooms for five months, say they "cannot imagine any improvement that can be made." The City of Boston is so compact, and land is so very expensive, that it is difficult to procure sufficient space for playgrounds and other conveniences ; but the Schoolhouses erected during the past year, (1847,) are better pro- vided for, in this respect, than any others in the City. There were three Schoolhouses erected during the year 1847, on plans devised and furnished by Mr. Ingraham, the Chairman of the Primary School Committee on Schoolhouses. The general features of each are the same, differing only in consequence of the size and location of the lots on which they are erected. These Schoolhonses are believed to possess greater conveniences, for the comfort and happiness of both teachers and scholars, than any others ever before constructed. In planning them, several objects were had in view. Among these, were, The desire to allow to each scholar sufficient space, and have the rooms perfectly heated and ventilated, so that no one should suffer from want of room, or comfortable and pure air : To have all the light in the Schoolrooms come in from one side, and that at the backs of the scholars, to prevent the detrimental effects of cross-lights, which are very injurious to the eyes of young children when in a forming state : To give suitable space, on the walls, for the display of maps, charts, pic- tures, &c., and provide sufficient recitation-rooms, closets, cabinets, and other necessary conveniences : To have a separate entrance for each school : To so arrange the usual out-door conveniences, that the scholars should not have to go out of doors in stormy weather, or down stairs, to gain access to them, and at the same time, by removing them from the play-ground, to obviate the objections which have been made, by some teachers, to having both sexes m the play-ground at the same time, during the recesses : PRIMARY SC HOOL-HOU8E 177 INGRAHAM PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. The Schoolhouse, to which the following description and plans more par- ticularly refer, is situated in Sheafe street, at the north part of the City, and on the slope of Copp's Hill, famed in our Revolutionary history. It occupies a space of twenty-six by fifty-three feet, exclusive of the play-ground in front, between it and the street, which is sixteen by fifty-three feet. This front is hardly long enough. Sixty feet would have been much better. The main building is twenty-six by forty-four feet ; and there are projections at each end, one on the west, four and a half by sixteen and a half feet, contain- ing the privies, and one at the east end, three and a half by twenty-one and a half feet, in which is the passage from the lower schoolroom to the play- ground. The building is three stories in height. Each story contains a Schoolroom, Recitation-rooms, Closets, Entries, and Privies, and is finished twelve feet high, in the clear. Each Schoolroom is lighted by four windows, which are all on one side. The first floor is set eighteen inches above the ground at the front of the building. The Cellar is finished seven and a half feet high, in the clear ; and its floor is on a level with the surface of the ground at the back of the building, where is the entrance-door to the first story. The Schoolrooms in the first and second stories are thirty feet in length, by twenty-two feet and four inches in width, and contain six hundred and seventy square feet of floor. That in the third story is thirty-two feet in length, by twenty-two feet and nine inches in breadth, and contains seven hundred and thirty square feet of floor. Thus allowing from ten to twelve or thirteen square feet of floor, and one hundred and fifty cubic feet of air, to each scholar. The following diagram will show the arrangement of the ground-floor, with the Play-ground in front. 12 Scale 16 feet to the inch. J7Q SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The following references will apply to the ground-plan of each of the three stories. 1, Entrance to First Story, by a door under the window W, the back part of the building being eight feet lower tha| the front. 2 3, Entrance-doors to the Second and Third Stones. A, A, A, Stairs to First Story, from the Entrance-door 1. B,' Blinds in Boys' Privies. F Fireplace or Furnace-flue, or Stove, when one is used instead of a Furnace. G', G, Entrance-gates to Second and Third Stories. The Iron Fence extends the whok length of the front on the street, broken only by these two gates. R, R, Recitation-rooms, or spaces used for that purpose. In ihe first story, that on the right being the entrance-passage to the schoolroom, and that on the left, the passage to the Second Story. S, S, S, S, Large Slates, measuring four by two and a half feet, affixed to the walls, instead of Blackboards. T, T, T, Trees in Play-ground. That near the fence, is an old horse-chestnut tree. U, Umbrella stands. The place of those of the second story only are shown. In the other stories, they are also in the entrance-passages. W, W, Windows. a, Stairs to Second Story. b, b, b, In second story, Entry; and place for Boys' Clothes-hooks, also used as a Recitation-room. In third story, place for Clothes-hooks. c, In second story, Door into the Recitation-room where are the Sink and Girls' Clothes-hooks. In third story, Door into Recitation-room where is the Brush Closet and entrance to Girls' Privy. d, d, d, In second story, Girls' Clothes-hooks. e, Sinks. /, Privy for Girls. g, Privy for Boys. h, Trough in ditto. , i, Space between the walls of the Privies and main building, for more perfect ven- tilation, and cutting off of any unpleasant odor. [This space is here too much con- tracted, on account of the want of room. It would be much better, if greatly increased.] k, Entrance-door to Schoolroom, through which, only, scholars are allowed to enter. In third story, the passage from the stairs to the Entrance-door is through the Recita- tion-room. /, Teachers' Platforms, six feet wide and twelve feet long, raised seven inches from the floors. m, Teachers' Tables. n, Ventiduct. That for each room is in the centre of that room. These are better shown in the diagram representing the Ventilating arrangement, (p. 183.) o, o, Close_ts, in the vacant spaces on the sides of the Ventiducts, in the First and Second Stories. In first story, they are on each side of the Ventiduct ; in second story only on one side. In the third story, there are of course none. See the diagram of the Ventilating arrangement, (p. 183.) p,p, Ventiducts for other rooms. In plan of second story, p shows the position of the Ventiduct for first story. In third story plan, p p show the positions of those for both the lower stories. q, q, q, Childrens' chairs, arranged in the second story. Their form is represented in another diagram, (p. 181.) r, s, t, Hot-air Flues from the Furnace, Cold-air Flues if Stoves are used, and Smoke Flues. These will be better understood by a reference to the diagram explanatory of the Chimney Pier, (p. 182.) u, w, Cabinets for Minerals, Shells, and other objects of Natural History or Curiosity. , Door of Recitation-room. In first story, this door leads to the entry in which are the Sink, Brush-Closet, entrance to the Privies, and passage to Second Story. In second story, it leads to the Recitation-room where is the Teacher's Press-closet ; and in the third story, to that in which are the Sink, entrance to the Privies, and Stairs to the Attic. it, Teacher's Press-closet, fitted with shelves and brass clothes-hooks. x, Closet for Brooms, Brushes, Coalhods, &c. That for the first story is under the Second- Story stairs. a, a, a, Stairs to the Third Story. b, b. Doors connecting First and Second, and Second and Third Stories. f, Place for Fountain, in the centre of the Play-ground. g, g. g, Grass-plats, or Flower-beds. p, Passage from the First-Story Schoolroom to the Play-ground. The Plan of the second story, on the next page, is drawn on a larger scale, for greater convenience in showing all the arrangements. The references on this diagram are more copious and minute than on either of the others. PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 179 180 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE The building fronts nearly N. N. E., and of course all the light comes into the Schoolrooms from the North. At the same time, in order to secure the benefit of the winds that prevail in Summer, and the admission of " a streak of sunshine," which adds so much to the cheerfulness of any room, and particularly of a schoolroom, there are windows in the back or southerly wall, opening into the recitation-rooms or entries, through which, and the entrance-doors, the sunlight finds its way into each schoolroom. The Nea- politan proverb, " Where the sun does not come, the physician must," has not been lost sight of; though it must be confessed that we have not been able to pay so much attention to it as would be desirable. The next diagram, which is_on the same scale with the first, will show the arrangement of the third story, which differs from the first and second in having a larger schoolroom, and more space for recitation-rooms ; less space being occupied for stairways than in the other stories. The partitions at the ends are set one foot each way nearer to the ends of the building, making the Schoolroom thirty-two feet in length, while the others are only thirty. Scale 16 feet to the inch. It will be seen, that the ends of the building are cut off from the school- rooms, by entries, stairways, recitation-rooms, &c., and the back and end walls are left blank, for convenience in displaying Maps, Charts, Pictures, &c., and for the large Slates, used instead of Blackboards. As ample provision, as was practicable, has been made for recitation-rooms, closets, and other necessary conveniences. It will be seen, from the Plans of the different Stories, that the Entrance- door (k) to each Schoolroom is in that part of the partition nearest to the back walls ; so that, on entering the room, the Teacher's Platform is directly before the scholar or visiter. This Platform is six feet wide and twelve feet long, and is raised seven inches above the floor, that being a sufficient height to give the Teacher a full view of the whole school. In the transverse-sec- tional elevation, (p. 184.) the raised Platform is shown at P. On this Platform, is a Table, (m,) instead of a Desk, that being the more convenient article for the Teacher's use. On it, are constantly kept, in full view of the scholars, THE LA.WS OF THE SCHOOL, the Holy Bible, the Rule and Guide of Life, the Moral and Religious Law; the Dictionary, the Law of Language, the Authority for Orthography and Orthoepy ; and the Rules and Regulations of the Committee. These should be always on every ieacher's table or desk, and should be frequently appealed to. On this Table, also, are the Record Book of the School, Ink-standish, Table Bell, and other necessary articles. PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 181 In front of the Teacher's Platform, and facing it, ar- ranged in a semi-circular form, as shown at q q q, in the Plan of the Second Story, are the Seats for the schol- ars. These are comfortable and convenient Arm-chairs, of which the annexed diagram shows the form. Each has a rack at the side (A) for convenience in holding the books or slates of the scholars. These chairs were the contrivance of Mr. Ingraham, and were introduced by him into the Primary Schools, in 1842, since which time, the Primary School Board have recommended their introduction into all their schools, in preference to any other seats, and about one hundred and thirty of the one hundred and sixty schools are now supplied with them. They are not fastened to the floor, but can be moved whenever necessary ; and this is found to be a great conve- nience, and productive of no disadvantage. They have been strongly recom- mended by the Committees on School and Philosophical Apparatus, at the Exhibitions of the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics' Association, in 1844 and 1847, and premiums were awarded for them in both those years. The following diagram is an elevation of the Front wall of the Schoolroom, as seen from the Teacher's Platform. It is on the same scale with the pre- ceding Plan of the Second Story, eight feet to the inch. Each Schoolroom is lighted by lour windows ; and in the central pier, be- tween the windows, are the Cold-air and Chimney Flues, or the Furnace Flues. The Fire-place, or Furnace Flue, is represented at F, as in the pre- ceding Plans of the different Stories. The arrangement of the Flues, in this pier, will be seen in the next diagram. On the mantel-piece, over the Furnace Flue, is, in one room, a Vase of Na- tive Grasses, or 'Flowers, and in the others, ornamental Statues, or Statuettes, furnished by the Teachers. Above this, suspended on the pier, is the Clock. Between the other windows, are Cabinets, for the reception of Minerals, Shells, and other objects of Natural History or Curiosity. Their location is seen at u u, in the Plans of the respective Stories. There are two of these Cabinets in each Schoolroom, between the windows, above the skirting, and as high as the windows, with double sash-doors, of cherry-wood, hung with brass hinges, fastened with thumb-slides and locks, and fitted with rosewood knobs. There are twelve shelves in each, six of them being inclined, with narrow ledges on each, to prevent the specimens from rolling off. Immedi- ately below them are small Closets, with four shelves in each, and double doors, hung and fastened in the same manner as the sash doors. The Blinds of the Second Story, represented in this diagram, are framed, two parts to each window, and are hung with weights and pulleys, in the same manner as the window sashes. They run up above 'the tops of the windows, and behind the skirting of the next story above, in close boxes, and 182 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. have rings on the bottom rails, to draw them down. In this elevation, they are shown in different positions. The windows in the First Story are fitted with Venetian Blinds, and those in the Third Story with Inside Shutter-Blinds. All the window-stools are wide, and contain Vases of Native Grasses, or Flowers. Particular attention has been given to the mode of Heating and Ventilating these buildings ; and provision has been made for a copious and constant sup- ply of fresh air, from out-of-doors, which is so introduced, that it is suffi- ciently warmed before it enters the Schoolrooms. The Sheafe-street building is heated by one of Chilson's largest-sized Fur- naces , though it was originally constructed with a view to using Dr. Clark's excellent Ventilating Stoves, as in the other two buildings.* The accompanying diagram shows the ar- rangement of the Cold-air and Smoke Flues, as arranged for the Stoves. It will be well to examine it in connection with the transverse- sectional elevation, (p. 184,) and the Floor Plans of the different Stories, (pp. 177, 179, 180.) 1,2,3, Floorings of the First, Second, and Third Stories. 4, Roof. CA, Cold-air Flue for First Story, which deliv- ers the air from without, under the Stove, as shown at C A, in the transverse-section, (p. 184,) and at F, in the floor-plans. r, r, Cold-air Flue for Second Story, which empties into the box under the Stove, at CA, in the Second Story of the transverse-sectional elevation. It cor- responds to r, in the Floor Plans of the first and second stories. t,t, Cold-air Flue for Third Story, which empties into the box CA, under the Stove of that Story, as seen in the transverse-sectional elevation, and at F, in the Floor Plan. It corresponds to t, in the Floor Plans. These Cold-air Ducts are twelve by eighteen inches, inside, and are smoothly plastered, through- out. This is hardly large enougn, however. s, s, Smoke Flues. That of First Story corre- sponds to s, in the floor plan ofjirst story, and to r, in those of the second and third. That of Second Story corresponds to s, in second-story Plan, and to t, in third-story Plan. That of Third Story cor- responds to s, on the Plan of that Story. These Smoke Flues are eight inches square, in- side, and are smoothly plastered, throughout. That of each Story commences in the centre of the pier in the room to which it belongs. [The pier in which these Cold-air Ducts and Smoke Flues are placed, is wider than the piers be- tween the other windows, in order to allow sufficient width to the Ducts. It must be at least six feet.] It will be seen, from the transverse-sectional elevation, (p. 184,) (the Smoke Flue in which is represented as continuous, it not being prac- ticable to show the bends,) as well as from the Plans of each Story, that the arrangements I for Ventilation are directly opposite the Chim- ney Flues. The Ventiducts are contained in the projecting pier back of the Teachers' Scale 10 feet to the inch. Platforms and Tables shown at /, m, in the Floor Plans. It has already been stated, that particular attention has been paid to the * Descriptions and Plans of this Furnace and Stove will be found on page Ibo PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 183 mode of Ventilation ; and it is believed that the system, if not perfect, is better adapted to its purpose than any other. The Ventiduct for each room is of sufficient size for the room ; and the three are arranged as shown in the next diagram. It will be seen, that the Ventiduct for each room is in the centre of the pier, thus avoiding any unsymmetrical or one-sided (and of course unsightly) appearance. 1 , 2, 3, 4, Floorings of the First, Second, and Third Stories, and Attic. 5, Roof. c, c, c, Ventiduct of First Story, commencing in the centre of the pier. Between the ceiling of this room and the floor of the Second Story, this flue is turned to the left, and then continues in a straight line to the Attic, where it contracts and empties into the Ventilator V, on the Roof. d, d, d, Ventiduct of Second Story, also commenc- ing in the centre of the pier, and turning to the right, between the ceiling of the Second and floor of the Third Story, whence it is continued to the Attic, and empties into the Ventilator V. e, e, Ventiduct of Third Story, also emptying into V. These Ventiducts are made of thoroughly sea- soned pine boards, smooth on the inside, and put together with two-inch screws. Each, as will be seen, is placed in the centre of the room to which it belongs. They are kept entirely separate from each other, through their whole length, from their bases to the point where they are discharged into the Ventilators on the Roof. Each is sixteen inches square inside, through its whole length to the Attic, where, as will be seen by the diagram, each is made narrower as it approaches its termination, till it is only eight inches in width, on the front, the three together measuring twenty-five inches, the diame- ter of the base of the Ventilator on the roof. As they are contracted, however, in this direction, they are gradually enlarged from back to front, so that each is increased from sixteen to twenty-four inches, the three together then forming a square of twenty- five inches, and fitting the base of the Ventilator into which they are discharged. The increase in this direction will be better seen in the Elevation on p. 184, where V V represents one Ventiduct, continued from the lower floor to the Ventilator. V, Ventilator, on the Roof, into which the three Ventiducts from the schoolrooms are discharged. This is twenty-five inches in diameter.* v, v, Registers, to regulate the draught of air through the Ventiducts. There are two of these in each Ventiduct, one at the bottom, to carry off the lower and heavier stratum of foul air, which always settles near the floor ; and the other near the ceiling of the room, for the escape of the lighter impure air, which ascends with the heat to the top of the room. Each of these Registers has a swivel- blind, fitted with a stay-rod, and may be easily opened or closed by the Teacher. o, o, Closets. The Ventiduct of each Story being in the centre of the projecting pier, affords room for Closets, on each side in the First Story, and on one side in the Second Story, as shown at o o. There are four in the First Story, two above and two be- low the wainscot. In the Second Story, there are two only, one above and the other below the wain- scot ; the other side of the pier being occupied by the Ventiduct of the First Story. In the Third Story there are of course none. Scale 10 feet to the inch. * A description, and larger plans, of this Ventilator, are given on page 144. 184 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 1,2,3,4, Floor- ings of the First Second,andThird, Stories, and the Attic. C, The Cellar. C A, Cold-air Boxes, opening under the btoves. S, Smoke Flue. P, Teachers' Platforms. V, Ventiduct, emptying into the Ventilator on the Roof. v, v, Ventiduct Registers. V, Ventilator. Scale 10 feet to the Inch. PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 185 This plan of arranging the Heating and Ventilating apparatus has been adopted by the Committee on Ventilation of the Grammar School Board ;* but as their plans and diagrams were taken from Mr. Ingraham's first draughts, before his final arrangement was decided upon, they are not so complete as these. The preceding diagram gives a transverse-sectional elevation of the building. It has already been stated, that the children are seated with their backs to the light, and their faces towards the Teacher's Table and the wall above and on either side of it. On this wall, and also on the two end walls, (as shown in the transverse-section,) are suspended Maps, Charts, and Pictures, not only for ornament, but for the communication of instruction. Vases of Flow- ers and Native Grasses ornament the window-stools and the Teachers' Tables ; and Statuettes and other useful ornaments and decorations are placed in vari- ous parts of the rooms : so that whatever meets the eyes of the children is intended to convey useful and pleasing impressions, encouraging and gratify- ing the love of the beautiful, and combining the useful with the agreeable. The Cabinets of Minerals, Shells, and other objects of Natural History and Curiosity, add much to the interest and beauty of , the rooms. On the back wall, on either side of the Teacher's Platform, at S S S S, are four large Slates, in cherry-wood frames, each two and a half by four feet, used instead of Blackboards. These Slates are far preferable to the best Blackboards, and cost about the same as common ones. The Teachers greatly prefer them to Blackboards. In using them, slate pencils are of course employed, instead of chalk or crayons, and thus the dust and dirt of the chalk or crayons, which is not only disagreeable to the senses, but deleterious to health, by being drawn into the lungs, are avoided. These Slates may be procured in Boston, of A. Wilbur. Each School has convenient Recitation-rooms ; though, in consequence of the space occupied by the stairs to the Second and Third Stories, the lower Story is not so conveniently accommodated, in this respect, as could be de- sired. It has, however, two good Entries, which are used for this purpose. In the Second and Third' Stories, there are three of these rooms, of which much use is made. Their location is shown in the Floor Plans. In these ante-rooms, are Closets for Brooms, Brushes, and other necessary articles of that description, and also Press-closets, furnished with shelves and brass clothes-hooks, for the Teachers' private use. In these, also, are Sinks, furnished with drawers and cupboards, pails, basins and ewers, mugs, &c. Pipes leading from the Sinks, convey the waste water into the Vaults ; and in a short time, the waters of Lake Cochituate will be led into each Story. Each School has its own separate entrance ; so that they will not interfere with each other. And each is provided with sufficient conveniences in its entry, for hanging the clothing of the pupils, thus avoiding the necessity of its ever being brought into the Schoolroom. Each has also two Umbrella- stands in its entry. In the Cellar, are placed the Furnace, and necessary conveniences attached to it, with Bins for coal and wood. Also two Rain-water Butts, one at each end, which receive all the water from the Roofs. Being connected with each other, by leaden pipes, under ground, the water in both stands at the same level ; and a pipe, leading from the top of one of them into the Vault, prevents their ever running over. The Cellar is paved with brick, and is convenient for a play-room, when the weather is too stormy for the children to go out of doors at recess-time. Instead of having the usual out-door conveniences in the yard, they are here connected with the entries of the respective schoolrooms, so that no child has to go into the open air, except for play in recess-time, or to go * See a notice of their plans on page 153. 186 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. home. This is considered a very great convenience, and a matter of the highest importance. o, a, Surface of tne wator in. the Sesspool. 6, Outlet to the common sewer. c, c, Surface of the ground outside the building. d, d, Floors of First Story, of stone. e, e, Floors of Second Story. f, f, Floors of Third Story. g, g, Attic. 1,2,3, Seats and Wells of First, Sccond,and Third, Stories. V, V, V, Venti- duct, ten inches square inside, ex- tending from with- in one foot of the surface of the water in the Sess- pool, to the Ven- tilator on the roof. Its sides are repre- sented by the dot- ted lines Scale 10 feet to the inch. The preceding transverse-section will show the peculiar arrangement of the Privies to the different stories, and the manner in which all unpleasant conse- quences or inconveniences are, it is believed, effectually guarded against. PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOTJSE, BOSTON. 187 By the Plans of the different Stories, it will be seen, that the Privies are in a Projection on the western end of the building, the wall of which is sepa^ rated from that of the main building, by the space i i, this space being four inches between the walls, and extending from the floor of the First Story to the Attic. The doors leading from the entries are kept closed, by strong springs; and at B, in the southern wall, is a Blind, through which the air constantly passes into this space, and up to the Attic, whence it is conveyed in a tight box to the Ventilator on the Roof. Except in very cold or stormy weather, the window in the northern side is kept open, (the outer blinds be- ing closed,) and thus the whole of the Projection is cut off from the main building by external air. The space between the Projection and the main building is not, however, so great as it would have been made, had there been more room. It will be seen, that there is a distinct Well to each Privy, separated from the others by a brick wall ending below the surface of the water in the sesspool. Of course, the only odor that can possibly come into either of the apartments, must come from the well of that apartment, there being no com- munication with any other, except through the water. And as every time it rains, or water is thrown in from the sinks, the water in the sesspool will be changed, and washed into the common sewer, it would seem that no danger of unpleasant odor need be feared. When the City water is carried to every floor of the building, the conveniences for frequently washing out the sesspool will be greatly increased. There are two apartments on each floor ; one for the girls, at/, and anoth- er for the boys, at g. In the latter, is a trough, (A,) with a sesspool, and pipe leading into the well, under the seat. There is no window in the boys' apartment, but merely the blind, B, which extends from the floor to the ceil- ing. The girls' apartment, being in the front part of the Projection, is pro- vided with a window similar to the others, and outside blinds. Each apartment is fitted with pine risers, seats, and covers. The covers are hung with stout duck or India-rubber cloth, instead of metal hinges, which would be liable to corrode, and are so arranged that they will fall of themselves, when left. The edges of the cloth are covered with narrow slats. There is a box for paper in each apartment. The whole finish is equal to that of any other part of the building. The interior plastering of all the walls of the building is hard-finished, suitably for being painted. All the Rooms, Entries, Stairways, and Privies, are skirted up as high as the window-stools, with narrow matched beaded lining, gauged to a width not exceeding seven inches, and set perpendicularly. The interior wood-work of the lower Schoolroom, as well as the interior of all the Closets and Cabinets, is painted white. The skirting of the Secona Story is of maple, unpainted, but varnished. All the rest of the inside wood-work is painted and grained in imitation of maple, and varnished. The outside doors are painted bronze. The blinds are painted with four coats of Paris green, and varnished. In some other schoolrooms in the City, the interior wood-work, even of common white pine, has been left unpainted, but varnished, with a very good effect ; and it is contemplated to have some of the new Schoolhouses soon to be erected, finished in the same way. White pine, stained with asphaltum, and varnished, presents a beautiful finish, and is cheaper than painting or graining. In the angles formed by the meeting of the walls with the ceiling of each room, and entirely around the room, are placed rods, fitted with moveable rings, for convenience in suspending maps, charts, and pictures, and to avoid the necessity of driving nails into the walls. It has been stated, above, that the space between the Privies and the main building, in the Sheafe street Schoolhouse, is not so great as is desirable, nor 188 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. as it would have been, had there been more room. In the Schoolhouse in ^Tremont street, erected at the same time with that in Sheafe street, there being sufficient room for the purpose, the Projection containing the Privies is nine and a half by twelve feet, and the wells of the Privies are seven feet from the wall of the main building. The following Plans were prepared for a new arrangement of the Sheafe street Schoolhouse, when it was contemplated to occupy a space eighty feet in depth, extending from Sheafe street to the Avenue in the rear. In these Plans, the Projection for the Privies is about ten by sixteen feet ; and the entrance to each of the Privies is six feet from the wall of the main building, and separated from it by three doors. This gives them as much space, and separates them as much from the main building, as is needed. Plan of First Story. Scale 24 feet to the inch. Playground in front. It will be seen, from this Plan, that the building was to have an end front- ing on Sheafe street, (from which it was to be set back nineteen feet,) and a side looking into two of the Playgrounds, each of which was to be twenty- seven by thirty feet. The nineteen feet between the building and the street. and on a line with the building, the whole extent of the fifty-three feet on Sheafe street, was to form a third Playground. It has already been mentioned, that the ground at the rear of the building, on the Avenue, is eight feet lower than at the front, on Sheafe street ; and the scholars of the lower room were to enter, as they do now, from the Ave- nue, by a door under the window A, and pass to their schoolroom up the stairs A, through the door k. Their Playground was to have been at the front end, on Sheafe street, to which they were to pass through the Recita- tion-room R, and out by the door 1. The space between the Privies and the nain building, which is a three-feet passage, is shown at i, as in the former Plans, pp. 177, 179, 180. The Entrance-doors for the second and third stories are shown at 2, 3. Plan of Second Story. PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. Plan of Third Story. In other respects, these Plans present some improvement over that of the present building in SJieafe street, which is only forty-four feet in length, while that proposed in these Plans is fifty feet. This, of course, allows more space for the stairways, Recitation-rooms, &c. These three Plans will be easily understood, by comparing them with those on pp. 177, 179, 180, 181, which are there fully explained. Some persons, perhaps, may think that ornaments and decorations, such as have been here described, are not necessary in a Schoolhouse ; though none, we presume, will think them out of place. Why should not the places, where both Teachers and children spend so large a portion of their time, be made as pleasant and attractive as possible 1 The Schoolroom is the Teach- er's parlor and drawing-room ; and should always, not only be neat and tidy, but exhibit evidences of good taste and useful ornament. Why should blank and naked walls, presenting a cold and cheerless aspect, unrelieved by a sin- gle pleasant spot or speck of verdure, be the only or principal objects to meet the eyes of the young inmates of these establishments, who are here to re- ceive those first impressions, which, as they are the most lasting, and indeed almost indelible, should always be useful, and promotive of some useful pur- pose? Everything which will give to young persons "a perception of tJie Beautiful," is of great value ; and everything that can be done to render the interior of our schoolrooms pleasant and attractive, is of importance. "Why," says Mrs. Sigourney, in a valuable Essay ' On the Perception of the Beau- tiful,' " why should not the interior of our schoolhouses aim at somewhat of the taste and elegance of a parlor? Might not the vase of flowers enrich the mantelpiece, and the walls display, not only well-executed maps, but his- torical engravings or pictures ? and the bookshelves be crowned with the bust of Moralist or Sage, Orator or Father of his Country ? Is it alleged that the expense, thus incurred, would be thrown away, the beautiful objects defaced, and the fair scenery desecrated ? This is not a necessary result. I have been informed, by Teachers who had made the greatest advances towards the appropriate and elegant accommodation of their pupils, that it was not so. They have said it was easier to enforce habits of neatness and order among objects whose taste and value made them worthy of care, than amid that parsimony of apparatus, whose pitiful meanness operates as a temptation to waste and destroy." And it will always also be found that those schools where the most attention has been paid to making the rooms pleasant and attractive to the children, will be the most orderly, and well disciplined, while in those held in ordinary rooms, where no attention seems to be given to refinement in appearances, the pupils are also proportionably unrefined and undisciplined. 190 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. " Let the communities," continues Mrs. Sigourney, in the Essay just quoted, " let the communities, now so anxious to raise the standard of edu- cation, venture the experiment of a more liberal adornment of the dwellings devoted to it. Let them put more faith in that respect for the beautiful, which really exists in the young heart, and requires only to be called forth and nur- tured, to become an ally of virtue and a handmaid to religion. Knowledge lias a more imposing effect on the young mind, when it stands, like the Apos- tle with the gifts of healing, at the ' beautiful gate of the Temple.' Mem- ory looks back to it, more joyously, from the distant or desolated tracks of life, for the bright scenery of its early path." " But when the young chil- dren of this Republic are transferred from the nursery to those buildings, whose structure, imperfect ventilation, and contracted limits, furnish too strong an idea of a prison, the little spirits, which are in love with freedom and the fair face of Nature, learn to connect the rudiments of knowledge with keen associations of task-work, discomfort, and thraldom." " I hope the time is coming, when every isolated village schoolhouse shall be as an Attic temple, on whose exterior the occupant may study the principles of symmetry and of grace. Why need the structures, where the young are initiated into those virtues which make life beautiful, be divorced from taste, or devoid of comfort'?" " Do any reply, that ' the perception of the Beautiful' is but a luxurious sen- sation, and may be dispensed with in those systems of education which this age of utility establishes? But is not its culture the more demanded, to throw a healthful leaven into the mass of society, and to serve as some counterpoise for that love of accumulation, which pervades every rank, in- trudes into every recess, and spreads even in consecrated places the ' tables of the money-changers, and the seats of such as sell doves?' " In ancient times, the appreciation of whatever was beautiful in the frame of Nature, was accounted salutary, by philosophers and sages. Galen says, ' He who has two cakes of bread, let him sell one, and buy some flowers ; for bread is food for the body, but flowers are food for the soul.' " " If the perception of the Beautiful may be made conducive to present im- provement, and to future happiness ; if it have a tendency to refine and sublimate the character ; ought it not to receive culture throughout the whole process of education? It takes root, most naturally and deeply, in the sim- ple and loving heart ; and is, therefore, peculiarly fitted to the early years of life, when, to borrow the language of a German writer, ' every sweet sound takes a sweet odor by the hand, and walks in through the open door of the child's heart.' " We insert Mr. Ingraham's communication, unabridged, although it was drawn up by him as the material out of which we should prepare a descrip- tion. We have also preserved his system of punctuation and capitalizing, though it differs from that followed in other parts of this work. We think very highly of the plan' of the Sheafe street School-house. Any objections we might entertain to some of the details, could be easily obviated in places where land is not so expensive as in Boston. We prefer, however, to see the Primary School-house with but one story, and in no case with more than two stories. In cities, the basement, under the school room, should always be paved, and fitted up for a covered play-ground, as is the case in Mr. Ingraham's plans. Mr. Ingraham, in his letter, acknowledges his obligations to Mr. F. Em- erson, and Dr. Henry G. Clark, for valuable aid in arranging his system of ventilation, and also to Mr. Joseph E. Billings, the Architect, for aid m the architectural arrangements, and for the manner in which the working clans were drawn. PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 191 Having given so minute a description of this School-house, we shall confer a favor upon such of our readers as may wish to erect buildings like it, if we insert, entire, MR. INGRAHAM'S original Specification for the workmen, with such modifications as he proposes to introduce into the new buildings, which are to be erected during the present year, (1848.) Of materials to be provided, and labor performed, in the erection of a Primary School- house, to be built on a lot of land lying upon the southerly side of Sheafe street, according to the plans of JOSEPH W. INGRAHAM, Chairman of the Primary School Committee on Schoolhouses, as exhibited in the Drawings made by Joseph E. Billings, Architect. DESCRIPTION. The building is to be three stories high ; each Story is to contain a Schoolroom, Recitation -rooms, Entries, and Privies, and to finish twelve feet high, in the clear. The first floor is to be set eighteen inches above the ground, at the front of the build- ing. The Cellar, under the whole building, (except the entrance to the first-story Schoolroom, which is to finish six feet and eight inches,) is to be finished seven and one half feet high, in the clear. The main building is to measure twenty-six by forty- four feet, upon the ground plan, above the underpinning ; the Projection on the east end, three and one half by twenty and one half feet ; and the Projection containing the Privies, four and one hall by sixteen and one half feet. The Roof is to have an inclina- tion of thirty degrees. The Front and Side Walls of the main building, and the Front Walls of the Projec- tions, above the underpinning, and the Rear Wall of the main building and sides of the Projections, from the level of the ground on the rear of the lot, are to be built of brick MASON'S WORK. Excavating: The Dirt and Rubbish is to be dug out, as required, for the Cellar, the Cellar- Walls, the Vault, and the Drains ; and the remainder of the lot is to be graded up, on an inclination of one inch to a foot, from Sheafe street to the front of the building. All the rubbish, and the dirt that is not required for filling in, is to be removed from the premises. All the Loam is to be carefully taken up, kept by itself, and spread upon the surface of the Playground, as may be directed by the Committee. Rough Stone. The Footings to all the walls and piers, and the Cellar and Foundation-walls, are to be built of square-split Sandy-Bay or Quincy cellar-stone. The Bottom or Footing- course is to be puddled and rammed to a perfect bed, and those to the main walls and the piers, are to be laid entirely below the level of the cellar floor. The Walls are to l)e laid in lime mortar ; and those of the Cellar are to be faced and pointed on the inside. The Footings are to be eighteen inches rise. Those to the main walls are to be three feet in width ; those to the projections are to be two and one half feet in width ; and those to the piers are to be three feet square. The Front Wall of the Cellar is to be two feet thick, and the other Walls twenty inches. Good and sufficient Foundations are to be laid for the Steps, Window Curbs, &c. Hammered Stone. The Underpinning to the front walls of the main building and projections, and the Returns at the first-story Entrance-doors, the Steps to the Entrance-doors, the Thresh- olds to the Entrance-doors and Gates, the Curbs, Sills, and Caps, to the cellar-windows, the Curbs to the sesspool, the Fence-stone, and the Platform steps to the Entrance- doors, are to be of Quincy granite, of e^en color, free from sap, rust, or flaws, fine- hammered, with all the returns, rabbets, washes, &c., indicated by the Drawings. The Floors to the Privies on the first-story, a Moveable Cover to the Vault, and Hearth-stone in each Schoolroom, are to be of North- River Flagging-stone. About 192 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. three quarters of the Playground is also to be laid with North-River Flagging-stone, as may be hereafter directed by the Committee. The rest of the Playground is to be left unpaved, for flower beds, &c. There is to be an Iron Strainer fitted to the Sesspopl-cover. The Hearth-stones are each to be three feet square, with a circular hole in the centre, eighteen inches in diameter, for the admission of the cold air under the stove. Sand-stone. There is to be a set of Caps and Sills to each of the windows in the brick walls, and Caps to the entrance-doors. The Caps to the doors are to be four courses rise, and ten inches thick, and those to the third-story front windows eight and one half inches thick : the other Caps are to be four inches thick. The Sills to the windows are to be eight inches wide. The Sills and Caps to the blind-openings, in the rear wall of the privies, are to be of the full thickness of the wall, and finished on all sides. There is to be a Moulded Belt on the front, and over the east and west entrance-doors ; and a Base and Cap to the Chimney, of the forms shown by the Drawings. All the above is to be of the first quality of Connecticut free-stone ; that in the faced-brick-work is to be sand-rubbed, and the remainder fine-chiselled. All the stone-work is to be set in lime-mortar, and Cramped, Headed, and Pointed, as required. Brick-work. The Front Walls, above the underpinning, the Rear, Side, and Privy Walls, from the rough stone, the Piers in the cellar, the Backing-up of the stone-work, the Lining of the Vault, the Walls between the privies, the Sesspool, the Drains, and the Flues, are to be built of hard-burnt Charlestown (not Fresh Pond) bricks, excepting the Facing of the front and side walls of the main building and the front walls ofthe projections, the Covings, and the Chimney, which are to be of the first quality of pressed-brick, laid plumb-bond, tied into the other work with bond-irons in every seventh course. The Front Wall, to the top of the belting, and above the top of the third-story win- lows, with the corner Piers on each side, and the Rear Wall, from the bottom to the lop of the first-story floorings, are to be sixteen inches thick. The remainder of the Front and Rear Walls, the Side Walls of the main building, and the Front Walls of the Projections, are to be one foot thick. The Rear and Side Walls to the Privies, the Side Wall to the easterly Projection, and the Walls of the Sesspool, are to be eight inches thick. The Lining of the Vault, and the Walls between the Privies, are to be four inches thick. The Bottom of the Vault is to be laid three courses thick. The Piers in the cellar are to be sixteen inches square, on the ground. The Vault, (which is to be of the sesspool plan, and so arranged, that no solid matter shall remain in the vault, but shall all pass off into the common sewer,) Sesspool, Drains, Wall between the privies, and the Hollow Wall between the privies and main building, are to be laid throughout with cement-mortar, and plastered inside, throughout, with the same. The remainder of the brick-work is to he done with lime- mortar. The Drain^ are to be barrel-form, the larger one to be of sixteen inches bore, and the smaller ones, one foot. The Vaults are to be not less than six feet deep. The Cellar, and tha Passage-way from the east end of the building, out to Margaret Avenue, are to be paved with the best paving-brick, on perfect foundations of gravel and sand. _ The Cold-air Flues are to be twelve by eighteen inches, inside, and the Smoke Flues eight inches square, inside, all smoothly plastered, inside and out, with a stout coat of lime-mortar. The Flues are to "be arranged as shown in the diagram. [Seep. 182.] The Cold-air Flue or Box, leading horizontally into the room to the aperture under the Stove, is also to be thoroughly and smoothly plastered, and made perfectly secure from danger by fire, in case of live coals or ashes dropping into it from the Stove. It is to be fitted with a valve, having a handle in Jhe room, to regulate the admission of Lathing and Plastering: All the Walls, Ceilings, and Stairways, throughout the first, second, and third stories of the mam building and the Projections, and the Ceiling of the Cellar, are to be Lathed and Plastered with a stout coat of lime and hair, and hard-finished, smoothly, with lime and sand ; for painting ; excepting the Ceiling of the Cellar, which is to be finished on the hair-coat, and the Wall between the main building and the privies, which is to be plastered upon the bricks. The Walls of the Cellar are to be white- washed with three coats. Care must be taken, that the beads on the corners ofthe walls and stairways an not plastered. The quirks are to be neatly cut, and the beads kept clean. PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 193 * Slates, Slating, ()- <; x r.n i Pn'mary School. 1 30-6x22 .Basement ! Story O O i : i ft - ii r i i ] f=^ t= . S r 1 ^^ r=j The Brimmer school has two masters, one in each room, and each with an usher and female assistant. [Since the above description was first published, (in 1843) the seats and desks have been reversed, so that the pupils sit with their faces to the plat- form. The former method was found by the teacher to be " very incon- venient, and wholly impracticable. The scholar should see the face and hear the voice of the Principal as much as possible."] 200 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF BOWDOIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE. The new Bowdoin School-house, completed in 1848, is situated on Myrtle street and with the yard occupies an area of about 75 feet by 68 feet, bounded on each of the four sides by a street. It is built of brick with a basement story of hammered granite, and measures 75 feet 9 inches extreme length by 54 feet 6 inches extreme breadth having three stories, the first and second being 13 feet, and the third, 15 feet high in the clear. The ground descends rapidly from Myrtle street, thereby securing a basement of 15 feet in the rear. One third of which is finished into entries, or occupied by three furnaces, coal bins, pumps, &c., and the remaining two thirds is open to the yard, thereby affording a cov- ered play-ground for the pupils. The third story is finished into one hall 72 feet long by 38 feet wide, with seats and desks for 180 pupils. On the south side of this hall there are two recita- tion rooms, each 16 feet by 12 feet, and a room for a library, &c. There are three rooms of the same size on the two floors below. The second story is divided into two rooms by a partition wall, each of which is 35 feet by 38, arid accommodates 90 pupils, and so connected by sliding doors that all the pupils of both schools can be brought under the eye and voice of the teacher. The first story corresponds to the second, except there are no sliding doors in the partition, and no connection between the room except through the front entry. The two rooms on this floor have each seats and desks for 100 pupils. Each story is thoroughly ventilated, and warmed by one of Chilson's Fur- naces. In each furnace the air chambers, the apertures for conducting the cold air into them, and the flues for constructing the heated air into the rooms in each story, being all large, a great quantity of warm air is constantly rushing into the rooms, and the ventilating flues or ventiducts being so constructed and arranged that the air of the rooms will be frequently changed, and that a pure and healthy atmosphere will at all times be found in each of these rooms, pro- vided the furnaces are properly and judiciously managed. On the top of the building there are two of Emerson's large ventilators, connected with the attic and ventilating flues, through which the impure air passes out into the atmos- phere above. To accommodate pupils who come to school with wet feet or clothes, there is an open fire in a grate in one of the recitation rooms. Each room is furnished with Wales' American School Chair, and Ross's Desk, and both desk and chair are in material, form and style, as described on page 202 and 205. This is a school for girls only, and consists of two departments, one of which is called the Grammar department, and the other the Writing department ; the master of each department being independent of the other. The number of assistant female teachers in each department of this school, when full, will be four, the teachers in each department being independent of the master and teacher in the other. The master of the Grammar department and two of his assistants will occupy the large hall in the third story, and his other two assistants will occupy one of the rooms in the first story. . The master of the writing department and two of his assistants will occupy the rooms in the second story, and his other two assistants will occupy the other room in the first story, each master being the superintendence of his own department. The school, when full, will be divided into five classes, and each class into two divisions, nearly equal in numbers. The first week after the vacation in August, the first division of each class will attend in the grammar department in the morning, and the second division of each class will attend in the writing department ; and in the afternoon, the second division of each class will attend in the grammar department, and the first, in the writing department. The next week, this order of attendance is to be reversed, and this alteration is to con- tinue through the year, the weeks of vacation not being counted. This house and the Cluincy Grammar School-house are built after designs by Mr. Bryant. BOWDOIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE. PLAN OF FIRST AND SECOND FLOOR. 201 A, A, Entrance for Pupils. B, Ditto lor Teacher. C, C, Study halls, each 35 by 38 feet; with seats and desks for 100 pupils. D, Sliding door, by which the two rooms on the second floor are thrown into one. E, Study hall, 72 feet by 38. F, F, Two recitation rooms on each floor, 16 feet by 12. G, Room 10 feet by 12, for library, ap- paratus, &c. H, Ross' desk, and Wales' chair. P, Teacher's platform with desk for teacher and assistants. S, S, Staircase leading to second anc third floors. a, Case with glass doors for appara- tus. c, Closet for Teacher: q, Grate. r, Hot air register. v, Flues for ventilation. PLAN OF THIRD FLOOR. 202 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF QUINCY GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. This building, which was commenced in 1847, and dedicated on the 26th of June, 1848, is situated on a lot 90 feet by 130 feet, extending from Tyler street to Hudson street. The ground plan is in the form of a cross, the exterior dimensions of the body being 80 feet by 58 feet, the end fronting on Tyler street. The wings are 12 feet in front by 36 feet deep. It is four stories high, with a basement 8 feet in the clear, for the furnaces and fuel, and an attic for gymnastic exercises. Each wing contains a front and back entrance, a flight of stairs from the basement to the attic, and a room on each floor 10 feet by 11 feet, connected with a school-room. The fourth story of the body is finished in one spacious hall, 16 feet high in the clear, with centre-pieces and a cornice, and a platform at each end 22 feet by 11 feet, and 22 inches high. It is furnished with settees arranged in 4 rows, sufficient to accommodate 700 children. The third floor is divided by a corridor 8 feet wide, extending across the main body from one wing to the other, having 2 school-rooms on each side. These four school-rooms are of nearly the same size, averaging about 31 i feet by 26i feet, and 13 feet high. Each room is lighted by 2 windows at the side, and 2 at the end, and has a platform for the teacher 24 feet by about 5j, with one end towards the entrance from the corridor, and on the other end is placed a book-case of cherry, 3i feet by 8 feet, with glazed doors, facing the entrance. The scholars' desks front the platform and the windows on the side of the building, and are separated by aisles 1 foot and 4 inches wide. They are 2 feet in length, made of cherry-wood, and varnished and supported by cast iron stands. J. L. Ross, maker. Each scholar has a desk by himself. The chair is made by Mr. Wales, of Boston. It has a scroll back and cast iron support. Each room accommodates 56 pupils, one desk and chair being placed on a small movable platform for a monitor. The rooms are lined with composition blackboards 3 feet wide, 2 feet from the floor. The school-rooms which have not small rooms attached, are provided with closets for the children's clothes. There are 2 sinks in the corridor, with con- veniences for introducing Cochituate water. The description of this story will answer for the two below it, as the first three are essentially the same. The windows are furnished with inside blinds, having revolving slats, so that the light may be regulated with great ease. The building is warmed by 4 furnaces placed in the basement, 2 being placed at the middle of each end, each being intended to warm the three rooms imme- diately over it, the cast iron chimnies being relied upon for heating the hall. Emerson's system of ventilation has been introduced since the building was finished, each room having a separate air-dur t to the roof, 14 inches by 14 inches. The apparatus consists of the Boston Philosophical set, by J. M. Wightman, Eayrs and Fairbanks' globe, 2 sets of Pelton's Outline Maps, and one ol Mitchell's. A library costing $200 has been furnished by the donation of Mayor duincy. To protect the desks from injury, the slate-lrames are all required to be cov- ered with cloth, and each scholar is to provide himself with a convenient box to contain his pen, pen-wiper, pei.cils, rubber, &c. Each desk has an inkstand sunk into the right-hand corner, with a revolving metalic cover. The building is calculated for but one school, and is at present occupied by but one, the organization of which is adapted to the arrangement and construc- Uon of the house. When the organization is complete, the school will be divided into 4 classes, each class containing 168 scholars, and each class into 3 divisions. At present the 3 lower classes contain two divisions each, and the first class 3. On the 3rd floor are the first division of the first class under the instruction of QU1NCY SCHOOL HOUSE. 203 the Principal, and the several divisions of theSd class instructed by assistants ; On the 2d floor is the 2d division of the 1st class instructed by the sub-mas- ter, with the several divisions of the 3d class under assistants ; and the usher takes the 3rd division of the 1st class, with the several divisions of the 4th class on the 1st floor. By this arrangement the government is rendered compara- tively easy. The whole school is brought together in the hall for devotional services, and other general exercises. I .... rl v 4 < f Plan of First Floor. A, A, Front Door. B, B, Entries. C, Corridor or Hall. T, T, T, T, Teachers' Platform 24 feet by5|. r, r, r, r, Hot-air flues. v, v, v, v, Preston's Ventilators for controlling the flues in the partition wall, which communicate with the iron smoke pipes near the top of the building. This plan is adopted in the first story only. e, e, e, e, Indicates the location of the flues of Emerson's Ventilators in the .second, third and fourth stories. s, Sink. c, c. c, c, Closets. d, d, Closets 10 feet by 11 feet, 2Q4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. It is to be feared there are not many communities, even in New Eng- lana, where the Chief Magistrate, elected annually by the people, would have the courage to utter the following noble sentiments, spoketa by Mayor Q,uincy, at the dedication of the Quincy Grammar School-house, June 26, 1848. As Chairman of the " City Fathers," he did not hesitate to stand there and tell the tax-paying community that they had, in this manner, just expended $200,000 of their money ; and he was confident the question would not be asked, Why spend so much! Why spend more for popular education in the city of Boston, than is expended in the whole of Great-Britain 1 He said, if but once in a century, a little being should be sent into this world, of most delicate and beautiful structure, and we were told that a wonderful principle pervaded every part of it, capable of unlimited expansion and hap- piness, capable of being fitted to associate with angels and becoming the friend of God: or if it should receive a wrong bias, of growing up in enmity against him, and incurring everlasting misery, could any expense of education which would contribute to save from such misery and elevate to such happiness, be too much! But, instead of one such little being, 24,000 were now entrusted to the care of the " City Fathers," and their education, in this world, will deter- mine their future destiny, of companionship with angels, or with the degraded wretched, enemies of God. If the community had no responsibility in the matter, how, he asked, could it spend money better than in educating these children ? But they would soon control the affairs of Boston, and, to a great extent, of the Commonwealth. Nor would their influence stop here. "No man liveth for himself" Each ot these children would form a centre of widening influence, whose circumference might yet embrace millions of minds, and extend through unnumbered centu- ries. Here, unlike other countries, every restraint to individual elevation is thrown off. All have the most perfect liberty that can be enjoyed, without infringing upon the rights of others. How important then, that each child should be ed- ucated to understand his rights, and the principles and habits of self- Govern- ment. We are all, said he, in a partnership, and if one of these little partners suf- fers in his character, the whole community suffer in consequence. He believed that nearly half of the 400 boys in that school were not Ameri- cans. Many of their parents were not fitted for the duties of a Republic. But these children, educated side by side with our own, would learn self-govern- ment, and be trained to become worthy citizens of this free country. It seemed, he said, the design of Providence to mix races; and this influx of foreigners might constitute the very elements necessary to give to American character its highest excellence. Standing on such a moral elevation, as Bos- ton did, they felt it a duty to provide for the education of all, and thus present to the whole country, iiwdels of popular education. These schools are justly the pride and boast of the city ; and the senti- ment with which they are universally regarded is beautifully embodied in the following extract from an address by George S. Hillanl, Esq. The schools of Boston are the best jewels in her crown. If I were asked by an intelligent stranger to point out to him our most valued possessions, I would show to him not our railroads, our warehouses, filled with the wealth of all the earth, our ships, our busy wharves and marts, where the car of commerce is ever " thundering loud with her ten thousand wheels," but I would carry him to one of our public schools, would show him its happy and intelligent chil- dren, hushed into .reverent silence at their teacher's word, or humming over their tasks with a sound like that of bees in June. I would tell him that here was the foundation on which our material prosperity was reared, that here were the elements from which we constructed the State. Here are the fountains from which flow those streams which make glad our land. The schools oj Boston are dear to my heart. Though I can have no personal and immediate interest in them; though no child on earth calls me lather; yet most gladly do I contribute to their support, according to my sub- stance; and when I see a father's eyes filled with pleasant tears as he hears SYSTEM OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN BOSTON. 205 the music of his child's voice linked to some strain of poetry or burst of elo- quence, I can sympathize in the feeling in which I cannot share. May the blessing of Heaven rest upon our schools. They are an object worthy of all efforts and sacrifices. We should leave nothing undone which may tend to make them more excellent and more useful. For this, we should gather into our own stores all the harvest of experience which have been reaped from other soils. The present is an age of progress. The claims of humanity are now beginning to be heard as they never were before. The movements in favor of Peace, of Anti-Slavery, of Temperance, of Education, of Prison Dis- cipline, all spring from the same root a sense of sympathy and brotherhood. Is it too much to say that the dawn of a new day is reddening the tops of the mountains 1 Higher yet may that light ascend, till its golden shafts have pierced the deepest valleys 01 ignorance and sin ! Let us not stand idly on the brink, while the tide of improvement sweeps by us, but boldly launch our bark upon the stream. We live in a community, ready to discern and to do that which is right. It should be a source of gratitude to us that our lot is cast on a spot, where every good and worthy faculty may find appropriate work to do. When I behold this city that we love, seated upon her triple throne of hills with her mural crown of spires and domes glittering in the smokeless air, when I remember how much of that which embellishes and dignifies life is gathered under those roofs, I feel that he has not lived in vain who has contributed, even in the smallest measure, to the happiness and prosperity of Boston. And how can we do this more effectually than by watching over her schools, by making them as nearly perfect as human institutions can bel For this object let neither wealth nor toil be spared. Here are fountains of life ; as they are, so will its issues be. The child is father to the man. Make our schools all that they can be, and all that they should be, and we shall give to the prosperity of our beloved city a permanence like that of moral truth. It will become an inevitable necessity, like that which compels the heart of man to love what is lovely, and venerate what is venerable. The following statistics are taken from the " Third Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Schools, (Nathan Bishop, Esq.,) of the City of Boston," submitted Dec. 29, 1853. Estimated cost of all the Public School Estates to May 1st, 1853. 1. Cost of the Latin and English High School Estate, and of the improvements on the same, $82,151.51 2. Cost of all the Grammar School Estates, and of the improve- ments on the same, 797,848.49 3. Cost of all the Primary School Estates, and of the improve- ments on the same, 448,500.00 Total cost of all the Public School Estates, $1,358,500.00 Means and Cost of supporting Public Schools. The City receives annually, from the State School Fund, about, $5,500.00 The remainder of the means for supporting the Public Schools is drawn from the City Treasury, which is replenished by the an- nual tax and by other sources of income. During the last twelve years, 21 per cent, of the ordinary city expenditures has been ap- propriated to the Public Schools. In the year 1853, the expenses of the School Department amounted to, 329,800.20 Viz., for Grammar Schools salaries of teachers, 130,531.18 " incidental expenses, 35,849.82 " " new buildings and alterations,. ... 42,991.00 Primary Schools salaries of teachers, 62,508.33 " " incidental expenses, 22,231.46 buildings, ..!..... 35,823.09 206 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. After a variety of experiments in school architecture, the School Committee of Boston have adopted the internal arrangements of the duincy Grammar School, as the best adapted to that organization which affords the greatest facilities of instruction and government in this class of schools. Although we are not prepared to adopt without qualification the views taken of the subject, we give below extracts irom the First Semi-Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Schools, (Nathan Bishop, Esq.) in which the grounds of this preference are set forth. The proper size of a school-house in a large city, where the population is dense, must be determined by the number of pupils required in one building in order to make the best classification. By classification is meant, the putting together of as many scholars as one teacher can instruct well into one division or group. Experience has shown that between fifty and sixty, all being about equally ad- vanced in their several studies, can be well taught by one teacher. The best classification of pupils in schools is nothing more than a wise application of the principle of the division of labor, which has done so much to advance and to per- fect the various branches of industry. A division of labor, made on the right principle, always increases the facilities of performing the process, or improves the quality of the article made, and not unfrequently accomplishes both these objects at the same time. It must constantly be borne in mind, that it is not simply a di- vision of labor which has effected such wonderful improvements in every depart- ment of business carried on in the civilized world ; but it is a division of a particu- lar kind of labor, on such a principle as will enable the persons engaged in it to perform more of it in a given time without additional effort, and to do it as well as they could before, or even better. Actual experience has shown, in many instances, that a school containing eight hundred pupils can be classified to better advantage than one containing any smaller number. A school of this size can be managed with but little more labor on the part of the principal than is required for one only half as large. If the difference in the attainments of the children in each division be so small that they can with advantage study the same lessons, then the teacher may instruct them altogether in some recitations and exercises, and, for the others, he may separate them into two sections ; and, while he is hearing one recite a lesson, the other may be preparing for the next recitation ; and so on, for every school-day in the year, the teacher can give one half of his time to one section, and one half to the other ; and in this way each pupil will receive a greater amount of personal in- struction and assistance from his teacher than on any other plan of dividing the labor of teaching a large school. The teacher, having but few branches pursued in his division, has ample time to make thorough preparation to explain and illustrate all difficult points in every lesson. Having sufficient time, also, for hearing the recitations of his pupils, a good teacher can awaken in his class a degree of mental activity in the pursuit of knowledge, which will lend to their intellects the best discipline, while it enlarges the fields of their vision on the different branches of study. He will also have time to throw around the more important facts and principles in the text-books such remarks and illustrations as will attract and secure the attention of his scholars, and impress upon their minds a well-defined idea of each leading fact or principle by itself ; and then he may group them together into one larger view, showing their connection with the general subject, and making them throw some light on what has gone before, or prepare the way for what comes after, in the study under examination. The following " SPECIFICATION of materials to be provided, and labor performed, in the erection of a Grammar School-house," drawn up by Joseph R. Richards, architect, embodies the latest improvements adopted by the School Committee of Boston. BOSTON GRAMMAR SCHOOL. 207 SPECIFICATIONS FOR A GRAMMAR SCHOOL. Description. The building is to be of brick, it is to measure sixty feet by eighty feet above the un- derpinning, and to contain three finished stories ; the first and second each twelve feet high, and the third story fourteen feet high, in the clear. The roof is to have an incli- nation of twenty-nine degrees from each side of the building, intersecting in a ridge ; there is to be an observatory or belfry immediately upon the center of the ridge 9i by 9J feet octagonal form, and thirteen feet in height to top of roof; the cellar will be eight feet deep in the clear. The lot of land is to be inclosed with a brick wall on two sides, and with an iron fence on the front end ; the space in the rear is to be divided into yards by board fences, and to contain a block of privies against the rear line of the estate. The first floor of the huiding is to set four feet above thelevel of the street sidewalk. The building is to set back from the front line of the lot of land ten feet. Excavating. The dirt and rubbish is to be dug out for the cellar and cellar walls, and all trenches and footings for the vaults and the drains and cesspools, as required ; and all that is not required for grading up the lot, is to be removed from the premises. The yards are all to be filled and graded up to the level of the cellar flooring, with good gravel, where below the same. Granite Foundations. Each of the walls are to have a bottom course, three feet long, eighteen inches deep, and two feet wide, laid crosswise of the trenches ; upon the same is to be laid a stone wall, eighteen inches thick, built with square split granite blocks, laid in cement mortar, faced on the inside, and thoroughly whitewashed. Good and sufficient foundations are to be laid for the steps, coal hoals, walls of the privies, and furnaces. The underpinning of the four walls of the building, the steps, platforms and thresholds, gate thresholds, and fence stones, caps and sills to cellar windows, privy thresholds, curbs to vaults, covers to yard cesspools, are all to be of even colored granite, free from rust, sap, or flaws ; fine hammered where directed ; and set in lime mortar, cramped, leaded, and pointed, as required and directed. Iron strainers are to be fitted to the cess- pool covers, with a movable cover, and three stone movable covers are to be fitted to the vaults, having strong iron rings fitted thereto. Properly fit a cold air box to the outside wall, with a grating on the outside thereof. Sandstone. There are to be caps and sills to all the windows of the building, and caps to the privy doors, of freestone, rubbed on the three fronts, and tooled on the rear front ; the first and second story caps are to be moulded according to the full size drawing. Brickwork. Back up the underpinning of the four walls, so as to make a total thickness of twenty inches to the same. The four exterior walls, are to be in two thicknesses, of eight inches each, with an air space of four inches between them, built up the whole height of the building to the roof boarding; and a neat facia fitted to the cornice. The outside fac- ing of three side walls are to be laid with the first quality of pressed bricks, properly tied to the walls every seventh course by " angular brick ties." The interior walls are each to be twelve inches thick, laid from the bottom course to the under side of the attic flooring. The outside walls of the privies, are to be laid eight inches thick each, and seven and a half feet high, and the partition walls four inches thick. The yard walls are each to be twelve inches thick, and eight feet high above the sidewalk level, commenced on solid stone foundations below ground. The above are all to be laid in the best lime mortar. The vaults to be laid in cesspool form, and the drains, cesspools are to be laid in cement mortar of the best quality. The cellars are to be paved with uniform hard bricks all over their surfaces. The exterior walls are to be tied together at suitable distances ; the ventilators are to be laid partly in the wall, fourteen by eigh- teen inches each, smoothly plastered ; the iron chimneys are to be recessed in the entry walls and connected therewith ; the vaults are to be six feet deep ; the yard walls are to be capped with stone, set in cement. All the brickwork is to be built with the best hard burnt brick. Lathing and Plastering. The ceilings of the three stories are to be lathed and plastered ; the several walls are to be plastered on the walls without lathings, with a stout coat of lime and hair mortar, and finished smoothly with lime putty; the whole work to be done neat and true ; a coat of lime and hair mortar is to finish on the walls of the privies and, the ceilings also. Slating. The roof of the building is to be slated with the best of wide ladies slates, laid not exceeding 6iJ inches to the weather, put on with composition nails, and properly secured 208 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. with flashings of lead, 3J Ibs. to the square foot ; fit heavy zinc, strapped with irons, to the ridges, and warrant the whole perfectly tight. Iron works and Incidentals. There is to be an upright, twisted, diamond formed, wrought iron grating to each of the cellar windows, with a heavy frame attached. There are to be two stout iron scrapers at each door. There is to be a stout iron snow fender running around the building on the roof, costing 50 cents per foot. An iron fence, to cost $3 per lineal foot, is to be made and set up complete, with two gates hung and fastened across the front end of the lot with four iron posts, securely set, leaded, and fastened ; the gates are each to have a lock. The ends of the fence are to be fastened to a stone post, placed at the ends of the side walls. The building committee will provide for the furnaces, iron smoke pipes, ventilators, and furnace registers, and hot air pipes complete ; set the same as directed. Set and introduce such water pipes in the building as may be required, the building committee furnishing such, and all the furnaces. The committee will also provide such drains and cause such cesspools to be laid as may be required. An iron cornice with modillions is to be set entirely around the building, costing $2.50 per lineal foot ; the gutter of the building is to be made therein ; the whole to be braced and properly fastened to the wall. There are to be four conductors to the building, each four inches in diameter, of 18 oz. cold rolled copper, put up, connected with the gut- ters, and led off in a proper manner with heavy goose necks, and 34 inch pipes at the bottom to lead water into the drain. To be two copper conductors and a copper gutter to the block of privies. The roof of the privies and observatory are to be covered with sheet X X tin, lapped, soldered and finished in the best possible manner and warranted tight. Carpentry and Framing. The roofs and floors are to be framed in the manner indicated by the drawings, with good sound lumber, and timber of the following dimensions. Principal floor joists, of spruce, 3X15 inches ; trimmers and headers, of spruce, 6X15 inches ; privy floor joists, of spruce, 3X6 inches; attic ceiling joists, of spruce, between tresses, 2X6 inches ; tie beams of roof, of pine, 9X12 inches; truss rafters of pine, 9X12 inches; purlines of spruce, 8x8 inches ; small rafters of spruce, 20 inches apart, 3X5 inches ; wall plates, of spruce, 3X9 inches ; ridge plank, 2X10. The floor joists are to be worked to a mould crowning 1 inch, they are to have a fair bearing of 4 inches on the walls, at each end, and to be placed not exceeding 15 inches apart, from center to center of each, and bridged with two rows of cross bridging. The roof tresses are to be fitted with wrought iron bolts, 1 inch in diameter, with heads, screws, washer and nuts, and footings, bolts also of same size. There is to be a lintal 4X8 inches over every opening in the walls that require it, and under the " withs "of the privies, having a fair bearing of eight inches at the end. Boarding and Furring. The under floors of the rooms, entries, and platforms, and privies and the roofs, are to be laid with No. 3 pine boards, machine planed, matched, and well nailed. The ceilings and stairways of the three stories are to be furred with three inch fur- rings, of sound seasoned, dry pine boards, spaced for five nailings to a lathe. Nail them with tenpennies. Put on three-fourth inch grounds for finish, and irons for cor- ners and angles. There are to be two strips of furring for hanging charts thereto, ex- tending entirely round each of the school-rooms, as directed. Cold Air Boxes and Ventilating Flues. There is to be a separate flue for each furnace, 12X20 inches clear, made of thoroughly seasoned pine boards, smoothed on the inside and put together with two inch screws ; there is to be a valve and handle to each. The ventilating flues are to have a valve and a handle ; they are to be made of thoroughly seasoned pine boards, smoothed inside and outside and put together with screws. There is to be a separate one for each school-room, and each block often privies; fitted with blind openings or registers at the floor and ceiling, arranged as shown upon plans, and as now completed in most of the school-houses recently erected by the City of Boston. The ventilating flues are to be connected with two roof ventilators, largest size, arranged as directed. There are to be two roof ventilators over the privies. Windows and Blinds. All the windows of the three stories are to have double box frames, hard pine pulley stiles, &c. The sashes are to be made of pine 1J inches thick, moulded, coped, and lipped. They are all to be double hung with the best of white window lines, iron pul- leys, steel pintels and round iron weights of accurate balance. All the sashes are to be fastened with strong bronzed sash fastenings to cost $4.50 per dozen. All the win- dows of the three stories are to be fitted with 11 inch framed blinds, eight parts to each window, hung and fastened complete with iron butt hinges and bronze hooks, staples, BOSTON GRAMMAR SCHOOL. 209 and rosewood knobs, and to fold into flat boxings. They are all to finish with 1| inch moulded architraves, 8 inches wide, plain jambs, sofits, and stools. The cellar windows are to be made with plank frames rebated for the sashes, and to have double sashes hung to the tops of the frames, fastened with strong iron buttons and fitted with catches to hold them open when desired. Each privy is to have a movable window in its door. The observatory windows are to be double hung and fastened. fastened with mortice locks and knobs, to cost ifz.oU each, and with catches, Dolts, min- eral knobs, bronze trimmings, and small duplicate keys. The outside doors are to be fastened with lever locks of the best quality, with mineral knobs and small duplicate keys. The privy doors are to be two feet by six feet one and one half inches thick, four paneled, hung with iron butt hinges, fastened with good knob locks, having dupli- cate small keys ; they are to have two inch rebated and beaded frames, hard pine thresholds, and architraves, as described for the windows, with plinths. Properly hang the outside doors to three inch Southern pine plank frames, properly dogged to the threshold and wall. Stairs. The several flights of stairs are to be square frames, with four deep plank stringers ; they are to be finished with hard pine risers one inch thick, and treads one and one- fourth inches thick, with moulded nosings. The cellar stairs are to be finished with plain pine risers and treads, and close partitions one and one-half inches thick, matched and planed. There is to be a neat flight of portable steps to ascend to the attic and observatory, and to the roof scuttle, which is to be made and hung complete. All the flights are to have cherry wood hand rail, moulded, three by two and three-fourth inches ; turned cherry wood posts, five inches in diameter, at the head and foot and each landing of the flights, and hard pine balusters, one and one-fourth inches diameter, three to each stair tread ; the top of the rail is to be three feet above the nosing-of the stair tread ; the whole to be made and finished in a perfectmanner. All the well rooms are to be properly cased and finished. Skirting The rooms, closets, entries, and stairways, are to be skirted up as high as the win- dow stools, in the respective stories, with narrow, beaded, matched lining, guaged to a width not exceeding seven inches, and the joints to butt even in every case; cap the same to correspond with the window stools ; the lining is to be of clear white pine. One side of the wall of each room is to be fitted for the slates with frames, as directed. Floorings. The platforms are to be furred up, as shown by the drawing, and the stairways, plat- forms, and privies are to be boarded, and the several floorings to be laid with narrow hard pine clear boards^ perfectly jointed and thoroughly nailed. The strips are to be guaged to a width respectively, and the joints broken at least three feet, and in no case are strips of a different width to butt on to each other. The entry and privy floors are all to be of hard pine. Cabinets, -a n> (KJ ?. B" J?. "* o ^1 o S ^ v* - n> 2 ~ ,rr 2. W GO S P B 'A If I ~ g " - S Saw S & g . O i -i cn 1 ^ 3 S. g w 3530 or 0ft e* J? - cr S 5 3 g 3 ns * 3 f S o S- o O B, B" _, 2> oo M T"' y (P5 *^ fD O^ O 7' triw -"* ? o. 9 3^2 T) ro & g. The following plans and explanation of a " Public School" and a " Primary School " are copied from the " Thirty-ninth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Public School Society of New York." The plans after which the school-houses of this Society were originally constructed, as well as the methods of instruction pursued in their schools, were adopted from those recommended by Joseph Lancaster, and the British and Foreign School Society. These plans and methods have been from time to time essentially modified, until they can no longer be characterized as Lancasterian or Moni- 'torial, but the plans and methods of the Public School Society of New York. There are two grades of schools, the higher called the Public Schools, and the lower, called the Public Primary Schools. Those schools of the primary grade, which are in the buildings appropriated to the higher schools, are designated Primary Departments, to distinguish them from the 'Primaries taught in separate buildings. The system of instruction pursued in the Primary Departments was originally the Infant School system, and still retains many of the methods of that system. The school-rooms were, therefore, constructed and furnished in reference to simultaneous exercises of the whole school, to oral instruction with visible illustrations, and to physical movements of various kinds. Public School, No. 17, is in 13th Street, between the 7th and 8th Avenues, on the centre of a lot of ground 100 feet front and rear, by 103^ feet deep. The main building is 42 feet front, and 80 feet deep ; the stair building (in the rear,) is 21 by 14 feet. The main building is 49 feet high, from the pavement to the eaves. The first story of the front of the main building is of brown stone, polished, as is also the bases and caps of the pilasters. The walls are all of brick (including the front fences) ; the front being of (what are called) Philadelphia pressed bricks ; the front cornice is of wood, and painted white. The windows of the lower story, contain each 30, and the two upper stories -each 40 panes of glass, 12 by 10 inches: the sashes are all hung with weights and cords, so that they may be raised or lowered at pleasure. The rooms are all wainscoted, as high as the window sills : the wain- scoting, doors, and desks are all grained in imitation of oak : the doors, window casing?, and sashes are painted white. The rooms are ventilated by means of six blinds, 2 by 3 feet, being placed in the ceiling between the timbers, and two or three bricks being left out opposite the blinds, in the out- side walls. The first story is 11 feet 6 inches high in the clear, and is occupied as a Primary Department, for both boys and girls, and contains seats for 150 children in the Front Room, (marked A on Fig. 1,) and 200 on the Gallery, (marked M on Fig. 1) ; making in all 350 seats in this department. The second story is occupied as the Girls' department; the room is 15| feet high in the clear, and contains seats for 252 scholars. The third story is occupied as the Boys' department; the room is 16? feet high in the clear, and contains seats for 252 scholars ; mak'ng in all 854^ seats in the building, exclusive of the seats in the recitation rooms. The steps in the stair building, by which the scholars enter and retire from school, are of blue stone, 3 inches thick by 12 inches wide, and are expected to last as long as any part of the building. This method was adopted to avoid the necessity of putting in new steps every few years, (which has heretofore been necessary where wooden steps have been used,) and also to lessen the noise consequent on a great number of children going either up or down wooden steps, at the same time ; thus far the experiment has succeeded admirably, and is now adopted for both Public and Priman bchools. NEW YORK PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSE. Fig 1. Ground plan of Primary Department, yards, &c. 223 A Primary School room 39 by 38 feet. B Infant do do 39 by 30 feet. Room for brooms, pails, &c. J Boys' ward-robe, 16 \ by 8 feet. K Girls' do 12^ by 8 feet. M Gallery, 32 by 1 1 feet Seats for 200 children. N, N Desks, each 16^ feet long. () Teachers' table. L Main entrance. R R Entrance to the yard. TJ, U do to Primary department. V Stairs to Girls' and Boys' do. S Scholars' entrance Boys' do. T do do Girls' do. Q Sliding doors 28 by 9i feet. P, P Stoves. Z, Z Flues for stove pipes. I, I Play ground, 102 by 26 feet; paved .vith brick. F, F Privies, 12 by 8 feet. G, G Boxes for sand 3 by 2^ feet. D ? D Wood-houses 83 by 2| feet, and 6^ feet high ; the front of which is made of hemlock strips, 4 by 2 inches, set perpendicularly 2 inches apart, to al low a free circulation of air. E, E Roof of wood-houses project- ing 3| feet beyond the front of the houses; forming a shelter for the scholars in stormy weather. H, H Gutters of blue stone to con- duct the waste water from the wood houses and yards to the street. X Court Yard 8 wide ; blue stone flagging. Y, Y Stone foundation blocks, to which the iron railing in front is secured. 224 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. z> B O .Q o o o o e o 9 O 09 O on 1 1 !> _nOO 00 o o o 9 9 9 9 9 99 Q oTll 1 1 DO _n oo o 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 Hi 1 1 f> nnr fiLA O 00 9 O 9 flo Ul _n e 00 O o L ,-o 9 99 9 9 9 ofll 1 | n> _n 00 00 9 9 9 9 9 O 9 9 n 1 | lO _n O 00 o 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 * O on 1 | !l 1 _n op O oo o 9 9 9 9 9 9 o o e ojlr 1 | if> O 9 o o o o oHl 1 1 Q> nnr"- 9 9 99 9 9 *nr*-- 9 op o 1 9, 1 . O 9 9 o o 9 9 9 ? olr 1 | i IB _n,o 99 O o o 9, 9 9 9 9 9 9 s 1 | l_)o 00 o *-, 9 9 9 Tf-1, O O o o 9 9 9 9 9 O O O ll I** ofir 1 1 QOJ a .1 li a I T3 o> i g*s C3 * 'o ^ 1*2 ^ J3 -*-_, O ~- -G X Entrance and stairway leading to the second story. C Entrance and stairway leading to the third story. D, D, D, D, D Class rooms to accommodate 60 pupils each. E, E Vestibules, which afford a communication from one room to the other, having glazed doors on its four sides. F A shaft, which contains all the hot-air pipes, from which they branch to the various rooms on each story and dischnrge through register in the floor. The vestibules E, E, on the second and third stories, are also the entrances to the class rooms from the outer gallery or landing of the stairs. II, II, II, II, II, II The ventilating flues, which are placed in the angles of the rooms opposite to that of the hot-air registers. I. I, I, I, I The teachers desk, with a small platform 6 feet broad by 8 feet long. Fig. 2. SECOND FLOOR OF THE WARREN GRAMMAR SCHOOL. The Warren Grammar School-house is situated on Robertson-street, was built in 1852, on the same general plan as the North-east Grammar School, the de- scription of which is applicable to this. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLAN OF WARREN GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE. Fig. 1. PERSPECTIVE OF WARREN GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE. The Warren Grammar School-house is situated on Robertson-street, was built in 1852, on the same general plan as the North-east Grammar School, the de- scription of which is applicable to this. Fig. 2. PLAN OF THE INTERIOR. SCHOOL-HOUSES IN PHILADELPHIA. 253 PLAN OF GI.ENWOOD SCHOOL-HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA. Fig. 1. PERSPECTIVE OF GLENWOOD SCHOOL-HOUSE. Glenwood School-house is situated on Ridge-road, and is intended for an Un- classified school. The building is 66 by 46 feet, besides the projection, and is two stories high. Each story is divided into two apartments, separated by a glazed partition. Fig. 2. PLAN or FIRST FLOOR. 254 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA. In 1853, a new building was erected for the accommodation of the Central High School, in Spring Garden, on the east side of Broad street. The lot is one hun- dred and fifty feet on Broad street, by ninety-five feet deep, having Green street for a boundary on the north, and Brandywine street on the south. The building is constructed throughout in a substantial manner, with good ma- terials, and with a main reference to utilit)' rather than ornament, although the latter has not been altogether lost sight of. The walls throughout are built hollow, to prevent dampness ; the outside walls and those on each side of the transverse hall have an average thickness of eighteen inches, while those separating the various class rooms have a thickness of thirteen inches. The exterior is built of the best quality of pressed brick. The plainness of the extended faade is relieved by projections and recesses in the line of the outer wall, by a horizontal line of mar- ble work separating the first story from those above, by a large main entrance in he middle, by the cornice, and by the dome of the observatory above. Though simple in design, and constructed in an economical manner, the building presents externally quite an ornamented appearance. The observatory is built upon two piers of solid masonry. These piers stand isolated from all the rest of the structure, being inclosed within the walls on each side of the front entrance. They are sixteen feet wide by two and a half feet thick, and extend upwards, without material change, from below the foundation to the top of the third story. There they are connected by iron girders, and on these girders the instruments rest. The dome of the observatory rests upon the other walls of the building, and has no connection with the piers that are used to sup- port the instruments. The height of the dome above the level of the pavement, is one hundred and twelve feet. Throughout the building v careful provision has been made for light. The win- CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA. 255 dows are all large, and are as closely placed as a due regard to the strength of the walls would permit. Four out of six of the class rooms on each floor, are cor- ner rooms, admitting light from two sides. The large lecture room on the first floor, is lighted on three sides. There are two main stairways, one at each end of the large hall. That in front runs in a well, from the first floor to the arch of the observatory. That in the rear connects only the first and second stories. The building has also a double flight of stairs in the rear, connecting the main hall with the basement, a double flight of outside stairs into the basement from each end of the building, and a small stairway connecting the chemical laboratory with the class room above. The main stairsvays are all six feet wide, each stair having a rise of seven, and a tread of twelve inches. The door into the main entrance in front, is a folding^ door, opening outwards, eight feet wide and eighteen feet high. That in the rear is also folding, opening outwards, eight feet wide and fourteen feet high. The main entrance into the lecture room is likewise a double door, seven feet wide, opening freely both ways. The class rooms are all severally connected by doors, with each other, as well as with the main hall. These doors are all three and a half feet wide. The building thus has admirable facilities for the movements of the classes, as well as for being instantly cleared in case of panic. The general plan of the building is exceeding simple. It is in shape an ob- long parallelogram, fronting lengthwise on Broad street, being one hundred feet long by seventy-two deep. There are three stories besides the basement. The plan in each story is nearly the same. A hall, sixteen feet wide, runs east and west, dividing the building on each floor into two equal parts ; these parts are again severally subdivided by walls running north and south, into three rooms, averaging thirty-eight feet by twenty-two. This gives six rooms on a floor, except on the first floor, where the whole of the north side is reserved for a lecture-room. There is also an additional small room in the third story, occupying the space in the hall over the rear stairway. The lecture room on the first floor is sixty-eight feet long by thirty-eight feet wide, and twenty feet high, and is capable of seating eight hundred persons. The height of the several stories, in the clear both of the floor and the ceiling, is as follows : the basement story ten feet ; the first story twenty feet three inches ; the second story sixteen feet six inches ; the third story sixteen feet. The base- ment in front is five feet three inches above the level of the curbstone ; and, as the lot descends considerably in the rear, the basement is, on an average, more than one-half above ground. It is divided into six rooms, with a transverse hall, on the same plan as the stories above, the rooms being intended for a chemical laboratory, clothes room, wash room, storage, &c. Fig. 2. IU: F.MKNT. 256 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. In regard to the important matted of heating and ventilation, two methods en- gaged the attention of the controllers. The first was, to generate all the heat in one large chamber in the center, and send it thence, north and south, to the ends of the building. The objection to this plan was the difficulty of producing, in con- nection with it, a proper ventilation. To secure good ventilation in an apartment, it is necessary to establish a current through it. The air must be brought in at one end and carried out at the other end. The ventiducts for carrying off the air, after it has been used, must be, as nearly as possible, opposite to the warm flues by which the pure air is introduced ; consequently, if the ht air chamber were placed in ths centre of the building, the ventiducts \v<>uiji 'nave to be in the ex- treme etods. But the end walls, in a building standing apart from others, and en- Fig. 3. FIRST FLOOR. Fig. 4. SKCOND AND THIRD FLOOR. CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA. 257 tirely exposed to the external atmosphere, are naturally colder than those in the center ; they would consequently chill the ventiducts, and thereby greatly impair their efficiency in carrying off the foul air. Besides this, in order that the ventiducts may be perfectly reliable in all weathers, it is necessary that some artificial means should be used for increasing the current by rarefying the air within them. This is ordinarily done by introduc- ing, within the ventiduct, a jet of burning gas, or a small stove. The trouble and expense of such an apparatus is greatly increased by multiplying the number of places where it must be applied. It was, therefore, very desirable, that the venti- ducts should be all brought together into one general tube before going out of the roof. One good fire maintained within it would then suffice for the whole build- ing. But this arrangement would be impracticable if the warm-air flues were to radiate from the center, and the ventiducts be placed at the extremities. It was, therefore, determined to take the other method, namely, to centralize the ventilating apparatus, and generate the heat at the extremities. This is done by four of the largest size furnaces, two being placed at each end of the building, and the heat sent inwards towards the center. This is indicated by the position of the hot air flues, which are all placed in the north and south walls of the several apart- ments. The ventiducts being at the opposite ends of these apartments, all occur in the walls that line the central hall, and are all brought together into one large tube or duct in the loft. This tube, which is about seven feet in diameter, is equal in capacity to that of all the separate ducts combined. It passes out ten feet beyond the roof, and is surmounted by one of Emerson's ventilating caps, with a disc of about ten feet diameter. Into this large tube or chamber, just below the roof, a coal stove is introduced, by which a large amount of hot air may be gener- ated, and an impetus may be given to the ascending current to any extent that is desired. This part of the arrangement is deemed especially important. In clear, cold weather, when the furnaces are in action, and a current of warm air is constantly setting into one extremity of an apartment, it is not difficult to establish and main- tain an ascending exit current from the other end. The air is forced into the ventiduct by the constant pressure from the other end. Moreover, it enters the ventiduct already warmer than the external air. The ventiduct itself becomes warmed; and so the current, once established, perpetuates itself. But when the furnaces are not in operation, nothing of this sort takes place. And yet, this occurs precisely in those parts of the year, when ventilation in a school-room is most needed, viz. : in moderate weather, when it is not warm enough to open the doors and windows, and yet not cold enough to maintain a fire. At such times, the stove in the loft, acting directly and powerfully upon the ventiduct, will at all times create an ascending current, sucking the foul air up, as it were, from the several apart- ments, and thereby causing fresh air to enter from the other extremities. The position of the windows, directly opposite the ventiducts, gives a special facility for this purpose, when the furnaces are not in action. The windows, at such times, take the place of the warm air flues in supplying a stream of fresh air. The following additional particulars' may be mentioned in regard to the apparatus for heating and ventilation. The flues are all made large, both those for the ad- mission, and those for the exit of the air. The dimensions of the several ducts are given in the engravings. In the large lecture room, the two warm air flues have together a capacity of about six square feet ; and the two ventiducts for the same have, together, a capacity of twelve square feet. In the class-rooms, which are thirty-eight feet by twenty-two, the warm air flues average one and one-sixth square feet, and the ventiducts two and one-third square feet. In all the rooms, the warm air is introduced at the bottom of the apartment, as near as possible to the level of the floor ; and the ordinary opening for the escape of the foul air is also on the level with the floor, at the opposite extremity, so as to sweep constantly the lower stratum of air, in which the pupil is immersed. The ventiducts are also supplied with openings at the ceiling, to be used, not in ordinary, but whenever needed, to get rid of excessive heat. In reckoning the advantages of the buiding, in respect to pure air, especial emphasis should be given to the commendible height of the ceilings. Each apartment has a large volume of air at its disposal, in pro- portion to the area of its floor ; and it is obvious, that the air of a room eight or ten feet high, is much more rapidly vitiated than that of one fifteen or twenty feet high. 17 258 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Commencing from small beginnings, in 1838, with only sixty-three students and four professors, and with a character not much beyond that now attained by our best Grammar Schools, the High School has gradually enlarged its corps of pro- fessors, its number of students, and its course of studies, until it has assumed, in public estimation, the rank, as from the Legislature of the Commonwealth, it has received the distinctive attributes of a college. The minimum age for admission was originally twelve, and few students were then admitted much beyond that age. The minimum age for admission is now thirteen, while the actual age of those ad- mitted, averages nearly fifteen. The preparatory studies at the same time have been nearly doubled, raising thereby, in a corresponding degree, the character and studies of the Grammar Schools, and of the whole connected series of schools below them. The number of students in attendance on the High School, during the last six years, has been constantly a little over .500, and it is at this time 516. During the fifteen years that the High School has existed, 2,805 students have been admitted to its privileges, of whom 2,289 have entered upon the active duties of life, and are to be found in almost every walk of professional, commercial, and mechanical busi- ness. These young men, it is true, did not all complete the full course of study. Some of them were not more than a year, a few not more than six months, in the school. Yet, of the great majority of them, it is evident that they were long enough in the institution to have received from it an abiding moral and intellectual influence. The average time of their continuance in the school, was over two years, while many of them completed the full course of four years. The institu- tion, therefore, young as it is, may justly claim to have conducted through a liberal course of study, more young men, even in this infancy of its career, than some of our most honored colleges, which have already celebrated their hundredth anni- versary. The graduates of the High School are admitted, without further prepa- ration, to the study of law, medicine and divinity. As teachers, they are rapidly placing themselves in the front ranks of the profession. Our own public schools have felt the benefit of their influence, and applications are constantly received for their services, in organizing and conducting important educational establishments in other states. The alumni of the High School have furnished the most success- ful reporters for the United States Senate and House of Representatives. Large numbers of them are engaged in civil engineering, and not a few of them are con- nected with that important scientific undertaking, the United States Coast Survey. They are engineers in the Japan Expedition, surgeons in the navy of the United States, miners and merchants in California, and engaged, it is believed, in some capacity, in every State in the Union. All these young men are bound together by a tie of affection for the public schools, and particularly for the High School, the strength of which is even more than proportionate to the benefit they have received. I have been often surprised at the liveliness and fervor of the interest which they have shown towards their Alma Mater. A large part of them, all who were in the school as long as two years, are united in a general society, known as the " Alumni Association," num- bering now 760. Besides this, there are numerous smaller associations, meeting weekly as literary or debating societies, for the purposes of following up the intel- lectual culture which they commenced at school. These associations differ from the ordinary literary societies in colleges, inasmuch as they do not consist of the undergraduates, but are made up entirely of those who have left school. They discuss literary and scientific subjects, prepare essays and lectures, appoint commit- tees to report on questions of science or art, submitted by the members, and re- ceive communications on these subjects from such of their members as have re- moved to other parts of the country. When it is recollected that the vast majority of this number settle in our midst, that they are to be found in every walk of honorable enterprise, professional, mer- cantile and mechanical, and that from the character of the education which they have received, they will naturally acquire positions of greater influence than others who have had less favorable advantages, it is difficult to overestimate their growing importance as a body. There are certainly not less than eighteen hundred of these young men now engaged in active life in the city of Philadelphia, at ages varying from fifteen to thirty. Such is the character which they have acquired among the citizens for successful attention to whatever they undertake, that not a week passes CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA. 259 without applications being received at the school for some of its alumni. Eligible situations in the very best stores and counting houses in the city are offered to them without solicitation. They are constantly advertised for, hoc nomine, in the pub- lic papers. These facts would seem to indicate that the course of instruction and discipline provided by the controllers has been such as to fit the students of the High School for the actual wants of life. It is gratifying to observe, also, that the habits and the moral training, even more than the intellectual instruction, are constantly mentioned as among the qualities that have brought our alumni into request. OCCUPATIONS of the 2,107 pupils who graduated or left during thv eleven years ending July 22d, 1853. Architects 5, Bakers 5, Blacksmiths 48, Blind Makers 2, Bookbinders 19, Brewer 1, Bricklayers 47, Brickmakers 5, Brushmaker 1. Cabinetmakers 14, Ca- dets 3, Carpenters 166, Carvers and Gilders 2, Chairmakers 3, Chemists 12, Clergy- men 9, Clerks 199, Coachmaker 1, Coachtrimmers 2, Conveyancers 76, Coopers 10, Copper-plate printers 2, Copper-smiths 2, Cordwainers 62, Curriers, 14, Cutlers 2. Den- tists 10, Druggists 69, Dyers 2. Engineers 51, Engravers 55. Farmers'95. Gas fitters 7, Gilders 4, Glasscutters3, Goldbeater 1, Grocers 27. Hatters 13. Ironfounders 2, Iron railing maker 1. Jewellers 21. Lawyers 29, Locksmiths 3. Machinists 91, Manufactur- ers 13, Mariners 48, Masons 4, Miller 1, Millwrights 3, Morocco dresser 1, Moulders 2. Painters 13, Paper hanger 1, Patternmakers 2, Physicians 34, Plasterers 2, Plough- maker 1, Plumbers 3, Potter 1, Printers 76. Saddlers 19, Sailmakers2, Ship Carpen- ters 9, Shipjoiners 2, Shipwrights 40, Silversmiths 2, Stereotypists 2, Stone cutters 9, Storekeepers 439, Surveyors 3. Tailors 15, Tanner 1, Teachers 72, Tinsmiths 8, To- bacconists 5, Turners 6, Type founders 4. Umbrellamakers 4. Upholsterer 1. Watch- makers 6, Weavers 5, Wheelwrights 8. Not ascertained 29. Deceased while pupils 10. Total, 2,107. OCCUPATIONS of the Parents or Guardiansof the pupils admitted, from the opening, Oc- tober 22d, 1838, to July \Sth, 1853. Agents 6, Aldermen 2, Artists 3, Auctioneers 2. Ba- kers 24, Barbers 2, Blacksmiths 37, Blindmakers 2, Boarding-house keepers 13, Boiler- maker 1, Bonnet pressersS, Bookbinders 12, Booksellers 5, Bottlers 3, Brassfounders 6, Brewers 11, Bricklayers 29, Brickmakers 14, Bridlebit makers 2, Brokers 28, Brush- makers 12, Button-maker 1, Butcher 1. Cabinetmakers 35, Cap-maker 1, Carder 1, Car-builder 1, Carpenters 245, Carrier 1, Carters 24, Carvers and Gilders 3, Caulker 1, Chairmakers 6, Chaise-driver 1, Chemists 4, Clergymen 41, Clerks and Accountants 159, Coachmakers 6, Coachtrimmer 1, Coal dealers 8, Coal viewer 1, Coffee roaster 1, Coiners 2, Collectors 6, Combmakers 13, Comedians 2, Commission Merchants 1], Conductors 3, Confectioners 10, Contractor 1, Conveyancers 9, Coopers 16, Copper- plate printer 1, Copper-smiths 1, Corders 3, Cordwainers 128, County Commissioner 1, Curriers 18, Custom-house officers 3, Cutlers 2. Daguerreotypists 2, Dealers 22, Den- tists 14, Distillers 10, Draymen 4, Drovers 3, Druggists 29, Dry goods Merchants 12, Dyers 10, Dye-sinkers 1. Editors 2, Engineers 11, Engravers21. Farmers 42, Fisher- men 7, Flour Inspector 1, Frame maker 1, Furriers 3. Gardeners 4, Gentlemen 4, Gen- tlewomen,' (widows) 134, Gilders 4, Glass-blowers 5, Glove-maker 1, Goldbeaters 2, Grocers 100, Guager 1, Gunsmith 1. Hardware Merchants 12, Hair-dresser 1, Hatters 34, Hay Merchants 2, Horse dealers 2, Hose-makers 2, Hucksters 2. Ice-dealers 3, Im- porters 3, Inn-keepers 54, Iron-founders 8. Jewellers 16, Judges 6. Laborers 59, Lamp- maker 1, Lapidary 1, Lastmakers 3, Lawyers 35, Lirne burner 1, Livery Stable keep- ers 3, Locksmiths 4, Lumber Merchants 9. Machinists 47, Mantuamakers 35, Manufac- turers 73. Marble Mason 1, Mariners 36, Mast-Makers 2, Mathematical Instrument makers 6, Measurer and Surveyor 1, Merchants 145, Military Cap maker 1, Millers 12, Milliners 10. Millwrights 3, Miners 2, Morocco-dressers 4, Musical Instrument maker 1, Moulder 1. Organ builder 1, Oystermen 2. Painters 13, Paper Box makers 4, Paper- hangers 2, Paper manufacturer 1, Pattern-makers 3, Paviors 2, Pawnbrokers 4, Pedlars 2. Physicians 62, Piano forte makers 3, Plane makers 2, Plasterers 20, Plumbers 6, Porters 2, Portrait Painters 2, Potters 2, Printers 42, Prison-keeper 1, Publisher 1, Pumpmakers 4. Reedmaker 1, Refiner 1, Reporter 1, Rigger 1. Saddlers 31, Sailma- kers 4, Sailing Masters 2, Salesmen 4, Sashmaker 1, Saw-makers 2, Sawyers 2, Scale maker 1, Seamstresses 28, Shipchandler 1, Shipjoiners 5, Shipsmiths 3, Shipwrights 29, Shuttle-maker 1, Silver-platers 3, Silver-smiths 4, Skin dresser 1, Slater 1, Soap boilers 2, Spar makers 2, Spectacle makers 2, Spinner 1, Spooler 1, Spring makers 2, Stage drivers 3, Starch manufacturer 1, Stereotype-founders 2, Stockmakers 2, Stone cutters 17, Stone Masons 5, Storekeepers 139, Stove finisher 1, Stove maker 1, Su- perintendent of Gas Works 1, Surgical Instrument makers 10, Surveyors 2, Suspender maker 1. Tailoresses 7, Tailors 86, Tallow Chandlers 4, Tanners 5, Teachers 49, Tin- smiths 16, Tobacconists 16, Traders 4. Tube maker 1, Turners 9, Type-founders 4. Umbrella makers 8, Undertakers 2, Upholsters 4. Varnisher 1 , Victuallers 22. Warpers 2, Watchmakers 12, Watchmen 13, Weavers 39, Weigh Master 1, Wheelwrights 14, Whipmaker 1, Worker in Metal 1. Total, 2,805. 260 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. HUGHES' CITY HIGH SCHOOL CINCINNATI. Fig. 1. PERSPECTIVE. PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF CINCINNATI. 261 PLANS OF HUGHES' CITY HIGH SCHOOL OF* CINCINNATI. The Hughes City High School is one of two Public High Schools, sustained partly out of two trust estates, known as the " Woodward" and ' Hughes" Funds, by the City of Cincinnati, as part of ils system of public instruction. This system has grown up to its present extent arid usefulness since 1828-9. when Col. Andrew Mack carried through the Legislature of Ohio, a bill for a special act. imposing a tax of $7,000 upon the city, for the erection of suitable buildings in the several wards, and an annual tax of $7.000 in each subsequent year, which, together with the State appropriation, was to be applied to the support of com- mon schools. Under this act, the system was commenced, and in 1834. it was better grounded and greatly extended by an act authorizing the City Council to build substantial school-houses, and to provide for the support of common schools therein at the expense of the city. Accord- ingly, the city was divided into districts, and in the course of four years nine buildings were erected, at an expense of $96,000 which, in loca- tion, size, and arrangement, were greatly in advance of the then gen- erally received notices of school architecture. From year to year the number of houses has been increased, to meet the demands of the grow- ing population, and the style and fixtures greatly improved. The care of the schools is committed to a Board of Trustees and Visitors, one for each ward, elected by the legal voters thereof. V In 1845, the board were authorized to establish schools of different grades, and in 1847, a Central High School was organized under the charge of Prof. H. H. Barney, who has just (1853.) been elected State Superintendent of Common Schools. In 1850. the Legislature authorized the appointment of a Superinten- dent of Common Schools, ''whose duty it should be to visit and super- intend all the common schools of the city, and, under the direction of the board of trustees and visitors of common schools, to establish such course of studies, rules, and regulations as may be deemed best calculated to promote the progress and well being of said schools." In 1852. the Woodward and Hughes Funds, amounting to $300,000, and yielding an annual income of over $6000, were united for the pur- pose of sustaining two High Schools, in different sections of the city with the same requisites for admission and course of study, and open to both sexes. For the Hughes City High School a lot on Fifth-street was pur- chased for $18.000, and a building, of which the following diagrams present the size, and internal accommodations, was completed in 1853, at an expense of $20.000. The system of Public Instruction in Cincinnati, embraces : I. District schools one for each of the twelve districts, into which the city is divided for school purposes. Each school is classified into four sections or grades, and the pupils pass from the lowest to the next high- est on examination, which is held twice a year. In 1850, there were 6,740 pupils, under 148 teachers, of whom 124 were females. II. German English Schools three in number, are intended for the special accommodations of children born of German parents and who are taught both the German and English language. In 1850, there were three schools, twenty-four teachers, and twenty-three hundred pupils. III. Evening Schools. Cincinnati was one of the first cities to pro- vide this class of schools for children who could not attend the day schools, and for adults whose early education had been neglected. In 1850, there were six schools, open five evenings in the week from October to February, with about six hundred pupils. IV. High Schools of which there are now (1853) two. 262 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 2. BASEMNT. Fig. 3. FIRST FLOOR. HUGHES' CITY HIGH SCHOOL. 263 Fig. 4. SECOND FLOOR. Fig. 5. THIRD FLOOR. PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 265 PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. In the preceding pages we have presented a variety of plans for the construction and internal arrangements of buildings designed and erected for Public High Schools. Whenever and wherever the interest of the community can be sufficiently awakened to call for a public school of the grade generally understood by the term High School, there will be no difficulty in raising the funds necessary to erect and furnish a suitable edifice for the accommodation of the school. It may not, then, be amiss in this place to present a few considerations and facts bearing upon the establishment of a school of this grade in every large village and city in our country. By a Public or Common High School, is intended a public or common school for the older and more advanced scholars of the community in which the same is located, in a course of instruction adapted to their age, and intellectual and moral wants, and, to some extent, to their future pursuits in life. It is common or public in the same sense in which the district school, or any lower grade of school established and supported under a general law and for the public benefit, is common or public. It is open to all the children of the community to which the school belongs, under such regulations as to age, attainments, &c., as the good of the institution may require, or the community may adopt. A Public High School is not neces- sarily a free school. It may be supported by a fund, a public tax, or an assessment or rate of tuition per scholar, or by a combination of all, or any two of these modes. Much less is it a public or com- mon school in the sense of being cheap, inferior, ordinary. To be truly a public school, a High School must embrace in its course of instruction studies which can be more profitably pursued there than in public schools of a lower grade, or which gather their pupils from a more circumscribed territory, and as profitably as in any private school of the same pretensions. It must make a good education common in the highest and best sense of the word common common because it is good enough for the best, and cheap enough for the poorest family in the community. It would be a mockery of the idea of such a school, to call it a Public High School, if the course of instruction pursued in it is not higher and better than can be got in public schools of a lower grade, or if it does not meet the wants of the wealthiest and best educated families, or, if the course of instruc- tion is liberal and thorough, and at the same time the worthy and talented child of a poor family is shut out from its privileges by a high rate of tuition. The school, to be common practically, must be both cheap and good. To be cheap, its support must be provided for wholly or mainly out of a fund, or by public tax. And to justify the imposition of a public tax, the advantages of such a scnooi must accrue to the whole community. It must be shown to be a common benefit, a common interest, which cannot be secured so well, or at 206 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. all, except through the medium of taxation. What, then, are the advantages which may reasonably be anticipated from the establish- ment of a Public High School, properly organized, instructed, and supervised ? First. Every thing which is now done in the several district schools, and schools of lower grade, can be better done, and in a shorter lime, because the teachers will be relieved from the neces- sity of devoting the time and attention now required by few of the older and more advanced pupils, and can bestow all their time and attention upon the preparatory studies and younger children. These studies will be taught in methods suited to the age and attainments of the pupils. A right beginning can thus be made in the lower schools, in giving a thorough practical knowledge of elementary principles, and in the formation of correct mental and moral habits, which are indispensable to all sound education. All this will be done under the additional stimulus of being early and thoroughly fitted for the High School. Second. A High School will give completeness to the system of public instruction which may be in operation. It will make suitable provision for the older and more advanced pupils of both sexes, and will admit of the methods of instruction and discipline which cannot be profitably introduced into the schools below. The lower grade of schools those which are established for young children, require a large use of oral and simultaneous methods, and a frequent change of place and position on the part of the pupils. The higher branches, especially all mathematical subjects, require patient application and habits of abstraction on the part of the older pupils, which can with difficulty, if at all, be attained by many pupils amid a multiplicity of distracting exercises, movements, and sounds. The recitations of this class of pupils, to be profitable and satisfactory, must be con- ducted in a manner which requires time, discussion, and explanation, and the undivided attention both of pupils and teacher. The course of instruction provided in the High School will be equal in extent and value to that which may be given in any private school, academy, or female seminary in the place, and which is now virtually denied to the great mass of the children by the burdensome charge of tuition. As has been already implied, the advantages of a High School should not be confined to the male sex. The great influence of the female sex, as daughters, sisters, wives, mothers, companions, and teachers, in determining the manners, morals, and intelligence of the whole community, leaves no room to question the necessity of pro- viding for the girls the best means of intellectual and moral culture. The course of instruction should embrace the first principles of natural and mechanical philosophy, by which inventive genius and practical skill in the useful arts can be fostered ; such studies as navigation, book-keeping, surveying, botany, chemistry, and kindred studies, which are directly connected with success in the varied departments of domestic and inland trade, with foreign commerce, with gardening, agriculture, the manufacturing and domestic arts ; PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 057 such studies as astronomy, physiology, the history of our own state and nation, the principles of our state and national constitutions, political economy, and moral science ; in fine, such a course of study as is now given in more than fifty towns and cities in New England, and which shall prepare every young man, whose parents may desire it, for business, or for college, and give to every young woman a well disciplined mind, high moral aims, refined tastes, gentle and graceful manners, practical views of her own duties, and those resources of health, thought, conversation, and occupation, which bless alike the highest and lowest station in life. When such a course is provided and carried out, the true idea of the High School will be realized. Third. It will equalize the opportunities of a good education, and exert a happy, social influence throughout the whole community from which it gathers its scholars. From the want of a public school of this character, the children of such families as rely exclusively on the district school are isolated, and are condemned to an inferior education, both in quality and quantity ; they are cut off from the stimulus and sympathy which the mingling of children of the same age from different parts of the same community would impart. The, benefits, direct and indirect, which will result to the country dis- tricts, or poor families who live in the outskirts of the city, from the establishment of a school of this class, cannot easily be overesti- mated. The number of young men and young women who will receive a thorough education, qualifying them for business, and to be teachers, will increase from year to year ; and the number who will press up to the front ranks of scholarship in the school, bearing away the palm of excellence by the vigor of sound minds in sound bodies, of minds and bodies made vigorous by long walks and muscular labor in the open air, will be greater in proportion to their number than from the city districts. It will do both classes good, the children of the city, and the children of the country districts, to measure them- selves intellectually in the same fields of study, and to subject the peculiarities of their respective manners, the roughness and awk- wardness sometimes characteristic of the one, and the artificiality and flippancy of the other, to the harmonizing influence of reciprocal action and reaction. The isolation and estrangement which now divide and subdivide the community into country and city clans, which, if not hostile, are strangers to each other, will give place to the frequent intercourse and esteem of individual and family friend- ship, commenced in the school-room, and on the play-ground of the school. The school will thus become a bond of union, a channel of sympathy, a spring-head of healthy influence, and stimulus to the whole commnnity. Fourth. The privileges of a good school will be brought within the reach of all classes of the community, and will actually be en- joyed by children of the same age from families of the most diverse circumstances as to wealth, education, and occupation. Side by side in the same recitations, heart and hand in the same sports, pressing up together to the same high attainments in knowledge and charac- ter, will be found the children of the rich and poor, the more and the 268 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. less favored in outward circumstances, without knowing or caring to know how far their families are separated by the arbitrary distinc- tions which divide and distract society. With nearly equal oppor- tunities of education in childhood and youth, the prizes of life, its best fields of usefulness, and sources of happiness will be open to all, whatever may have been their accidents of birth and fortune. From many obscure and humble homes in the city and in the country, will be called forth and trained inventive talent, productive skill, in- tellectual taste, and God-like benevolence, which will add to the general wealth, multiply workshops, increase the value of farms, and carry forward every moral and religious enterprise which aims to bless, purify, and elevate society. Fifth. The influence which the annual or semi-annual examina- tion of candidates for admission into the High School, will operate as a powerful and abiding stimulus to exertion throughout all the lower schools. The privileges of the High School will be held forth as the reward of exertion in the lower grade of schools ; and promotion to it, based on the result of an impartial examination, will form an unobjectional standard by which the relative standing of the different schools can be ascertained, and will also indicate the studies and departments of education to which the teachers in particular schools should devote special attention. This influence upon the lower schools, upon scholars and teachers, upon those who reach, and those who do not reach the High School, will be worth more than all it costs, independent of the advantages received by its pupils. Sixth. While the expenses of public or common schools will necessarily be increased by the establishment of a school of this class, in addition to those already supported, the aggregate expenditures for education, including public and private schools, will be diminished. Private schools of the same relative standing will be discontinued for want of patronage, while those of a higher grade, if really called for by the educational wants of the community, will be improved. A healthy competition will necessarily exist between the public and private schools of the highest grade, and the school or schools which do not come up to the highest mark, must go down in public estima- tion. Other things being equal, viz., school-houses, teachers, clas- sification, and the means and appliances of instruction, the public school is always better than the private. From the uniform experi- ence of those places where a High School has been established, it may be safely stated, that there will be an annual saving in the expenses of education to any community, equal to one half the amount paid for tuition in private schools, and, with this saving of expense, there will be a better state of education. Seventh. The successful establishment of a High School, by im- proving the whole system of common schools, and interesting a larger number of families in the prosperity of the schools, will create a better public sentiment on the subject than has heretofore existed, and the schools will be regarded as the common property, the com- mon glory, the common security of the whole community. The wealthy will feel that the small additional tax required to establish PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 269 and sustain this school, if not saved to them in the diminished tuition for the education of their own children in private schools, at home and abroad, is returned to them a hundred fold in the enterprise which it will quicken, in the increased value given to property, and in the number of families which will resort to the place where it is located, as a desirable residence, because of the facilities enjoyed for a good education. The poor will feel that, whatever may betide them, their children are born to an inheritance more valuable than lands or shops, in the free access to institutions where as good an education can be had as money can buy at home or abroad. The stranger will be invited to visit not only the institutions which public or individual benevolence has provided for the poor, the orphan, the deaf mute, and the criminal, but schools where the children and youth of the community are trained to inventive and creative habits of mind, to a practical knowledge of the fundamental principles of business, to sound moral habits, refined tastes, and respectful man- ners. And in what balance, it has well been asked in reference to the cost of good public schools, as compared with these advantages, shall we weigh the value of cultivated, intelligent, energetic, polished, and virtuous citizens ? How much would a community be justified in paying for a physician who should discover or practice some mode of treatment through which many lives should be preserved ? How much for a judge, who, in the able administration of the laws, should secure many fortunes, or rights more precious than fortunes, that might else be lost ? How much for a minister of religion who should be the instrument of saving hundreds from vice and crime, and per- suading them to the exertion of their best powers for the common good ? How much for the ingenious inventor, who, proceeding from the first principles of science onward, should produce some improve- ment that should enlarge all the comforts of society, not to say a steam-engine or a magnetic telegraph ? How much for the patriotic statesman, who, in difficult times, becomes the savior of his country ? How much for the well-instructed and enterprising merchant who should suggest and commence the branches of business that should bring in a vast accession of wealth and strength ? One such person as any of these might repay what a High School would cost for centuries. Whether, in the course of centuries, every High School would produce one such person, it would be useless to prophesy. But it is certain that it would produce many intelligent citizens, intelligent men of business, intelligent servants of the state, intelli- gent teachers, intelligent wives and daughters, who, in their several spheres, would repay to any community much more than they and all their associates had received. The very taxes of a town, in twenty years, will be lessened by the existence of a school which will continually have sent forth those who were so educated as to become not burdens but benefactors. These results have been realized wherever a Public High School has been opened under circumstances favorable to the success of a private school of the same grade, wherever a good school-house, good regulations, (for admission, attendance, studies, ar/1 books,) good teachers, and good supervision have been provided. 270 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The Principal of the Latin High School of Boston, in a letter written 1846, says, " There is no institution so truly republican as such a school as this. While we, the present teachers, were undergraduates of the school, the rich sent their sons to the school because it was the best that could be found. They ascertained that it was not a source of contamination, but that their boys learned here to compare themselves with others, and to feel the necessity of something more that mere wealth, to gain consideration. At that time, poor men sent their sons hither be- cause they knew that they here would get that education which they could afford to give them in no other way. They gained too by intercourse with their wealthiei mates a polish of exterior manners, and an intellectual turn of mind which their friends could appreciate and perceive, although they could not tell what it was that had been acquired. Oftentimes also the poor boy would take the lead of his more pampered classmate, and take the honors of the school. In a class lately belonging to the school were two boys, one the son of a man of extreme wealth, whose property cannot be less than $500,000; anc i the other the son of an Irish laborer employed by the city at a dollar a day to sweep the streets. The latter boy was the better scholar. The Principal of the English High School in a letter writes, "The school under' my charge is pricipally composed of what are called the middling classes of our city. At present, about one third of my pupils are sons of merchants ; the remaining two thirds are sons of professional men, mechan- ics and others. Some of our best scholars are sons of coopers, lamplighters, and day laborers. A few years ago, he who ranked, the last year of his course, as our third scholar, was the son of a lamplighter, and worked three nights per week, during his whole course, to save his father the expense of books, fee., while at school. This year my second (if not the first,) scholar, is a cooper's son. We have several sons o'f clergymen of distinction and lawyers of emi- nence. Indeed, the school is a perfect example of the poor and the rich, meet- ing on common ground and on terms quite democratic. The Principal of the High School for girls in Newburyport, writes, " The Female High School was established by the town of Newburyport nearly three years since, under great opposition. It was the desire of its princi- pal advocates to make it such a school, in respect to the course of instruction, and facilities for acquiring knowledge, and laying the foundation for usefulness, as should so successfully compete with our best private schools, as to supersede their necessity." "A few days after we were organized, a gentleman came into the school- room to make some inquiries respecting the classes of society most fully rep- resented amongst us. I was totally unable to give him the desired information, and judging from the appearance of the individuals of my charge, I could form no idea as to who were the children of poor parents, or of those in better cir- cumstances. I mentioned the names of the parents of several, which I had just taken, and, amongst others, of two young ladies of seventeen or eighteen years of age, who, at that moment, it being recess, were walking down the room, with their arms closely entwined about each other's necks. ' The first of the two,' said the gentleman, ' is a daughter of one of our first merchants, the other has a father worse than none, who obtains a livelihood from one of the lowest and most questionable occupations, and is himself most degraded ' These two young ladies were classmates for more than two years, and very nearly equal in scholarship. The friendship they have formed, I am confident no circumstances of station in life can ever impair. "We have had in our number many from the best families, in all respects, in the place. They sit side by side, they recite, and they associate most freely with those of the humblest parentage, whose widowed mothers, perhaps, toil day atter day, at a wash-tub, without fear of contamination, or, as I honestly believe, a thought of the differences which exist. I have, at present, both ex- tremes under my charge the child of affluence and the child of low parentage and deep poverty. As my arrangements of pupils in divisions, &c. are, most of hem, alphabetical, n often happens that the two extremes are brought together. Ihis never causes a murmur, or look of dislike. PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 271 A member of the School Committee of Worcester, Mass., writes . " Our High School is exceedingly popular with all classes, and in the school- rooms and on the play-grounds, the children of the richest and poorest mingle with perfect equality. No assumption, no jealousy are seen among them. I have been charmed with this republican and Christian character of the school. I have seen the children of parents whose wealth was estimated by hundreds of thousands, in the same school-room with children (and those last among the best scholars of their class) whose parents have been assisted year after year by individual charity. The manners, habits, and moral sentiments of this school are as pure and high as in any academy, or female seminary of the same grade in the commonwealth. " To the improvements of our public schools, which has been going steadily forward since 1825, does this town owe more of its prosperity, its large acces- sion of families from abroad, especially of industrious and skillful mechanics, than to all other causes combined. As a mere investment of capital, men of wealth everywhere cannot do better with a portion of their property than to build elegant and attractive school-houses, and open in them free schools of -the highest order of instruction. They will then see gathering around them men, it may be, of small means, but of practical skill, and moral and industrious habits ; that class of families who feel that one of the great ends of life is to educate their children well." A correspondent from Brattloboro', Vt., writes : " In the same school-room, seated side by side, according to age and attain- ments, are eighty children, representing all classes and conditions in society. The lad or miss, whose father pays a school tax of thirty-five dollars, by the side of another whose expense of instruction is five cents per annum. They play cordially and happily on the same grounds, and pursue the same studies the former frequently incited by the native superiority and practical good sense of the latter. While the contact corrects the factitious gentility and false ideas of superiority in the one, it encourages cleanliness and good breeding in the other." The history of the High School in Providence is the history of almost every similar institution. "The High School was the only feature of our system which encountered much opposition. When first proposed, its bearings on the schools below, and in various ways on the cause of education in the city, was not clearly seen. It was opposed because it was " aristocratic," " because it was unconstitutional to tax property for a city college," " because it would educate children above working for their support," " because a poor boy or girl would never be seen in it" and for all such contradictory reasons. Before it became a part of the system, the question of its adoption, or rejection, was submitted directly to the people, who passed in its favor by a vote of two thirds of all the legal voters of the city. Even after this expression of popular vote in its favor, and after the building for its accommodation was erected, there was a considerable minority who circulated a petition to the City Council against its going into operation. But the school was opened, and now it would be as easy to strike out the whole or any other feature of the system as this. Its influence in giving stimulus and steadiness to the workings of the lower grade of schools, in giving thorough- ness and expansion to the whole course of instruction, in assisting to train teachers for our city and country schools, and in bringing together the older and more advanced pupils, of either sex, from families of every profession, oc- cupation and location in the city, many of whom, but for the opportunities of this school, would enter on the business and duties of life with an imperfect education has demonstrated its own usefulness as a part of the system, and has converted its opponents into friends." Testimony of the same character might be adduced from Phila- delphia, Lowell, New Orleans, and every place where a school of this grade has been established. The growth and influence of a Public High School, when liberally sustained, is admirably illustrated in the history of the Central High School of Philadelphia. 272 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. NORMAL SCHOOLS, OR TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. By a Normal t School, or Teachers' Seminary, is meant an insti- tution for the training of young men and young women who aim to be teachers, to a thorough and practical knowledge of the duties of the school-room, and to the best modes of reaching the heart and intel- lect, and of developing and building up the whole character of a child. It aims to do for the young and inexperienced teacher, all that the direction and example of the master- workman, and all that the experience of the workshop do for the young mechanic all that the naval and military schools do for those who lead in any capacity in the army or navy all that the law school, or the medical school, or the theological seminary do for the professions of law, medicine, or theology. In every department of mechanical, artistic, or profes- sional labor, the highest skill is attained only after long and appro- priate training under wise superintendence ; and the Normal School aims to impart this previous training by providing a thorough course of instruction, under competent teachers, with reference to teaching the same things to others. This course of instruction involves the whole art of teaching a knowledge of human nature, and of a child's nature in particular of the human mind, and especially of a child's mind, and of the order in which its several faculties should be called into exercise ; of the best motives by which good habits of study can be cultivated in the young ; of the arrangement and classification of scholars, and of the best means and appliances for securing obedience and order, and keeping alive an' interest in the daily exercises of the school. And this art of teaching must be illustrated and exemplified by those who are to apply it. in a model school. The idea of such a school is not a mere speculation o! ardent benevolence it is an existing reality in this country as well as in Europe. The first school specially destined for educating and training teachers in the principles and practice of their profession, was in- stituted by the Abbe de La Salle, while Canon of the Cathedral at Rheims, in 1681, and was perfected into the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, in 1684. In 1697, Augustus Herman Franke founded, in connection with his orphan school at Halle, a teacher's class composed of poor stu- dents, who assisted him certain hours in the day in his schools, in return for their board and instruction. Out of these, he selected, about the year ] 704, twelve, who exhibited the right basis of piety, knowledge, and aptness to teach, and constituted them his " Semi- narium Prsecepiorum" or Teachers Seminary. These pupils re- ceived separate instruction for two years, and acquired a due degree of practical skill, in the classes of the same general estab- lishment. Teachers thus trained, and hundreds of others, who re- sorted to Halle, to profit by the organization and spirit of the schools of Franke, disseminated a knowledge of better methods of school organization and instruction throughout Europe, in the course of the next half century. In 1735, the first regular seminary for teachers in Prussia was SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 2*73 established in Pomerania, and the second at Berlin, in 1748, by Hecker, a pupil of Franke. By a royal ordinance in 1752, Frederic 2d enjoined that all vacancies in the country schools on the crown lands, in certain sections of his kingdom, should be supplied by pu- pils from Hecker's Seminary. The King at the same time allowed an annual stipend for the support of twelve alumni of this establish- ment, a number which in 1788 was raised to sixty. In 1773, the chools established at Rekahn, in Brandenburg, became the model schools to which young men resorted from every part of Germany to be trained in the principles and practice of primary instruction. Prior to 1800, there were but six of these institutions in Prussia. But it is the pride and glory of this monarchy, that in periods of the greatest national distress and disaster, when the armies of France were desolating her fields, occupying her citadels, and diverting her revenues, the great work of improving her schools was never lost sight of. The establishment of teachers' seminaries still went for- ward ; that at Konigsburg in 1809, at Branersburg in 1810, and at Breslau in 1812. But not content with establishing these semina- ries at home, the most promising young teachers were sent into other countries to acquire a knowledge of all improvements in the science and art of education. Normal Schools were introduced into Hanover in 1757 ; into Aus- tria in 1767; into Switzerland in 1805; into France in 1808; into Holland in 1816 ; into Belgium in 1843, and into England in 1842. In Prussia and most of the German States, there are now enough of these institutions to supply the demand for teachers in the public schools. Saxony, with a population less than that of the State of New York, supports five Normal Schools, and Saxe-Weimar, with a population less than that of Connecticut, supports two. Prussia, with a population of fourteen millions, has at this time forty-nine* semina- ries, in which there are nearly three thousand teachers. At the end of three years after leaving the seminary, the young teachers return for a re-examination. In Great Britain, after years of strenuous effort on the part of the friends of popular education, the importance of Normal Schools as the chief means for improving the qualifications of teachers, has been recognized by the Government. The Training School at Chelsea, (called St. Mark's College,) tinder the management of the National Society, the Normal and Model School of the British and Foreign School Society, the Battersea Training School, and the Model School of the Infant School Society in England, the Model School of the National Board for Ireland, the Normal Schools at Edinburgh and Glasgow in Scotland, are all aided out of the annual parliamentary grant for education. In this country, the claims of these institutions were first distinctly presented by Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, of Hartford, Conn., in 1825, and by James G. Carter, of Lancaster, Mass., in a series of essays on the subject, and by William Russell, of Boston, in the Journal of Education for 1826. One fact is certain, the improve- ment of schools in every country has followed hand in hand with the establishment, multiplication, and improvement of Normal Schools. 18 274 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MASSACHUSETTS NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSES. THE following plans and descriptions are copied from the " Tenth Annual Report of the feecrelary of the Massachusetts Board of Education," with the permission of the Hon. Horace Mann, by whose indefatigable' labors these institudons were founded, seconded as his eflbrts were by the munificent donation of the sum of ten thousand dollars, from the Hon. Edmund Dwight, of Boston. These buildings were erected partly out of the contribution of $5000, sub- scribed originally by the friends of Mr. Mann, as a testimony of their esteem for his public services, and, at his suggestion, invested in this way thus con- r;ring these edifices into the monuments of their generosity, and of his seif- BRIDGEWATER STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE. Fig. 1. FRONT ELEVATION. This edifice is constructed of wood, and is sixty-four feet by forty-two, and two stories in height. The upper story is d'vileJ into a principal school room, forty-one feet by forty, and two rec ; tatio:>-r->on9 e^ch t-vot~ fr^t b* twelve, and is designed for the N, nrai School. The bwer sfMY is'ntte^ u for a Model School. ' MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSES 2Y5 BRIDGEWATER STATE NORMAL SCHOGL-HOUBE. Fig. 2. LOWER STORY. D, D Doors, one for males, the other for females. E, E Hall-entries, into which the doors D, D open, 19 feet by 15. A, A Stairways, leading from the entries to the Normal School-room. M, S, R Model School-room, 40 feet by 24, with single seats and desks. H Entry-way, 6 feet 8 inches wide, for Model School scholars. At each end of this entry is an outside door, for the entrance of the Model School scholars a separate entrance for each sex. G, F Laboratory and chemical room, or lecture-room, connected by folding doors. The two rooms 40 feet by 16. B, C Back stairways. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. BlUDGEWATER STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE. Fig. 3. UPPER STORT. A, A Separate stairways, for the different sexes, leading from the lower entries, or halls, to the Normal School-room. N, S, R Normal School-room 41 feet by 40. c, c, c Single seats, d, d Double desks. P, P, P Teachers platform, e, e, e, e, e Behind the platform are recesses in the partition foi a library, e, e Between R, R, are closets for apparatus. R. R Recitation- rooms, 22 feet by 12. B, C Back stairways. MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSES. 277 WESTFIF> STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE. Fig. 4. FRONT ELEVATIOX. This edifice is of brick, of the size of sixty-two feet by forty feet, with a portico of eight feet at each end of the building, and is two stories in height. The Normal School-room is about forty feet square, and is provided with two recitation-rooms. The first story is fitted up with a room large enough to accommodate a Model School, which is composed of the children of one ol the districts in the town of Westfield, the district having paid the sum ol $1500 towards the erection of the building, and being obligated to pay an agreed proportion of the expenses of fuel, instruction, &c 278 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. WESTPIELD STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE. Fig. 5. LOWER STORY. leading to Nor- R Recitation- o Q JL o u A Q n o n 8 I? ss MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL HOUSES. 279 WESTFIELD STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOCSE. Fig. 6. UPPKH STORY. S, S Stairways, leading from entry to Normal School-room. N, S, R Normal School-room, 38 feet by 37. e, e Single seats, cl, d Double desks. P, P Platform, with recesses in the partition behind for a library, c, c Closets for apparatus. R. R Recitation-rooms, one 22 feet by 11, the other 22 feet by 10J. 280 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FRAMINGHAM STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE. The State Normal School at Framingham is designed for female teachers, and was originally established at Lexington, in July, 1838, and removed to West Newton in 1846, and to Framingham in 1853. In each instance, as larger and better accommodations were demanded, the location was determined mainly by the liberality of the citizens, in offering greater facilities than other towns for the improvement of the pupils. In 1852, the legislature appropriated six thousand dollars, to defray the ex- penses of providing a more commodious site and building, and the necessary appurtenances and apparatus for the accommodation of the Normal School, established at West Newton, to be expended for that purpose by the Board of Education, which was directed to receive propositions from towns or individuals in aid of the object, and to make such selection as would best subserve the inter- ests and accommodate the wants of the school. The Board selected a site in the town of Framingham, offered to them by several of its citizens, the town itself having voted the sum of two thousand five hundred dollars toward the erection of the building, and the Boston and Worcester Railroad Company having also contributed the further sum of two thousand dollars for the same object. The lot contains four and three-quarters acres of land, situated a few rods south of the central village of the town, on the south-western slope of a hill of gentle declivity, protected on the north by a grove of forest trees, and commanding a view of the surrounding country of wide extent and great beauty. The neighbor- ing village is retired and quiet, containing three churches of different denominations, and a sufficient number of inhabitants to afford homes for the pupils, while the character of the people, owing to the absence of large manufacturing establishments, to the predominance of agricultural pursuits, and the residence in the neighbor- hood of many gentlemen who have either retired from business, or pursue it in the city at a distance from their dwellings, is calculated to exercise a favorable in- fluence upon the young ladies who will compose the school. The building is in the Norman style of architecture, sixty feet square, two stories high, with an entrance arcade, of the same height, thirty-two feet in length and fourteen in width. The first story is finished, ten feet six inches in height, containing entrance halls and stair-cases, a commodious lecture room, which can also be used as a recitation room, an apparatus room adjoining the latter, a large recitation room, a dressing- room, with rooms adjoining, containing water-closets and other conveniences. The second or principal story is finished, seventeen feet high, and is reached by two wide stair-cases, with tw'o entrances to the school-room, which measures fifty- seven feet by thirty-six feet six inches, and has accommodations for one hundred and twenty pupils, which may be extended to one hundred and fifty, with a recita- tion room, a library, and the principal's room adjoining. The three last-mentioned rooms are finished, eight feet six inches in height, and over them is a large recita- tion room, and a room for the water cistern and storage. The entire interior of the two stories is heated by furnaces in the cellar, and ventilated in a manner to insure a circulation of pure air at all times. The house, (with furniture, fence, and appurtenances,) cost $15,750.00, and was dedicated by an appropriate address, by George B. Emerson, which is published in the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of Education, of which he is one of the most efficient members. It may be mentioned here, to the credit of the legislature of Massachusetts in 1853, that, besides making an appropriation for the Normal School building above described, and for the erection of a fourth Normal School-house at Salem, and to aid pupils to prolong their attendance at these schools, forty-eight State scholar- ships in the colleges of Massachusetts were established, to provide for the educa- tion and training of young men for the office of principal teacher in the High Schools of the State. To each scholarship the sum of $100 per annum, for four years, is guarantied. The appointments are made by the Board of Education. To George B. Emerson, Esq., belongs the credit of bringing this subject before the committee of the legislature in a manner to command their unanimous approval. Mr. Emerson was the author of the memorial to the legislature, in behalf of Normal Schools, in 1835. FRAMINGHAM STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. Fig. 2. FIRST FLOOR. 281 V. T Ventilating Ducts. S. F Smoke Flue. R Registers for Hot Air. Fig. 3. SECOND FLOOR. 282 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT ALBANY, NEW YORK. Fig. 1. PERSPECTIVE. The Normal School for the State of New York was established by an act of the Legislature, in 1844, "for the instruction and practice of Teachers of Com- mon Schools, in the science of Education and the art of Teaching," such an institution, having been first recommended to the Legislature by Governor De Wit Clinton, in his message to the Legislature in 1825, and again, in 1826, "as ,the best plan of obtaining able teachers that could be derived," and because it was well calculated to have " most benign influence on individual happiness and social prosperity." After an experiment of seventeen years, in trying to train teachers in departments connected with certain academies aided for this purpose out of the Literature Fund on the recommendation of Samuel Young, Superintendent of Common Schools, and through the efforts of Calvin T. Hulburd, Chairman of the Committee on Colleges, Academies, and Common Schools, in the House of Representatives, Samuel S. Randall, Deputy Superintendent, Francis Dwight, Editor of the District School Journal, Prof, (now Bishop) Potter, the sum of $10,000 annually, for six years, was appropriated in 1844, for the support of a Nor- mal School. It went into operation on the 18th of December, 1844, in a build- ing provided gratuitously by the city of Albany, and temporarily fitted up for that purpose. In 1848, an act was passed by the Legislature "for the permanent establishment of a State Normal School," appropriating $15,000 toward the erection of a suita- ble building. The following year an additional appropriation of $10,000 was made for its completion. A large and commodious edifice, (see Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,) containing a dwelling-house for the Principal, has accordingly been erected on the corner of Lodge and Howard-streets, adjoining the State Geological and Agricul- tural Rooms. To this building the school was removed on the 31st of July, 1849. YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 283 Fio. 2. PLAN OF BASEMKNT. The Basement extends un- der the entire building, and is used for fuel, furnaces, water-closets, (which are so constructed and cleansed as to be perfectly inoffensive,) If the room, become too cool Close the upper registers, (for a short time only;) close the upper door of the stove and open the lower door; drop the cover down within two inches of the sides. 5. Never close the top of the stove entirely down, while there is any fire therein. 6. At night, on leaving the room, let the cover of the stove down within one inch of the sides ; close the lower door, and open the upper one ; place all the registers open about half their width. 7. Fill the water basins every morning, and wash them twice a week. The fires should be kept, if possible, through the night, by covering the coal. The coal to be white ash. Construction of Ventiducts. Since the first edition of this work was published, the following note has been received from Dr. Clark, in relation to the structure of the dis- charging ventiducts. BOSTON, Feb. 12th, 1849. HENRY BARNARD, ESQ.: My Dear Sir, Will you allow me to ask your attention to a single matter relating to ventilation? I refer to the construction, situation, and proper' materials of the venti- ducts which are intended to carry off the foul air. In almost all instances within my knowledge, excepting in the buildings in this place, which have been ventilated within two or three years past, these discharging ducts are made of brick or stone, being often, therefore, also built in the outer wall. If there is any peculiar advantage in our school- house ventilation, its success is very much owing to the manner of locating and con- structing these same ejecting ventiducts. The brick ducts always operate doumwards ; that is to say, the air has a constant ten- dency to fall in them, and they will never " draw" in the proper or upward direction, with the best turncap or top known, unless there is a high wind, or unless artificial power, such as afire, or a fan wheel be put in requisition. Now the contrary is the fact with the thin wooden, or lath-and-plaster, interior ventiduct. The current is always in the right or upward direction. They are warmed to the temperature of the room, and when provided with a proper top will operate in all seasons. Although the currents will vary in power and rapidity, yet, while almost all our ventiducts are provided, and should be, with means of heating by lamps or otherwise, I believe they have scarcely had occasion to light them. So that any impressions formed in relation to this part of the subject from the English, and particularly the French methods of ventilating school-houses, when the brick flues are always used, must be entirely erroneous. The days in which the fires in the French flues would be forgotten and omitted, or be permitted to go out, would far exceed the number of those in which our ventiducts would not act in the most perfect manner without any power at all. I would not have troubled you, but that I know this point, from much practical experi- ence, to be worthy of especial attention, and in case you should publish a new edition of your work on school-houses, I hope it may be considered. I am, dear sir, Yours very truly, HENRY G. CLARK 324 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. APPARATUS FOR WARMING. THE thorough ventilation, the constant and regular change of the at- mosphere of a school-room cannot be secured by simply providing flues or openings, however judiciously constructed and placed, for the escape of the air which has become impure from the process of breathing or other causes. These flues will network satisfactorily, unless a mode of warm- ing the room is adopted by which a large supply of pure fresh air, properly heated, is flowing in to supply the place of that which is escaping by means of the flues. Among the various modes of warming school-rooms and public halls, which we have seen in full and successful operation, we select a few, in addition to those described in other parts of the work, as worthy of the par- ticular attention of committees and others, who are looking round for a heating apparatus. We shall use the cuts and description by which the patentees and venders have chosen to make their several modes of warm- ing known to the public, without intending to decide on the relative merits of any one mode. CULVER'S HOT- Am FURNACE. PATENTED AND MANUFACTURED BY CULVER & Co., 52 CLIFF-STREET, NEW YORK. Culver's Hot-Air Furnace, as described in the following diagram and explanations, is intended for hard coal, to be set in double walls of brick masonry in cellar or basement, below the rooms to be warmed. Figure 1. A. Iron or Brick Ash Pit. B. Ash Pit door. C. Pot, or coal Burner, with or without soap- stmie lining 1 . D. Fire Chamber. E. Lower half of Tubular drum. F. Elliptical tubes. G. -Upper half of Tubular drum. H. Top of Tubular dram. I. Cap and smoke pipe. K. Flat Radiator. L. Water bason or evapo- rator. M. Smoke pipe to chimney. N. Conductors of Hot Air. O. Cold air conductor and chamber. P. Feed door. d. Hot- Air chamber. R. Damper in globe with rod attached. S. Pendulum valve for cleaning. f- Shows the direc- tion of the currents of hot or cold air. CULVER'S FURNACE. 325 Culver & Co. also make, and put up, various sizes of Portable Furnaces, with metallic coverings, suitable for counting rooms, stores, school- rooms and small houses, warming tha rooms in which they stand, as well as others in the same building, and they can be removed in summer as conveniently as stoves. Figure 3. Figure 2 represents a section of large size Portable Furnace or double cas- ings of sheet iron or zinc. The same letters for reference are used as in Fig. 1. Figure 3 represents a smaller size Portable Furnace, with two metal cover- ings and an evaporating dish standing upon the top of the drum. The peculiarities and advantages of the Furnace are thus set forth : 1. Its compact, convenient and beautiful form. 2. Its great durability ; being in all its parts of cast iron, set within walls of brick masonry. The pot or burner being whole, is found by experience to be more durable than those made of rings or segments, and entirely prevents the admission of gas into the hot-air chamber. 3. The great radiating surfaces of this Furnace exceed those of any other, and being nearly all perpendicular, and so arranged as to afford no chance for the soot, light coal ashes or dust to collect on the plates and prevent the trans- mission of heat through them, for it must be obvious to every thinking mind, that if a radiating surface is of a zig-zag, or any other form that prevent the descent of dust or soot in a perpendicular line, it will certainly collect dust upon it, and just so much surface thus covered s destroyed for radiating purposes, and in the same proportion will a greatei consumption of fuel be required to produce a given result. These furnaces are so constructed that heat acts actively upon those surfaces within, and produces the immediate and powerful heating ot the cold air that is admitted to the outer surface from the atmosphere, through the lubes for that purpose. 4. The great economy in 'he use of fuel, making and controlling more heat than by any other process of using it. 5. The joints of this Furnace are so constructed that the expansion and con- traction of the metal cannot open them to admit gas into the hot-air chamber, and it can be cleaned of soot and ashes easily, without the necessity of taking down or breaking a joint; its action is simple, as easily understood and managed as a cylinder stove, and as readily repaired and kept in order, and the manner of " rehioving the deposits" is entirely novel and most efficient. G. The constant current ot the pure atmosphere into the air chamber, witk 326 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. the evaporation for tempering it to any degree of humidity, gives a fine health- ful ventilation, and a soft summer temperature, suited to the most delicate con- stitution, and without injury to the building or furniture. The above described Air Heaters are manufactured and sold, wholesale and retail, by Culver & Co., who, when required, set them in double walls of brick masonry, with cast iron smoke pipe to chimneys, and conductors of hot air, of double cross tin, terminating with registers in the rooms, and secured safely from fire by tin or soap-stone linings. Figure 4. Figure 4 represents patterns of scroll work Registers manufactured by Culver & Co., and put in with their furnaces if desired. The registers have valves under the surface, which are easily controlled by means of the star centers. They can be used for ventilating purposes as well as for admitting warm air. The following directions are given in Culver & Co.'s Circular for the use of their Furnace. DIRECTIONS FOK USE. In kindling the fire, the valve should be opened by drawing out the Damper Rod R, so as to let the smoke pass directly through smoke pipe M to chimney. Shavings, pine wood, or charcoal, should be thrown into the pot or coal burner C, and when well ignited, put in about half a hod of coal, and as soon as it also becomes ignited, fill the pot two thirds full of coal, and push the damper R partly in, so as to regulate the draught and heat as may be necessary. The. valve may be entirely closed, if need be, so as to retain the heat, making it to pass through the Flat Radiator K. In moderate weather, when little heat is wanted, put two shovels lull of ashes on the centre of the fire, and by regulating the draught, you can make one fire' last 24 hours without any alteration ; and when you wish to renew the fire, poke out a portion of the ashes, and put on fresh coal, without turning the grate. In cold weather, however, to secure a brisk fire, the crank should be turned so as to empty the pot entirely of ashes, and commence a new fire at least once in 24 hours. When there is too much heat generated, the ash-pit door, B, should be closed entirely, and the damper rod partly drawn out, and if this is not sufficient, the Register in feed-door P may be opened ; the heat in the different rooms may be regulated by opening or closing the Registers; all the Registers however should never be closed it the same time, unless the water door is opened to let out the hot air. The cold-air :onductor, 0, should always be open when the Furnace is ia operation. SAND-BATH AND DISTILLING APPARATUS. 327 Mr. Culver manufactures a Sand-Bath, with "Water-Bath and Distilling Appa- ratus attached, which possesses the recommendations of efficiency, compactness, and economy of fuel. The following description applies to one erected by him in the Yale Analytical Laboratory, New Haven, as described by Prof. John P. Nor- ton, in Sillimau's Journal for July, 1851. Fig. 1. FURNACE. In fig. 1, a is the furnace, the position of which is also seen at a in fig. 2. The heat of the fire passes through the bed plate, 6, 6, fig. 2, heating the sand which lies upon its upper surface. All noxious fumes are conveyed away by the ventilator c, fig. 2, which opens into a chimney flue, and may be closed or opened at pleasure by the chain d. To this sand-bath, the water-baths and distilling ap- paratus are attached. The furnace a is an iron pot, lined inside with firebrick as usual, e, e, fig. 1, where is inserted a water-back of large size. This communicates by the pipe /, with the water-bath g. There are two of these pipes, one above, and one below, as shown at /, /, in fig. 2, through the open door. The front elevation of the water-bath, which is of copper in all its parts, is shown at g, in fig. 2. Each of the doors seen on the front, opens into a separate compartment. The depth of these compartments is shown by the sections A, h, h, in fig. 1. At t, fig. 2, is a larger compartment, for receiving articles of considerable size. At j, is a glass tube to show the height of water in the water-bath, and at &, a cock placed so low that all of the water contained may be drawn off", thus remov- ing any small quantity of sediment which occasionally accumulates. These two parts are seen more clearly atj, and k, in fig. 3. The furnace is fed through a door at /. A moderate fire is sufficient to estab- lish a brisk circulation through the pipes/,/, and causes the water to boil violently in the water-bath, keeping it always full, up to 212 F. The steam formed escapes through the pipe m, fig. 1 , also shown at m, m, figs. 2 and 3. At n, figs. 2 and 3, is a coupling, connecting the copper m with a blocktin pipe o, figs. 2 and 3, and worm /, fig. 1. This worm is contained in the condenser g, figs. 2 and 3. The distilled water thus produced, escapes at r, figs. 2 and 3, and runs into the receiver , beneath. The condenser stands on a shelf over a sink <, figs. 1 , 2, and 3, at the farther end of which is a force pump M, figs. 1 and 3. A pipe v, figs. 1 328 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. and 3, runs from the top of this pump into the condenser. The pump delivers cold water into the sink in the common way, but by closing the cock at u>, fig. 3, will throw its stream into the condenser. This water, when warm, is drawn off at. the cock x, figs. 1, 2, and 3. The pipe from this cock, seen at y, fig. 1, rises to within an inch or two of the top of the condenser, so that the warm water is drawn off first. By this arrangement, the very great convenience is obtained of a con- stant supply of hot water, delivered into the sink for washing. As the well water at New Haven contains a considerable amount of solid mat- ter, which soon incrusts the interior of vessels in which it is steadily boiled, rain water only is used in the water-bath. The supply is kept up through the pipe z, as shown in figs. 1 , 2 and 3, running under the floor. Its whole course may be traced by these three figures. It rises into the box A, figs. 1, and 3, in which the water stands on a level with the upper part of the glass guage tube, shown atj, in fig. 3. Upon the surface floats a large, hollow, copper ball, B, fig. 1. As soon as the for- mation of steam, and its consequent passing off into the condenser, commences in the water-bath, the surface of course lowers, and a corresponding lowering occurs in the box A. The copper ball B sinks with the water, and gradually opens a valve at C, fig. 1. This admits a stream of water from an elevated cistern, which flows in just fast enough to supply that which passes off from the water-bath as steam. This arrangement is only novel in its present application, being, I believe, quite common in some of our cities for regulating the flow of water into cisterns. It works admirably in the present case, and seldom if ever requires any attention. If the fire is very hot, so much steam is occasionally generated, that it is not con- densed with sufficient rapidity ; a partial flow of hot water back into the box A, has several times occurred under these circumstances, but has never been suffi- cient to overflow. This difficulty might be avoided by enlarging the conducting pipe m, and the worm p, or by reducing the size of the water-back e, c, fig. 1. The space D, fig. 1 , is a large, dry, hot oven, where quite a high heat is obtained. This is also shown at D, the door being taken off. In this oven a shelf is placed, perforated with holes for the insertion of funnels, tubes, &c. It is in constant use for drying, and is found to be of very great service in all cases where rapid dry- ing is desirable, and a precise temperature is not required. The small door at E, fig. 2, is another means of access to this oven. The water-bath is set in the brickwork, but may be taken out and reset without disturbing the rest of the apparatus ; in fact, every part is accessible. The coup- lings to the pipes/, /, may be reached through the door F ; those to the supply pipe z, at G, fig. 3, those to the escape pipe ra, by taking out a brick at H, fig. 3. In order to obtain ready access to the interior of the furnace pot a, there is a large movable circular plate immediately above ; its circumference is shown by the dotted line at I, I, in fig. 1. The supply of water from the cistern to the box A, is cut off by a stop-cock at the cistern, and the water may be entirely drawn off from the box by a small cock at J, under the floor. It will be seen that this arrangement is compact and simple. There is no part liable to get out of order, or that, once out of order, can not be easily reached for the purpose of repairs. By means of one fire, and that not large, we heat the sand-bath sufficiently, maintain a large water-bath constantly at 212 F., make from ten to fifteen gal- lons of perfectly pure water per day, heat a large drying oven, and keep a con- stant supply of hot water over the sink for washing. Every thing takes care of itself, excepting the fire, and the occasional pumping of cold Water into the con- denser. I am unable, after two months of experience, to suggest any important improvement in these arrangements, and feel confident that any one who should put up a similar apparatus would not be disappointed. The iron work is all japanned. The glass should be set with a putty made of boiled linseed oil, as that will harden under the heat to which it is exposed ; the common putty made with fish oil remains soft, and the glass is constantly lia- ble to get out of place. Prof. Norton expresses his obligations to Mr. Culver, for the practical skill by which the difficulties in adjusting the different parts of this apparatus were over- come, and for the substantial and satisfactory manner in which the work was done. SAND-BATH AND DISTILLING APPARATUS. 329 Fig. 2. FRONT ELEVATION. Fig. 3. SIDE ELEVATION. 330 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. MOTT'S VENTILATING SCHOOL-STOVE, FOR BURNING WOOD OR COAL. Patented and Manufactured by J. L. MOTT, 264 Water-street, N. Y. By this stove the room is warmed by conducting a supply of moderate/y heated pure air from without, as well as by direct radiation from the upper por- tion of the stove. A. Air Chamber, lor coal or wood. B. A revolving grate with a cam process, by which the ashes are easily detached and made to drop into the ash-pit below. C. Ash-Pit, by which also the draft can be regulated, and the stove made an air-tight. D. Duct, or flue under the floor, by which fresh air from without is admitted under and around the stove, and circulates in the direction indicated by the arrows. This, and all stoves designed to promote ventilation by introducing fresh air from without, will work satisfactorily only where a flue properly constructed is provided to carry off the air which has become impure fiom respiration. CHILSON'S VENTILATING STOVES. 331 CHILSON'B COAL VENTILATING SCHOOL STOVES. The Boston Ventilating Stove, Fig. 1, designed and patented by Dr. Clark, and Chilson's Patent Trio Portable Furnace, Fig. 2, are composed of a cylinder of sheet- iron, inclosing a fire-chamber which is lined with soapstone, or fire-brick, and is so made as to present a large amount of radiating surface. The air to be warmed, is introduced beneath the fire-chamber by a flue from out of doors, and passing up, and around the heated surface, flows directly into the room, or into pipes to be communicated into other departments, as indicated by the arrows in the above drawings. These stoves and furnaces are intended to burn coal. FIG. l. Fia. 2. CHILSON'S WOOD VENTILATING STOVE. Mr. Chilson has also patented a plan of stove for burning wood, Fig. 3, by which the air is introduced by a flue beneath the stove, and is warmed by circulating through cast-iron tubes, which constitute the sides and ends of the stove. Fio. 3. HIL S ON^VEtfTItAT IN GWO OD STOVE 332 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. CHILSON'S AIR-WARMING AND VENTILATING FURNACE, Patented and Manufactured by Gardner Chilson, Boston. The construction of the Air- Warming and Ventilating Furnace was projected by the inventor, to obviate the serious, if not fatal, objections, so generally made, to the use of furnaces for warming apartments, where a fresh, healthful atmospheric air is required. From long experience in putting up furnaces, in which coal was consumed in deep iron pots, and the air which they warmed was made to pass over a large extent of iron surface, made and kept red-hot, he found that the occupants of the rooms thus warmed, complained that the air was not unfrequently filled with the gases of the burning coal, and was at all times dry and stagnant, causing, especially to persons of a nervous tempera- ment, disagreeable sensations to the whole system, such as dizziness of the head, headache, inflammation of the eyes and lungs, dryness of the lips and skin, &c. He found, too, by his own experience and observation in the manu- facture and use of furnaces of this kind, that there was an unnecessary con- sumption of coal, when burnt in deep, straight and narrow pots, causing the coal to melt and run to cinders, and at the same time burning out the pots, and loosening the joints of the furnace, by which the deadly gases escaped into the air-chambers, and hence into the apartments above. These objections, both on the score of health and expense, the inventor claims that he has thoroughly ob- viated in his Air-Warming and Ventilating Furnace, and at the same time pre- served all the advantages heretofore realized from this mode of warming build- ings. The advantages of the Furnace are 1. The fire-pot is constructed on the most economical and philosophical principles. It is broad and shallow, at least twice as broad and one third as deep as the common fire-pot ; is one third smaller at the bottom than at the top, and is lined with fire-brick or soap-stone. Thus the fire-bed is deep enough to keep the coal well ignited with a slow but perfect combustion, while the en- tire heat from the fuel is given out to act upon the radiating surface alone and the fire-pot can never become red-hot, and does not require renewal. This plan for burning coal is original with the inventor, and has met with universal approbation. '2. The radiating surface is large, and so placed that it receives the immedi- ate and natural action of the heat, and at the same time imparts its heat in the CHILSON'S FURNACE. 333 most direct and uniform manner to the fresh air from without, without suffering waste by absorption from the outer walls of the air-chamber. 3. The air-chamber is large, and the fresh air is admitted and discharged so readily and uniformly that no portion of the radiating surface can ever be- come overheated ; and a delightful summer temperature is maintained in the rooms. 4. The joints of the furnace are so constructed, that, even if the iron-work was liable, like other furnaces, to crack from extreme expansion, by being over- heated, (which it is not,) the gas from the burning coal cannot escape into the air-chamber. 5. There are no horizontal inner surfaces on which dust and soot can gather, which do not, at the same time, clean themselves, or admit of being easily cleaned. (>. The grate in the fire-pot is so constructed, that the ashes can be easily de- tached, and the combustion facilitated. 7. It has stood all the test which sharp rivalry and the most severe philosophi- cal practical science could apply to it, and has thus far accomplished all that its inventor promised, and when tried in the same building with other fur- naces, has uniformly received the preference. . Dr. Bell, Superintendent of the McLean Asylum for the Insane, who has given this whole subject his particular attention, in his Essay on the Practical Methods of Ventilating Buildings, published in the proceedings of the Massa- chusetts Medical Society for 1848, remarks as follows : " The character of any variety of the hot-air furnace is measured, in my judgment, by the simplicity of its construction, its non-liability to be brought to an undue degree of heat in any part, and its ready receipt and emission of air. That made by Mr. Gardner Chilson, of Boston, with an air-chamber of brick, and an interspace of two or three feet in width, appears to me to combine all the essentials attainable of this mode of heating air, more fully than any other which has fallen under my observation." In 1847, the School Committee of Boston sanctioned, by a unanimous vote, the introduction of this furnace into the new school-houses to be erected in that city, gn the recommendation of a sub-committee, to which the whole sub- ject of warming and ventilating the school-rooms had been referred. The fol- lowing is the recommendation referred to. ' : Your Committee have made themselves acquainted not only with all the Furnaces which have been manufactured in this place, and its neighborhood, but with all those which have been exhibited here recently. Most of them show much ingenuity of contrivance and excellence of workmanship ; but are all, so far as we can judge, inferior, in many respects, to the one invented by Mr. Chilson, a model and plans of which we now exhibit, and recommend as superior to all others. It is simple in its structure, easily managed, will consume the fuel perfectly, and with a moderate fire. It is fitted for wood or coal. The fire-place is broad and shallow, and is lined with soapstone or fire-brick, which not only makes it perfectly safe and durable, but modifies very materially the usual effect of the fire upon the iron pot. The principal radiating surfaces are wrought iron, of a suitable thickness for service, while at the same time the heat of the smallest fire is communi- cated immediately to the air-chamber. The mode of setting this Furnace we consider essential ; more especially the plan of admitting the air to the furnace at its lowest point, as it then rises naturally into the apartments above. This process commences as soon as the temperature is raised even a single degree. The outer walls remain cold ; the floor above is not endangered, and the whole building is rapidly filled with an atmosphere which is at once salubrious and delightful." This Ventilating Furnace may be seen in the Mayhew, Dwight, Hancock, Boylston, Bowdoin, and Ingraham school-houses, in Boston; also in several new school-houses in Cambridge, Roxbury, Dorchester, Springfield, in the Blind Asylum and House of Industry, South Boston, and in hundreds of pri- vate houses in Boston and its vicinity. 334 SCOOOL ARCHITECTURE. DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING CHILSON'S PATENT FURNACE. In locating the furnace, choose a situation as equidistant from the registers as possible, so that the pipes may be of nearly equal length, and branch from two or more sides of the furnace. Secure a proper foundation, by leveling the ground on which the furnace is to rest ; and dig down a few inches preparatory to a foundation of brick work, which should cover two inches larger than the outer walls. Should the ground be soft or spongy, fill it with gravel or hard coal ashes ; if it prove necessary from the lowness of the cellar to sink the base of the ash-pit below its surface, excavate a trench of corresponding depth, the width of which shall be that of the recess in the walls, and project out about three feet. Commence the walls as shown in the ground plan, figure 1. Figure 1 Ground Plan. A A A Outer Walls. B B B B Space, between outer and inner Walls, two inches at nearest point. C C C C Inner Wall. ]) Brick covering over Cold Air Channel. E Brick covering or floor from large Entrance Door. F F F F F Iron Trench Plates. G G G Three four-inch Brick Piers, support under Trench Plates. H H Space between Trench Plates and base of Fire Pot, for ingress of Cold Air. Four and a half inches for Nos. 3 and 4 : five inches for No. 5 ; six inches for No. 6. I Cast iron Ash-Pit, or Base to Furnace J Cold Air Channel. K-8et back, or recess in front Wall ; for Nos. 3 and 4, thirty-three inches wide inside, and eight inches deep. For Nos. 5 and 6, thirty-seven inches wide, and twelve inches deep. CHILSON'S FURNACE. 335 The outer wall should be four inches in thickness ; that of the inner, eight inches from the base to the trench plates, and four inches above made in the form of a circle, of such diameter as shall leave a space of two inches between it and the outer wall at the nearest point. Make the recess in the walls front of the door as shown by ground plan, No. 1, and of the dimensions described under same plan. Apertures must be made in the base of the inner wall, as shown in plan No. 1 , to give the cold air free ingress into the space between the walls, and carry off the heat radiated from the inside wall into the perforated hot air pipe, and also to prevent the outer wall becoming hot and heating the cellar, caus- ing a waste of heat, damage to vegetables, etc. After the foundation has reached the height of the furnace base, the cold air channel, which is constructed to conduct the air directly to the space be- tween the inner wall and the cast iron ash-pit, should be covered by means of iron bars overlaid with brick. Figure 2 Sectional View. SIZE or BRICK WORK. No. 35-8 by 5-8, outside. I No. 56-6 by 6-6, outside. " 46 feet by 6 feet, outside. ' " 67 feet by 7 feet, outside. Outside Walls, four incnes thick, for all sizes. Inside Walls, eight inches thick, all sizes, to Trench Plates, and four inches above. Eight apertures, eight inches high and two wide, in base of inner wall, for the passage of air between walls. SIZE OF COLD AIR CHANNELS. No. 3, Equivalent to 200 square inches, inside " 4, 240 " " " " 5, " 325 " " " 6, '< 400 " " " 336 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The entrance or man-hole door, should be built in the outer wall, as shown by ground plan, letter E, and a corresponding opening in the inner wall, for the purpose of entrance. On a level with the base, a covering, similar to that of the cold air channel, should be placed between them and the open space between walls, closed with brick, that the heat from the chamber may not escape through the openings. Construct the inner wall, as shown in the sectional view, No. 2, allowing its line to follow outward, somewhat in the shape of the pot, for four or five courses, grad- ually receding until within two inches of the outside wall ; from this point carry it uprightly to the level of the dome plate ; then commence to draw in or decrease its size in the form of an arched cone, of such sweep, that when opposite the annular chamber, or ring of the furnace, it shall have a space of four inches between ; carry this arched-shaped wall from eight to twelve inches above the furnace, according to its size, then place iron bars across covered with brick ; finish by thoroughly and smoothly plastering the walls inside. The outer walls are to be carried up as represented in the drawing, partially arched, and covered like the others ; after the mason work has reached the height from which it is desired to carry the hot air pipes through the walls, place the ends even with the inner wall, and build them into it. Also build in casings of sheet iron or tin in front of the clearing-out pipe and funnel, through both walls two inches larger than the pipe, running through them ; the ends outside are of course to be stopped with caps, in one of which a hole is made to admit the funnel. The hot air pipes should be conducted from the highest point of the inner wall, as in sectional view, through the arch of the brick work ; from which point they should gradually rise to the registers in the floor, always keeping in view the fact that the nearer the pipes can be carried to a perpendicular line from the wall of the furnace to the apartment above, the more readily and economically is heat obtained. The size of the pipes and registers, and their general disposition, is a matter re- quiring the best judgment of the mechanic under whose supervision they come, and are determined by the size, position, and distance of the apartment from the furnace, and can not be subject to any fixed rule; as in two rooms of the same dimensions, we often use pipes and registers of different size, owing to their near- ness or distance from the furnace in a horizontal line their height above the basement the relative position of other pipes, the purposes for which the rooms are to be used, and the amount of heat required, &c., &c. As a general rule, however, in rooms upon the first floor, whose dimensions are equal to fifteen feet square, and of ordinary height, use an eight-inch pipe, and registers eight by twelve inches ; twenty feet square, ten-inch pipe, registers nine by fourteen inches ; twenty-five feet square, twelve-inch pipe, registers ten by sixteen, or twelve by nineteen inches. For halls of ordinary size, use register nine by fourteen ; ten- inch pipe. Adopt the same scale in rooms of different capacity. If pipes or hot air tubes are carried into apartments above those of the first floor, they should be two inches smaller in size, than those used in rooms of the same capacity below ; so that, should a lower room require a pipe of ten inches in diameter, that above would be eight inches, and still higher, six inches ; supposing each room to be of the same size, and directly above the first. In all hot air pipes that go above the first floor, a damper should be placed near the exit from the furnace, and kept closed when not in use, in order to economize the heat that would otherwise fill the pipes when the registers are closed. It is often expedient to heat two adjoining rooms separated by a partition ; in which case, it is our custom to use but one pipe for both ; bringing it up to the partition, and placing a T or horizontal pipe across the top, projecting each side, into which registers are to be inserted, of a size corresponding with the rooms. In double parlors, or rooms connected by sliding or folding doors, we usually place but one register, near their common opening, in case it is intended to use both apartments at once. In many instances, it is required to heat rooms not in a direct line of communi- cation from the furnace, and in which it seems difficult to introduce pipe without marring the building, or exposing them to view in their passage through other CHILSON'S FURNACE. 33 j rooms. In such cases an ingenious mechanic will generally surmount the appar- ent difficulty by taking advantage of closets, spaces between partitions, chimney pieces, &c., or, if. either are impracticable, by carrying the pipes upright through the corner of the room and hiding its unsightly appearance by finishing in front with wood, painting it in representation of a column, or in such a manner as will best suit the style of the apartment. As a rule, however, we do not carry pipes above the first floor, except it is designed to heat an apartment for use during the day, as the heat from the hall register will keep the chambers comfortably warmed by leaving the doors opened. The smoke pipe should be carried directly to the nearest flue, and should it be necessary to carry it horizontally to a considerable distance, surround it by a easing, or pipe of tin, three inches larger in diameter than the smoke pipe itself, and the waste heat that radiates from the smoke pipe, may be used to warm any adjoining apartment, by continuing a hot air pipe into the room and inserting a funnel register which we manufacture for that purpose. The cold air box should be constructed of wood, smooth-planed inside and out. Its opening should be from the north or west side of the building ; carry it along the ceiling to the furnace, then drop it perpendicularly down to the base of the cold air channel. This box should contain a damper or slide, which in very cold weather, or when the fire is first kindling, can be partially closed ; but so ar- ranged that it shall never entirely shut out the air. In speaking of a wooden cold air box, we do not by any means consider it im- perative that this material should be used in its construction, as we often conduct the air in a brick trench, covered with flat stones, smoothly plastered and thor- oughly cemented, below the level of the ground. This method, when the cellar is dry, has the advantage of permanence, and occupies no room ; but it is an ad- ditional expense which all are not willing to incur, and is not reckoned in making furnace estimates. Perforate one or two of the hot air pipes with holes, two inches in diameter, in the part which goes between the walls, for the purpose of carrying off the heat that is collected in the space between. If the cellar is wet, carry out the base on which the walls are to stand one foot larger than the walls themselves ; use hydraulic or Roman cement in its con- struction ; lay the brick two courses, and place a liberal supply of cement between ; then, after the furnace walls are erected, carry up a barrier or guard wall from the edge of the brick base, a few inches above the level of the ground, and fill the intervening space between the barriers and the outer furnace wall with cement or clay ; adopt also the same precaution around the trench ; in fact, form a complete casing of brick, thoroughly cemented, all round the base of the furnace, which will prove a sufficient guaranty from water. In public halls, or buildings where but a single register is required, carry up the inside wall to a perfect arch and lead the hot air pipe directly from the top, and use a hot air grate without valves, of the following sizes : No. 3 Furnaces Grates 22 inches in diameter, and Hot Air Pipes IS inches in diameter. u 4 u >< 04 u u it tt 21 ' " 5 " 28 " " " " " 24 " " it 6 it 32 .< 07 It is frequently desirable to have square or parallelogram shaped grates instead of round ; when this is the case, use those sizes where capacity in square inches will be equivalent to those given above. In speaking of grates without valves, we wish it especially understood, that in no instance where but a single pipe is taken from the furnace, should registers with valves be used, or dampers placed in the hot air pipes ; but the amount of heat required, should be regulated by the fire itself; or, if an outlet be deemed expedient, carry it off by means of another pipe, into an adjoining apartment. DIRECTIONS FOR USING CHILSON's PATENT WARMING AND VENTILATING APPARATUS. 1st. In building a fire in the furnace, open the damper in the smoke-pipe. 2d. Clean out the old coal and ashes from the ash-pit, and also from the lever- grate ; sift the old coal, ashes, &c., and preserve the coal siftings for covering over the fresh fire. 338 SCOOOL ARCHITECTURE. 3d. Always keep the ash-pit, under the grate, clear of ashes ; this done, there 18 no possibility of burning out the grate. 4th. Kindle the fire with a small quantity of either wood, bark, or charcoal. Dry hard wood preferable. 5th. When the kindlings are well charred, put on a small quantity of white ash coal, and when well ignited, (but before burning up clear,) add fresh coal, not ex- ceeding six inches in depth. 6th. Close both the feed and ash-pit doors, also the small register in the ash-pit door, then close the damper, in the smoke pipe, as far as practicable to cause the fuel to be consumed slowly or on the air-tight principle ; this always to be done before the coal burns up clear. 7th. Cover over the fresh coal fire in moderate weather, with fine coal and the old coal siftings, keeping the draft in the smoke pipe well shut off ; in this way, a fire may be kept for a great length of time without replenishing ; thus greatly economizing in the consumption of fuel ; but in extremely cold weather, do not cover over the fire with fine coal, but keep it bright, always checking the draft to keep the fire clear of clinker. 8th. Always have a large supply of cold air passing into the furnace. At no time have the damper, in the cold air-box, fully closed ; even in very cold weather it should be at least one-half open. The milder the weather, the more fresh air to be admitted for ventilation. 9th. Never allow all the registers to be closed at the same time ; and if the rooms become too warm, regulate and lessen the fire, and let there be constantly a free circulation of warm air from some, or all the registers ; this is essential for the ventilation as well as warming of the rooms. 10th. Do not suffer the fire during the day, to get so low, before replenishing, as to require kindlings to bring it up. llth. Where there is provision made for ventilation in the rooms, and venti- ducts extending down to the floor, with apertures at the top and bottom, close the apertures at the top, and open those at the bottom, until the rooms become well warmed and ventilated, and when there is too much warmth in the rooms open the upper apertures, permitting the heat to run off, until the room becomes com- fortable, then close the upper apertures ; never open the windows or doors in cold weather to cool or to attempt to ventilate the rooms ; if done, it will prevent the action or draft in the foul air ventiducts ; there is also a liability to those sit- ting near the windows or doors to take cold, in consequence of the cold air falling upon their heads. The above directions are simple and easily followed, and if strictly adhered to, will be found very perfect in operation, and economical in the consumption of fuel, keeping the fire ignited a long time without replenishing, and fiving out a large quantity of fresh, healthful, warm air, perfectly free from red- ot iron heat. These ventilating flues or ventiducts, should always be located in an opposite cor- ner of the room, from that at which the heated air enters, and should be carried up separately to the roof of the building. They should be fitted at the top and bottom with a door or valve, whose capacity should be equal to that of the venti- duct into which it opens. The best material for their construction is. thoroughly seasoned, sound pine boards, planed smooth on the inner surface, and put together with iron screws. It is indispensible to attach an ejecting ventilator to the ventiducts at their ter- minus. In this way, down blasts are obviated, the rain excluded, and, whenever there is a wind, no matter what its direction, it produces, in a properly construct- ed ejector, an active upward current. The arear of the flues for admitting fresh air, should exceed those of its exit by about twenty-five per cent. BUSHNELL'S FURNACE. BUSHNELL'S PATENT HOT-AIR FURNACE. Manufactured by Ezra Clark, Jr., 61 Front street, Hartford, Conn. 339 BUSHNELL'S FURNACE is the only one constructed on strictly scientific principles, and bears any test either of theory or practice. Scientific gentle- men have endorsed its excellence, and successful practice approves and con- firms their recommendation. The radiating part of this furnace, being that portion which diffuses the heat, is distinguished from all others from the fact that the cold air is passed into the furnace chamber between horizontal cast iron pipes or tubes, inside of which the hot gas of the fire is circulating, and communicating its heat, as it passes off to the chimney ; so that the cold air is brought in direct contact with the heated iron, and is actually heated before it reaches the inner cham- ber of the furnace. While the cold air is passing one way to be heated (be- tween the heated iron pipes) the hot gas of the fire is passing the other way to be cooled, and thus the mean difference of temperature is kept the greatest possible at every point. The greatest amount of heat will be communicated in this way, by the least amount of iron surface ; and as the radiator has a very large surface, it follows that more heat is extracted (from a given amount of fuel) than by any other invention yet offered to the public. This furnace is so constructed that it clears itself of ashes and soot, never requiring to be disturbed, and consequently requires not as much care as an ordinary fire. A child can take care of it when in use, and it can stand from season to season, untouched, without trouble or expense, and be at any mo- ment ready for immediate use. Two kinds of pots are offered by the manufacturer, for use with this fur- nace ; one similar to the most approved forms now in use, the other entirely different, and the invention of DR. BUSHNELL. It differs from all others in allowing the fire to be stirred above the grate, and through the opening by which the coal is entered. This throws up the dead coals and cinders, which are then easily removed, and, as the grate need never be dropped, the dirty process of riddling is avoided. No ashes escape, and the cloud of dust which usually envelopes the tender in all other furnaces, is no where seen in this, and no uncleanliness results from renewing the fire. The fire may be stirred and cleaned when it is in full action, as well as at any other time ; the coals will never rattle down to choke the fire, but will of necessity, by this method of stirring, always be thrown up into a light open cinder, giving free passage to the draft and facilitating combustion. This furnace is offered in the entire confidence that it is the best ever manufactured, and this bold assertion is warranted and proved by the favora- ble testimony of those who have used it. A TRIAL is ALL THE PROOF RE- QUIRED. Three sizes of furnaces are made, viz. : No. 1 with 17 inch pot ; No. 2 with 20 inch pot ; No. 3 with 24 inch pot ; which are now for sale in most of the larger cities and towns in the northern states. Orders for Bushnell's Furnaces will be promptly attended to, on application by mail or otherwise, to EZRA CLARK, Jr., Hartford, Conn. 340 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. DOUBLE FIRE-PLACE FOR WARMING AND VENTILATION. The following plan of warming and ventilating a school-room is re- commended by Mr. George B. Emerson in (he School and Schoolmaster. The position of the proposed fire-place may be seen in the Plans of School-rooms by the same eminent teacher, published on page 50 of this work. Warming: In a suitable position, pointed out in the plates, near the door, let a common brick fireplace be built. Let this be inclosed, on the back and on each side, by a casing of brick, leaving, be- tween the fireplace and the casing, a space of four or five inches, which will be heat- ed through the back and jambs. Into this space let the air be admitted from beneath by a box 24 inches wide and 6 or 8 deep, leading from the external atmosphere by an opening beneath the front door, or at some other convenient place. The brick casing should be continued up as high as six or eight inches above the top of the fireplace, where it may open into the room by lateral orifices, to be commanded by iron doors, through which the heated air will enter the room. If these are lower, part of the warm air will find its way into the fireplace. The brick chimney should Fireplace. A. Horizontal section. B. Perpendicular section, c. Brick walls, 4 inches thick. d. Air space between the walls, e. Solid fronts of masonry. /. Air box for supply of fresh air, extending beneath the floor to the front door. g-. Openings on the sides of the fire- place, for the heated air to pass into the room. h. Front of the fireplace and mantelpiece. '. Iron smoke flue, 8 inches diameter, j. Space between the fireplace and wall, k Par- tition wall. I. Floor. rise at least two or three feet above the hollow back, and may be surmounted by a flat iron, soap-stone, or brick top, with an opening for a smoke-pipe, which may be thence conducted to any part of the room. The smoke-pipe should rise a foot, then pass to one side, and then over a passage, to the oppo- site extremity of the room, where it should ascend perpendicularly, and issue above the roof. The fireplace should be provided with iron doors, by which it may be completely closed. The advantages of this double fireplace are, 1. the fire, being made against brick, imparts to the air of the apartment none of the deleterious qualities which are produced by a common iron stove, but gives the pleasant heat of an open fireplace ; 2. none of the heat of the fuel will be lost, as the smoke-pipe may be extended far enough to communicate nearly all the heat contained in the smoke ; 3. the current of air heated within the hollow back, and constant- ly pouring into the room, will diffuse an equable heat throughout every part : 4. the pressure of the air of the room will be constantly outward, little cold will enter by cracks and windows, and the fireplace will have no tendency to smoke ; 5. by means of the iron doors, the fire may be completely controlled, increased op diminished at pleasure, with *he advantages of an air-tight stove. For that purpose, there must be a valve or slide near the bottom of one of the doors. If, instead of this fireplace, a common stove be adopted, it should be placed above the air-passage, which may be commanded by a valve or register in the floor, so as to admit or exclude air. SCHOOL FURNITURE. IN the construction and arrangement of the furniture of a school, both for pupils and teachers, regard must be had to the following particulars : 1. The varying size of the occupant; so that not one shall be sub- jected to any awkward, inconvenient, or unhealthy position of the limbs, chest, or spine. 2. The grade of the school, the occupations of the pupils, and the methods of instruction, so that the objects aimed at may be secured in the best manner. A school composed of very young children, another in which drawing and sewing receive special attention, a third con- ducted on the monitorial plan, a fourth embracing a large number of pupils in a hall for study and lectures, under one principal teacher, with class-rooms, for recitations by assistants, and a fifth in which the pupils are classified under permanent teachers in separate rooms, will require different, furniture and arrangements. 3. Facility of access, so that each pupil may go to and from his seat, with the least possible noise, inconvenience, and waste of time to him- self and others. 4. The supervision of the whole school by the teacher, with a free passage for him to every pupil, as well as every facility for the ac- commodation of his books of reference, and the use of apparatus and diagrams, and his collective and class teaching. 5. Facility for sweeping and keeping the room neat. The following diagrams and suggestions as to the details of con- struction and arrangements, will enable committees to furnish their school and class-rooms with appropriate furniture, which will answer the above conditions. The wood portion of all school furniture should be made of clear, hard, well-seasoned material, like cherry, mahogany, or birch ; the sur- faces worked smooth, the edges and corners nicely rounded, and all the joints, as far as practicable, firmly morticed. Each pupil should be allowed a desk with a top surface at least two feet long and eighteen inches wide, with a shelf, box, or drawer to receive books, &c. The top surface of the desk should incline one inch in a foot toward the front edge, except three inches of the most distant portion, which should be level. Along the front edge of the level portion should run a groove, a quarter of an inch deep, to prevent pencils from rolling off; and on the opposite side an opening to receive a slate, and another for an inkstand, or a permanently fixed cast-iron box with a lid, in which a 342 SCHOOL FURNITURE. movable ink-well may be inserted. There should be no raised ledge on the front edge. The shelf should be about two thirds as wide as the desk, and decline a little from the front. The opening to receive the books should be about four inches. A box, of which the top of the desk forms the lid, is a greater protection from dust, but the opening and shutting of the lid is a frequent source of noise. A portfolio case be attached to the inside of the lid. to receive drawings and manuscripts. The standards to support the desk can be made of wood or cast-iron. The latter are to be preferred, because, without adding much to the cost, they have more strength and durability, and while presenting a variety of elegant forms they can be so curved as to admit of easy access to the seat, and facilitate the use of the broom in sweeping. A variety of patterns are presented in the following pages. When made of wood the standards should be firmly fastened by a strong tenon into the sleepers of the floor or into a shoe, which can be made of cast-iron. The shoe can be made fast to the floor by numerous screws. To secure the greatest firmness, the standards should not be more than four feet apart, and should be strengthened by bars extending between every two, or braces from the center of the standard to an equal distance on the shelf, or back of the desk above. For these pur- poses a socket for the bar or brace, should be cut in the middle of the standard. The several parts of the standard must be adapted to their intended use. The top requires to be cast with a flange or stays crossing each other at right angles, to screw to the wood-work of the desk or seat for which it is intended. When it is practicable, the standard should re- ceive the wood-work into a socket, arm, or lip, so as not to admit of being displaced by any rough usage, which will not at the same time shatter the iron. Several extra holes should be drilled in the standard to re- ceive additional screws, as the old ones from time to time get loose. The height of the standards, whether for desk or seat, will depend on the size of the pupils who are to occupy them. Every pupil, young or old, should be provided with a chair (or bench having the seat hollowed like an ordinary chair) just high enough to allow, when properly occupied, the feet to rest on the floor without the muscles of the thigh being pressed hard upon the front edge of the eeat. In all cases, except in class-rooms fitted up specially for writing or drawing lessons, or when their occupancy will not exceed fifteen or twenty minutes without a change from a sitting to a standing posture, the seats should be provided with a support for the muscles of the back, and, as a general rule, especially for the majority of pupils, this support should rise above the shoulder blades, and should in all cases incline back as it rises, one inch in every foot. The height of the seat from the floor, and the width, will depend on SCHOOL FURNITURE. 343 the age, or rather the size of the pupils ; and, in providing seats for them, regard must be had to the grade of the school, and the varying size of the children. For a primary school, composed of children from four, and even three, years of age to eight or ten, the height should vary from eight to twelve inches, and the width from six to ten inches; and for a school for pupils ranging from ten to sixteen years of age, the height of the seats should vary from ten to seventeen inches, and the width from eight to thirteen inches. To provide against the evil of seats too high for the smallest children, planks or suitable platforms should be furnished, to enable the teacher to seat that class of children properly, so that the feet can rest on the floor. If the children vary in age, and consequent size, in different seasons of the year an extra number of seats, both high and low, should be provided to meet the varying demand. Let the seats which are not required for immediate use be carefully stored away in the attic, and their places supplied by those which are. Great difference of opinion and practice prevails as to the dimensions of the seats and desks for pupils of different ages. The following scale has generally been followed, in plans drawn or approved by the author of this treatise. For schools composed of children of all ages, from four years and under to seventeen years, eight different sizes have been adopted and the number of each size has varied with the number of pupils. The aim has been to secure for each pupil an average space on the floor, of two feet long by twenty-six inches wide, besides the space occupied by teachers' desks, an open area of two or three feet around the room, and an aisle 16 inches wide between each range of desks. NUMBBK. SEAT OB CHAIR. DESK. Height from floor to Front edge. Width to the Support. Height from floor to Front edge. Width of top. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 inches. 9i to 10 104 to 11 12 13 14 15 16j 17 to 17J inches. 9 $ 104 Hi 124 12 inches. 194 to 20 204 to 21 22 23 24 25 264 274 to 28 inches 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 The scale of dimensions adopted in Wales' Improved School Furniture, will be found on page 364, and in Ross' American School Furniture, on page 368. The following table is taken from " Ricksons' School Builders Guide. 11 FORM HEIGHT. 3. BR'DTH. DBSI HEIGHT. CB, BREADTH. DESK TOPS. Upper Class. Lower Class. Upr. Clm. Lwr Clss. SSL Lower Classes. Flap. Ink Brd. Slope. ft. in. ft. in. in. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. in. Minutes of Committee of) Council. 1839-40 pp. 54, 55. \ 1 4 9 2 6 1 I l.'.in. in foot. Battersea Villaee School, from ) 3in. in a sketch by Mr. Griffiths". . \ 1ft. 5 in. National Society's Monthly Pa- > per. No. XVIII, p. 11 \ 1 6 1 2 6* 2 6 2 9 3 British and Foreign School So- ) ciety, Plain Directions, p. 14. \ Manchester National Schools. . 1 4J 1 24 9 9 2 6 2 44 1 1 3 i foot. 344 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. GALLERY AND FURNITURE FOR INFANT AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The gallery, or a succession of seats rising one above the other, on which the children can be gathered at suitable times for simultaneous exercises, such as singing, lessons on real objects, pictures, simple operations of mental arithmetic, &c., has been found an economical arrangement, in respect to space and expense, in schools for a large number of very young children, variously modified ; it is used in Great Britain, not only in infant and primary schools, but in national schools of the highest grade as to the age and proficiency of the pupils, for assembling the whole school for lectures, or for the collective teaching of large classes in writing, drawing, singing, and dictation. The common mode, of constructing benches without backs, and without regard to the size of the pupils, for six or eight young children, or even a larger number, has nothing to recommend it but economy, and not even that, when the waste of the teacher's time, in discipline caused by the children's discomfort, is considered. But the opposite extreme, of separate chairs for each child, especially if the chairs are set far apart for the purpose of preventing all communication and to secure quiet, is not therefore the best mode of seating a primary school. The social disposition of young children should be regarded, and their seats, whether the old fashioned form with the " new fangled back," or the neat chair with back and arms, should be contiguous, so that two can be seated near each other. Even the youngest pupils should be provided with a desk, or with some facility for using the slate in drawing and printing. In the absence of a desk for each child, a leaf with slates inserted, or painted black, should be hung low against the wall for the use of primary classes. PRIMARY SCHOOL BENCH. A movable bench for more than two pupils is an objectionable article of school furniture ; but if introduced at all, the above cut represents a style of this article which combines economy and convenience. The back is inclined slightly from a perpendicular, and the seat is hollowed. The scholars are separated by a compartment, or box, A, which serves as a rest for the arm, and a place of deposit for books. GALLERY AND SAND DESK FOR PRIMARY AND INFANT SCHOOLS. For very small children a Gallery consist- ing of a succession of seats rising above each other, varying in height from seven to nine inches, and provided with a support for the back. This arrangement, in large schools, affords great facility for instruction in music and all simultaneous exercises. The Sand Desk having a trench (b) paint- ed black, to contain a thin layer of sand, in which to trace letters and rude attempts at imitating forms, was originally much resorted to with the young classes, in schools educated on the Lancasterian or Mutual system. This style of desk is still used in the primary schools of the New York Public School Society, but very much improved by Mott's Cast Iron Scroll Stanchions and Revolving Pivot Chair. Every scholar is furnished with a slate, which is deposited in the opening (a) in the top of the desk. PRIMARY SCHOOL FURNITURE. 345 The following cut, Fig. 4, represents a section of a gallery recommended in a memorandum of the Committee of Council on Education. Fio. 4. tig. 5 represents a large gallery in the lecture-room of Borough Road School of the British and Foreign School Society 5 and Fig. 6, a small gallery hi the cor- ner of a class-room in the same school. Fio. 6. Figure 7 represents a Closing Gallery, designed for small rooms. Two steps, ft 6, are fixed, and two, a o, are made on rollers, and when out of use are 1 ushed under b b. When used, they are kept in their place by a bolt to the floor. Fio. 7. 346 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. DESKS AND SEATS OP WOOD. The following cuts exhibit the cheapest mode of constructing a desk and seat of wood, for one or two pupils, the front part of the desk, constituting the back or support of the next seat. The height of the desk may vary from 28 to 29 inob.es Fig. 8. from the floor to the front edge of the top, for the oldest pupils, to 20 to 21 inches for the youngest. The corresponding seat may vary from 17 to 18 inches, to 9-j to 10 inches from the floor. The top of the desk and seat should be two feet long Fig. 9. for each pupil. The upper surface (a,) except about three inches (b) of the desk, should slope one inch in a foot, and may vary in width, from 18 to 12 inches. The level portion of the desk has a grove (a) running along the line of the slope, to prevent pencils and pens from rolling off, and an opening b to receive a slate, and an opening c, (at the end, if the desk is for one pupil, and in the center, if for two pupils,) to receive an ink well, or box for an ink well, with a cover or lid. The seat slopes a little from the edge. The standard, of the desk and seat are curved, so as to facilitate sweeping and getting in and out. The standards may be set in a shoe, as shown on page 369, or made firm to the floor by cleats. Each desk is furnished with a shelf, for books, maps, &c. Fig. 10 is a section of a desk for two, with a chair for one pupil, on a standard of wood. Fig. 10. The following cut (Fig. 1 0) represents a range of seven desks and seats, divided by a partition (a) of matched boards, extending from the floor to three inches above Fig. 11. the surface of the desk. The partition gives great firmness to each desk, and sep- arates each scholar more effectually than an aisle. The lowest seat is nine inches, and the chair, to the leaf desk (e,) is l?i inches from the floor. The front edge of the lowest desk (d) is 19^, and that of the highest (c) is 281 inches from the floor. IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. 347 HARTFORD SCHOOL DESK AND SEAT. The following cut (Fig. 1,) represents a style of school desk, with a seat attached, which has been extensively introduced into village and country districts in Rhode Island, and the neighborhood of Hartford, and is recom- mended wherever a rigid economy must be observed. Fig. 1. The end piece, or supports, both of the seat and desk, are cast iron, and the wood work is attached by screws. They are made for one or two scholars, and of eight sizes, giving a seat from ten inches to seventeen, and a desk at the edge next to the scholar, from seventeen to twenty-six inches from the floor. Fig. 2. Each desk is fitted up with a glass ink-well (Fig. 2.) set firmly into the desk, and covered with a lid. The ink-well may be set into a cast iron box (Fig. 3,) having a cover ; the box being let in and screwed to the desk, and the ink-well being removable for convenience in filling, cleaning, and emptying in cold weather. The desk can be used, by de- taching the support for the seat, with a convenient school-chair, made in the style represented in cut (Fig. 4,) or in any other style. The cost of a desk and seat for two scholars, perfectly fitted up, varies from $1 37Ho$l 50 per scholar. Manufactured by Messrs. Mien <$- Reed, JVos. 37 and 38 Ptarl street, Hartford. 348 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. MOTT'S SCHOOL CHAIR AND DESK. The following minute description of Mott's Patent Revolving Pivot Chair, and cast iron Scroll Stanchions for School Desks, is gathered from a circular of the patentee : The seat of the chair is of wood : all the other parts, of cast iron. The desk stanchions are adjusted to the height of the chair in the following scale, viz: No. of the Chair. Height of Chair Seat. Height of front edge of Desk. Width of Dek. Length of Desk scholar; (not less.) Distance between the rows of Decks. 1 2 3 4 10 Inches. 12 " 14 " 16 " 17 Inches. 19 " 22 " 24 " 12 Inches. 12 " 14 " 15 " 17 Inches. 18 " 20 " 22 20 Inches. 22 " 24 " 25 " The first column denotes the number of the chair, as also the number of the desk stanchions. Second column, the height of the seat from the floor. ITiird column, the height of the front edge of the desk from the floor. Fourth column, the width of the top of the desk. The slope of the desk should rise 1 i inch to the foot ; the larger desks having 2j to 3 inches level on top to accommodate inkstands. Fifth column, the length of desk room required for each scholar. It should not be less than here given. Sixth column, the distance that should be allowed between the desks, from the back of one to the front edge of the other. This space will allow a passage between the chair and the next rear desk. The number of scholars at a desk need not be limited. The position of each chair, when screwed to the floor, should have two-thirds of the allotted desk room to the right of its centre, and be so near that the back of the chair, in its revolution, will barely clear the desk. By placing the chair as described, the body of the child is brought in close proximity to the desk, causing the back of the person to rest, at all times, and under all circumstances, against the back of the chair. The chief peculiarity in the desk is, that in the place of straight wooden legs, there are substituted curved cast iron stanchions ; the obvious advantages of which are, that they occasion no interference with the movements of the scholar seated opposite or near to them. Two stanchions are necessary for a single desk. Two, also, will support a desk of sufficient length to accommodate three scholars ; three, to accommo- date six scholars; four, nine scholars ; and so on for a greater number. The expense of fitting up a room with this chair and desk, in the city of New York, varies from ftl 50 to $2 00 a scholar, aside from the putting up of the desks. BOSTON SCHOOL FURNITURK. 349 Since the foregoing style of chair and desk was introduced, much atten- tion has been paid to the improvement of school furniture, with a view of securing convenience, durability, and economy, in the construction both of chairs and desks. THE BOSTON LATIN HIGH SCHOOL DESK. The above cut represents an end view of a new style of desk used in the Latin High School, in Bedford street, with a section of Wales' Patent School Chair. The standards of the desks are made of cast iron, and are braced in such a manner, that when properly secured to the floor, there is not the least motion. The curve in the standard facilitates the use of the broom in sweeping. THE BO&TON PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR. These Chairs were got up for the special benefit of the Boston Primary Schools, by JOSEPH W. INGRAHAM, Esq., Chairman of the Primary School Standing Committee; and have already been introduced, by order of the Primary School Board, into the greater portion of their Schools. The first pattern, is a Chair with a Shelf (s) under the seat, for the purpose of holding the Books, Slates, fee. of the scholars. The second pattern Sifters from the first, in having, instead of the S/iclf, a Rack (A) on the back of the chair, for the same use as the Shelf in the pre- ceding pattern. The third pattern is similar to the second, except that the Rack :'(A) is placed at tkesi/fe, instead of the back, of the chair. The latter pat- tern (with the Rack on the side) is that now adopted in the Boston Schools. These chairs are manufactured by William G. Shattuck, No. 80 Commercial Street, Boston. The price is fifty cents, each, for those with the Shelf, and tixty-Jlve cents for those with the Rack. 350 WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. THE following cuts represent a large variety of improved school chairs, desks, and other furniture manufactured by Samuel Wales, Jr., at No. 14 Bromfield Street, Boston, Mass., from patterns of his own getting up, and with such facilities of experienced workmen, and ingenious machinery, as enables him to supply all orders for first-class work, with economy, precision, and promptness. Wales' improved school chairs and desks embrace the following variety, and each variety is constructed on the following scale of height, so as to meet the varying proportions of scholars ranging from four years to twenty years of age: No. 1. Chairs, 10 inches high ; Desks, side next the scholar, 20 inches high. 2. ' 11 < i 4 ( ( (I t 21 3. 4. 12 13 i i ( (< ( 22 23 6. 7. 14 15 16 < i c < . ( ( ( (( I (1 ( 24 25i 27 8. 17 28J WALES' AMERICAN SCHOOL CHAIRS. No. 1. These chairs are plain and substantial. Each chair is based upon a single iron pedestal, which is secured to the seat of the chair at the top, and to the floor of the school-room at the foot. The center-piece of the chair-back de- scends directly into the foot of the iron pedestal, intersecting the back of the seat as it passes, in such a manner as to form a back stay, thereby producing in the chair, as a whole, the greatest possible degree of firmness and strength. No. 2. No. 2 represents an improved school desk for two scholars. WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. No. 3. 351 No. 3 represents an improved single desk for one scholar, on iron supports, with American school chairs to correspond. Each desk is furnished with an ink-well, and a metal cover of the best kind. The top is grooved, to ac- commodate pens, pencils, and other small articles, with a safe resting-place. WALES' NEW ENGLAND SCHOOL CHAIRS. No. 4. Each chair is based upon a pedestal of iron, of great beauty and strength, which is firmly secured to the seat of the chair at the top, and to the floor of the school-room at the foot. An ornamental center-piece passes down into the base of the pedestal, forming the center of the chair-back and the back stay. No. 5. 352 WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. No. 6. Cuts No. 5 and No. 6, represent an improved double school desk, the latter for one, and the former for two scholars, with the New England school chair to correspond. WALKS' BOWDOIN SCHOOL CHAIRS. No. 7 These chairs are constructed substantially like those already described, with a tasteful scroll top. The following diagrams, Nos. 8 and 9, represent the chair in connection with a desk, both for one and two scholars. No. 8. WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. 353 No. 9. WALES' WASHINGTON SCHOOL CHAIRS. No. 10. Nos. 10, 11, and 12, represent the eight sizes of another variefy of the chair, with the corresponding desk, both single and double. No. 11. 23 354 WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. No. 12. WALES' NORMAL SCHOOL DESKS AND CHAIRS. No. 13. No. 14. The engraving represents a Normal School Double Desk, on iron supports, having two covers, with Washington School Chairs to correspond. Each cover opens a separate apartment in the desk, designed for the exclusive use of one scholar. WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. 355 WALES' IMPROVED WRITING STOOLS. No. 15. For most educational purposes, chairs are highly preferable, and this seems to be the general opinion ; but, in cases where writing is taught in a separate department, the writing-stool is preferred, as being less expensive, and occu- pying less room. WALES' PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR. No. 16. The engravings No. 16 and No. 17, represent a series of three sizes, suita- ble for scholars from four years of age and upward, comprehending all the sizes needed in primary and intermediate schools, to wit : No. 1, . . 10 inches high. " 2, . . 11 " " " 3, . . 12 " " Each chair is based on an iron pedestal, securely fastened to the seat at the top, and to the floor of the school-room at the foot ; thus becoming a per- manent article of furniture, and completely avoiding the confusion, irregular- ity and noise, which are the unavoidable accompaniments of movable chairs in a school-room. WALES' BASKET PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR. No. 17. The Basket Chair has a tastefully ornamented book basket of iron, into which the children can place their books, slates, and other utensils of study. As a whole, in view of their strength, comfort, beauty and adaptation to their object, these are regarded as the best Primary School Chairs extant. 356 WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. WALES' IMPROVED SETTEES. No. 18. The engravings No. 18 and No. 19, represent an Improved Settee, eight feet in length, based upon iron supports, designed for that purpose. Such settees are well adapted for recitation-rooms, the walls of school-rooms, for the accommodation of visitors, or for any position where permanent settees are wanted. They are made of any required height, size, or length ; often from forty to sixty feet in length, when placed on the walls of school-rooms ; and, being without arms or other divisions, the whole length, in fact, forming a single settee, have been found to be very convenient, and of good appear- ance. WALES' IMPROVED LYCEUM SETTEE. No. ]9. The Improved Lyceum Settee is divided into five parts or seats, with fancy iron arms, made for that purpose. WALES' TEACHERS' ARM-CHAIRS. No. 20. The engravings, Nos. 20 and 21, represent two substantial, well-made, and comfortable arm-chairs, having no other claim to novelty than may be due to the fact that they are constructed entirely of hard wood, and are finished without paint of any kind ; they will therefore wear well, and retain their good appearance without soiling or defacement, for a long period. WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. WALES' TEACHER'S ARM-CHAIRS, wrrn CUSHIONS. No. 21. 357 WALES' TEACHER'S TABLE, WITHOUT DRAWERS. No. 22. WALES' TEACHER'S TABLE, ONE DRAWER. No. 23. WALES' TEACHER'S TABLE, TWO DRAWERS. No. 24. 358 WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. MOVABLE SKELETON DESK. PORTABLE DESK. No. 25. No. 26. WALES' TEACHER'S DESK. No. 27. WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, THREE DRAWERS AND TABLE TOP. No. 28. WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, THREE DRAWERS AND Top DESK. No. 29. WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, TWO DRAWERS AND TABLE TOP. No. 30. 359 WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, TWO DRAWERS AND Top DESK. No. 31. WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, FOOR DRAWERS AND TABLE TOP. No. 32. WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, FOUR DRAWERS AND TOP DESK. No. 33. 360 WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, six DRAWERS AND TABLE TOP. No. 34. WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, six DRAWERS AND Top DESK. No. 35. WALES' TEACHER'S DESK AND LIBRARY, FOUR DRAWERS, TABLE Top AND BOOK-CASE A. A. The side occupied by the Teacher. WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. No. 37. 361 B. B. The side facing the school, with a large drawer for maps, drawings, &c., and two doors which open a book-case, suitable for a school library. WALES' TEACHER'S DESK AND LIBRARY, six DRAWERS, TABLE TOP AND LARGE BOOK-CASE. No. 38. A. A. The side occupied by the Teacher. No. 39. B. . B. The side facing the school, with a large drawer for maps, drawings, &c., a small drawer for utensils of study, and three doors which open a large book-case, suitable for a school library. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. As drawing is a regular study in our best conducted schools, suitable provision should be made, in the construction and arrangement of school furniture, for its convenient prosecution. If this branch is to be attended to at the desks usually occupied by the pupil, a light frame can be attached to the desk to support the model, or lesson copy, and a movable ledge provided, on which the upper part of the drawing board may rest. A LEAP AND DRAWING DESK. A drawing desk may be made, in connection with a fall or leaf desk, after the following plan, from Richson's School Builder's Guide. In the fall or leaf desk, the leaf is attached to the level, fixed portion i, by hinges, and when turned up leans on an iron rod, or support a, and when turned down rests on a bracket (Fig. 1.) The bracket moves on iron pins, let into the under side of the desk above, and the strengthening bar g, below. The end of the arm of the bracket is made with a swivel joint, composed of two projecting points or pins, at right angles to each other, both of which fit into a hole d, on the under side of the desk, to prevent any movement of the bracket. When one of these points /, (Fig. 2,) is up, the leaf resting upon it forms an inclined desk, and when the other point A, is turned up, an extra height is gained and the leaf forms a level table. This form of study or writing desk is easily converted into a drawing desk, (Fig. 3,) by fitting to the under side c, of the leaf near the hinge, a wedge- shaped ledge d, on which the upper end of the movable drawing board may rest, while the other end is placed on the pupils knees. The bracket e, is formed with a curve, in order to admit the ledge when the leaf is let down. The model or SCHOOL FURNITURE. 363 copy can rest on the ledge and against the leaf c. The bracket can be turned in when the leaf is thus used. The annexed cut, Fig. 4, exhibits another method of forming the bracket in a cast iron standard. The upper portion of the standard is, in this specimen, pro- vided with stays, into which the wood work is attached by screws. We give below the plan of a movable drawing desk, designed and manufac- tured by Joseph L. Ross, Boston. Ross' MOVABLE DRAWING DESK. The standard consists of a hollow iron pillar, with a neat tripod base, on which it rests firmly on the floor. In this pillar is inserted a shaft, controlled by a screw, to raise or lower the desk at the pleasure of the pupil. The desk or drawing table is attached to the top of the shaft by hinges, on which it can be turned, and, by means of a circle, which passes through the shaft, and a screw, fixed at any angle required. Attached to the under side of the table is a drawer to receive the implements, &c. 364 DRAWING DESK AND BOARD. The following cuts represent a front view (Fig. 1,) and end section (Fig. 2,) of the desk, and a front view and section of a drawing board (Fig. 3,). recommended for the use of the drawing schools in connection with the Department of Practical Art in the Board of Trade, England. .A G- Cr E Fig. 1. FRONT VIEW OF DRAWING DESK. n . I i il , ,\J.FOOT Fig. 2. SECTION or DRAWING DESK. Fig. 3. DRAWING BOARD. A, A, Fig. 1, A, Fig. 2 A wooden rail, screwed to iron uprights C, C, to hold the' examples or copy. B, B, | inch rod, passing through eyes in f inch iron uprights, C, C, C, to sup- port the examples. C, C, C, | inch iron uprights, screwed to the desk at I, and punched at the up- per end to receive the iron rod B. D, D, hollow space to hold the students' pencils, knives, &c. E, E, wooden rail to stiffen uprights, F, F, F, which are screwed to the floor. G, G, (Fig. 1,) short fillets, as shown at G, (Fig. 2,) placed opposite each stu- dent, to retain the board, or example more upright if necessary. H, (Fig. 2,) a fillet running along the desk, to prevent pencils, &c., rolling off. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. KIMBALL'S IMPROVED SCHOOL CHAIRS AND DESK. "These Chairs combine strength, comfort, and style of finish. They ar 1 made of different heights, varying from eight to sixteen inches, and for Primary as well as for Grammar and "District Schools. The School Desks are made of Pine, Cherry, or Black Walnut, and ot heights to correspond with the chairs. The iron supporters are firmly screwed to the floor, and are braced in such a manner that there is not the least motion. 1 ' The above extracts are taken from the Circular of JAMES KIMBALL. 109 or T27 Essex Street, Salem, Mass. The cuts below represent a view of the desk and seat, and of the frame for the same, used in the high school for girls in New- buryport, Mass. The frame is cast iron, to which the seat and desk is attached by screws. The frame is strength- ened by a brace extending from each side below the seat. 366 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Ross' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE. Although we have already published a variety of designs for desks and chairs for pupils and teachers, we gladly extend the liberty of choice by inserting a series of " practical illustrations of American School Fur- niture," manufactured by Joseph L. Ross, corner of Hawkins and Ivers streets, Boston, Mass. Mr. Ross was one of the earliest to embark in the enterprise of furnishing schools of every grade with graceful, com- fortable, and durable furniture, and his chairs and desks may now be seen in public and private schools in every part of the country. The chair are of seven different heights, the lowest being 10 inches, and the highest 17 inches. The seat is of hard wood, and is attached to a pedestal of iron which is attached to the floor by screws. The pecu- liarity of each style is sufficiently indicated by the diagrams. The desks are also of different heights, and both chairs and desks can be ordered according to the following scale : No. 1 . extra Chairs, 1 7 inches high ; Desks, side next to the scholar, 29 inches high. 1. Chairs, 16 inches high; Desks, side next to the scholar, 27^ 15 14 13 12 11 10 26 241 23 22 21$ 201 No. 1. NEW ENGLAND PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR. No. 2. NEW YORK PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR. No. 3. NEW ENGLAND PRIMARY SCHOOL BASKET CHAIR. ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE. 367 No. 4. NEW ENGLAND SINGLE PRIMARY SCHOOL DESK AND CHAIR. No. 6. NEW ENGLAND DOUBLE PRIMARY SCHOOL ~DBSB AND CHAIRS. 368 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. No. 8. NEW YORK PRIMARY DOUBLE DESK AND CHAIRS No. 9. VILLAGE SCHOOL DESK. Nos. 1, 2, 3, represents different styles of chairs for primary schools, each of four different heights, viz., 10, 11, 12, and 13 inches. The basket for books, slates, &c., in No. 3, is made of cast-iron, and is free from any sharp corners. Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, represents the foregoing styles of chairs in connection with a desk for one or two pupils. The ends, or standards of the desks are wood, and are inserted and bolted in a shoe of iron, which is attached to the floor by screws. The chairs vary in height from 10 to 13 inches, and the desks to the scale on the foregoing page. No. 8 represents a variety in the style of desks, the standard of the latter being cast-iron, of a neat pattern. These have been introduced into several of the primary and intermediate schools of New York.. No. 9 represents a school desk with seat for desk in advance, attached to the same standard. The standard or frame are of cast-iron, and are made of seven different sizes, varying from 10 to 17 inches. Nos. 23 and 23 represents different styles of glass ink well, and metallic covers for the same. No. 24 represents a settee for class-rooms, &c., and for visitors ; made to order of any required length. ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE. 300 Xo. 10 represents a stool or seat without a back, for writing and drawing, of eight different sizes, from 10 to 17 inches. No. 1 1 represents a style of chair generally adopted in the grammar schools of Boston. The pedestal is of cast-iron, to which the seat is firmly attached by screws, and which is also attached to the floor in the same way. The center piece of the chair is let into the foot of the pedestal. There are eight sizes from 10 to 17 inches. No. 23. IMPROVED METALLIC INK WELL COVERS. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. No. 12. SINGLE GRAMMAR SCHOOL DESK AND CHAIR. No. 13. DOUBLE GRAMMAR SCHOOL DESK AND TWO CHAIRS. Nos. 12 and 13, represents a style of desk for one or two pupils, used in the gram- mar schools of Boston. The desk is 16 inches wide and 24 inches long for one, and 48 inches for two pupils. The desk is made firm by an iron brace, one end of which is screwed to the bottom of the desk, and the other to the iron standard. Along the back edge of the top of the desk is a hollow to receive pens, pencil, &c. ; ink-pot or well is inserted with a lead or metallic cover. ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE. 371 No. 14. SINGLE DESK WITH FALL TO LIFT AND CHAIR FOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADIMIM. No. 15. DOUBLE DESK AND TWO CHAIRS FOR TWO SCHOLARS FOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. No. 24. SETTEES FOR RECITATION SCHOOL ROOMS, &c o>7 2 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. No. 16. SINGLE L'ESK AND CHAIR FOR YOUNG LADIES' SEMINARIES No. 17. SINGLE DESK AND CHAIR FOR Youxo LADIES' SEMINARIES Nos. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, present some modifications in the size, style, and finish of the desk. The top of the desk is covered with cloth, a portfolio with a clasp to keep it together, for drawings; an improved hinge ; an improved metallic box with cover to receive a glass ink well, (see Fig. 22,) and the level portion of the top hollowed out to receive pens and pencil. Desks and chairs of this pattern have been manufactured for the Sp'mgler Institute, Union Park, New York, ami the City Normal School, Boston, and other schools of a higher character. The wood work of these and the other patterns are made of cherry, black -walnut or mahogany, according to order. ROSS' AMERICAN' SCHOOL FURNITURE No. 18. EOS-TON HIGH SCHOOL DESK AND CUATR. 373 No. 19. DOUBLE DESK AND TWO CHAIRS FOR YOUKQ LADIES' SEMINARIES. No. 'Jl represents a style of Drawing Desk, designed and manufactured for the Lowell Institute. The bottom of the desk is made of iron in a neat tripod t'orm, with a hollow pillar inserted, in which is a shaft to raise and fall the desk at pleasure, that supports the top of the Drawing Table, and is confined to the same by hinges ; with a circle affixed to the under side of the top and passing through the center of the shaft, which, by a set of screws, enables the person using the Kime, to raise the desk to any height or angle required. Attached to the under- side is a draw for the drawing instruments, made to draw out on either side. 374 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. No. 20. DOUBLE DESK AND TWO CHAIRS FOR YOUNG LADIES' SEMINARIES No. 21. LOWELL INSTITUTE DRAWING DESK. ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE. No. 25. HARD WOOD TEACHER'S CHAIRS. 375 No. 25. A VERT NEAT AND COMFORTABLE TEACHER'S CHAIR 376 SCHOOL ARCHZTECTtTRB. No. 28. RECITATION ROOM TABLE. No. 29. PRIMARY SCHOOL TABLE. No. 30. BOSTON PRIMARY SCHOOL DESK. ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE. 377 No. 31. TEACHER'S TABLE, OF VARIOUS SIZES No. 32. TEACHER'S DESK, WITH TWO DRAWERS. No. 33. TEACHER'S DESK, WITH FOUR DRAWERS. 378 SCHOOL, ARCHITECTURE. No. 34. TEACHER'S DESK, WITH A MOVABLE INCLINED PLANE ON TOP. No. 35. TEACHER'S DESK, CLOTH Top, FOUR DRAWERS. No. 36. TEACHER'S DESK, WITH FOUR DRAWERS AND TOP ESK- ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE. 379 No. 37. BOSTON TEACHER'S DESK, WITH NINE DRAWERS. No. 38. BOSTON TEACHER'S DESK, NINE DRAWERS. ' & J | -" i _, (So ' o! ' tt ' & . I : !! i''^ r a o ] LJ IIT-S I '' 1 S: * .;"fi^-^ No 39. NEW YORK IMPROVED TEACHER'S DESK. -380 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. BOOK MANUAL. 2. 3. The pupil should stand erect, his heels near together, toes turn- ed out, and his eyes directed to the face of the person speaking to him. FIGURE ONE represents th,e Book Monitor with a pile of books across his left arm, with the backs from him, and with the top of the page to the right hand. FIGURE TWO represents the Book Monitor, with the right hand hands the book to the Pupil, who receives it in his right hand, with the back of the book to the left ; and then passes it into the left hand, where it is held with the back upwards, and with the thumb ex- tended at an angle of forty-five degrees with the edge of the book (as in figure 2,) until a further order is given. BOOK MANUAL. 3y] FIGURE THREE When the page is given out, the book is turned by the thumb on the side ; and, while held with both hands, is turned with the back downwards, with the thumbs meeting across the leaves, at a point judged to be nearest the place to be found. On opening the book, the left hand slides down to the bottom, and thence to the middle, where the thumb and little finger are made to press on the two opposite pages. If the Pupil should have thus lit upon the page sought for, he lets fall the right hand by the side, and his position is that of Fig. 3. FIGURE FOUR But, if he has opened short of the page required, the thumb of the right hand is to be placed near the upper corner of the page, as seen in Fig. 4 ; while the forefinger lifts tfye leaves to bring into view the number of the page. If he finds that he has not raised enough, the forefinger and thumb hold those already raised, while the second finger lifts the leaves, and brings them within the grasp of the thumb and finger. When the page required is found, all the fingers are to be passed under the leaves, and the whole turned at once. Should the Pupil, on the contrary, have opened too far, and be obliged to turn back, he places the right thumb, in like manner, on the left-hand page, and the leaves are lifted as before described. FIGURE FIVE Should the book be old, or so large as to be weari- some to hold, the right hand may sustain the left, as seen in Fig. 5. FIGURE six and SEVEN -While reading, as the eye rises to the top of the right-hand page, the right hand is brought to the position seen in Fig. 4; -and, with the forefinger under the leaf, the hand is slid down to the lower corner, and retained there during the reading of this page, as seen in Fig. 6. This also is the position in which the book is to be held when about to be closed ; in doing which, the left hand, being carried up to the side, supports the book firmly and un- moved, while the right hand turns the part it supports over on the left thumb, as seen in Fig. 7. The thumb will then be drawn out from between the leaves, and placed on the cover ; when the right hand vi ill fall by the side, as seen in Fig. 2. FIGURE EIGHT But, if the reading has ended, the right hand re- tains the book, and the left hand falls by the side, as seen in Fig. 8. The book will now be in a position to be handed to the Book Monitor ; who receives it in his right hand, and places it on his left arm, with the back towards his body. The books are now in the most suitable situation for being passed to the shelves or drawers, where, without being crowded, they should be placed with uniformity and care. In conclusion, it may be proper to remark, that however trivial these minute directions may appear to some minds, it will be found on experience, that books thus treated, may be made to last double the time that they will do, under the usual management in schools. Nor is the attainment of a correct and graceful mode of handling a book, the only benefit received by the pupil. The use of this man- ual is calculated to beget a love of order and propriety, and disposes him more readily to adopt the habit generally, of doing things in a methodical and systematic manner. 382 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The following remarks are from the " Report of the Primary School Committee to the Board of Trustees of the Public School Society of New York, on the use of SEATS WITHOUT BACKS : " On inquiry of the female teachers, several of the oldest and most expe- rienced among them say, that instances of curved spine are often perceived among their scholars. Individual members of this Board have noticed simi- lar instances ; and it deserves to be mentioned, that a highly respectable and intelligent foreign gentleman, who is deeply interested in the cause of educa- tion, on a late visit to one of our schools, expressed his surprise on perceiving how large a proportion of the girls were round-shouldered and stooping in their figure." **#***# " 1st. It is a matter of notoriety to the medical profession, that, until about thirty or forty years ago, spinal curvatures were very little known. It is only since "the schoolmaster has got abroad," only since so great and universal an impulse has been given to education, that these cases have become sufficiently numerous to attract the particular attention of medical men. There is now to be found a distinct class of practitioners, and of machinists, who live and thrive by the treatment of spinal injuries. 2d. A large proportion of these cases can be distinctly traced to causes connected with school education. Among the illiterate in all countries, these injuries are scarcely known. They occur most frequently in schools where females are much confined to a sitting posture, with but a scanty allowance of those robust and active exercises which impart power to the muscular ' system, and invigorate the general health. It should be here explained, that the trunk of the body is sustained in its erect position, solely by the action of muscles. Young and growing females who are but feebly endowed with muscular strength, experience such a sense of weariness in sitting upright, as to be induced, from necessity, to drop the body into a variety of curvatures ; and one particular curve becoming habit- ual and long persisted in, finally ends in permanent deformity. The influence of exercise in preventing the evil, is precisely that which it has on the arm of a blacksmith ; it augments the bulk, and redoubles the power of the mus- cles, and gives greater firmness and security to the joints. 3d. In all large cities there are many children, who, from infancy, are strongly predisposed to these affections, owing to a constitutional feebleness of muscle, or an unhealthy condition of the bones or joints. These require every precaution, during the course of their education, to prevent deformity. Supposing- the females attending our schools to be liable to spinal injuries, are these injuries owing to the use of seats without backs ? The answer must be, that they are instrumental in causing them, -just so far as they place the scholar under the necessity of seeking relief in the crooked and unhealthy attitudes into which she throws her body. Another question of similar im- port, .5 this: Would seats with back-supports tend to prevent these injuries? A similar answer must be given. Such seats would act as a preventive, just in proportion as they removed the temptation and the necessity for indulging in injurious flexures of the body. When we see, as we often may, a girl of rapid growth, of yielding joints, and of feeble muscles, propping the weight of her body on her elbows, or, by way of change, bringing her sides alter- nately to rest on the desk before her, can we doubt for a moment, that, with a back-support, she would run less risk of injury to her figure ] And in regard to those children, before alluded to, as having a natural predisposition to spinal distortions, seats of this kind would be indispensable to their safety " APPARATUS. IN addition to che necessary furniture of a school, such as seats, and other fixtures and articles required for the accommodation of pupils and teacher, and the order and cleanliness of the premises, every school- room should be furnished with such apparatus as shall enable the teacher to employ the hand and eye of every pupil in illustration and experiment so far as may be practicable and desirable in the course of instruction pursued in the school. It is therefore important, in the internal arrange- ment of a school-house, to have regard to the safe-keeping, display, and use of such apparatus as the grade of the school, for which the house is intended, may require. A few suggestions will therefore be made on these points, and in aid of committees and trustees in selecting apparatus. . 1. In a large school, and in schools of the highest grade, there will be need of a separate apartment appropriated to the safe-keeping of the apparatus, and in some departments of instruction, for the proper use of the same. But in small schools, and as far as practicable in all schools, maps, diagrams, and other apparatus, should be in view of the school at all times. This will not only add to the attractions of the school, and make the school-room look like a workshop of education, but. will awaken a desire in the pupils to know the uses of the various articles, and to become ac- quainted with the facts and principles which can thus be seen, heard, or handled. 2. Such articles as are liable to be injured by dust, or handling, must be provided with an appropriate room, or a case of sufficient size, having glazed and sliding doors, and convenient shelves. The doors should not be glazed to the floor, on account of liability to breakage, and also to admit of drawers for maps and diagrams, and a closet for such articles as may be uninteresting or unseemly to the eye, although useful in their place. The shelves should be movable, so as to admit of additions of larger or smaller specimens of apparatus, and also of such arrangement as the varying tastes of different teachers may require. 3. There should be a table, with a level top, and capable of being mnde perfectly firm, unless the teacher's desk can be so, for the teacher to place his apparatus on, when in use. 4. The apparatus of every school-room should be selected with refer- ence to the grade of schools to which it is appropriated, and in Primary and District schools in particular, should be of simple construction and convenient for use. 5. As far as practicable, the real object in nature and art, and not a diagram, or model, should be secured. 384 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The following list of articles is necessarily very imperfect, but it may help to guide committees in their search after apparatus. ARTICLES INDISPENSABLE IN SCHOOLS OF EVERY GRADE. A clock. The cardinal points of the heavens painted on the ceiling, or on the teacher's platform, or the floor of the recitation room. As much blackboard, or black surface on the walls of the school-room, and the recitation rooms, as can be secured. A portion of this black sur- face should be in full view of the whole school, for passing explanations; and another portion out of the way, within reach of the smallest pupils. One or more movable blackboards, or large slate, with one or more mova- ble stands or supporters. All the appendages to a blackboard, such as chalk, crayons, and a rub- ber of soft cloth, leather, or sheepskin, and a pointer. An inkstand, fixed into the desk, with a lid, and with a pen-wiper at- tached. A slate, iron-bound at the corners, and covered with list, or India-rub- ber cloth, for every desk, with a pencil-holder and sponge attached. A few extra slates for the use of the youngest pupils, under the care and at the discretion of the teacher. A map of the district, town, county, and slate. A terrestrial globe, properly mounted, or suspended by a wire. The measure of an inch, foot, yard, and rod, marked off" on the edge of the blackboard, or on the wall. Real measures of all kinds, linear, superficial, solid, and liquid ; as a foot-rule, a yard-stick, quarts, bushels, an ounce, pound, &c., for the ex- ercise of the eye and hand. Vases for flowers and natural grasses. APPARATUS FOR A PRIMARY OR DISTRICT SCHOOL. The apparatus for this class of schools cannot be specified with much minuteness, because the ages of the pupils, and the modes of instruction vary so much in different localities. The following list embraces the ar- ticles purchased for Primary and District schools in Rhode Island : Movable Lesson Posts. These are from three and a half to four feet high, and are variously made of wood, and of cast-iron. It consists, when made of wood, of an upright piece of plank from two to three inches square at the bottom, and dimin- ishing regularly to the top, where it is one inch, inserted in a rounder cross base broad enough to support the lesson board, or card, which is suspended by a ring on a hook at or near the top of the post. J. L. Mott, 264, Water street, New York, manufactures for the Primary schools of the Public School Society of New York, a very neat cast-iron lesson stand. Reading Lessons. Colored Prints, and Diagrams of various kinds, such as of animals, costumes, trades, &c., pasted on boards of wood or strong pasteboard ; some with, and others without printed descriptions beneath; to be suspended at appropriate times on the lesson stands, for class exercises, and at other times, on the walls, or deposited in their appropriate places. In this list should be included the numeration table, ta bles for reading arithmetical marks, easy lessons, geometri cal figures, punctuation marks, outline maps, &c. SCHOOL APPARATUS. 385 Allen's Education Table will be found very useful in teaching the Alphabet, Spelling. Reading, and Arithmetic, to little children at home, and in Pri^ mary Schools. Allen's EDUCATION TABLE consists of a board or table, along the centre of which are horizontal grooves, or raised ledges forming grooves between them, that connect with perpendicular grooves or compartments on the sides, in which are inserted an assortment of movable blocks, on the face of which are cut the letters of the alphabet, both capitals and small, the nine digits and cipher, and all the usual pauses and signs used in composition and arithmetic. The letters, figures and signs are large, so as to be readily recognized by all the members of a large class, and from even the extremity of a large school- room, and are so assorted and arranged as to be easily slid from the perpendic- ular grooves or compartments into the horizontal grooves, and there combined into syllables, words and sentences, or used in simple arithmetical operations. When the lesson in the alphabet, spelling, reading, composition, or arithmetic, is finished, the blocks can be returned to their appropriate places. The experience of many teachers in schools of different grades, and of man v mothers at home, (the God-appointed school for little children, next to which should be ranked the well organized Primary School, with a bright, gentle, affectionate and patient female teacher,) has demonstrated that by accustoming the child, either individually, or in a class, to select letter by letter, and move them from their appropriate case to the centre of the board, and there combin- ing them into syllables and words, a knowledge of the alphabet, and of words, is acquired in a much shorter time and in a much more impressive and agree- able manner, than by any of even the best methods- now pursued. All of the advantages derived from the method of dictation, and the use of the slate and blackboard, in teaching children the alphabet, spelling, reading, and the use of capital letters and pauses, as well as the elementary principles of arithmetic, such as numeration, addition, subtraction, &c., can be secured by the introduction of this Table into our Primary and District Schools. Manufactured by EDWIN ALLEN only, Windham. Conn., who trill promptly attend to all orders for them. 25 1386 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. A Movedbh Black-board, or prepared black surface of considerable extent, is indispensable. The upper portion of the standing blackboard should be inclined back a little from the perpendicular, and along the lower edge there should be a pro- jection or trough to catch the particles detached from the chalk or crayon when in use, and a drawer to receive the sponge, cloth, lamb's-skin, or other soft article used in cleaning the surface of the board. Blackboards, even when made with great care, and of the best seasoned materials, are liable to injury and defacement from warping, opening of seams, or splitting when exposed to the overheated atmosphere of school-rooms, unless they are set in a frame like a slate, or the panel of a door. By the following ingenious, and cheap contrivance, a few feet of board can be converted into a table, a sloping desk, one or two blackboards, and a form or seat, and the whole folded up so as not to occupy a space more than five inches wide, and be easily moved from one room to another. It is equally well adapted to a school-room, class-room, library or nursery. // Under side of the swinging board, sus- pended by rule-joint hinges, when turned up, painted black or dark chocolate. a d Folding brackets, inclined at an angle of 75 degrees, and swung out to support the board when a sloping desk is required. b c Folding brackets to support the swinging board when a bench or flat table is required. eee e Uprights attached to the wall. g g Form to be used when the swinging board is let down, and to be sup- ported by folding legs. The under side can be used as a blackboard for small children. h A wooden button to retain the swinging board when turned up for use as a blackboard. n Opening to receive , inkstands, and deposit for slate, pencil, chalk, &c. m Surface of swing- ing board when let down. I Surface of form or bench. When not in use, or let down, the desk and form should hang flush with each other. A cheap movable blackboard can be made after the following cut (Fig. 3. SCHOOL APPARATUS. 387 A movable stand to support a blackboard may be made like a painter's easel, as repre- sented in the accompanying cut. , Pins for board to rest on. c, Hinge or joint to the supporting legs, which are braced by hook b, and may be folded up, and the stand put away in a closet. A stand of this kind is convenient to display outline and other maps, reading lessons and other diagrams. A large movable blackboard may be made as represented in the accompanying cut. An upright frame, strongly braced by cross-pieces (a) is in- serted into the feet(,) or horizontal sup- ports having castors, on which the whole may be rolled on the floor. Within grooves on the inside of this upright frame is a smaller frame (c) hung by a cord which passes over a pulley (rf,) and is so balanced by weights, concealed in the upright parts, as to admit of being raised or lowered conveniently. Within this inner frame is hung the blackboard on pivots, by which the surface of the board can be inclined from a perpendic- ular. A cheaper movable frame, with a blackboard suspended on a pivct, can be made as represented in the lower diagram. The feet, if made as represented in this cut, will be liable to get broken. Composition for Blackboards. Lampblack and flour of emery mixed with spirit-varnish, No more lampblack and flour of emery should be used than are suf- ficient to give the required black and abrading surface ; and the var- nish should contain only sufficient gum to hold the ingredients togeth- er, and confine the composition to the board. The thinner the mix- ture, the better. The lampblack should first be ground with a small quantity of al- cohol, or spirit-varnish, to nee it from lumps. The composition should be appli- ed to the smoothly-planed surface of the board, with a common painter's brush. Let it become thoroughly dry and hard before it is used. Rub it down with pumice-stone, or a piece of smooth wood covered with the composition. This composition may also be used on the walls- 388 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Slate Blackboard. In the class-rooms of the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, and all similar institutions, where most of the instruction is given by writing, and drawings on the blackboard, large slates from three feet wide, to four feet long are substituted for the blackboard. These slates cost from $2 to $3, and are superior to any other form of blackboard, and in a series of years prove more economical. Plaster Blackboard. As a substitute for the painted board, it is common to paint black a portion of the plastered wall when covered with hard finish, (i. e. plaster of Paris and sand ;) or to color it by mixing with the hard finish a sufficient quantity of lamp-black, wet with alcohol, at the time of putting it on. The hard finish, colored in this way, can be put on to an old, as well as to a new surface. Unless the lamp-black is wet with alcohol, or sour beer, it will not mix uni- formly with the hard finish, and when dry, the surface, instead of being a uniform black, will present a spotted appearance. Canvas Blackboard. Every teacher can provide himself with a portable blackboard made of canvas cloth, 3 feet wide and 6 feet long, covered with three or four coats of black paint, like Winchester's Writing Charts. One side might, like this chart, present the elements of the written characters classified in the order of their simplicity, and guide-marks to enable a child to determine with ease the height, width, and inclination of every letter. Below, on the same side, might be ruled the musical scale, leaving sufficient space to receive such characters as may be required to illustrate lessons in music. The oppo- site side can be used for the ordinary purposes of a blackboard. When rolled up, the canvas would occupy a space three feet long, and not more than three inches in diameter. Directions for making Crayons. A school, or the schools of a town, may be supplied with crayons very cheaply, made after the following directions given by Professor Turner of the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb. Take 5 pounds of Paris White, 1 pound of Wheat Flour, wet with water, and knead it well, make it so stiff that it will not stick to the table, but not so stiff as to crumble and fall to pieces when it is rolled under the hand. To roll out the crayons to the proper size, two boards are needed, one, to roll them on ; the other to roll them with. The first should be a smooth pine board, three feet long, and nine inches wide. The other should also be pine, a foot long, and nine inches wide, having nailed on the under side, near each edge, a slip of wood one third of an inch thick, in order to raise it so much above the under board, as, that the crayon, when brought to its proper size, may lie between them without being flattened. The mass is rolled into a ball, and slices are cut from one side of it about one third of an inch thick; these slices are again cut into strips about four inches long and one third of an inch wTde,-and rolled separately between these boards until smooth and round. ' Near at hand, should be another board 3 feet long and 4 inches wide, across which each crayon, as it is made, should be laid so that the ends may pro- ject on each side the crayons should be laid in close contact and straight. When the board is filled, the ends should be trimmed off so as to make tjie crayons as long as the width of the board. It is then laid in the sun, if in hot weather, or if in winter, near a stove or fire-place, where the crayons may dry gradually, which will require twelve hours. When thoroughly dry, they are fit for use. An experienced hand will make 150 in an hour. SCHOOL APPARATUS. 389 We are indebted to Prof. Cook, of Rutgers College, New Jersey, for the follow- ing direetions for making crayons which he finds, after long trial better for the uses of the black-board, than those made after the direction of Prof. Turner, or than those imported from Europe. Take five pounds of whiting, four pounds of boiled plaster, and water enough to make the whole into a moderately thin paste. Mix these thoroughly and quickly. This compound will harden in a few minutes, when it may be dried and sawed into crayons. Bolted Paris white is the best whiting, but the common kind may be used if eare is taken to dry and pulverize it. The plaster used by masons, is- sufficiently good. It should be fresh boiled. As it is the hardening ingredient in the com- pound, the crayons may be made more or less hard, by slightly increasing or di- minishing the amount mentioned above. The vessel in which the mixture is made, should be greased before using, to prevent adhesion. Any convenient one may be used, but a square or oblong box would be found most economical. The mixture is best dried at a common tem- perature ; if artificial heat is used, it should not exceed that of boiling water. Crayons made in this way are better than many of those found in market, and the materials from which they are made are both cheap and common. The square form, produced by sawing, is better for writing than the round. Plaster Black Wall. The following directions may be safely followed in making plaster black wall. In the first place, the scratch coat, made with coarse sand, is spread upon the laths as usual, and the brown coat follows, being left a little rough under the " float." When the brown coat is perfectly dry, the black coat is laid on. This is prepared of mason's " putty" and ground plaster and beach sand, mixed in the usual proportions for hard finish. The coloring matter is lamp-black, wet with alcohol or whiskey, forming a mixture of the consistency of paste. This is mixed with the other ingredients just as they are about to be spread upon the wall. The quantity of coloring to be used must be sufficient to make a black surface ; the sufficiency being determined by experiment no rule can be given. An in- telligent mason can very soon try experiments so as to insure success. It is to be remembered that the black surface requires much more working with the smooth- ing trowel than ordinary white finish. It should be finished by being softly smoothed with a wet brush. When perfectly dry, it is nearly as hard as slate, and almost as durable, if carefully used. Great care should be taken not to put in too much lamp-black. In building a new school-house it would be well to have a belt of this black sur- face pass entirely around the room, at the proper height. In a common school, when small children are to use it, its lower edge should be about two feet from the floor, extending thence upwai-d from 3 to 5^ feet. At the lower edge there should be a " chalk trough," extending the whole length, made by nailing a thin strip of board to the plank, which bounds the black-board, leaving a trough two inches in width and depth, in which to place the chalk, brushes, pointers, &c. ; this will also catch the dust which is wiped from the board. The upper edge should be bounded by a simple moulding. The best thing for removing the halk from the board is a brush, made of the size of a shoe-brush, with the wooden handle on the back, the face being covered with a sheep-skin with the wool on. This removes the chalk at a single sweep, without wearing the surface, and without soiling the hand of the operator. This is a great improvement over & dust-cloth or a sponge. In all cases let the board be kept dry ; never allow a pupil to wet the wiper when removing the chalk. By long use, especially if the surface is ever cleaned with a wet wiper, this kind of black-board becomes too smooth and glossy upon the surface ; the chalk passes over it without taking effect, and the light is reflected by it. A very simple wash, applied with a soft brush, will immediately restore it; this wash is made by dis- solving one part of glue, to two parts of alum in water, so as to make a very thin solution. It is well to have the wash slightly colored with lamp-black. Care must be taken that this wash do not have too much '"* body." 390 SCHOOL APPARATUS. A map exhibitor, consisting of a movable cross, (c) may be attached to a stand or easel, by being let into a groove, cut in the form of a dove- tail at the back (a) of the easel, just above the part where the movable leg is hinged. To suit the varying breadth of maps, the pins or hooks for holding them may be made to slide in a groove in the cross or horizontal part of the exhibitor. The same contrivance, the sliding hook, may be applied to a groove in a board or slip of board, on the side or end of the school-room, at the proper elevation, for the purpose of displaying maps or charts. As ink must be provided in all schools, except those of the infant and primary grade, the material and shape of the pot or well to hold the ink, and the mode of inserting the same in the desk, and covering the mouth or top, so as to exclude dust and prevent evaporation, are points of copsiderable practical importance. The inside material or lining should be glass, to prevent the ink being injured by corrosion. The conical shape, with a projecting rim slightly inclined towards the opening, will be found to have many advantages such as facilitating its in- sertion in the desk, or the tray the dip of the pen, without touching the side of the pot or well the catching of any excess of ink thrown or jerked back by the writer, or thrown out by any sudden jar of the desk. Glass ink wells of various patterns can now be obtained at the principal crockery dealers, and are always furnished by the manufacturers of first class desks.* The ink well should be movable, for convenience of filling and cleansing of sediment, and also for being emptied of ink when not in use, or of being emptied or removed, to avoid freezing in winter. Each desk should be provided with a mova- ble ink well, inserted in a cast iron or other me- talic box having a cover, the box being set in, and secured firmly to the desk. The opening in a glass ink well, when not in use, will be protected by the lid, and the well itself can be removed for convenience in filling, cleansing, and emptying. A Tray for Ink Wells, made of tin, of annexed con- struction, will be found very useful to collect the wells when not in use, or when they are removed for cleansing or other purposes. A Sponge Box, for damping sponge without exposing the surface of the water, may be constructed after the following drawing from Richsori's School Building Guide. To any desk standard (A) attach a box (B) lined with lead. On the inside of the box place a sloping cover, (C) lined on both sides with lead, having at the lower end two rows of perforations, and in the upper a broad slit or open- ing. Through this slit pass a strip of woolen list or flannel, one end (n) of which shall be in the water and the other extend to the perforations in the cover. The water which is taken up by the woolen strip, will filter down the inclined plane, and pass again into the box through the perforations. The surface of the strip will be kept sufficiently wet to damp a sponge without allowing the water to be exposed in the box/ " J. I,. Ross, corner of Ivers and Hawkins streets, Boston, has a very neat style of ink well, box. and cover, as illustrated on pages 371 and 372. Mr. Ross is also the agent of the Cas- tleton Slate Company, and can furnish slates planed by machinery to a perfectly smooth sur- face, of any required dimensions, from eight feet long by five wide, and three-fourths of an inch thick, to auy smaller size. SCHOOL APPARATUS. 391 The Gonigraph is a small instrument composed of a number of flat rods connected by pivots, which can be put into all possible geometrical figures that Consist of straight lines and angles, as triangles, squares, pentagons, hexagons, octagons, &c. The Arilhmeticon, represented in the annexed cut. is a most useful in- strument. In an oblong open frame, twelve rows of wooden balls, alter- nately black and white, and of the size of a nutmeg or small walnut, and twelve in each row, are strung like beads on strong wires. The instru- ment, when fixed to a stand, is about four feet high, the frame being one- fourth part broader than it is high. It may be made much smaller, as in the cut. When it is used to exercise the children in arithmetic, the teacher or monitor stands behind, and slides the balls along the wires from his left; to his right, calling out tha number he shifts, as, twice two are four, thrice two are six, shifting first four balls, and then two more. As the children are apt to confuse the balls remaining with those shifted, a thin board covers half the surface on the side next the children, as marked by a line down the centre, so that they see only the balls shifted to the open side. NUMERAL FRAME. 392 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The Arithmeticon or Numeral Frame represented in the foregoing cut forms a part of Holbruok's Common School Apparatus, which embraces, in addition, the following articles. For showing: the figures, names, properties, and uses of various Geometrical Forms and Solids, the following blocks are made, accompanied with a sheet of diagrams. CUBES. PAUALLELOFIPEPB. SCHOOL APPARATUS. 393 OBLATE SPHEROID. SPHERE. PROLATE SPHEROID. HEXAGONAL PRISM. PRISM. TRIANGULAR PRISM. CYLINDER. PYRAMID AND FRUSTRUM. CONE AND FRUSTROM. 394 SCHOOL ARCHITECl'URE. A Sectional Block, to illustrate the extraction of the cube root. BLOCK TO ILLUSTRATE CUBE ROOT. Accompanying this set is a Drawing Slate, designed particularly for young pupils. On the frame are a set of copies for writing and drawing, which are pro- tected from injury in consequence of friction on the desk by cushions made of India rubber inserted in each corner. This slate is equally well adapted for ths older pupils, and for all arithmetical operations, and its use is accompanied with less noise than any other form of slate. DRAWING SLATE. SCHOOL APPARATUS. 395 A Terrestrial Globe, made of solid, firm material, and so mounted on a simple pedestal that it can be readily removed, and suspended by a cord and thus be held in the hand, and displayed conveniently for familiar illustrations to a class. They are made from five to eight inches in diameter. TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. A Hemisphere Globe, cut in equal sections, and opening on a hinge, will solve at a glance many of the difficulties encountered by young pupils in the study of geography, and correct some fundamentally erroneous conceptions which even older scholars are liable to form of latitude and longitude, or from an exclusive use of maps. HEMISPHERE GLOBE. 396 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The Tellurian is designed to illustrate all the phenomena resulting from the relations of the Sun, Moon, and Earth, to each other the succession of day and night, the change of the seasons, the change of the sun's declination, the different lengths of day and night, the changes of the moon, the harvest moon, the preces- sion of the equinoxes, the differences of a solar and siderial year, &c., &c. TELLURIAN. The Planetarium or Orrery, gives the proportionate size and relative positions, and annual revolutions of the planets, composing the solar system, except the asteroids. PLANETARIUM. SCHOOL APPARATUS. 397 Holbrook'S Common School Apparatus, is manufactured by the HOLBROOK SCHOOL APPARATUS MANUFACTURING COMPANY, at Hartford, Conn., and sold, securely packed for transportation, with a manual or text-book for the use of the teacher, for $20.00 a set. APPARATUS FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. The School Committee of Boston, in 1847. adopted the following arti- cles as a set of Philosophical Apparatus for the Grammar schools, which was selected and classified by Mr. Wightman, whose long experience in manufacturing apparatus for schools of every grade, admirably qualified him for the work : Laws of Matter. Apparatus for illustrating Inertia. Pair of Lead Hemispheres, for Co- hesion. , Pair of Glass Plates, for Capillary Attraction. Laws of Motion. Ivory Balls on Stand, for Collision. Set of eight illustrations for Centre of Gravity. Sliding Frame, for Composition of Forces. Apparatus for illustrating Central Forces. Mechanics. Complete set of Mechanicals, con- sisting of Pulleys ; Wheel and Axle ; Capstan ; Screw ; Inclined Plane ; Wedge. Hydrostatics. Bent Glass Tube, for Fluid Level. Mounted Spirit Level. Hydrometer and Jar, for Specific Gravity. Scales and Weights, for Specific Gravity. Hydrostatic Bellows, and Paradox. Hydraulics. Lifting, or Common- Water Pump. Forcing Pump ; illustrating the Fire Engine. Glass Syphon Cup; for illustrating Intermitting Springs. Glass and Metal Syphons. Pneumatics. Patent Lever Air Pump and Clamp. Three Glass Bell Receivers, adapt- ed to the Apparatus. Condensing and Exhausting Syr- inge. Copper Chamber, for Condensed Air Fountain. Revolving Jet and Glass Barrel. Fountain Glass, Cock, and Jet for Vacuum. Brass Magdeburg Hemispheres. Improved Weight Lifter for upward pressure. Iron Weight of 56 Ibs. and Strap Flexible Tube and Connectors for Weight Lifter. Brass Plate and Sliding Rod. Bolt Head and Jar. Tall Jar and Balloon. Hand and Bladder Glasses. Wood Cylinder and Plate. India Rubber Bag, for expansion of air. Guinea and Feather Apparatus. Glass Flask and Stop-Cock, for weighing air. Electricity. Plate Electrical Machine. Pith Ball Electrometer. Electrical Battery of four Jars. Electrical Discharger. Image Plates and Figure. Insulated Stool. Chime of Bells. Miser's Plate, for shocks. Tissue Figure, Ball and Point. Electrical Flyer and Tellurian. Electrical Sportsman, Jar and Birda Mahogany Thunder House and Pistol. 398 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Hydrogen Gas Generator. Chains, Balls of Pith, and Amal- gam. Optics. Glass Prism; and pair of Lenses. Dissected Eye Ball, showing its arrangement. Magnetism,. Magnetic Needle on Stand. Pair of Magnetic Swans. Glass Vase for Magnetic Swans. Horseshoe Magnet. Astronomy. Improved School Orrery. Tellurian, or, Season Machine. Arithmetic, and Geometry. Set of 13 Geometrical Figures of Solids. Box of 64 one inch Cubes, for Cube Root, &c. Auxiliaries. Tin Oiler. Glass Funnel. Sulphuric Acid. Set of Iron Weights for Hydrostatic Paradox. The foregoing Set is fully illustrated in " Wightman's Select Experiments," a valuable manual for the teacher. The following illustrations of some of the articles enumerated in the above list, are taken from " Wightman's Illustrated Catalogue," which persons select- ing apparatus will do well to consult before making their purchases. The ad- dress is Joseph M. Wightman, No. 33 Cornhill, Boston, Mass. LAWS OF MATTEE AND MOTION. INERTIA APPARATUS. This Figure represents a very con- venient apparatus for illustrating In- ertia, a stiff card being projected by the spring, and leaving the ball upon the pillar. COLLISION BALLS AND STAND. SCHOOL APPARATUS. MECHANICALS. PULLETS, WHEEL AND AXLE, CAPSTAN. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND LEVEHS. SCREW. INCLINED PLANE. WEDGE. 400 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. HYDROSTATICS. WIQHTMAN'S HYDROSTATIC BELLOWS AND PARADOX. HYDRAULICS. MODELS OF WATER PUMPS. SCHOOL APPARATUS. PNEUMATICS. 401 PATENT PORTABLE AIR PUMP. BOLT HEAD FOUNTAIN IN VACUO. WIGHTMAN'S WEIGHT LIFTER. EXPERIMENT. 26 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ELECTRICITY. PLATE ELECTRICAL MACHINE. ELECTRICAL SPORTSMAN. DANCING IMAGES. CHIME OF BELLS. ELECTRICAL BATTERY. MISER'S PLATE. CATALOGUE OF GLOBES AND SETS OF SCHOOL APPARATUS, MANUFACTURED AND SOLD BY BENJAMIN PIKE, JR., 294 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, [Tho following Catalogue is compiled from a valuable work, in two volumes, entitled " Optical, Mathematical, and Philosophical Instruments Illustrated and Described, by Benj. Pike, Jr.," which every purchaser of School Apparatus should consult before making his selections of articles. ] The artificial globe is a round body or sphere, having on its surface a map of the earth, or of the celestial constellations, as delineated, with the principal circles of the sphere. In the former case it is called the terrestrial in the latter the celestial globe. Artificial globes are used for the purpose of conveving to young persons the first ideas of the figure and rotation of the earth, of latitude and longitude, and the situation of places with respect to each other, and to the sun at different seasons of the year. It is usual to employ them also for the purpose of solving mechanic-silly elementary problems of astronomy, relative to the difference of the hour of the day ;it different places; the times of the rising and setting of the sun; the limits of the visibility of eclipses, etc. The fundamental parts of these instruments which are common to both, are, first, the two poles whereon the globe is supported, representing those of the world ; second, the brazen meridian, which is divided into degrees, and passes throngh tbe poles ; third, the wooden horizon, whose upper side represents the real horizon, and is divided into several circles; fourth, a brass quadrant of altitude; fifth, two hour circles, one moving round each pole as a centre, and divided into twice twelve hours, to indicate those of the day and night. Upon the surface of the globes are depicted the lines of latitude and longitude, the equator, ecliptic, tropics, and polar circles. On one globe, in addition to these, are the various countries, seas, etc., cf the world; and on the other, the stars in their relative positions. Terrestrial and Celestial Globes, 9, 12, 18, and 36 inches diameter, made by MALBY & SON, London, under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. 9-inch Globes, Celestial and Terrestrial (the pair), $16 00 12-inch " " " " 20 00 18-inch " " " " 48 00 36-inch " " " " 200 00 A Globe Quadrant accompanies each pair. 18-inch Terrestrial Globe, - $25 00 | 36-inch Terrestrial Globe, - $105 00 404 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. In these globes an endeavor has been made to combine a degree of accuracy, such as is only possessed by the best modern maps, with the lowest price at which excellence can be attained. The terrestrial globe has been compiled from the most re- cent geographical surveys, with the aid of the accounts given by the best travellers. The astronomical information which has been supplied of late years upon the position and nomenclature of the fixed stars, has rendered a perfectly new celestial globe a most desirable acquisition to the student of astronomy. The labors of Piazzi, Bradley, Lacaille, Johnson, &c., in determining the places of the stars, and those of Baily in the correction of their nomenclature (in the new edition of the " British Catalogue"), have been carefully consulted in the celestial globe which is now advertised. The stars in the northern hemisphere are all which are given by Piazzi, with the addition of such of Bradley's (from the Tabulae Regiomontanar-) as are not in Piazzi. The stars in the southern hemisphere comprise all those given by Lacaille and Johnson. SLATE GLOBES. Malby's 12-inch Slate Globe, $10 00 18-inch Slate Globe, $25 00. AMERICAN GLOBES. 3-inch Terrestrial Globe, f 1 5-inch do., $1 50 9-inch Terrestrial Globe, 10-inch " " 13-inch " " 8 00 10 00 13 00 9-inch Celes. and Terres. Globes (pair), $1G 00 10-inch " " " " 18 00 13-inch " " " " 25 00 16-inch " " " " 40 00 Terrestrial Globes on neat mahogany bases, inclined axis, without horizon 3-inch, 75 cts. ; 5-inch, $1 25 ; 7-inch, $3 25. ENGLISH PEDESTAL GLOBES (very neat). 3-inch (the pair), 5-inch, , $3 50 6 50 6-inch (the pair), 9-inch, " $8 00 15 00 13-inch Globes, with High Mahogany Stands and Compasses (the pair), $40 00 18-inch " " " " " $68 to $80 18-inch " " Rosewood " " " $100 00 Globes in neat Mahogany Cases, 1-inch, Terrestrial, 75c. ; If inch, $1 00; 2-inch (the pair), $3 00. Mattison's Astronomical Maps, size 38 by 45 inches, on Cloth and Rollers, at $16 50 the set. Astronomical Diagrams for the Magic Lantern, of every variety and size. PIKE'S SCHOOL APPARATUS. 405 SET OF APPARATUS FOR MOTION, MECHANICS, AND MATHEMATICS. Price, $72 00. 1. Inertia Apparatus, $1 50 2. Collision Balls and Frame, - 3 00 3. Apparatus for Impenetrability, - 1 00 4. Adhesion Plates, - - - 1 50 5. Capillary Tubes, ... l 00 6 to 10. Set of Mechanical Powers, 16 00 11. Rocking Horse, .... 75 12. Planetarium, - - - /, ' 13. Centrifugal Machine, 14. Surveyors' Compasses, 5 in. diam. 15. Chain, 2 poles, - 16. Quadrant, .... 17. Hour Glass, $7 50 4 50 18 00 1 25 . 15 00 1 25 $72 25 The Mechanical Powers, figures 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, consisting of levers and pul- leys, arranged on a mahogany frame 24 inches long and 26 inches high, with four systems of pulleys attached. On each side of the frame, behind the pulleys, are graduated scales, with cords passing across the length of the frame and dividing the space into 24 equal parts, to show the number of inches, rise and fall, of the weights, and that it is inversely as the power gained. Brass levers on the top of the first, second and third orders; bent lever and pulley for passing over the cord; and on one end is fixed the wheel and axle with four different diameters. The ac- companiments are, a large and well-made inclined plane, with graduated arch and carriage, wedge jointed in two parts, screw and lever, and screw as an inclined plane, and a set of 10 brass weights, from one-quarter of an ounce to eight ounces. Price $16 00. Also, Larger Sets, at $35 and $60. At wood Machines, at $25, $40, $100 and $120. Whirling Tables and Apparatus, $30 and $75. SET OF APPARATUS FOR OPTICS. Price $163 00. 1. Set of Six Lenses, - - - $1 50 2. Prism, 75 3. Color-blender, - - - - I 00 4. Pair of 5-inch Mirrors, Concave and Convex, - - - - - 2 25 5. Multiplying Glass, ... 38 6. Camera Obscura, - - - - 4 00 7. Cosmorama and 12 Views, - 4 25 8. Model of Eye, 9. Muscles of Eye, 10. Long and Short Sight Explained, 11. Image on Retina, ... 12. Simple Microscope, - $1 00 13. Compound " ... 3 50 14. Solar " - - - - 28 00 15. Magic Lantern, $3 to 15 00 16. 1 dozen Sliders, - - - $2 to 15 00 17. Set Astronomical Sliders, $7 50 to 20 00 18. Astronomical Telescope, with 3-inch AchromHtic Object Glass, and about 5 feet long on Stand, - 48 00 19. Polariscope, .... 4 50 20. Crystals for Polariscope. - 1 00 $163 13 A good Compound Microscope may be had for $3 50 ; larger, $5 50, $9 50, $10, and $20. Superior Magic Lanterns, $15 ; Sliders, 4 inches wide, on Astron- omy, $20 the set; Natural History, $20; Botany, $20; Scripture History, $27 50? Humorous and Comic Sliders, $1 25 each. Also, Views and other sub- jects in great variety. A pair of Lanterns, with Dissolving Apparatus, $50. As- tronomical Telescopes, with mahogany tube, on Stands, according to size, $30 to Others of various kinds and styles, with brass tubes, varying from $25 to The Eye Models in four parts. A Dissected Eye, four inches diameter. 406 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. showing the cornea, iris, ciliary process, choroid tunic, crystalline lens, vitreous humor, retina, black pigment, optic nerve, &c., showing the eye in its socket with the muscles ; the Eye, with the rays of light passing from an object and forming the image on the retina ; the object and image movable, showing the cause of long sight, short sight, and perfect sight. A 4-inch ball, with convex lens on one end, and a ground glass fixed to a sliding brass tube on the other end, and on which may be seen the inverted image, representing! the eye as a camera obscura, and by the aid of the set of lenses, the use of spectacles to the eye explained. SET OF PNEUMATIC APPARATUS. (Price $42 00.) B.PIKE.JZ 204- BROADWAY. N.Y. 1 25 75 4 00 Consisting of a Double-barrel Air Pump, worked by racks and cog wheel, by double lever handles, mounted on a polished mahogany frame. Price $23. 2. Swelled Air- Pump Receiver, - - $L 75 7. Flask with stop-cock, to weiah air,, $2 00 3. Hund ftnd*Bladder Glass, . 75 8. FreozingApparatus and LowReceiver, 1 50 4. Pressure Glass, - - - . 75 j 9. Bolt Hend Experiment, - 5. Fountain in Vacuo, - . - 4 00 I 10. Air Shower Experiment, 6. Bell and Receiver, - 2 25 | 11. Magdeburg Hemispheres, With the above represented Air Pump, and ten different appendages, many in- teresting experiments may be performed, and all the most important principles connected therewith, illustrated in a satisfactory manner. All but the last two are drawn in the cut. On the left of the cut is represented a brass Condensing Pump, the barrel ten inches long, and one and a half diameter, and a strong glass Air Chamber, with cap, stop-cock, and pipes, attached ; also, a Revolving Jet, Straight Jet and Rose Jet. The whole being a complete apparatus for the condensation of air and experiments therewith. The jets may be used by the passage of either air or water through them. Price $12. An apparatus with cylindrical copper air chamber, at the same price. Also, a Brass Tube for illustrating the principle of the Air Gun, price $1 50. The Air Pump Apparatus, or any portion of it, may be used with a Single Barrel Air Pump, at $7, $9, or $12, according to size, or with Pike's Improved Single Barrel Air Pump, price $20, being the largest, most powerful and durable pump mnde for the price. Also, Pike's elegant Lever Air Pumps, 4 feet high, price $63, or with gauge, $70. Larger Double-barrel and Lever Air Pumps, and more extended apparatus constantly on hand. SET OF APPARATUS FOR HYDROSTATICS. Price 1. Hydrometer. $0 50 2. Tube lor relative weight of fluids, 1 50 3. Level and Plumb Level. - - - 1 25 4. Syphon with Drawing Tube, - 75 5. VVirtemberg Syphon, - - - 75 6. Tantalus Cup, .... 2 00 7. Hydrostatic Equilibrium, 2 50 8. Lifting Pump, .... 3 50 9. Forcing Pump, - - - . 5 00 Frame for Pumps, 10. Hydrostatic Bellows, - 11. Spouting Fluids, 12. Barker's Mill, .... 13. Archimedes Screw, - 14. Upward and Downward Pressure of Fluids, .... $1 50 5 00 5 00 5 00 9 00 2 00 $45 25 PIKE'S SCHOOL APPARATUS. 407 SET OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS. Price $31 50. Consisting of a well-made, 7-inch Cylinder Electrical Machine, with mahogany frame, neat, turned pillars, Insulated Prime Conductor, Brass Ball and Wire, Pair of Chains, and Box of Amalgam. Price $14 00. 1 25 1 25 1 25 2 00 50 2 00 9. Cylinder with Dancing Pith Balls, 10. Long Hir Man, .... 11. Electrical Chase Four Revolving Horsemen on Insulated Stand, 12. Insulating Stool, ... 13. Electrical Swan, .... $1 50 75 2 50 3 00 25 2. Leyden Jar (quart size), 3. Jointed Discharger, 4. Quadrant Electrometer, - 5. Image Plates and Pith Images, 6. Chime of three Bells, 7. Revolving Flyer, - 8. Luminous Spiral Tube, The above described Set is one much approved, and is warranted superior to any other sets thai have yet been before the public, for its price ; and the working of the machines is unsurpassed, if equalled, by any of their size. Any portion, or all of this Electrical Apparatus, may be used with a 4j-inch cylinder machine, costing but $8, or*5-inch, $10; 6-inch, $12; 8-inch, $16; 9-inch, $18; 10-inch, $20. A 16-inch Plate Electrical Machine, handsomely finished, the Prime Conductor and Rubber Conductor of brass, supported on stout, swelled glass pillars, having brass sockets and mahogany frame, and mounted on four turned feet. Price $25 00, or, with the Apparatus, $42 00. A 20-inch plate Electrical Machine, mounted as the preceding one, but much larger in all its parts, $38, or with above apparatus, $55. Larger Machines and more extended Apparatus, in great variety of form and price. $6 50 - 8 00 ( 4 quart Leyden Jars, in a Mahogany Case, Electrical Batteiy of < 4 2-quart " " " (< , 4 gallon - 10 00 SET OF APPARATUS FOR MAGNETISM AND GALVANISM. Price $52 or 1. Bar Mngnet, 2. Horse-Shoe Magnet, - 3. Star and Circular Plate, 4. Rolling Armature, 5. Y. Armature, 6. Two Polished Iron Balls, 7. Iron Rods and Half Links, 8. Magnetic Swan and Fishes, 9. Magnetic N'V-dle and Stand, 10. Galvanic Battery, 11. Magneto Electric Machine, $0 75 1 00 50 1 00 50 50 25 50 75 2 50 9 00 12. Electro-Magnet, 13. Magic Circle, 14. Rod in Air and Helix, - 81 75 1 75 2 50 15. Magnetizing Helix on Stand, 2 50 16. Galvanometer, - 3 00 17. Tel.-graph Model, ... 7 50 18. Beam Engine $10, or Axial Eugine, 10 00 19. Wheel " .... 6 50 20. Powder Cup, - - 50 62 25 408 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Grove's Battery, 12 series of Zinc and Plalina in Glass Cups, arranged in a neat Black Walnut Case, with Cover, with a set of Conducting Wires, tipped with fine copper, steel and iron wire, watch-spring, &c., which burn with bright and varied colors, brilliant scintillations, &c. ; a pair of Carbon Points, for producing the Gal- vanic Light, and a Glass Globe, with wires tipped with platina, for collecting the gases in the decomposition of water. Price of the Battery, according to size, $15, $18, and $20. SET OF APPARATUS FOR CHEMISTRY. Price $47 00. 1. Retort Stand, - 1 2. Spirit Lamp .... 3. Glass Flask with Ring Neck, 4. Three Glass Retorts, 5. Receiver with Stopper, 6. Matrass with long neck. 7. Pneumntic Cistern, ... 8. Two Bell Glasses, half gal. and quart, 9. Gas Bottle, 10. Bel] Glass, Stoppered, 11. Deflagrating Jar " and Spoon, 12. Bell Glass with Cap and Stop-Cock, Bubble Pipe, Jet, and Gas Bag, 13. Hydrogen Gas Pistol, 14. " " Balloon, 15. Iodine in Glass Flask, 16. Scales and Weights, 17. Dropping Tube, 18. Glass Funnef, .... 19. Three Precipitating Glasses, 20. Three Test Tubes, 21. Graduated Measure Glass, 22. Beaker Glass, .... 23. Crucibles nest, A great variety of other Chemical Apparatus on hand. A Compound Blow Pipe and Pneumatic Cistern Combined, $8 50; larger, $12. Hydrogen Generator, $4. Gas Bags to hold three or four gallons, with Stop-cock, $3 25 ; larger size, $7 to $10. Sheet Iron Furnaces, $8. Davy's Safety Lamp, in Brass, $3. Apparatus for Specific Heat, $4 ; for Unequal Expansion of Fluids, $4 ; for Ball and Ring Experiment, $2 25 ; for Condensation by Mixture, $1 25. Marcel's Steam Boiler, with Barometer and Thermometer, $15. Copper Still, Worm and Tub, $6 to $8. Ure's Eudiometer, $2 50, if graduated, $4; Flask Holder, $1 50; Wolf 's Ap- paratus, 4 bottles and tubes, arranged in a tray, $6 to $7 50 ; Glass Alembics, $1 to $2. Twelve 6-inch Test-Tubes, in mahogany polished frame, $1 50. Marsh's Arsenic Apparatus, $2 50. Bulb Tubes, 37c. ; two Bulb Tubes, 50c. Drying Tubes, 37 to 75c. Chemical Materials on hand and furnished to order at regular prices. 1 50 24. Mortar and Pestle, ... $0 75 75 25. Evaporating Dish, ... 38 2-T 1 AC 26. Adapter, 37 38 J UO OOQ 37 t>O 37 29. Air Thermometer, - 19 2 00 30. Eolopile, ' 38 1 25 31. Boiling Glass, .... 50 63 32. Steam Apparatus, - 1 50 1 00 33. Four Candle Bombs, - - * 1-2 1 00 34. Fire Syringe, .... 1 00 2 00 35. Chryophorous, ... 1 75 1 00 36. Flaiiieless Lamp, - 1 25 38 37. Conductometer, ... 1 75 1 25 38. Pyrometer. 3 50 38 39. Chemical Thermometer, 1 00 1 25 40. Downward Conducting Power of 38 Heat in Fluids, 1 75 18 41. Pair 13 inch Reflectors and Stands, 5 50 45 42. Iron Ball and Stand, 1 00 15 43. Differential Thermometer, - 1 50 63 Of)K 44. Improved Iron Retort for Oxygen, 3 50 *9 10 $47 03 PIKE'S SCHOOL APPARATUS. 409 SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. Price 1. Set, including Motion, Mechanics, and Surveying Instruments, - $72 00 2. " " Optics, Telescope, Solar Microscope, Magic Lantern, &c., 163 00 3. " " Air Pump and Apparatus, - - - - - 42 00 4. " " Condensing Pump, 13 50 5. " " Hydrostatics and Hydraulics, - - - - - 45 00 6. " Electrical Machine and Apparatus, ... 31 50 7. " " Magnetism and Galvanism, - - - - - 52 00 8. " Grove's Battery and Apparatus, .... 18 00 9. " " Chemical Apparatus, - - - - - - 47 00 10. A Barometer and Thermometer, $10 ; Hygrometer, $3 50 ; Rain Gauge, $2 50, 16 00 $500 00 APPROVED SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. Price $250. Being the same as the above $500 Set, with the omission of some of the more costly articles. 1. Set, without Quadrant, Surveyor's Compass and Chain, ... $37 75 2. " " Telescope, Solar Microscope, and Magic Lantern, - 37 00 3. " Complete, 42 00 4. " " 13 50 5. " without Lifting and Forcing Pumps, Archimedes Screw, Barker's Mill, Spouting and Pressure of Fluids, ----- 14 00 6. Set, Complete, 31 50 7. " without Telegraph, 3 Magnetic Engines, and Galvanometer, - 26 00 8. " Complete, --. 18 00 9. " without the seven last instruments in the list, ... 30 00 $250 00 These sets may he further reduced, added to, or alterations made, to suit the purposes of the institution using the same, and it will be found, on examination, that there has been no sets of as good quality, or embracing so many important in- struments, offered at as low a price. PARTICULARS OF A SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS, FOR $50. A five-inch terrestrial globe, $1 50; a set of twelve geometrical solids, $1 25 ; a numeral frame, 88c. --------- $3 63. Optics. Prism, 38c. ; kaleidoscope, 12c. ; multiplying glass, 38c. ; magic lan- tern and set of twelve sliders, $1 25; concave and convex mirrors, four-inch diameter, $1 25 ; a microscope, $1 ; concave and convex lenses, 50c. $4 88. Pneumatics. Single barrel air pump and receiver, $7 ; hand and bladder glass, 75c. ; air shower, 75c. ; pressure glass, 75c. ; Magdeburgh hemispheres, $4 ; syphon, 38c. $13 62. Electricity. Five-inch cylinder electrical machine, $8; Leyden jar, 75c. ; dis- charger, 25c.; electrical bells, $1 25 ; pair of image plates and pith images, $1 25; long hair man, 75c. : swan, 50c. ; revolving flyers, 50c. - - $13 25. Galvanism and Magnetism. Galvanic battery, $2 50; electro-magnet, $1 ; magic circle, $1 ; horse-shoe magnet, 50c. ; iron rods and filings, 25c. ; magnetic needle, 38c. ; magnetic fish, 25c. $5 88. Chemistry. Two glass retorts, 56c. ; one matrass, 25c. ; two flasks, 12c. ; retort stand, $1 25; spirit lamp, 75c.; one bell glass receiver, 50c.; one stoppered glass jar, 38c. ; one. bell glass receiver with cap and stop-cock, $1 75 ; pipe, jet, and gas-bag, 88c.; blow-pipe, 38c.; nest of crucibles, 6c. ; air thermometer, 12c. ; funnel, 15c. ; two test tubes, lOc. ; scales and weights, $1 25; hydrometer, 50c. - $9 00. SCHOOL APPARATUS. AIDS TO INSTRUCTION, TO BE FOUND AT IDE & BUTTON'S, 106 WASHINGTON ST., BOSTON. Swain's Planetarium, $15.00 Solar Telluric Globe, 7.00 Cornell's Ter. Globe, 3.50 Loring's Globes, $2.50 to 50.00 Copley's 16 in. Globes, 20.00 pair Holbrook's School Apparatus, $45.00 set Numerical Frames, 1.00 Allen's Game of Letters, 50o. to 10.00 Black-board Brushes, 50 cts. Chalk Crajons, 75 cts. gro. Geometrical Solids, 1.25 set Punctuation Tables, 25 cts. Fowle's Outline Maps, $4.00 do. Map of Massachusetts, 5.00 Pelton's Outline Maps, 25.00 Mitchell's do. do. 8.00 Bliss's do. do. 7.00 Astronomical Diagrams, 15.00 Fowle's Physiol. Diagrams, 5.00 Cutter's do. do. 7.00 Ide's Teacher's Register, 25 cts. do. do. Tokens, 25 per 100 School Rewards, all prices, Ide's Skeleton Maps, 36c. doz. A Set for every Primary School. Fowle's Maps, Loring's Semi Frame Globe, Numerical Frame, Black-board Brush, Numeral Table, Sheet, Punctuation Table, " Articulation Table, " Education Letter Table, Board, $4.00 2.50 1.00 50 25 25 50 1.50 10.50 Persons enclosing us Ten Dollars, free of expense, will recive the above set sent as they may direct. Large Grammar School Set. Pelton's splendid Maps & Key, $25.00 Fowle's large Map Massachusetts, (for use in Mass.,) 5.00 Loring's 12 in. Globes, (pair,) 25.00 Swajn's Planetarium, 15.00 Fowle's Physiol. Diagrams, 5.00 6 Black-board Brushes, 2.25 1 gross Chalk Crayons, 75 1 set Geometrical Solids, 1.25 1 set CUjbe Root Blocks, 75 Tollman's Chart of Chemistry, 5.00 $85.00 Persons enclosing us Eighty Dollars will receive the above set sent as they may direct. We have also on hand the largest assortment of Maps (both ancient and mod- ern), Atlases and Giftde Books, to be found in the city, and a great variety of School Apparatus. Catalogues to be had gratuitous, by application by mail, post paid. IDE & DUTTON. GOODYEAR'S VULCANIZED INDIA RUBBER. 41 1 GOUDYEAK'S METALLIC GUM-ELASTIC, OR VULCANIZED INDIA RUBBER. The fabric known as il Goodyear' 1 s. Gum-clastic, or Vulcanized India rubber" invented and manufactured by Charles Goodyear, of New Haven, Conn., is capable of many highly useful applications in the school-room, and for educa- tional purposes generally. By the changes wrought by Mr. Goodyear in the construction of his fabrics, all of the remarkable properties of the gum in its native state are preserved and improved, while its defects and objectional features are obviated. There seems to be no limit to the many useful purposes to which it may be applied, in every department of the useful arts, and of prac- tical life, and the public is not yet apprised of its manifold adaptations to hu- mane purposes, and to the protection of life and property. We shall here notice only a few of its many useful applications in the school-room, and for school purposes generally. Book-binding or Covers. Several styles of Goodyear's fabrics are admirably adapted to the binding, or covers of school-books. A cover of this material does not crack, or warp, is not injured by water or oil, is not easily soiled, and if soiled, can be readily cleaned. A school-book bound in this way, we have every reason to suppose, will outlast, in the ordinary "wear and tear" of a child's use. (except that of the knife, which ought never to be allowed in a child's hand in the school- room,) a dozen bound in the best style with any kind of leather. School Books. Its uses are not confined to covers, but school books can be printed on this fabric, which can be manufactured of suitable thinness for this purpose, and at the same time have a strength of texture, which will not tear, but outlast the best linen paper, and at the same time be readily cleaned when soiled. When school books are printed on this labric, and bound in covers of the same, one of the greatest items of educational expense will be reduced. Maps and Charts. We have seen beautiful specimens of maps printed on various specimens of a new fabric, recently invented, and called vegetable leather, gum-elastic vellum, and metallic tissue, which will admit of the roughest use, and are capable of being handled for years without any injury, and can be rolled or folded np when not in use. We see no difficulty in printing outline maps, charts, and diagrams of all kinds on this fabric, which can be rolled up when not needed, and which can be washed and wiped clean with sponge, if soiled from use, or from the dust and smoke of the school-room. Both sides of the fabric can be used for the purposes of printing. The outline maps, if made of suitable fabric, can be filled up by the scholar, and the pencil marks erased by the sponge. Maps of this material can be so made as to exhibit the elevations and depressions on the earth's surface. Globes. , We have seen beautiful specimens of globes, celestial and terrestrial, and of a great variety of sizes, from three inches to three feet, made of the fabric above described, such as 'vegetable leather, or gum-elastic vellum. When em- bossed, they show the elevations and depressions, the mountains and valleys, and water-courses of the earth's surface. When inflated with gas lighter than atmospheric air, they float about the room. If soiled, they can be easily cleaned with the sponge, and will bear the roughest usage. If the great outlines of the globe only are printed, the pupil can be exercised in filling up the blank with a lead pencil. When articles made of this fabric come inLp demand, our schools ran be furnished with globes almost at the price of children's toys, and thus the great objection of expense will no longer prevent the introduction of this 412 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. piece of apparatus, and of visible illustration, into every school of every grade. When not inflated, the globe of three feet can be packed away in a space of about as many inches. Floor Cloth, or Carpet. This fabric is admirably adapted for carpeting the aisles of a school-room, both to prevent reverberation, and to secure cleanliness. It can be easily cleaned, and will wear as long as the floor itself. Blackboard and Desk Covering. By using different styles of this fabric, a suitable surface of any desirable size can be obtained for the lead or slate pencil, which can be attached per- manently to a wall, or be made in a portable form. It can be attached to the top of the desk, and thereby prevent all reverberation. When thus applied, it will not gather dust, or wear out, like cloth, but can be kept clean with a sponge, and will wear as long as the wood itself. The fabric used for covering a desk, can be of the same style of fabric as that used for a blackboard or slate, and thus answer all the purposes of either of these articles of apparatus. Sponge. An article is made of the gum, leavened and raised like bread, and called a sponge, from its close resemblance, in texture and uses, to the natural sponge. It is the best article which we have seen for erasing marks made by a lead or slate pencil, or chalk, on paper, slate, or blackboard, or prepared surface of any kind in the nature of the blackboard or slate. Besides answering all the purposes of the sponge in such applications, it will remove the oiliness which is frequently communicated to the slate by the hand, &c. It is also inval- uable as a mop, or scrub, or shoe mat, at the door of the school-house, as it is not injured by exposure, or the roughest and most constant usage. Pen and Pencil Wiper. The article used for making the sponge can also be made into a pen-wiper, and can be attached to the inkstand, (which can also be manufactured of the same material.) It can also be attached to the end of the lead pencil, or to the port-crayon, or handle for the more convenient use of the crayon, chalk, or slate pencil. It will work much closer than the native gum, and is admirably adapted to drawing purposes. Calisthenic Exercises. Every school, and especially every school for girls and young ladies, should be supplied with swings, and other apparatus for developing, expanding, and strengthening the muscles of the chest, arms, &c., and for these purposes several styles of this fabric are admirably adapted. Drawing and Writing Tablets. One style of the improved metallic fabric is admirably adapted as a substi- tute for paper or slate, for introductory exercises in writing and drawing, as each impression of the pencil can be removed by the sponge, and a fresh, clean surface as constantly secured. The same material can be used for books for memoranda, records of attendance, returns of school committees, &cc. The excellence of this fabric for all school purposes, as compared with paper, and other materials wsed for similar purposes, consists in its durability and economy. LIBRARY. EVERY school should be furnished with a Library which should include, 1. Books on schools and school-systems, lor the use of school officers and parents ; and on the theory and practice of teaching, for the pro- fessional instruction of teachers. 2. Books of reference, for the use principally of teachers. 3. Books for circulation among the pupils. 4. Books for circulation among the parents, and inhabitants of the Dis- trict, or neighborhood. In the arrangement, and furniture of a school-house, provision should be made for the Library. The following catalogue may assist those who are charged with the purchase of books : BOOKS ON EDUCATION. THE SCHOOL AND SCHOOL-MASTER, by Alonzo Potter, (Bishop ot Pennsylvania,) and George B. Emerson. New York : Harper and Brothers. Boston : Fowle and Capen. Price $1.00. 551 pages. This volume was prepared at the request of the late James Wads- worth, of Geneseo, New York, with special reference to the condition and wants of common schools in that State. Its general principles and most of its details are applicable to similar schools in other parts of the country, and. indeed, to all seminaries employed in giving elementary instruction. Mr. Wadsworth directed a copy of it to be placed in each of the school libraries of New York, at his expense, and his noble example was fol- lowed in respect to the schools of Massachusetts, by the Hon. Martin Brimmer, of Boston. CONTENTS, PART I. Introduction. CHAPTER I. EDUCATION OP THE PEOPLE. See. I. What is Education. Sec. II. Prevailing Errors in regard to the Nature and End of Education. Sec. III. The same Subject continued. Sec. IV. Same Subject continued. Sec. V. What is the Education most needed by the American People. Sec. VI. The Importance of Education, 1. To the Individual. Sec. VII. The Importance of Education, 2. To Society. CHAPTER II. COMMON SCHOOLS. Sec. I. Relation of Common Schools to other Means of Education. Sec. II. Present State of Common Schools. 1. School-houses. 2. Manners. 3. Morals. Sec. III. Same Subject continued. 4. Intellectual Instruction. 5. Irregular Attend- ance. Sec. IV. How can Common Schools be improved? 1. Discussion. 2. Female Teachers. 3. Union or High Schools. 4. Consolidation of Districts. Sec. V. The Improvement of Com- mon Schools continued. Organization in Cities. 1. District System. 2. Monitorial. 3. Fiicher System. 4. American system. 5. Diversity of Class books. Sec. VI. Same Subject, continued. Education of Teachers. CONTENTS. PART II. Introduction. BOOK I. QUALITIES. Chap. I. Mental and Moral, important in a Teacher. Chap. II. Health. Exercise. Diet. Sleep. Recreation. BOOK II. STUDIES. Chap. I. Laws of the Creation. Chap. II. Natural Laws. Chap. III. Independence of the Natural Laws. Chap. IV. Higher Studies. Chap. V. Advantages of a Teacher's Life. BOOK III. DUTIES. Chap. I, To Himself. Self-Culture. Chap. II. To his Pupils, to give them means of Knowledge. Chap. III. To his Pupils, to form their Moral Character. Chap. IV. To his Pupils, Cultivation of their Powers. Chap. V. Communication of Knowledge. Chap. VI. To his Fellow-Teachers. Chap. VII. To Parents and the Community. BOOK IV. THE SCHOOL. Chap. I. Organization. Chap. II. Instruction. General Princi- ples. Chap. III. Teaching: 1. Reading. 2. Spelling. 3. Grammar. 4. Writing. 5. Drwv- 414 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ing. 6. Arithmetic. 7. Accounts. 8. Geography. 9. History. 10. Physiology. 11. Com position. Chap. IV. Government. BOOK V. THE SCHOOL-HOUSE. Chap. I. Situation. Chap. II. Size. Chap. III. Position and Arrangement. Chap. IV. Light. Warming. Ventilation. THE TEACHER'S MANUAL, by Thomas H. Palmer. Boston: Marsh, Capen, Lyon & Webb, 1840. pp. 263. Price, 75 cents. This work received the prize of five hundred dollars, offered by the American Institute of Instruction, in 1838, for " the best Essay on a sys- tem of Education best adapted to the Common Schools of our country." CONTENTS. PART I. Chapter I. Introductory. Chapter II. Who are our Schoolmas- ters. Chapter III. Physical Education. Chapter IV. Intellectual Education. Chapter V. In- tellectual Education, continued. Chapter VI. Moral Education. Chapter VII. Recapitulation. PART II. Chapter I. Introductory. Chapter II. Physical Education. Chapter III. Physi eal Education, continued. Chapter IV. Physical Education, continued. Chapter V. Intellec- tual Education. Chapter VI. Intellectual Education, continued. Chapter VII. Intellectual Education, continued. Chapter VIII. Intellectual Education, continued. Chapter IX. Intel- lectual Education, continued. Chapter X. Intellectual Education, concluded. Chapter XL Moral Education. Chapter XII. Moral Education, continued. Chapter XIII. Conclusion, THE TEACHER TADGHT, by Emerson Davis, late Principal of the Westfield Academy. Boston : Marsh, Capen, Lyon & Webb, 1839. pp. 79. Price 37 i cents. This valuable work was first published in 1833, as " An Abstract of a Course of Lectures on School-keeping." SLATE AND BLACKBOARD EXERCISES, By William A. Alcott. New York: Mark H. Newman. Price 37 cents. The chapters in this little work were first published in the Connecticut Common School Journal, in 1841. The various suggestions and methods are highly practical. THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING, by David P. Page, Principal of the New York State Normal School. New York : A. S. Barnes & Co. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The Spirit of the Teacher. CHAPTER H. Responsibility ot the Teacher. Sec. I. The Neglected Tree. Sec. II. Extent of Responsibility. Sec. Ill The Au- burn Prison. CHAPTER HI. Habits of the Teacher. CHAPTER IV. Literary Qualifications of the Teacher. CKAPTER V. Right Views of Education. CHAPTER VI. Right Modes of Teach ing. Sfc. I. Pouring in Process. See. II. Drawing-out Process. Sec. III. The more Excel- lent Way. Sec. IV. Waking up Mind. Sec.V. Remarks. CHAPTER VII. Conducting Recita tions. CHAPTER VIII. Exciting an Interest in Study. Sec. I. Incentives. Emulation. See. II. Prizes and Rewards. Sec. III. Proper Incentives. CHAPTER IX. School Government. Sec. I. Requisites in the Teacher for Government. Sec. II. Means of securing Good Order. Sec. III. Punishments, Improper, Proper. Sec. IV. Corporal Punishment. Sec. V. Limita- tions and Suggestions. CHAPTER X. School Arrangements. Sec. I. Plan of Day's Work. Sec. II. Interruptions. Sec. III. Recesses. Sec. IV. Assignment of Lessons. Sec. V. Re- views. Sec. VI. Examinations, Exhibitions, Celebrations. CHAPTER XL The Teacher's Re- lation to the Parents of his 1'upils. CHAPTER XII. The Teacher's Care of his Health. CHAP- TER XIII. The Teacher's Relation to his Profession. CHAPTER XIV. Miscellaneous Sugges- tions. See. I. Things to be avoided. Sec. II. Things to be performed. CHAPTER XV. The Rewards of the Teacher. HINTS AND METHODS FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS. Hartford: Price 25 cents. This volume is made up principally of selections from publications on methods of teaching, not easily accessible ; and under each subject dis- cussed, reference is made to various volumes, where additional sugges- tions can be found. THE DISTRICT SCHOOL AS IT WAS. by one who went to it, (Rev. Warren Burton.) New York: J. Orville Taylor, 1838. In this amusing picture of " the lights and shadows" of school life as it was in New England twenty years ago, the teachers and scholars of some of our District Schools as they are, will recognize the school-house, books, practices, and methods with which they are too familiar. BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 415 CONFESSIONS or A SCHOOL-MASTER, by Dr. William A. Alcott. New Y"ork: Mark H. Newman. Price 50 cents. If our teachers will read these confessions of errors of omission and commission, and the record which it gives of real excellencies attained by the steps of a slow and laborious progress, they will save themselves the mortification of the first, and realize earlier the fruits of the last. Few men have the moral courage to look their former bad methods so directly in the face. Every young teacher should read this book. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. MY INTRODUCTION TO SCHOOL KEEPING. Section I. Prepara lion and Engagement. Section II. The Examination. Section III. My Cogitations. CHAPTER II. MY FIRST YEAR. Sectionl. First day of School. Section II. General Course of Instruction. Section III. Particular Errors. SectionlV. Religious Exercises. CHAPTER III. MY SECOND YEAR. Section I. Course of Instruction. Section II. Serious Mistakes. CHAPTER IV. MY THIRD YEAR. Section I. Complaint to the Grand Jurors. Section II. Introduction of a New School Book. Section III. Meeting of the Schools. CHAPTER V. FOURTH AND FIFTH YEARS. Section I. Modes of Punishing. Section II. At- tending to other Employments. Section III. Late Evening Visits. Section IV. Studies and Methods. CHAPTER VI. MY SIXTH YEAR. Section I. Teaching by the Year. Terms and Object. Section II. Description of the School and School-house. Section III. First Efforts at Im- provement. Punctuality. Section IV. Methods and Discipline. Section V. Schools Neglected by Parents. Section VI. School Libraries. Section VII. Improper Company. Example. CHAPTER VII. MY SEVENTH YEAR. Section I. Divided Attention. Section II. Teaching on the Subbalh. CHAPTER VIII. MY EIOHTH YEAR. Section I. General Account of my School. Sectionll. Causes ot' Failure. CHAPTER IX. MY NINTH YEAR. Section I. A Novel Enterprise. Section II. Methods of Teaching. Discipline. CHAPTER X. MY EXPERIENCE AS A SCHOOL VISITOR. Sectionl. Examination of Teachers. Section II. Special Visits to Schools. Section III. Meetings for Improvement. Section IV. Introduction of a New Reading Book. CHAPTER XI. MY TENTH YEAR IN SCHOOL. Section I. Commencement of School. Sec- tion II. Spelling, Reading, Writing, etc. Section III. Teaching Geography. Section IV. A Practical Exercise. Section V. Experiment in Teaching Etymology. Section VI. Teaching Orthography. Section VII. Forcing Knowledge. Section VIII. Teaching Pupils to sit still. Section IX. 'My Moral Influence. Section X. My 111 Health. Section XL Countenancing the Sports of my Pupils. Section XII. Discipline. THE SCHOOL TEACHER'S MANUAL, by Henry Dunn, Secretary of the British and Foreign School Society, London. Hartford : Reed & Bar- ber, 1839. pp. 223. Price 50 cents. The American edition of this work is edited by Rev. Thomas H. Gal- laudet, which is the best evidence that could be given of the general soundness of the views presented by the English author. TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, by W. B. Fowle. Boston. TEACHING A SCIENCE: THE TEACHER AN ARTIST, by Rev. B. R. Hall. New York : Baker & Scribner. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT, by Lyman Cobb. New York: Mark H. Newman. SCHOOL KEEPING, by an Experienced Teacher. Philadelphia: John Grigg, 1831. THE SCHOOL-MASTER'S FRIEND, with the Committee-man's Guide, by Theodore Dwight, Jr. pp. 360. New York, Roe Lockwood, 415, Broad- way, 1835. THE TEACHER, or Moral Influences in the Instruction and Govern- ment of the Young, by Jacob Abbott. Boston, Whipple & Damrell, No. 9 Cornhill. Boston. Price 75 cents. THEORY OF TEACHING, with a few practical Illustrations, by a Teacher. Boston : E. P. Peabody, 1841. pp. 128. DISTRICT SCHOOL, by J. Orville Taylor. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1834. 416 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. LECTURES ON EDUCATION, by Horace Mann, Secretary of the Massa- chusetts Board of Education.' Boston : Fowle & Capen, 1845. Pp. 338. Price $1.00. This volume embraces seven lectures, most of which were delivered before the Annual Common School Conventions, held in the several counties of Massachusetts, in 1838, '39, '40, '41, and '42. They are pub- lished in this form at the request of the Board of Education. No man, teacher, committee, parent, or friend of education generally, can read these lectures without obtaining much practical knowledge, and without being fired with a holy zeal in the cause. CONTENTS. Lecture I. Means and Objects of Common School Education. Lecture II Special Preparation, a prerequisite to Teaching. Lecture III. The Necessity of Education in a Republican Government. Lecture IV. What God does, and what He leaves for Man to do, in the work of Education. Lecture V. An Historical View of Education ; showing its Dignity and its Degradation. Lecture VI. On District School Libraries. Lecture VII. On School Pun- ishments. LOCKE AND MILTON ON EDUCATION. Boston : Gray & Brown, 1830. THE EDUCATION OF MOTHERS, by L. Aime-Martin. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1843. EDUCATION AND HEALTH, by Amariah Brigham. Boston: Marsh, Capen & Lyon, 1843. DR. CHANNING ON SELF CULTURE. Boston : Monroe & Co. Price 33 cents. Miss SEDGWICK ON SELF TRAINING, OR MEANS AND ENDS. New York : Harper & Brothers. These two volumes, the first written with special reference to young men, and the last, to young women, should be read by all young teachers, who would make their own individual character, attainments, and con- duct, the basis of all improvement in their profession. The following works have special reference to instruction in Infant and Primary Schools : EXERCISES FOR THE SENSES. London: Charles Knight & Co. Pub- lished under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Use- ful Knowledge. LESSONS ON OBJECTS : as given to children between the ages of six and eight, in a Pestalozzian School at Cheam, Sussex, by C. Mayo. London : Seeley, Burnside & Seeley, Fleet street, 1845. LESSONS ON SHELLS, as given to children between the ages of eight and ten, and by the author of " Lessons on Objects." London : Seeley, Burnside & Seeley, 1846. PATTERSON'S ZOOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. London. MODEL LESSONS FOR INFANT SCHOOL TEACHERS, by the author of " Lessons on Objects." Parts I. and II. London : Seeley, Burnside & Seeley, 1846. WILDERSPIN'S INFANT SYSTEM. London: James S. Hodgson, 112 Fleet street. WILDERSPIN'S ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. London: James S. Hodgson. CHAMBERS' EDUCATIONAL COURSE, INFANT EDUCATION, from two to six years of age. Edinburgh : W. R. Chambers. PRACTICAL EDUCATION, by Maria Edgeworth. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1835. BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 417 THE TEACHER AND PARENT; a Treatise upon Common School Edu- cation. By Charles Northern!. New York : A. S. Barnes & Co. Price 75 cents. This is a valuable treatise, full of practical suggestions to teachers and parents, by one who has felt the want of such suggestions while act- ing as teacher of the Epes Grammar School in Salem, and more re- cently as Superintendent of Public Schools, in Danvers, Mass. CONTENTS, PART I. CHAPTER I. Common Schools. II. The Teacher. Ill Thorough Knowledge, Aptness to Teach, Accuracy, Patience, and Perseverance. IV. Candor, Truth- fulness, and Courteousnesa. V. Ingenuity, Individuality. VI. Kindness, Gentleness, For- bearance, and Cheerfulness. VII. Common S-nse. Knowledge of Human Nature, General Information, Desire to do Good, and Hopefulness. VIII. Correct Moral Principles, Exem- plary Habits and Deportment ; Diligence. IX. Neatness and Order; Self-Control. X. Ear- nestness, Knenry. Enthusiasm. XI. Judgment and Prudence; System and Punctuality; In- hen Farley. Lecture III. Duties of Parents in regard to the Schools where their Children are Instructed, by Jacub Abbutt. Lecture IV. Maternal Instruction and Management of Infant {Schools, by M. M.'Carlt. Lecture V. Teaching the Elements of Mathematics, by Thomas Shenein. Lecture VI The Dangerous Tendency to Innovations and Extremes in Education, by Jlubbard Winsloic. Lecture VII. Un- ion of Manual with Mental Labor, in a System of Education, by Beriah Green, Lecture VIII. The History and Uses of Chemistry, by C. T. Jackson. Lecture IX. Natural History as a Study in Common Schools, by A. A. Gould, M. D. Lecture X. Science of Government as a Branch of Popular Education, by Joseph Story. VOL. VI, for 1835. Introductory Lecture, by W. H. Furness. Lecture I. The Study of the Classics, by A. Crosby. Lecture II. Education for an Agricultural People, by Samuel j\'utt, Jr. Lecture III. Political Influence oi Schoolmasters, by E. Washburn. Lecture IV. State and Prospects of the German Population of this Country, by //. Hokum. Lecture V. Religious Ed- ucation, by R. Park. Lecture VI. Importance of an Acquaintance with the Philosophy of the Mind to an Instructor, by J. Gregg. Lecture VII. Ends of School Discipline, by Henry L. McKean. Lecture VIII. Importance and Means of Cultivating the Social Affections among Pu- pils, by J. Blanchard. Lecture IX. Meaning and Objects of Education, by T. H. Fux. *Lcc- tureX. Management of a Common School, by T. Dwight, Jr. Lecture XI. Moral and Spir-t- ual Culture in Early Education, by R. C. Wa/erstun. Lecture Xll. Moral Uses ol the Study cf Natural History, by W. Channing^l. D. Lecture Kill. Schools of the Arts, by W. Johnson. VOL. VII., for 1830. Lecture 1. Education of the Blind, by Samuel G. Ifuire, M. D. Lec- ture II. Thorough Teaching, by William If. Brooks. Lecture III. Physiology, or -The House I live in," by William A. Alcott. Lecture IV. Incitements to Moral and Intellectual Well-Diiino-. by J. II. Belcher. Lecture V. Duties of Female Teachers of Common Schools, bv Daniel Kimball. Lecture VI. Methods of Teaching Elocution in Schools, by T. D. P. Sto'ne. Lec- ture VII. Influence of Intellectual Action on Civilization, by I{. R. Cieavdand. Lr.ctur'Vlll School Discipline, by S. R. Hall. VOL. VIII., for 1337. Introductory Discourse, by Rev. Elipha White. Lecture I Study of the Classics, by John Mulligan. Lecture II. Moral Education, by Joshua littles ' Lerture'lll Study of Natural History, by John Lewis Russell. Lecture IV. Comparative Merits of Private and Public Schools, by Theodore Edson. Lecture V. Elocution, by DavidFusdick Jr Lee- AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION. 419 ture VI. Relation between the Board of Trustees and the Faculty of a University, &c.. by Jot- per Adams. Lecture VII. School Reform, or Teachers' Seminaries, by Charles Brooks. Lec- ture VIII. Teaching of Composition in Schools, hy R. G. Parker. Lecture IX. Eviis of the Present System of Primary Instruction, by Thomaa H. Palmer. Lecture X. Reading and Declamation, by William Russell. VOL. IX, for 1833. Lecture I. Literary Responsibility of Teachers. by Cliarlr-s White. Lec- ture II. The Head and the Heart ; or, Tin- Relative Importance of Intellectual and Moral Cul- Page. LfctureVlll. Man, the Subject of Education, by Samuel G. Gout/rich. VOL. X, tor 1S39 Introductory Discourse, The Education of a Free People, by Robert Ran- toul.Jr. Lecture 1. Physiology of the Skin, by John G. MetcaJf, M. I) /^ecture II. Mind and its Developments, by Emersan Davis Lecture III. A Classic Taste iii^iur Common Schools. hy Luthf.r II. L'ncoln. Lecture IV. Natural Theology as a Study in 'Schools, by Henry A. miles. Lecture V. Division ol Labor in Instruction, by Thomas Cashing. Jr. Lecture VI. The Claims of our Age and Country upon Teachers, by David Mack. Lecture VII. Progress of Moral Science, and its Application to the Business ol" Practical Life, by Alexander H. Everett. Lecture VIII. The Comparative Results of Education, by T. P.Rodman, Lecture IX. Physi- cal Education, by Abel L. Picrson, M. D. VOL. II. NEW SERIES, for 18-10. Lecture I. Intellectual Education in Harmony with Moral and Physical, by Joshua Bates. Lecture II. Results to be aimed at in School Instruction and Disciplne, by T. Cashing, Jr. Lecture III. Duty of Visiting Schools, by Thomas A. Greene. Lecture IV. Objects and Means of School Instruction, by A. B. Muzzey. Lecture V. Courtesy, and its Connection with School Instructi<>u, by G. /'. Thai/er. Lecture VI. On the Brain and the Stomach, by Usher Parsons, M. D. Lecture Vll. Common Complaints made against Teachers, by Jacob AbbM. VOL. XII, for 1841. Lecture I. Best Method of Preparing and Using Spelling-Books, by Hor- ace Mann. JjKcture II. Best Method of Exercising the Different Faculties of the Mind, by Win. li. /We. Lecture III. Education of the Laboring Classes, by T. Parker. Lecture IV. Impor- tance of the Natural Sciences in our Svstem of Popular Education, by A. Gray. Lecture V. Moral Culture Essential to Intellectual Education, by E. W. Robinson. Lecture VI. Simpli- city of Character, as Affected by the Common Systems of Education, by J. S. Dicight. Lec- ture VII. Use of the Globes in Teaching Geography and Astronomy, by A. Fleming. Lecture VIII. Elementary Principles of Constitutional Law, as a Branch of Education in Common Schools, by Edward A. Lawrence. our Systems of Education, by R. B. ilubbard. Lecture IX. Importance of our Common "i i eacneiy. by D(l7iit-i j'. uuuuujr. J^K^IIHK v. i>9. pp. 666. REPORT ON ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN EUROPE, by Calvin E. Stowe. D. D. Boston: Thomas H. Webb & Co. Price 31 cents. SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT of the Secretary of the (Massachusetts) Board of Education, Hon. Horace Mann, 1813. Boston: Fowle and Cnpen. Price 25 cents. These three reports introduce the teacher into the school-rooms of the best teachers in Europe, and enable him to profit by the observations and experience of men who have been trained by a thorough preparatory course of study and practice at home, to the best methods of classification, instruction, and government of schools, as pursued abroad. ACCOUNT OF THE EDINGURGH SESSIONAL SCHOOL, Edinburgh, by Jolm Wood. Boston: Monroe & Francis, 1830. COUSIN'S REPORT ON PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA, translated by Sarah Austin. New York : Wiley & Long, 1835. WILLM ON THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE, translated from the French by Prof. Nichol. Glasgow: 1S47. MANUAL OF THE SYSTEM OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION pursued in the model schools of the British and Foreign School Society. London: 1S39. MINUTES OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION, from 1838 to 1844. London : 8 vols. STOW'S TRAINING SYSTEM, as pursued in the Glasgow Normal Semi- nary. Edinburgh : 1840. AN OUTLINE OF THE METHODS OF TEACHING, in the Model School of the Board of National Education for Ireland. Dublin: I. S. Folds, 1840. COUSIN'S REPORT ON PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. London: 1835. GIRARDIN'S REPORT ON EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA, BAVARIA, &c. Paris: 1835. HICKSON'S ACCOUNT OF THE DUTCH AND GERMAN SCHOOLS. London: Taylor and Walton, 1840. INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUC- TION FOR MASTERS OF PHIMARY SCHOOLS, by B. S. Denzel, President of Royal Training College for School-masters at Esslingen. 6 vols. Stut- gard. 1839. This is considered the most complete German Treatise on the subject 422 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. NATIONAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE ; being an account of the Organ- ization, Administration, Instruction, and Discipline of Public Schools of dif- ferent grades in the principal States. By Henry Barnard. New York: C. B. Norton, 71, Chambers-street. 894 pages. Price $3. This volume embraces not only the results of Mr. Barnard's observations in schools of diierent grades, and study of official documents during two visits to Europe, but the substance of the elaborate and valuable reports of Professor Calvin E. Stowe, D. D., to the Legislature of Ohio, in 1837 ; of President Alexander Dallas Bache, LL. D., to the Trustees of the Girard College of Orphans in Philadelphia, in 1839 ; of Honorable Horace Mann, LL. D., to the Massachusetts Board of Education in 1846; and of Joseph Kay, Esq., of the University of Oxford in 1850, on the subjects treated of: the nature and variety of which, can be seen in the following Index : Aberdeen, industrial schools, 512, 731. Adults, schools and classe* for. 2(59, 399, 729. Adventure schools in Scotland, 669. Agriculture, schools of, in France, 467. " " Ireland, 699. " Wirtemberg, 307. " " Belgium, 589. Russia, 626. Agricultural education, 467. " colonies, 487, 557. Agronomic institute at Versailles, 470. Alfort, veterinary school at, 472. Alphabet, how taught, 51. Amusement, taste and habit of, cultivated, 494. Annaburg, military orphan school at, 115. Annuaire des deux mondes, extracts from, 406. Anthropology, 361. Apparatus, for primary schools, 267. " " polytechnic, 163, 336. " agricultural. 467, 473, 336. " " veterinary, 472. Apprentices, house or family for, 410, 412. " schools, 590. Architecture, study of, 164,486. Arithmetic, how taught, 6(1, 63, 130, 137, 617. ~- Arts, schools of, in Prussia, 155, 159. " " " " Berlin, 159. " " " " Vienna, 335. " " " " France, 406. " " " " England, 734. Ashley, Lord, 511. Association of teachers, 179, 298, 3C4, 425, 592. Attendance, law respecting, in Prussia, 95, 121. " " Baden, 294. " " " Saxony, 266. Bavaria, 313. Switzerland, 342. _ Atcham union workhouse school, 711. Athenaeum in Belgium, 587. AUSTRIA, 325. System of public instruction, 325. popular schools, 325. upper schools, 326. commercial academies, 326. high schools for girls, 326. gymnasia, 326. lyceum, 326. university, 326. inspection, 329. Regulations respecting teachers, 331. System of normal schools, 333. Polytechnic institute at Vienna, 335. Statistics of elementary schools, 338. " secondary schools, 339. " tuperior, 339. " academies of science, 340. Bache, A. D., Report on Education in Europe, 3. " " " extracts from, 81, 85, 117, 139, 122, 273, 457, 599. BADEN, 293. School authorities, 293. System of primary schools, 293. Educational statistics of Baden, 293. " school attendance, 294. " internal organization, 294. " plan of instruction, 296. Evening classes, 297. Sunday classes, 297. Industrial instruction, 297. Education of children in factories, 297. Teachers' conferences, 298. Normal seminary at Carlsruhe, 300. Bamberg, normal school at, 314. Basedow, 25. Battersea, training college at, 823. BAVARIA, 314. System of primary schools, 313. Normal seminary at Bamburg, 314. Plan of seminary bv Jacobi, 314. Educational statistics, 315. Mr. Kay's estimate of public schools. 316. Dr. Grazer's system of instruction, 319. Common school at Bayrenth, 320. Bayreuth, Dr. Grazer's method at, 319. Beckendorf on self-education, 254. BKLGUTM, 583. History of public instruction, 583. Outline of system adopted in 1842, 585. Primary schools, 586. Secondary, 587. Sii|)erior, 588. Special and industrial, 588. Industrial education, 588. Normal instruction, 591. Teachers' conferences, 592. Normal school, 593, Reform school at Ruysselede, 555. Bell, Andrew, system of schools, 727. Benefit of clergy. 722. Berlin, schools of, 118, 124, 127, 142, 148, 233. Berne, association of teachers of, 364. Bernhardt, teachers' conference by, 243. Bible in Prussian schools, 53, 73. Black-book, 135. Blockman college at Dresden, 280. Boarding round, 168. Books. 93, 110, 689, 403. Borough Road normal school, 76J. Brevet de capacite, 423. British and Foreign School Society, 761. Brougham, Henry (Lord,) educational services, 735. extracts from, 754, 737. Brothers, institute of, at Horn, 491, 501, 524. " of the Christian doctrine, 436. Briihl, normal school at, 207. Burgh school in Scotland, 669. Burgher school, definition of, 92. " " in Berlin, 123. *_" " " Halle, 112. BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 423 Further school in Leipsic, 273. Bursary or gratuity to teachers, 421, 618. Campe, 25. Carlsruhe, normal school at, 300. Carter, Rev. T., remarks on young criminals, 508. Carved wood work, school for, 410. Cathedral schools, 721. Catholic church and schools, 17, 75, 183, 206. " cantons in Switzerland, 343. Central society of education, 731. Central school of arts in Paris, 408, 463. Certificate to pupils leaving school, 93. " " teachers in Prussia, 166, 188. " " Saxony, 263. " " " France, 423. " " " England, 753. Chalmers, Dr., on parochial schools of Scotland, 658 Chemistry, 459, 460. Chester, training college at, 855. Children, personal appearance, 75, 105, 109. " rich and poor in same school, 105, 109. " catholics and protestanU, 343, 428. Christian Brothers, 435, 420. " knowledge society, 729. Christmas at a reform school, 522. City Trade School at Berlin, 155. Classical instruction, 156, 281, 383. Classification in schools, 60, 103, 107. Clay, Rev. J., on crime, &c., 515. Cloister schools, 19, 279. Coleman, H., extracts from, 475, 548. Coleridge, Derwent, 806. Collective teaching, 775. College in French system, 383, 400. " training. See Training College. Comenius, 20. Commercial school, 337. Committee. See School Committee, Committee of council on education, 739. Common as applied to school, 401. Composition, how taught, 56. Compulsory school attendance, 21, 95, 121, 342. Concours, nature of, 392. Conference of teachers in Prussia, 167, 169, 243. " " " " Biiden, 298. " " " " France, 425. " " " Belgium, 592. " respecting reformatory schools, 497. Conversation, exercises in, 50, 60, 66. Conservatory of arts in Paris, 467, 407. Correction, house of, 492. Courses of study, 49, 92, 115, 119, 126, 127, 140, 152. 156. Courteilles, Viscount, labors at Mettray, 534. Cousin, extracts from, 382, 414, 598. " on Prussian schools, 382. " Hollnnd, 597. " " normal schools, 414. Cramming system discarded, 270. Crime, juvenile, 732. Cuvier on schools of Holland, 597. Demetz, founder of Mettray reform school, 493. DENMARK, 619. Outline of system, 620. Iceland, G2I). Denzel, teachers' manual by, 303. Diaconissen Anstalt at Kaiserswerth, 236. Dick's bequest, 663. Didactic, or art of teaching, 222, 843, 851. Diesterweg, Dr., J27. Dijon, normal school at, 447. Diocesan schools in England, 855, 876. Diploma to teachers, 173, 188, 263. Discipline in polytechnic schools, 461. normal schools. 449. 455. Dismission of a teacher, 265. Domergue on primary schools, 401. Dorothean Higher City School in Berlin. 124. Drawing, how taught," 59, 66, 51, 154, 320, 460. Dresden, schools in, 261, 268, 272, 278. Dublin, normal schools at, 693. Ducpetiaux, E ; report on reform schools, 496. extracts from, 517, 532 549, 557. Dunmanway, model agricultural school, 709. Dupin, Charles, educational map of France, 401. Dwelling-house for teacher, 167, 259, 652, 394. Ecclesiastical authority as to schools, 183, 327. Edinburgh, normal schools at, 661, 671. Eisleben, normal seminary of, 218. Elberfeld, schools in, 97. Elementary schools, 92. Employment of young children, 97, 226,297. Encouragements to pupils, 1J2. Endowed schools, 105, 279, 668, 723, 736. ENGLAND, 721. History of public elementary schools, 721. Cloister and cathedral schools, 721. Benefit of clergy to those who could read, 722. Grammar and free schools, 723. Amount of educational endowments, 724. Voluntary associations to promote schools, 725. Sunday schools, 726. Monitorial system, 727. Joseph Lancaster. 728. Andrew Bell, 727. British and Foreign School Society, 728. National society, 729. Society for promoting Christian knowledge, 729. Religions tract society, 729. School for adults, 729. Evening schools, 729. Infant schools, 730. Mechanics' institution, 730. Society for diffusion of useful knowledge, 731. Central society of education, 731. Ragged school union, 731. Philanthropic society's reform school, 732. , Schools for pauper children, 733. Education of children in factories, 746. Schools of industry, 733. Schools of design, 734. Lancashire public school society, 734. National public school association, 734. Parliamentary action in behalf of schools, 735. Action of Committee of Privy Council, 740. Remarks of T. B. Macaulay, 747. " Thomas Carlyle, 750. History and condition of normal schools, 751. Examination papers on school management and art of teaching, 757. Normal school of British and Foreign School So- ciety, 76i. Normal department for young men, 763. Course of conversational reading, 775. Questions to test a school, 777. Model school, 779. Female department of normal school, 780. Hints to candidates for admission, 784. Normal and model schools of the Home and In- fant School Sotiety, 787. Syllabus of lectures on education, 800. St. Mark's college, or training school, 805. Battersea normal school, 823. Chester dincesan training college, 855. Normal schools for female teachers, 875. Lectu/es on the principles of education, 877. " " practice of education, 878. Kneller Hall training school, 879. Conference respecting reform schools, 497. Philanthropic soc. farm school at Red Hill, 578. Engineers, schools for, 461, 588. English language, 837. " literature, 837. Esslingen, normal school at, 310. Evening schools, 297, 685, 729. Examination, public, 271. oral, 460. " by written questions, 231. " of teachers in Prussia, 230. 424 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Examination of teachers in Saxony, 264, 270. " " " France, 4-23. " " ' Holland, 601. " for universities, 143, 145. Exflmnip.. influence of. in teachers, 253. Exhibition for poor scholars, 422. Factory children in Prussia, 96. " Baden, 297. a " " England, 746. Family arrangement at reform schools, 545. Farm schools for young criminals, 487. FeCT, n or r tuiUon, 176, 596, 599, 658, 746. Felbiger, 25. Fellenberg's institute at Hofwyl, 351. " principles of education, 354. " normal course, 357. Female teachers, 179, 235, 240. " normal schools for, 235, 240, 404, 767 Fleidner, institute at Kaiserswerth, 236. Fletcher normal seminary, 272. Foreman in reform schools, how trained, 491, 535, 554, 562. Forestry, schools of, 307. Formal instruction, 203. FRANCE, 381. History of popular education, 381. Ordinances of national convention, 381. Decrees of Napoleon, 381. Law of the government of Louis Phillippe, 382. Report of Victor Cousin, 382. Speech of M. Guizot, 387. Degrees of primary instruction, 387. Local and state inspection, 388. Professional education of teachers, 389. Mission of the teacher, 389. Society of elementary instruction, 390. Outline of system in 1850, 391. University of France, 391. Council of public instruction, 391. Academies, 391. Royal colleges, 392. System of competion for professorship, 392. System of primary instruction, 393. School attendance, 393. Local management, 393. Examination of Teachers, 393. Departmental inspection, 394. Education of teachers, 394. Course of instruction, 395. Teachers' associations, 395. Fund for relief of aged teachers, 395. Governmental prizes to masters, 395. Expenditures for school-houses, 395, Schools embraced in university of France, 396 Primary education in the communes, 397. Number of primary sch. belong, to each sect, 397 Attendance in primary schools, 3U8. Classes for adults, and apprentices, 899. Statistics of normal schools, 399. State of secondary education, 400. Primary education in department of Tarn, 401. Institutions for special instruction, 405. " " industrial instruction, 406. History of normal schools in France, 413. Conferences of teachers, 425. Libraries of teachers, 427 Pecuniary condition of teachers, 430. Institute of Christian Brothers, 435. Primary normal school at Versailles, 447. " " " " Dijon, 449. Secondary normal school of Paris, 451. Polytechnic school of France, 457. " " engineers, 462. " " roads and bridges, 462. " " mines, 462. Central school of nrts and manufactures, 453. Agricultural education in France, 467. Model farm schools, 468. Regional schools of agriculture, 469. National agronomic institute, 470. Veterinary schools, 471. Reform farm schools, 474. Agricultural school at Grignon, 475. " " " Grand Jouan, 485. Farm schools for juvenile delinquents, 487. Agricultural reform school at Mettray, 533. Horticultural reform school at Petit-Bourg, 549. Prison of La Roquette in Paris, 553. Franke, educational labors of, 21. " teachers' class, 24. " orphan-house, 21, 112. Frederick William Gymnasium, Berlin, 148. Free church of Scotland, 669. " schools, 325. French language, how taught, 137, 142, 154. Freres Chretiens, 441. Freyberg, school of mines at, 289. Funds, must not diminish school rate or tax, 167. Gallery lesson, 720, 801. Garden for teacher, 167. Gardening, art of, acquired by teachers, 203,431,815. Geography, how taught, 68, 114, 131, 138, 613. Geometry^ how taught, 131, 137. GERMANY, 17. History of education, 17. Parochial schools, 18. Public schools, 19. Martin Luther, 19. Augustus Herrman Frank?, 21. Orphan-house at Halle, 21. Basedow, 25. Pestalozzi, 25. Zeller, 29. Centennial birth-day of Pestalozzi, 30. Progress of normal schools, 31. General features of the school systems, 32. Table. Normal schools in Germany in 1848, 34. Results of the normal school system, 35. Course of instruction in primary schools, 49. For children between ages of six and eight, 50. For children from ten to twelve, 55. Children from twelve to fourteen, 57. Extracts from report of Hon. H. Mann, 60. Testimony of Joseph Kay, Esq., as to the practi- cal working of the Prim. Sch. of Germany, 74. 31asnevin, agricultural school at, 683. "lovernment, educational duty of, 76, 387,747,750. Iraded schools, 102. 'rammar, how taught, 54, 56, 59, 65. Jrand Jouan, agricultural school at, 485. Srazer, system of instruction of, 319. jREKCE, 033. Outline of system, and statistics in 1852, 633. Jreek church, "628. irignon, agricultural school at, 475. "~!uizot, plan of schools for France, 387. " extracts from, 387. lymnasium, in Prussia, 105, 139. " " Saxony, 279. " " Austria, 326. lymnastics, 830. Hague, primary school at, 609. Halle, orphan-house at, 21, 113. " burgher school at, 112. HAMBURGH, reform school at, 517. Hamilton, Sir William, extract from, 91. 382. Harnisch, method of teaching reading, 114. " plan of studies, 115. Hebrew schools, 311, 631. Hecker, 24, 31. Hermann, seminary for classic teachers, 259. HESSE CASSKL, 311. Hickson, W. E. German nationality, 7. " schools in Holland," 24, 597. Higher burgher school, 124, 127, 135. Hill. M. I)., on juvenile crime, 498. Hitchcock, E., Report on agricultural schools, 703. " extracts from, 469, 703. BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 425 Hofwyl, Fellenberg's estnblishment at, 351. Ilohenheim. agricultural institute at, 307. HOLLAND, 595. History of primary instruction, 595. Outline of system. School inspection, 595. Regulations as to examination of teachers, 601. " school inspectors, 603. " primary schools, 605. Regulations respecting religious instruction, 606. Table. Primary education in 1846, 608. Primary school at the Hngue, 609. " normal school at Harlaem, 617. Home and colonial infant school society, 721, 746. Horn, reform school nt, 517. Horology, practical school of, 410. ICELAND, family instruction, 620. Iferten. See Yverdim. Ignorance and crime, 749. Indigent children, 487. Induction, methods of, 117, 128. Industry, school of, 733. Industrial instruction, in normal schools, 187, 367. " " primary schools, 297, 687. " pauper schools, 882. " reform schools, 4H7. " special schools, 406. Infant schools, 730. Inspection of schools in Austria, 327, 329. " " " Baden, 293. " " " England, 742. France, 388, 394. " Holland, 596, 603. ' " " Ireland, 689. " " " Suxony, 258. " " " Spain, 649. " " " Switzerland, 347. " " " Wirtetnberg, 302. Institute of arts at Berlin, 159. " " agriculture at Hohenheim, 307. Instruction, methods of, 43, 50, 60, 91, 110, 113, 128. Intellectual education, 836. Ionian Islands, schools in, 634. IRELAND, 675. History of national education, 675. Legislation of Henry VIII., G76. Protestant charter schools, 676. Kildare-place society, 677. Commissioners of English Parliament, 677. " National Education, 677. Results of the system, 678. Training department and model schools, 693. Agricultural education, 699. Professorships in Queen's Colleges, 699. Agricultural department in national system, 700. Model farm at Glnsnevin, 703. List of lectures at Glnsnevin, 707. National school at Lnrne, 707. Dunmanwny model school, 709. Workhouse agricultural school, 710. Operations of similar schools in England, 710. Queen's Colleges and University, 711. Irregular attendance, 206. ITALY, 635. System in Lombardy and Venice, 635. " " Sardinia, 640. " " Tuscany, 643. " " Rome, 644. " Naples, 645. Itinerant schools in Norway, 623. Jacobi, plan of normal school by, 314. Julius, Dr.. Prussian schools as they were, 241. Journals of education, 46, 182, 390. Journal of Education, London, extract from, 401. Jury of examination, 460. Juvenile crime, origin of. 493. cost of, 501, 503. " criminals, school for in Belgium, 496, 557. " " France, 492. " " Wirtemberg, 489. Juvenile criminals, school for, in Hamburgh, 490. " " " " England, 497. " " " " Switzerland, 487. " " conference respecting, 497. Kaiserswerth, school for nurses, governesses, 236 Kay, Joseph, on education of people, 94. extracts from, 74, 94, 222, 226, 261, 305, 315, 341, 367, 441. Kay, James Phillips. See S/iutUeworth. Kneller Hall, 879. Kindermann, 31. Kirk session, nature and power of, 655. Kirkpatrick, Dr., on agricultural schools, 700. Knighton, W., lectures on teaching by, 877. Koenigsberg, seminary for teachers at, 83. Kribben, or nursery schools, 730. Kruitzlingen, normal school at. 367. Kussnacbt, normal school at, 373. Lnlor, author of prize essay, 731. Lamartine, on duty of educated men, 40.V Lancashire public school association, 734. Lancaster, Joseph, 727. Lancasterian system, in England, 728. Denmark, 620. " " Holland. 595, 610. " " Prussia, 106. " Spain, 647. Landed proprietors, duties to poor children, 106. Lap-bag, for needlework, 780. La Roquette, prison of, 555. Larne, agricultural school at, 707. Lasnlle, Abbe de, educational labors of, 435. Lastadie, normal school at, 192, Lateran, council of, 18. Latin, how taught, 137, 285 813. Lausanne, normal school at, 378. Learned societies, 405. Liberty of instruction, 584. Libraries for teachers, 427. Lierre, normal school at, 593. Liepsic, burgher school in, 273. " real school. 273. " seminary for classic teachers, 259. Locke, John, 25. Lombardy. schools in, 635. Lucerne, normal school at, 380. Luther, Martin, educational labors of, 19. " letter to elector of Saxony, 19. " address in behalf of Christian schools, 19. Lyceum, in Austria, 326. France, 383. Macanley, T. B. on public schools, 747. Madras system, of Dr. Bell, 727. Malthus, on state of schools in England, 726. Manufactures, schools of, 406. Management clauses, 744. Manners of school children, 305, 77. Mann, Horne, report on schools of Europe, 4. " extracts from, 39, 60, 528. Manufacturing districts, 96, 266, 297, 325. Marienweider, normal school for females at, 236. Material instruction, 203. Map-drawing, 69, 615. Maynooth, 713. Me Neil, Sir John, on agricultural schools, 701. Mechanics, science of, 866. Mechanics' Institutions, 730. Mecklenberg, duchy of, 311. Mental arithmetic, 64. Methodick, 206. Mercantile and commercial schools, 335, 856. Methods of teaching left with teacher, 93, 110. Mettray, reform school at, 533. Middle schools, 91. Milne's Free School, 668. Mines, schools of, 289, 462, 410. M inutes of committee of council on education, 739. Military schools, 590, 631. 526 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Military orphan schools, 115, 532. Mixed schools, 79, 98, 401. Model farm school, 468, 532. " schools, annexed to normal schools, 165. Models for drawing, 163. Monasteries, schools in, 279, 721. Monitorial system, 106, 401, 610. Monitors, 106, 175, 343. Moral Education, 355. More, Sir Thomas, extract from, 725. Mother school of Christian Brothers, 352. Motives to study, 145. Mulhauser's system of writing, 838. Munich, 317. Music, 74, 126, 131, 211, 228, 842. Mutual instruction, 107, 610, 729. Nassau, duchy of, 311. National society, in England, 729. Natural history, how taught, 131, 866. Nature, knowledge of, 70, 137. Naval schools, 405, 625. Navigation. 589, 625. Needle work in school, 780, 590. " " taught by teachers' wives, 432. Neufchatel, 343, 349. New Lanark, infant school at, 730. Nichols, G., extracts from, 598. Non-attendance at school, 403. Normal schools, definition of, 31, 333. remarks on by C. E. Stowe, 35. A. D. Bnche, 39. H. Mann, 39. E. Ryerson, 45. " L. Stephens, 46. Joseph Kay, 183, 232. Shuttleworth, 826. V. Cousin, 414. M. Guizot, 388. Lord Brougham, 751. history of, 20, 30, 413, 661, 751. number and condition of, in Prussia, 165, 172, 185, 189, 190. Saxony, 259, 261. Wirtemberg, 310, 305. Austria, 333. Switzerland, 343,357,366,373, Bavaria, 313. Baden, 300. Hesse Cassel, 312. France, 399, 421, 431, 447, 451. Spain, 647. Portugal, 646. Russia. 627. Belgium, 591. Holland, 617, 844. Denmark, 620. Greece, 634. England. 751. Ireland, 693. t Scotland, 061, 671. Germany, 34. different grades of, 189. 415. for female" teachers, 235, 404, 594, 875. catholic teachers, 207. protestant teachers, 317, 197. teachers of primary schools, 191. " secondary schools, 451. 259, 264. pauper children, 879. reform schools, 490. 524. 535. agricultural do., 700. city schools, 446, 233 rural districts, 415, 445 description of particular, in Prussia. Lastadie, 192. Pyritz, 194. " " Potsdam, 197. " " Bruhl. 207. " " Eisleben, 218. Normal schools in Prussia. Weissenfels, 219. " " Berlin, 233. " " " " Kaiserswerth, 236. " " " Saxony. Leipsic, 259. " " " " Dresden, 261. " " " Baden. Carlsruhe, 300. " " " Wirtemberg. Esslingen, 310. " " " Hesse Cassel. Schluchtern, 312. " " " Bavaria. Bamherg, 314. " " " " Schwabach, 314. " " " Austria. Vienna, 333. " " " Switzerland. Hofwyl, 357. " " " " Kruitzlingen, 367. " " " " Zurich, 372. " " " Switzerland. Kussnacht, 373. Lausanne, 378. " Lucerne, 380. " " France. Paris, 451. " " " Versailles, 447. " Dijon, 449. " Belgium. Lierre, 593. " Holland. Harlaem, 617. " Scotland. Edinburgh, 661, 671. " Ireland. Dublin, 693. " England. Boroughroad, Lon.761. " " Chester, 855. " " Chelsea, 805. " " Battersea, 833. " " Whiteland, 875 " Kneller Hall, 879. " administration and instruction of, " direction of, 197,219, 233,262, 373, 617. " buildings and fixtures, 197, 207, 367. " domestic arrangements, 225, 227, 233, 262, 367, 202, 421, 447, 449. " director, or principal of, 416. " discipline of, 449, 455, 618. " plan of study, 416. " expenses, &c., 197, 229, 424, 421. " number of teachers, 198. 217, 261, 305. " " of pupils, 198, 208, 261. " age of admission, 422, 810. " conditions of admission, 165, 185, 199, 219, 226, 232, 261, 303, 617, 694. " pledge to teach, 422. " course and subjects of study, 186, 192, 218, 272, 300, 306, 312, 372, 376, 378. " length of course, 166, 184, 220, 225, 260, 261, 333, 617. " physical, 209, 225. " intellectual, 186, 201, 213. " moral and religious, 196, 211, 220, 225, 234. " " industrial, 187, 814, 861, 888. " " science of teaching, 229, 232, 234, 617. " " art of teaching, 204, 216, 234, 262, 617. " " musical education, 228, 280. " " examination for diploma, 166, 188, 204, 230, 262, 423. " " privileges of graduates, 189. " " general results of, 35, 39, 755. NORWAY, 623. Outline of system of public education, 623. Norwood, industrial school for paupers, 733. Novitiate of the Christian Brothers, 444. Nursery schools, 730. Nurses, training of, 236. Oberlin, J. J., author of infant schools, 730. Observation, how cultivated, 50, 206. Oral instruction, 761, 612. Order of exercises in school. See Time Table. Organization of public schools. See Prussia, France, &-c. Orphans, number of, increased by war, 487. " of tenchers provided for, 181. " house for at Halle, 21, 112. " " " Annnburg, 115. ; Osborn, Rev. W. C., on cost of crime, 502. Outline maps. 69, 613. Overberg, Bernard, labors of, 247. BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 427 Overseers of schools in Austria, 330. Parents, duties of, to schools, in Prussia, 74, 75. " " " " " Bavaria, 313. " " " " " Saxony, 266. " " " " " France, 393. " " " " " Switzerland, 342. Paris, polytechnic school, 457. " normal school at, 451. " school of arts, 463. Parish or parochial schools, 346, 651. Parkhurst, prison for juvenile criminals, 732. Patronage society, for discharged criminals, 555. Pauperism and education, 350, 879. Pauper children, number of, 733, 879. " schools for, 733. " teachers for, 885. Pedagogy, 183, 222. Pecuniary condition of teacher, 430. Pennmanship, see Writing. Pensions for disabled teachers, 181,402. Periodicals, educational, 46, 183, 390. Pestalozzi, educational principles of, 25. " system of in Prussia, 83. orphan-house at Neuhof, 487. " contrasted with Basedow, 26. Petit-Bourg, reform school at, 549. Philanthopinum of Basedow, 25. Philanthopic society, 578, " reform school of, 578. Phonic method, 25, 613, 836. Physical education, 138, 144. Physiology, 830, 361. Pietists, 25. Piety of teachers, how shown, 194. Play-ground, 106, 274. Polytechnic school at Berlin, 159. " " Vienna, 335. " " Paris, 457. Poor schools, in Holland, 609. PORTUGAL, 646. Potsdam, higher burgher school at, 135. normal school, 197. " orphan-house, 532. Pounds, John, author of ragged schools, 731. Practical instruction, 203. Practice, or model schools, 165, 204, 216. Preparatory normal school, 226. Prevention, in school government, 211. Preventive schools, conference respecting, 468. Primary school in Saxony, 269. Primary schools. See Prussia, France, ($-c. " gradation of, 91, 387, 609. " course of instruction in Germany, 49. " Holland, 609. " " " Austria, 327. " " " " " Bavaria, 313. " " " " France, 401. " " " " " Saxony, 258, " " " '' " Baden", 296. " inspection of. See Inspection. " teachers of. See Teachers. Prince schools, 279. Princen's reading board, 612. Private schools, 103. Pro-seminaries, 226. PRUSSIA, description of primary instruction, 81. History of primary instruction, 81. Outline of system, 85. Statistics of primary education in 1848, 88. Remarks on progress of primary Schools, 89. Subjects and methods of instructioii, 91. Results, according to Mr. Kay, 94. " Mr Mann, 39. " Mr. Stephens, 46. Education of young children, universal, 94. School attendance, 95. Children employed in factories, 96. Voluntary system prior to 1819, 97. ' Schools where the people are of one faith, 98. " " " " " different do. 98. PRUSSIA, Mixed schools, 99. Duties of school committee, 99. Schools in large towns and cities, 101. Advantages of large schools, 102. School-houses, 103. Superior primary schools, 105. Real schools, gymnasia, endowed schools, 105. Large landed proprietors, 106. Laneasterian method, 106. Paid monitors or assistants, 107. Text-books, 109. Suggestive character of the methods, 110. Interest of children in their studies, 111. Burgher school at Halle, 112. Military orphan-house at Annaburg, 115. Public schools of Berlin, 118. Elementary schools, 118. Burgher schools, 123. Dorothean higher city school of Berlin, 124. Model school of teachers' seminary, 127. Seminary school at Weissenfels, 123. Higher burgher school of Potsdam, 135. Secondary Instruction in Prussia, 139. Frederick William Gymnasium of Berlin, 148. Royal real school, 152. City trade school, 155. Institute of Arts, 159. Legal provision respecting teachers, 165. Testimony of Mr. Kay, 169. Social condition, 170. Educational advantages, 172. Schools preparatory to normal schools, 41, 171. Examination on entering, 172. Teachers are public officers 174. Salaries fixed, and payment certain, 176. Female teachers, 178. Teachers' conferences, 179. Pensions to old and invalid teachers, 181. Widows and orphans of deceased teachers, 182. Educational periodicals, 182. Teachers seminary, or normal colleges, 183. Conditions and examinations for entering, 41,185. Intellectual training of a seminary, 186. Industrial training, 187. Diploma, 173, 188. Location of normal schools in 1846, 190. Small normal schools of Lastadie, 191. Small normal school of Pyritz. 194. Normal school of Potsdam, 197. Normal schools at Bruhl, 207. Normal seminary in Eisleben, 218. Seminary for teachers at Weissenfels, 219. , Seminary for teachers of city, at Berlin, 233. Normal schools for female teachers, 235. Seminary at Marienweider, 236. Diaconissen Anstalt, at Kaisersworth, 236. Prussian schools, a few years ago, 241. School counselor, Dinter, 242. Journal of a conference of teachers, 243. SchooJ counselor, Bernhardt, 243. Bernard Overberg, 246. C. B. Zeller the influence of example, 253. Self-examination by Beckendorf, 254. Publicity of public schools, 75. Public schools, rich and poor attend, 75, 316. " " protestont and catholic, 63. 317. Punishments, in reform schools, 512, 537, 552. Pupil teachers, 753. Pyritz, normal school at, 194. Qualifications required in a teacher in Prussia, 165. " " Austria, 331. " " " " Saxony, 259. " " " " Ireland, 693. " " " " France, 423. Queen's College and University in Ireland, 7i3. " scholars, in England, 753. Questions for self-examination by teachers, 254. " " examiners in schools, 777. " " on school management and art ef teaching,757. 428 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Ragged schools, origin of, 731. Raikes, Robert, and Sunday schools, 726. Rambalt, 25. Rate, or tax for schools, 734. Ratich, labors of, 20. Rauhen-haus, at Horn, 490, 517. Raumer, F., extracts from, 635. Reading, how taught, 50, 51, 55, 61, 114, 131/612, Realia, 91, 321. Real instruction, 56, 59. Real schools at Berlin, 152. " " " Leipsic, 277. " " Vienna, 335. Real objects, lessons on, 70. Red Hill, reform school at, 578. Reformation, influence of, 18. Reform schools for young criminals 487, 559. " public or private, 557. buildings, 493, 5J8, 539, 549, 558. farm, 559, 561. " family arrangement, 545, 581. " officers, 519, 535, 550, 562. foremen, 491, 535, 562, 554. " conditions of admission, 558, 560. " number, 519, 536, 555. 5GO. age, 520, 561. previous life, 561, 557. " classification, 518, 550, 564. dress, 540, 563. instruction, 519, 538, 566. " employments, 535, 540, 558, 571. daily routine, 521, 544, 564. " amusements, 522. " food, 519, 562. infirmary, 544, 563. " dormitories, 539, 549, 563. " punishment, 541, 552, 569. reward, 495, 530, 553, 568. meetings of pupils and officers, 569. discharge, 560. cost, 501, 526, 534, 543, 565, 573. result, 495. 520, 530, 556, 570. aid to discharged inmates, 555, 576. in Switzerland, 487. " " Wirtemberg, 489. " Hamburgh, 490, 517. " France, 492. " Belgium, 496,557. " " England, 497, 578. Reichelen, M., extracts from, 118. [134, 138, 145. Religious instruction in Prussia, 53, 55, 57. 73, 124, " Holland, 605, 614. " Ireland, 679. denominations, 103, 183, 302. Regional school of agriculture, 469. Repeaters, in French seminaries, 447, 458, 466. Repetition schools in Austria, 326. Rewards in school, 145. Rochow, canon of, 27, 31. Rosier, Abbe, founder of agricultural schools, 467. Rousseau, 25. Royal real school at Berlin, 152. Rules, 862, 209, 211, 618. Rural schools or colonies, 487. RUSSIA, 625. History of Public Instruction, 625. Statistics of schools in 1850, 630. Ruysselede, reform school at, 557. Ryerson, Dr., extracts from, 45. Salaries of teachers, 176, 265, 302, 432. Salle, Abbe de la. See Lasalle. Salzman, 25. Sampson, Abbot, 721. Sand, writing in, suggested the Madras system, 727. Sardinia, 640. Savings' society for teachers, 433, 444. SAXONY, 257. System of primary instruction, 257. Institution for superannuated teachers, 259. Statistics of schools, 260. SAXONY, Royal sem. for teachers at Dresden, 26). Examination for teachers' diplomas, 262. Protection of teachers' rights, 265. Compulsory attendance at school, 266. School buildings, 267. Primary schools of Dresden, 268. Saxon Sunday schools, 268. Plan of Sunday school at Dresden, 269. Public examination of the schools, 271. Fletcher normal seminary at Dresden, 272. Burgher school at Leipsic, 273. Plun of instruction, 275. Public schools of Leipsic and Dresden, 278. Secondary education in Saxony, 279. Blochmann Gymnasium at Dresden, 280. School of mines at Freyberg 289. Sears, Bnrnas, extracts from, 19. Secondary education, in Austria, 326, 339. " " Prussia, 139. " " Saxony, 279. " " " " Russia, 627. " " " France, 400. " normal schools at Paris, 451. Sects, can unite in same school system, 75, 79, 9'J 102, 343. Seminary for teachers. See Normal Schools. Seminary school at Berlin, 127.' " " " Weissenfels, 133. Sessional school in Scotland, 655. Sexes, separation of, in schools, 490. Seydlitz, endowment for schools of arts, 159. Schluchtern, normal school at, 312. Schmidt, method of drawing, 154. Scholars. See Pupils. School fittings, requisites of, 38. School-houses and furniture in Austria, 329. " " " " Baden, 78. " " " " England, 742. " " " " France, 395. " " " " Prussia, 61, 78, 108. " " " Ireland, 689. School-houses and furniture in Saxony, 267. School committee, local, in Prussia, 98. " " " " Saxony, 258. " " " " Baden, 293. " management 757, 769, 800. School regulations, 139. Schul-vorstand, 86. See School Committee. Scientific institutions, 406, 591, 626. SCOTLAND, 651. History of Parochial School, 651. Normal School of the Church of Scotland, 661. " School of Free Church, 671. Shuttleworth, Sir James Kay, 740, 823. extracts from, 444, 367. Singing, See Music. Simultaneous method, 111. Sisters of Charity, 348, 535, 548. Smith, Adam, on parish schools, 725. Social influence of good public schools, 317, 657 Society for the public good, in Holland, 595. SPAIN, 647. Special instruction, schools for, 405. State, relation of, to schools, 76, 747. Statistics of education in Austria, 338. " Prussia, 48, 88. " " " " Holland, 608. " " " " Saxony, 260. " " " " Baden, 291. " " " " Bavaria, 318, 315. " " " " Wirtemberg. 301. " " " " Lombardy, 636. " " " " Sardinia, 640. " " Rome, 644. " " " " Naples, 645. " " " " Portugal, 646. " Denmark. 619. " " Norway, 623. " " " " Sweden, 622. " " " " Russia, 627. 1 " Greece, 633. BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 429 Statistics of education in England, 745. " " " " Ireland, 694. " " " " Scotland, 669. " " " " France, 366. " " " " Belgium, 583. Stephens, Prof. L., extract from, 46, 84. Stettin, normal schools at, 31. Steinmetz, 24, 31. St. Mark's training college at Chelsea, 805. Stock, J., and Sunday schools, 726. Stowe, Calvin E., extracts from, 35, 49, 527. Stow's training system at Glasgow, 661. Strasbourg, normal school at, 413. Study room in boarding-school, 460. " table. See Time Table. Study out of school, 143. St. Vincent de Paul, agricultural brothers of, 495. Subjects of study in primary schools, Austria, 326. Baden, 194. " Prussia, 92. " France, 395. " Holland, 205. " " Saxony, 258. " Switzerland, 346. Suggestive methods, 110. Sunday schools, 268, 438, 726. Superior schools or colleges, statistics of, 260, 293, 301, 315, 318, 339, 392. Supervision. See Inspection. Support of schools, mode of, in Holland, 596. " " " " " Austria, 325. " " " " " Prussia, 176. " " " " " Scotland, 658. SWEDEN. 621. Syllabus of lectures on education, 668, 877. SWITZERLAND, 341. Outline of educational institutions, 341. Reconcilement of difference of relig. belief, 341. School attendance made compulsory, 342. Education of teachers, 344. Manual labor in normal schools, 344. Vehrli's opinions on the habits of teachers, 345. Course of instruction in primary schools, 346. Religious exercises, 347. Local inspection of schools, 347. Results of the education of the people, 348. Education of girls in catholic seminaries, 348. Condition of the peasantry, 349. Pauperism and ignorance, 350. Educational establishment at Hofwyl, 351. Emanuel Fellenberg, 351. Fellenberg's principles of education, 354. .Normal course for teachers at Hofywl, 357. Berne cantonal society for teachers, 364. Normal school at Kruitzlingen, 367. Educational views of Vehrli,369. Programme course of study, 372. Normal school at Kussnacht, Zurich, 373. Programme of studies, 376. Normal school at Lausanne, 378. Normal school at Lucerne, 380. Tarn, report on schools in department of, 401. Taxation for schools, 100. Teacher, estimate of, 33, 37, 42, 46, 167, 16D, 599, 809. " legal provision for, 33, 176, 432. qualifications, 36, 112, 14], 203, 259, 423. " pecuniary condition of, 37, 23, 170, 433. civil state of, 33, 174, 401. " employment out of school, 431. " saving's box, or bank for, 434. " associations, 33 425. " conferences, 298, 418, 592. " retiring, pensions of, 33, 434. " dwelling and garden for, 177, 205. " fixed salaries ot, 177, 265. " social position, 170. " seminaries for, 190. " superannuated and disabled, 182. " widow and children of, 181. Teacher, sympathies with people, 184. " professional training of, 36, 388. " authority of, 37. appointment of, 100. Teaching, science of, 800, 877. " art of, 800, 878. Technical schools, 335, 637. Technology, how taught, 136. Temple, R., description of KnellerHall, by, 885. Term, length of school, 274, 294. Text-books in Prussia, 109, 110. " " Ireland, 689. Theological students must qualify themselves to inspect schools, 255, 327. Thinking exercises for little children, 70, 113. Time table in primary schools, 115, 268, 614. burgher, 126, 133, 135, 136, 275. " gymnasia, 142. " " Sunday schools, 269. " " normal schools, 134, 214, 220, 234, 262, 272, 300, 312, 447, 449. agricultural schools, 308, 470, 478. polytechnic schools, 459. school of arts, 162. " reform schools, 517, 531. " " secondary schools, 142, 149, 287. real schools, 153, 158, 277. " " school of mines, 289. Topics, or themes for composition, 775. Town, or higher grade of burgher schools, 93. Trade schools, 155. Training schools for teachers. See Normal Schools. Trivial schools in Austria, 325. Trotzendorf, monitorial system of, 20. Turner, E., on reform schools, 578. Tuscany, 643. Union workhouse schools, 733. j Universities, 588. 639, 638, 641, 713. University of France, 391. Upper schools in Austria, 326. j Vehrli, pupil of Pestalozzi, 367. Venetian States, educational statistics, 339, 636. Versailles, normal school nt, 447. " agronomic institute at, 470. Vienna, polytechnic institute at, 335. Vincent de Paul, philanthropy, 420. Von Tiirk, 532. Wages of teachers, 205, 302, 394 Warwick county asylum, 515. Watson, VV., founder of industrial school, 731. Weaving, practical school for, 410, 412. Weights and measures, taught, 395, 615. Weissenfels, seminary for teachers at, 219. " school of practice, 133. Whipping in prison, 503. Whitbread, author of first school bill for Eng. 727. Wicbern, F. H., teacher of reform school, 517. Widows of teachers, 18J, 395. Willm, extracts from, 425, 427. Wimmer, S., account of Blockman college, 280. WlRTE.MBERG, 301. Educational statistics, 301. System of primary schools, 301. Denzel's introduction to the art of teaching, 303. Normal seminary at Esslingen, 310. Normal seminary at Nurtingen, 306. Institute of agriculture at Hohenheim, 307. Woodbridge, W. C., extracts from, 25. Workhouse schools, 685. Writing, how taught, 52, 60, 114, 119, 613. Young children, exercises for, 50. in factories, 96, 297, 726. Yverdun, 29. Zeller, C. B., labors of. 29, 83, 253. Zinzendorf, 24. Zurich, normal school at, 370. 430 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE COMMON SCHOOL SYSTEM OF CONNECTICUT. Hartford : Case, Tiffany & Co. This Volume is made np of different numbers of the Connecticut Common School Journal, which contain separate documents of permanent vttliie. It makes a large quarto volume of 400 puses, in double columns, and small type. Price $1.00. I. DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF CONNECTICUT, FROM MAY, 1838, TO MAY, 1842. ItKPORTS of the Board of Commissioners of Common Schools, for 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842 iaruard's Report Legislative Document, 1838. " ' A-Ulress of the Board of Commissioners of C. S. to the People, 1838. First Animal Report to the Board of C. C. S., 1839; Second do. for 1840; Third do. for 1841 ; Fourth do. for 1842. " Report on Education in ether States nnd Countries. 1840. " Public Schools in Boston, Providence, Lowell, Worcester, &c., 1841. " Address on Scliool-houSes in 1839. Keport on Public Schools of llnrtford, 1841. ' Remarks on the History und Condition of the School Lows of Connecticut, 1841. ' Report on the Legal Provision respecting the Education and Employment of Children in Factories in vnrious Stntes and Countries. " Letter to a Committee of the Legislature on the Expenses of the Board of Commissioners, 1841. Reports of School Visitors in most of the Towns in Connecticut, for 1840 to 1842. Summary of the Legislation of the State respecting Schools from 1047 to 1839. Act to provide for the better Supervision of Common Schools, passed 1838. Act giving additional powers to School Districts and School Societies, 1839. Revised Common School Act, 1841. Keport and Act for repealing the Board of Commissioners, 1842. II. DOCUMENTS OR ARTICLES RESPECTING THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF OTHER STATES AND COUNTRIES: Condition of Public Education in Scotland, Ireland, England, and Wales, from various sources. " " " Holland, by Prof. Br.che, Cousin, and Cuvier. " " " Prussia, by Prof. Bache. Cousin, Wyse, and Prof. Stowe. " " " Duchy of Baden, nnd Nassau, bv Prof. James. " " " Austria, by Prof. Turnbull and Bache. " " " Tuscany, from (in. Review. " " " Switzerland, from Journal of Education, and Prof. Bache. " " " Bavaria and Hanover, by Hawkins. " " " Saxony, by Prof. Bache. " " " Russia, by Prof. Stowe. " " " France, by Mrs. Austin and Prof. Bache. " " " Belgium, from Foreign Q.U. Review. III. NORMAL SCHOOLS, OR TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. History of Teachers' Seminaries. State Normal School at Lexington, Mass. Essays on, by Rev. T. H. Gnllaudet. Borough Road School, London. Address respecting, by Prof. Stowe. Primary Normal School, at Hmirlem, (Holla- J.i Account of in Prussia, by Dr. Julius. Seminary for Teachers, at Weissenlels, Prussia. " " France, by Guizot. " " Potsdam, " " " Holland, by Cousin. Primary Normal School at Stettin. " " Europe, by Prof. Bache. ' " " Brlilil and Neuweid " " Massachusetts, by Mr. Mann. Xormal School at Versailles, France. " " New York, by Mr. Dix. Kussnacht, Switzerland Normal Seminary, Glasgow. Beuggen, Teachers' Departments, New York. " " Hofwyl, " IV ACCOUNT OF PARTICULAR SCHOOLS. Infant Schools. High School, Edinburgh. Model Infant School, Glasgow. School for the Poor, Amsterdam. " " " London. Primary School, Berlin. Quaker Street Infant, " Dorothean High School, " Infant School in Lombnrdy. Burgher School, " " " Rotterdam. Higher Burgher School, Potsdam. Evening Schools. Schools of Industry. ! Dixon, 47 E. R. Porter, 4S " R. T. Cranston, ----------- 43 Condition of Public Schools of Rhode Island in 183-2, --------49 Report by Oliver Angcll, ------------- 49 Annual Abstract of School Returns for 1839, -------- for 1844, Debate on the School Act of 1845, - -------- Remarks of Wilkins Updike, - - - ---- Report of School Committee of North Providence, ------- Smithfield, Cumberland, ------ .. " Scituate, ------ -.. School -houses, ----------- - . . Plan of Grounds for Village School, --------- Plans for Schools of different grades, --------- Plan of Public School in City of New York, - " Primary School, ----------- Report on seats without backs, IloEton Primary School Chair, ---------- Plans of Normal Schools in Massachusetts, -------- Brimmer Grammar School, Boston, --------- Hints respecting blackboards, - ... ]0<) Boston Plan of Warming and Ventilation, --------- 112 Condition of School-houses in Massachusetts, --------- i:',7 New York. Vermont, Maine, &c. l'K> Second Annual Meeting of the Rhode hland Institute of Instruction, 153 Mr. Perry's Report, -- ------ --.. 1,53 Libraries value of books, --..-_---.-. J|J3 Origin of District School Libraries, ---*- - Ki7 letter of James VVadsworth, of Genesee, New York -------- j;;7 Report of D. D. Barnard, - 171 The first Juvenile Library in America, --------- . 173 Act relating to Libraries in Rhode Island, ---------- 175 Specimen of Constitution for Library Association, --------- 170 Catalogue of Hooks for Village Libraries, - ..-17-; Rules and Regulations for the use of the books of a Library, - ... - onj BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 433 MOB Normal Schools, --.------------211 State Normal Schools in Massachusetts, ----------- 212 New York State Normal School, 216 Acts relating to Public Schools in Rhode Island, --------- 225 Remarks on the several provisions of the same, --------- 241 Forms for conducting proceedings under the same, --------- 202 Form of District Return, ..------28 Specimen of Rules and Regulations for School Committees, ------ -289 Index to School Law, Remarks and Forms, - _..----- 293 Progress of Education in the United States for 1847, ------- -305 Connecticut, -------------- 305 Prize Essay by Noah Porter, 307 Maine, ---------------- 328 Massachusetts, 331 New Hampshire, -------------- 331 Vermont, ---------------- 332 New York, 333 New Jersey, --------------- 333 Report on Normal Schools, ------------ 333 Pennsylvania, --------------- 344 Maryland, --------------- 346 Virginia, ---------------- 346 Letter of S. S.Randall, 347 Ohio, 348 Indiana, --------------- 350 Teachers' Institute in Rhode Island for 1847, ---------- 353 " " Centreville, 354 " " Pawtucket, 361 Progress of Teachers' Institutes in Connecticut, --------- 309 New York, 309 " " " Massachusetts, -------- 380 Ohio, 382 " New Hampshire, -------- 388 " " " Maine, ---------- 390 Michigan, --------- 393 " " " Vermont, ---------- 391 " " " Rhode Island, 395 Teachers' Meetings and Associations, ----------- 398 Topics for discussion, &c. ------------- 398 List of Educational Periodicals, ------------ 399 VOLUME III. Report of Commissioner of Public Schools for 1848, -------- 1 Third Annual Report of Executive Committee of Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, - - 3 Officers for 1847, ---- - .--- Proceedings of Third Annual Meeting, - - - - - - - - - - -I Remarks of Mr. Barnard, -------------15 Prof. Gammell, 23 " Rev. Mr. Osgood, 25 " Mr. Bishop, 26 Evening Schools, -- .-.---------28 Documents relating to the History and Condition of Public Schools in Rhode Island, - - 3 " " " " " Providence, Letter of John Howland in 1824, -----------44 Report by President Wayland in 1828, 46 Memorial of Mechanics' Association, J1837, ---------55 Report to City Council, ---..-------57 Ordinance of City Council, 1838, 58 Organization of Public Schools in 1848, ---------62 Report of School Committee for 1838, 64 " " " 1839, 64 " " " 1840, 65 " " " 1841, 67 " " " 1842, 73 " " " 1843, 74 " " " 1844, 75 " " " 1845, 75 " " " 1846, 76 " " 1847, 80 1848, 81 Rules and Regulations, 1848, ----------- Report of School Committee of North Providence, 1848, --------97 ' " " Scituate, 1848, 103 " " ' Smithfield, 108 " Glocester, 1847, 122 " 1848, 126 " " Coventry, 1847, 128 " " 1848, 138 < " Warwick, 1847, I 41 " Cumberland, 1848, 142 28 434 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PAGE Report of School Committee of Burrillville, 1847, 144 " " " Newport, 1827, 145 " 1828, ---- . ... 148 " 1844, - - - - 150 " 1848, 153 Bristol, 1843, 158 " 1845, 160 " 1847, 163 1848, 171 Warren, 174 School Architecture, -------------- 175 Ingraham's Primary School-house, Boston, ---------- 177 Boston and other School Furniture, ----------- 201 (iiiiucy Grammar School-house, ------------ 208 Putnam Free School-house, Newburyport, ---------- 211 Public High School-house, Hartford, - 214 Free Academy in City of New York, ----------- 223 Culver's Furnace, --------------- 230 Public School-houses in Providence, ----------- 233 Public High School, 253 Plans of School-houses with Apartments for Teacher, -------- 260 Teacher's Desk, 272 Remarks on School-houses in Rhode Island, .-----_-. 273 Principles of School Architecture, ----------- -274 Principles of Ventilation, ------------- 277 Plans of School-houses with one School-room, --------- 280 Plan of Grounds for Infant School, 283 Primary School-house in Westerly, ------------ 384 Village School-house at Allendale, North Providence, -------- 285 District School-house in Glocester, ------------ 286 " Harrington, 288 Mott's Ventilating School Stove, 290 Boston Ventilating School Stove, ------------ 291 District School-house in Cranston, ------------ 292 " at Clayville, Scituate, --------- 292 " at Centreville, Warwick, --------- 294 Remarks on Gradation of Schools, ----------- 296 Public School-house in Warren, ------------ 305 Union School-house at Woonsocket, ----------- 308 Chepachet, 309 " Pawtucket, ---310 Village School-house at Centre Mill, ----------- 312 Washington Village, 314 Female Seminary of Mr. Kingsbury, Providence, -------- -315 Chilson's Furnace, -----.-----.__ 3]g Bushnell's ' --------------- 3J8 Apparatus for District Schools, ------------ 319 Grammar Schools, ------------ 323 High Schools, &c. 325 Hints respecting blackboards, ------------- 374 Library List of Books on Education, .......... 379 " " of Reference, ----.-390 Rules for the Care and Preservation of School-houses, -------- 391 Dedicatory Exercises, ----.-.---.-_- 401 Address of G. B. Emerson, ------------ 402 " Gideon F. Tlmyer, 405 President Wayland, ------408 Rev. Mr. Osgood, .--414 " President Everett, -....--.--- 419 Remarks on Libraries in Rhode Island, ----------- 425 History and Catalogue of Pawcatuck Library Association, 429 General Index to Vols. I., II. and HI., 549 CARE OF SCHOOL HOUSES. 435 v RULES FOR THE CARE AND PRESERVATION OF SCHOOL-HOUSES. The following provisions are included among the Regulations for the Government of Teachers and Pupils of Public Schools, adopted by School Committees in most of the towns of Rhode Island : For Teachers: There shall be a recess of at least fifteen minutes in the middle of every half day ; but the primary schools may have a recess of ten minutes every hour : at the discretion of the teacher. It shall be the duty of teachers to see that fires are made, in cold weather, in their respective school-rooms, at a seasonable hour to render them warm and comfortable by school time ; to take care that their rooms are properly swept and dusted ; and that a due regard to neatness and order is observed, both in and around the school-house. As pure air of a proper temperature is indispensable to health and comfort, teachers cannot be too careful in giving attention to these things. If the room has no ventilator, the doors and windows should be opened before and after school, to permit a free and healthful circulation of air; and the temperature should be regulated by a thermometer Suspended, five or six feet from the floor, in such a position as to indicate as near as possible the average temperature, and should be kept about 65 degrees Fahrenheit. The teachers shall take care that the school-houses, tables, desks, and apjr>a- ratus in the same, and all the public property entrusted to their charge, be hot cut, scratched, marked, or injured and defaced in any manner whatever. And it shall be the duty of the teachers to give prompt notice to one or more of the trustees, of any repairs that may be needed. For Pupils : Every pupil who shall, accidentally or othervrise, injure any school property, whether fences, gates, trees' or shrubs, or any building or any part thereof; or break any window glass, or injure or destroy any instrument, apparatus or fur- niture belonging to the school, shall be liable to pay all damages. Every pupil who shall any where, on or around the school premises, use or write any profane or unchaste language, or shall draw any obscene pictures or representations, or cut, mark, or otherwise intentionally deface any school fur- niture or buildings, or any property whatsoever belonging to the school estate, shall be punished in proportion to the nature and extent of the offence, and shall be liable to the action of the civil law. No scholar of either sex shall be permitted to enter any part of the yard or buildings appropriated to the other, without the teacher's permission. Smoking and chewing tobacco in the school-house or upon the school prem- ises, are strictly prohibited. The scholars shall pass through the streets on their way to and from school in an orderly and becoming manner; shall clean the mud and dirt from their feet on entering the school-room: and take their seats in a quiet and respectful manner, as soon as convenient after the first bell rings; and shall take proper care that their books, desks, and the floor around them, are kept clean and in good order. It is expected that all the scholars who enjoy the advantages of public schools, will give proper attention to the cleanliness of their persons, ana the neatness and decency of their clothes not only for the moral effect of the habit of neat- ness and order, but that the pupils may be at all times prepared, both in con- duct and external appearance to receive their friends and visitors in a respect- able manner ; and to render the school-room pleasant, comfortable and happy for teachers and scholars. In the " Regulations of the Public Schools in the city of Providence, 1 ' it is made the duty "of the principal teacher in each school-house, for the compensation allowed by the Committee, to employ some suitable person to make the fires in the same when necessary, and to see that this import- ant work is properly and economically done ;" also " for the compensation 4g6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Allowed, to employ some suitable person to sweep the room and its entries daily, and dust the blinds, seats, desks, and other furniture in the same, and to clean the same once a quarter, and to see that this work is neatly and properly done." The teachers must also " take care that the school-houses, the appara- tus in the same, and all the public property entrusted to their charge, be not defaced, or otherwise injured, by the scholars, and to give prompt notice to the Superintendant of any repairs and supplies that may be needed." PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS RESPECTING VENTILATION, FIRES, SWEEP- ING AND DUSTING. The following suggestions are taken from the Manual of the System of Discipline and Instruction for the Schools of the Public School Society of New York: VENTILATION. Strict attention should be paid to all the means provided for temperature and ventilation. During the season of fires, the thermometer should be watched, and the ventilating flues, windows, doors, and stoves, should be constantly at- tended to, and every precaution taken, to give as pure an atmosphere to the school-room, as circumstances will allow. This is not only necessary, for a proper and free exercise of the physical powers, but it will be found greatly to influence every mental exercise; for, both will partake of either languor, or vigor, according as ventilation is neglected, or duly attended to. In warm weather, the upper sashes should be down during school hours, and allowed to remain open about four inches during the night, except, that on occasion of a storm, the windows against which it beats, may be closed. In winter, except- ing when the weather is exceedingly cold and piercing, it may be of advantage to have two or more of the upper sashes down about an inch during the night; but these as well as the doors should be closed before kindling the fires. Two or more of the upper sashes should be drawn down at the end of the first half hour after opening school, and againy for a short time at each successive half hour, and whenever the thermometer rises to 70 degrees. At all seasons, the windows and doors should be thrpjvn wide open for a few minutes during each recess, while the scholars are: in' the yard. The teacher should be careful to require all the scholars to go out, except such as may reasonably be excused on account of infirmity or sickness ; and even these should be required to change their places, and to exercise themselves by walking to and fro in the school-room. At all seasons, at the close of school, all the doors and windows should be opened for a few minutes, in order that a pure atmosphere may be admitted and retained during the noon-time recess, or at night. A thermometrical diary must be kept during the winter season, and the temperature of the room noted at the opening, middle, and close, of each daily session. Further directions on this point are given in the instructions for making fires. The window-blinds and curtains are for the purpose of guarding against the sunshine, or observa- tion from without. They should, therefore, be so managed, as only to exclude the direct rays of the sun, and kept open or shut accordingly. When required as a screen from observation, they should extend no farther than accessary for that purpose. Attention to these rules will give an air of cheerfulness within, so congenial to the young. It is important that this fact be impressed on all that air, and light, are grand essentials in a school-room: let the first be freely admitted, and the second never causelessly excluded. FIRES. The ashes should be taken from the stoves in the morning only, leaving a layer of one inch in depth : then to proceed to build with the materials after the following manner: Place one large stick on each side; in the space between, them, place the kindling wood; and above it,' the small wood, somewhat cross- wise ; then, set fire to the kindling, and close the stove door. See that the CARE OF SCHOOL-HOUSES 43^ draught is cleared of ashes, or other obstructions; and that the dampers are properly adjusted; (these are generally so arranged as to open the draught when the handle is parallel with the pipe). If the materials have been laid ac- cording tc the foregoing directions, the combustion will be free. Should the temperature of the room be as low as 40, fill the stove with wood. Under or- dinary circumstances, in thirty-five minutes the temperature will be raised to CO degrees, at which point it should certainly be, at the time of opening school; when the stove may be supplied with one or two large sticks. At all times, be- fore supplying wood, draw forward the brands and coals with the fire-hook. If there should be too much fire, open the stove door, and if necessary, turn the damper, or, what may be better for economy, effectually close the draft at the stove door with ashes. By attention to all these directions,* the temperature may be maintained, the wood entirely consumed, and the thermometer stand at 60 degrees, at the close of the school ; which is desirable in cold weather, so as not to subject the pupils to too sudden a change of temperature on going into the open air. The evaporating pan should be kept clean, and filled with water when in use. In damp rooms it is not needed, nor in damp weather: but it should be emptied, and wiped dry, before it is set aside. DUSTING AND SWEEPING. For a large room, or one department of a Public School building, six brooms will be found sufficient to be in use. When half worn, they will serve for sweeping the yard; and when well worn down in that service, will still be use- ful for scrubbing, with water or sand; and, if properly used by the sweepers, will be evenly worn to the last. Before sweeping, pull down the upper sashes, and raise the under ones. Lei the sweepers be arranged, one to each passage between the desks, and, beginning at the windward side, sweep the dirt before them, till it is carried forward to the opposite side of the room. The broom should rest square on the floor, and, with the motion used in raking hay, should be drawn towards the sweeper, without flirting it outwards, or upwards, which raises unnecessary dust, al wears the broom irregularly. The dirt, when taken up, should be carriedinto the middle of the street. The dusting is to be done in the same regular manner, allowing a suitable interval after sweeping. If at noon, dusting should be done shortly before school time; if at night, dust the next morning. In out-door sweeping, the same rule is to be followed the sweepers going in ranks, and sweeping from the windward. Let the scrubbing be done by a similar method. When once acquainted with these methodical plans, the cleaners will do the work, not only more effectually, but with more satisfaction and ease to themselves and being a part of domestic economy, it will be, so far, an advantage to understand how to do it well. Although nof strictly within the design of this work, but as closely con- nected with habits of neatness and order, we insert from the Manual quo- ted above, the following directions for delivering, holding, and returning a book. The Manual is soon to be enlarged, and well deserves a place in every teacher's library, although it has special reference to the organization and system of instruction adopted in the schools of the Public School Society. * From a return recently made out respecting the quantity and coet of fuel used in the dif- ferent schools of the Public School Society, it appears that the average cost of wood for a house like Ts'o. 17, (plans and description of which maybe seen on p. 100,) having 13 stoves, including cartage, sawing, carrying in and piling, is 8160. The lowest cost is 8141, and the highest, 8200. In a Primary house, (like that described on page 103,) having four stoves, the average cost is 833; the highest being 840, and the lowest $25. The difference in the cost is mainly to be attributed to the difference in the care and oversight of the fire by the teacher. With a view of correcting the evil, the committee having charge of this business have pre- pared a table which exhibits at one view the quantity of wood furnished to each school, so as to enable every teacher to compare himself with every other in this particular. The cost of heating a Primary building of the same size, by wood in a furnace, is 875, and of Ward school building, of the same sizft as No. 17, by coal in a furnace, is 8260. 438 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. REGULATIONS OF CHAUNCY-HALL SCHOOL, BOSTON. The following Regulations of one of the best conducted Private Schools for Boys in New England, will furnish useful hints to teachers in framing regulations for their own schools, especially in reference to the good be- havior of the pupils, and to the care of the school-room, furniture, &c. . REQUISITION. Boys are required to be punctual at school. To scrape their feet on the scraper, and to wipe them on every mat they pass over on their way to the hall. To hang their hats, caps, coats, &c., on the hooks appropriated to them re- spectively, by loops prepared for the purpose. To bow gracefully and respectfully on entering and leaving the hall, and any recitation room when a teacher is present. To take their places on entering the hall. To make no unnecessary noise within the walls of the building, at any time of night or day. To keep their persons, clothes, and shoes clean. To carry and bring their books for study, in a satchel. To quit the neighborhood of the school in a quiet and orderly manner, im- mediately after dismissal. To bring notes for absence, dated, and signed by persons authorized to do so, and stating the duration of the absence; also, notes for tardiness, and for occa- sions when pupils are wanted at home before the regular hour of dismissal. To study lessons at home, except when inconvenient to the family in such cases to bring a certificate of the fact in writing. To present a pen by the feather end ; a knife, by its handle ; a book, the right side upward to be read by the person receiving it. To bow on presenting or receiving any thing. 9 To stand while speaking to a teacher. To keep all books clean, and the contents of desks neatly arranged. To deposite in desks all books (except writing books,) slates, pencils, rulers, &c., before dismissal. To give notice through the school Post Office, of all books, slates, &c., missing. To pick up hats, caps, coats, pens, slips, books, &c., found on the floor, and put them in their appropriate places. To replace lost keys, books, Ace., belonging to the school, and make good all damage done by them. To write all requests on their slates, and wait until called. To close desks and fasten them before quitting school for the session. To raise the hand as a request to speak across the hall or any recitation room To show two fingers when a pen is wanted. To put all refuse paper, stumps of pens, * puoi^on, you have placed it on an eminence, in a desirable locality, and nave determined to surround it with ample play-grounds. The building itself is exceedingly pleasing in its external proportions, and forms one of the most agreeable ornaments of your village. You thus associate edu- cation in the mind of the young with every thing gladsome and alluring; while, at the same time, you testily to your children, the importance which you attach to their intellectual cultivation. The apartments of your house are large and convenient. The desks are constructed upon the most improved models, and the seats seem to me durable and neat, and, at the same time, comfortable to the pupil. Every thing in the school-rooms has the air of finish and completeness. The arrangements for illustration, by the blackboards, are, and I presume , DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT NORTH PROVIDENCE. 455 that those by every other means will be, ample. With such instructors as you have appointed, seconded by your own zealous and untiring efforts, I have no doubt that this school will be all that you desire to make it, one of the first model schools of Ne\r England. But I perceive that your forethought has gone farther. You have de- termined that other habits, besides those of the intellect, shall here receive their appropriate share of attention. You have provided for each scholar an exclusive place for his own hat and outer clothing. You have fur- nished your apartments with convenient wash-rooms, an improvemen which I do not remember to have seen in any other school-house. Thus you have made it necessary tor each scholar to Cultivate habits of order and cleanliness. In all these respects, I do not see how your arrange- ments could be better made, or how any thing else could reasonably be desired. How delightful an object of contemplation is such a school as this, when faithfully and zealously conducted. Here the slumbering germs of intellect will be quickened into life. Here talent, that would otherwise become torpid from inaction, will be placed upon the course of indefinite improvement. Here, the rough and uncultivated, arrested by the charms of knowledge, and allured by the accents of kindness, will lay aside their harshness, and assume the manners of refinement and good breeding. From hence the lessons of knowledge and the habits of order will be car- ried to many a family, and they will there awaken a whole circle to a higher and purer life. In a word, take the five hundred children, whom this building will accommodate, and suppose them destitute of the know- ledge, the discipline and the manners, which this school will confer ; trace their course through life in all its vicissitudes, and observe the station which each of them must occupy ; and then, suppose these five hundred children imbued with the knowledge whi^ you here are prepared to give, and the habits which you intend to cultivate, and follow them through life, and observe the stations which you have qualified them to occupy; and you have the measure of good which, year after year, you are accom- plishing by the establishment of these means of instruction. Look at the money that it costs. You can calculate it to a single cent, both the prin- cipal investment and the interest which it would yield. But can you esti- mate the intellectual service, and moral advantages which will accrue to you and your children, by this expenditure ? The one is to you as the small dust of the balance. Were it all lost, you would hardly think of it. You would not think it worth while to smile at a man, who should say, Pavvtucket is ruined, for it has lost a sum equal to that which all its means of education have cost. But suppose that, what that sum has purchased were lost ; suppose that your schools were shut up. and your whole pop- ulation consigned to ignorance ; that henceforth reading, writing, and all the knowledge which they unfold, should be taught or learned here no more for ever ; then would Pawtucket in reality be ruined. Every virtu- ous and intelligent family would flee from your border, and very soon* your name would be an opprobrium to New England. I ask. then, in view of all this, is there any money which you invest, that brings you in BO rich a revenue, as that which you devote to the cause of education ? But I ought to apologize for occupying so muchJarger a portion of your time than I intended. I must, however, even now, break off abrupt- ly, and give place o others who are much more deserving than myself to be heard on this occasion. I will therefore add but a single suggestion. Let this effort which you have made, be but the first step in your pro- gress. Cultivate enlarged and liberal views of your duties to the young who are coming after you, and of the means that are given you to dis- charge them. A place as large as this, can perfectly well provide for all its youth of both sexes, as good an education as any one can desire. 456 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. What we are capable of doing in this respect, is so little known, that any public spirited and united population, as wealthy as this, can easily place itself in the vanguard in this march of improvement. It is in your power so to cultivate the mind and manners of yur children, that wherever they go, they will take precedence of those of their own age and condition. Your example would excite others to follow in your footsteps. Who can tell how widely you might bless others, while you were laboring to bless yourselves ? Are you prepared to enter upon so noble a career of im- provement 1 ? REMARKS OF REV MR. OSGOOD. Mr. Osgood, of Providence, being called upon by the Chairman of the School Committee, spoke in substance as follows : You will agree with me, friends, in deeming it a happy circumstance, that he, whose position places him at the head of the educational interests of this State, and whose name stands among the highest in the literature of our land, has favored us with his presence upon this occasion, and borne so decided witness to the importance of a far nobler popular educa- tion. After what we have heard, we cannot but recognize the common interests of all friends of sound learning, and rank the school and the uni- versity as helpers in the same good cause. We have met to-day to consecrate this pleasant edifice to the service of popular instruction. Solemn prayer has been offered to the throne of mercy, and honest counsel has been addressed to you. This house is now consecrated as a temple of learning. Do we feel duly the significance of these exercises 1 Do we realize the common responsibility that we as- sume by participating in them ^ This afternoon has been spent in mock- ery, unless the parties here repesented entertain and carry out serious convictions of duty. Let us feel that in consecrating this house to the purposes of education, we consecrate it to the spirit of order. Without good order, education cannot succeed ; and surely all will allow that good order cannot exist without the aid alike of master and scholar, parent and guardian. Let the teacher have your hearty co-operation in his endeavors to regulate his school. Let him not be left at the mercy of the unreasonable, who will call every act of discipline, tyranny ; or of the quarrelsome, who will re- sent every restraint as a personality. Encourage in yourselves and your children the idea that good order has its foundation in the very nature of things, in the plan of the creation, and the hearts of man. There is or- der in God's works, in the heavens above. on the earth beneath. We imitate the divine mind when we strive to do our work in accordance with the best rules, and submit passing impulses and little details to a common standard of right. Let the child oe taught to accept this idea, and to see in the order of the school not so much the teacher's will as the law of general good. Let this idea prevail, and a new day will come over our schools. Teachers will be more careful to place their passions under due control, by looking beyond present provocations to permanent principles ; and parents and children will acknowledge the justice of proper discipline, even when its penalties fall upon themselves. Consecrating this house to education, we consecrate it then to the spirit of good order. Akin to order is the spirit of good will, that love th^t heightens every task, and cheers every labor. Let. us feel that this building is set apart as the abode of good will. In the simple beauty of its walls, and the neatness of its arrangements, we see at once that it is intended to be a pleasant place, where the young shall come rather in love than fear. Let every thing be done to carry out this idea, and remove all gloom from the work that here is to go forward. Let the voice of music be heard in the DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT NORTH PROVIDENCE. 45^ intervals of study, and charm away weariness and discontent. Let courteous manners prevail between scholars and teachers. Let the law of love be supreme, and the good of each be regarded as the good of all. Let everything be done to make knowledge attractive, without impairing its solidity. You have declared your principles upon this subject in the very structure of this edifice ; virtually acknowledged the relation of the beautiful to the true, and applied to education that law of attraction that pervades all the plans of Divine Providence. Carry out these principles without fear and without extravagance. Let not your care be given merely to make your dwelling-houses attractive. Let there be no more school-rooms so rude and uncleanly as hardly to be ftt to shelter well-bred cattle. Let children learn neatness, taste, and refinement, along with their alphabet and multiplication table. To good will, under every one of its attractive agencies, this house should be devoted. Thus devoted, it will be a nursery of good works. Utility will go hand in hand with good order and good will. In this community, practical industry is the ruling power ; utility is the prevailing standard. See to it that this standard is rightly adjusted, and that we do not confine our idea of usefulness to worldly or material interests. As we hear the sound of the spindle and the anvil, and see the spray of the waterfall, and the smoke of the furnace, let us rejoice at the large measure of enterprise and prosperity that have been granted us. But when we turn away from these things to look upon this house of learning, let us not think as some base souls do, that we have left utility behind, and are dealing only with what is visionary and unsubstantial. Next to the church of God, let us feel that the school-house is the most useful building in the community, and that from it should emanate the knowledge, principles, and habita that are to give life its direction and efficiency. Reckon in your estimate of the best wealth of your city, your schools, and, without them, regard all other wealth as disgraceful covetousness or mental poverty. Let the idea of utility preside over the direction of this school, and all its studies tend not to fill the memory with loads of words, but to strength- en the mind, and invigorate and regulate the will and all the active powers. Standing as it does in so sacred a seat of manufacturing industry, this house has a peculiar significance. Overlooking this prosperous town, it serves to express a generous creed to say as if it were : " We, the people of North Providence, think much of the importance of industry and wealth, but we think that some other things are of still greater import- ance, and however remiss in duty we may have been in time past, we mean to practice upon a more generous system, and this fair temple of learning, standing so far above the factory and workshop, is a substantial testimonial of our determination." It is an interesting fact, that the first movement in this State in behalf of- popular education was made, not by professional men, nor by mer- chants, nor any of the classes that might be thought, from their leisure or literature, to advocate the claims r/f sound learning, but by an association of mechanics and manufacturers in Providence. I read to-day, with great pleasure, the memorial which this association presented to the Legisla- ture, in the year 1798. I honor those men for that document. But one of the original signers now survives. Who can meet that old man with- out respect? Who will not honor John Howland even more for taking the lead in that memorial, than for having served under Washington at Trenton, and braved death in the battles of the revolution? Peace to his sturdy heart, and many good days yet to that stout Saxoft frame ! I must cease speaking with these few words as to the good order, good "will and good works, to which this house of learning is devoted. May a good providence watch over it. Imagination cannot but conjecture the 458 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. various scenes of its future history picture to herself the groups of chil- dren who shall come to enjoy its privileges, and who in due time shall leave its walls for the pursuits of maturer life. Prophesy is not our gift, except the prophesy that calculates events by purposes and principles. Let this edifice be used faithfully for true purposes and for just principles, and its future history will be a blessed volume in the annal of your town It will tell of generations of noble men and women, who have been educa- ted within these walls. And when this house shall have gone to dust, it will have performed a noble mission, by being the nursery of mental life that cannot die. , " Cold in the dust, the perished heart may lie, But that which warmed it once, can never die." DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT CAMBRIDGE. 459 DEDICATION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE, IN CAMBRIDGE, MASS. The edifice, which has just been erected (1848,) for the accommoda- tion of the Public High School of the city of Cambridge, is built of brick, two stories high with a basement, and is a substantial, attractive and con- venient school-house, of which the citizens of Cambridge may well feel proud. The cost, including land, furniture and apparatus, is $13,500. The plan of the interior is substantially the same as that of the High School in Hartford. The following account of the Dedication of this house is abridged from the Cambridge Chronicle for June 29, 1848. The services were commenced by the chanting of the Lord's Prayer by the scholars of the school. Alderman Whitney, in behalf of the building committee, transferred the building to the care of the School Committee, through the Mayor of the city, with an appropriate address. After a dedicatory prayer by Rev. N. Hoppin, and another chant, of selections from Proverbs, by the chil- dren, the Mayor addressed remarks to the audience upon the relation of the High School to the other grades of schools, and to the cause of education generally in the city, arid on some of the conditions on which the success of this and the other schools depended. Addresses were also made by gentlemen present, in which many pleasing incidents in the his- tory of the public schools, and of the town and city of Cambridge, were narrated, and many valuable suggestions thrown out, by which children, teachers, parents and school officers can profit. We make the following extract from the address of Rev. Mr. Stearns. Chairman of the High School Committee. " At the time of my settlement here as a clergyman in this place, in December, 1831, there were in the town 6 school-houses, 8 school-rooms, 8 teachers and about 400 scholars. At this time, 1848, there are 17 school-houses, 35 rooms, 44 teachers, and 2136 children. During this time, it is true, the population has more than doubled, but the interest taken in the schools, and their progress, has much more than tripled or quadrupled. If at that period any school committee had seriously proposed the erec- tion of such a building as this for a High School, they would undoubtedly have been excused from public service the coining year, if not immedi- ately sent to Charlestovvn as insane. But the spirit of improvement has prevailed, and now we have all needed advantages for making good scholars, who shall bean honor to their parents, and to their generation. But, Mr. Mayor, it cannot be too deeply impressed on the minds of our youth that the means of education, are not education itself. We may have good school-houses, fine libraries, superior collections of philosophi- cal apparatus, and the best of teachers, with miserable scholars. There are means of improvement in creation all around us good influences ascend to us from the earth and come down to us from the sky. The sun is a teacher, the evening stars impart knowledge, while every flower is eloquent with wisdom. But what intelligence do all these out- ward instructors communicate to the ox who grazes without reflection, or to the horse who eats his provender without thanksgiving? Hardly more will books, and maps, and pleasant seats, and air-pumps, and scientific 460 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. lectures, do for a doltish mind. The outward may stimulate to improve- ment, but all good action springs from within. There must be in the scholar's own mind a strong desire for knowledge, a spirit aspiring to ex- cellence, a force of moral purpose which no small difficulties can vanquish, or but little which is valuable will be accomplished. Mr. Chairman, we have great hopes from the school now to be organ- ized in this house, and these teachers, and these parents, and these scholars, must see to it that we and our fellow citizens are not disap- pointed. This school is intended to carry forward and complete the education of our children I mean complete it as far as it goes for education never can be completed. It is a work which extends beyond the school-room into active life, all through time into eternity. It is the destiny of good minds to improve for ever. They will go on rising, expanding, increasing in true wisdom as the endless ages pass along, and their progress will be co-eternal with the eternity of God. We wish to begin right with the young in their earliest years, and to carry them forward in this school till they are prepared for service and usefulness in society, and the good be- ginnings of immortal advancement are firmly laid. We wish to attend here to the proper development of their faculties, to see that these unfold themselves in just proportions, and that our children are qualified to meet the demands of the age and devote their powers to life's best ends. We establish this school, also, with our schools generally, as a preserv- ative against vice. When I look round, as I do now, upon more than one hundred children fresh as a flower garden in the morning, it seems hardly in good taste, to suggest that any of them may become the vic- tims of evil, and sink in disgrace from society. And yet, it is possible that among these young men and young women too, there may be some one or more who will live to be the objects of public indignation and of self- ecorn. God forbid ! But juvenile depravity has fearfully increased within a few years ! And no one can tell who will be among the next victims. Mr. Chairman, 1 once had a dream and it was among the most terrible dreams which ever troubled my sleeping imagination. I saw a bright and beautiful boy playing innocently upon the green, suddenly the grass began to move, the earth to undulate till it became water, and the boy went down in an instant, and nothing was left of him but three or four air bubbles on the surface. I awoke in horror, and was troubled all day by this midnight vision. I thought then, and I have ever since thought, that it was a vivid illustration of the course and end of many a youth. They sport thoughtlessly among the green and flowery fields of temptation. They begin to yield, principle gives way, and they go down and are lost as respects character for ever. We wish to render the treach- erous earth under them firmer. We would change it into the hard granite of virtue, we would have them stand on the immovable rock of ages. We hope, also. Mr. Mayor, from this school an advantage to the adult community. The benefits of an institution like this do not terminate with the children. By a reflex influence, they return to the families from which our children come. It is no unheard of thing for a rough, hard, uneducated man to be mellowed and transformed by the influences which his children and his children's children bring home from the churches and the schools. A good school does excite the adult mind ; it awakens in- terest in education, and promotes improvement. If this school fulfills our expectations, it will be to the community a moral and intellectual sun, throwing light into every dwelling. We believe also that it will act happily upon our younger schools. It will be to them an object of hope and honorable ambition. They will take their examples from it and our little children from the first will be DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT CAMBRIDGE. 461 aspiring and reaching towards it. But I must stop, for I am impatient, as doubtless you and this assembly must be, for the instructions which are to fall from more eloquent lips than mine. Children, consider how much is depending upon you. Be determined to fix down to hard study, to do right ; arid on the first principle of all true wisdom, li Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth." After appropriate introductory addresses by the School Committee and Mayor of Cambridge, Hon. Edward Everett, President of Harvard College, responded to an invitation to address the audience, as follows : May it please your Honor: . Connected as I am with another place of education, of a kind which is commonly regarded as of a higher order, it is precisely in that connection, that I learn to feel and appreciate the importance of good schools. I am not so ignorant of the history of our fathers, as not to know, that the spirit, which founded and fostered Harvard College, is the spirit which has founded and upheld and will continue to support and cherish the schools of New England. I know well, sir, that Universities and Col- leges can neither flourish nor even stand alone. You might as well attempt to build your second and third stories in the air, without a first floor or a basement, as to have collegiate institutions without good schools for preparatory education, and for the diffusion of general information throughout the community. If the day should ever come, which I do not fear in our beloved country, when this general education shall be neg- lected and these preparatory institutions allowed to perish ; if the day should ever come (of which I have no apprehension) when the schools of New England shall go down, depend upon it, sir, the colleges v/ill go vith them. It will be with them, as it was with the granite warehouses, the day before yesterday in Federal street, in Boston ; if the piers at the foundation give way, the upper stories will come down in one undistin- guished ruin. I anticipate no such disaster, Mr. Mayor, though it must be admitted that we livTe in an age of revolutions, of which every steamer brings us some fresh and astonishing account. But our revolutions are of a more auspicious character, and it occurred to me as 1 was coming down with your worthy associate (Mr. Whitney,) and your respected predecessor (Mr. Green.) to whom we have just listened with so much pleasure, that we were traversing a region, in which a more important revolution com- menced no very long time since, and is still in progress, far more impor- tant for us and our children, than any of those which have lately con- vulsed the continent of Europe. I do not now refer to the great politi- cal and historical events of which this neighborhood was the theatre ; of which the monuments are in sight from these windows, but to a revolu- tion quiet and silent in its origin and progress, unostentatious in outward manifestations, but imparting greater change and warranting brighter hopes for most of those who hear me, for our young friends before us, than any of the most startling events that stare upon us in capitals in the columns of the newspapers, after every arrival from Europe. The Rev- erend Mr. Stearns has beautifully sketched some of the most important features of this peaceful revolution. When I entered college, Mr. Mayor, (and I believe I shall not tell the audience quite how many years ago that is ; you can do it, sir, but I will thank you not to.) there were a few straggling houses, shops, and taverns along the Main street at Cambridgeport. All back of this street to the north, and I believe almost all south jf it to the river, the entire district 4(52 - SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. in the centre of which we are now assembled, was in a state of nature ; pretty equally divided between barren pasturage, salt-marsh, and what I must admit had no mean attraction for us freshmen, whortleberry swamp. Not one of the high roads had been cut. which now traverse the plain between Main street and the old road to Charlestown. East Cambridge did not exist even in the surveyor's imagination. There was not a church nor a public school east of Dr. Holmes' and Old Cambridge Common ; and if any one had prophesied that within forty years a population like this would cover the soil, with its streets and houses, and gardens, its numerous school-houses and churches, its conservatories breathing all the sweets of the tropics, its private libraries equal to the choicest in the land, and all the other appendages of a high civilization, he would have been set down as a visionary indeed. But this change, this revolution has taken place even within the life time of the venerable lady (Mrs. Mer- riam) introduced to us in such a pleasing manner by Mr. Stearns; and we are assembled this morning to take a respectful notice of what may be called its crowning incident, the opening of a High School in that primitive whortleberry swamp. I believe I do not over-state matters when I say, that no more important event than this is likely to occur, in the course of the lives of many of those here assembled. As far as our in- terests are concerned, all the revolutions in Europe multiplied tenfold are nothing to it. No, sir, not if the north were again to pour forth its myri- ads on central and southern Europe and break up the existing govern- ments and states into one general wreck, it would not be an article of in- telligence at all so important to us as the opening of a new school. No, my young friends, this is a day which may give an auspicious turn to your whole career in life ; may affect your best interests not merely for time but for eternity. There is certainly nothing in which the rapid progress of the country is more distinctly marked than its schools. It is not merely their multipli- cation in numbers, but their improvement as places of education. A school forty years ago was a very different affair from what it is now. The meaning of the word is changed. A little reading, writing, and ciphering, a very little grammar ; and for those destined for college, a little Latin and Greek, very indifferently taught, were all we got at a common town school in my day. The range was narrow ; the instruc- tion superficial. In our modern school system, taking it as a whole com- posed of its several parts in due gradation, viz. the primary, the district, and the High School, the fortunate pupil not only enjoys a very thorough course of instruction in the elementary branches, but gets a good foundation in French, a good preparation for college, if he desires it. according to the present advanced standard of requirement ; a general acquaintance with the applied mathematics, the elements of natural phi- losophy, some suitable information as to the form of government and political system under which we live, and no inconsiderable practice in the noble arts of writing and speaking our mother tongue. It might seem, at first, that this is too wide a circle for a school. But the experience of our well conducted schools has abundantly shown that it is not too extensive. With faithful and competent teachers and wil- ling and hearty learners, all the branches I have named and others I have passed over can be attended to with advantage, between the ages of four and sixteen. Such being the case, our School Committees have done no more than their duty, in prescribing this extensive course and furnishing to master and pupils the means of pursuing it. I cannot tell you, sir, how much I have been gratified at hastily looking into the alcove behind us. As I stepped into it this morning, Mr. Smith, the intelligent master of the school, pointed out to me the beautiful electrical machine behind the door DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT CAMBRIDGE. 453 with the just remark that my venerable predecessor, President Dunster, would not have known what it was. No, sir, nor would the most eminent philosopher in the world before the time of Franklin. Lord Bacon would not have known what it was, nor Sir Isaac Newton. Mr. Smith reminded me of the notion of Cotton Mather (one of the most learned men of his day,) that lightning proceeded from the Prince of the Power of the Air, by which he accounted for the fact that it was so apt to strike the spires of churches. Cotton Mather would have come nearer the truth, if he had called it a shining manifestation of the power and skill, by which the Great Author of the Universe works out some of the mighty miracles of creation and nature. And only think, sir, that these newly discovered mysteries of the material world, unknown to the profoundest sages of elder days, are so effectually brought down to the reach of common schools in our day, that these young friends, before they are finally dis- missed from these walls, will be made acquainted with not a few of the wonderful properties of the subtle element, evolved and condensed by that machine, and which recent science has taught, to be but different forms of one principle, whether it flame across the heavens in the midnight storm, or guide the mariner across the pathless ocean ; or leap from city to city across the continent as swiftly as the thought of which it is the vehicle ; and which I almost venture to predict, before some here present shall taste of death, will, by some still more sublime generalization, be identi- fied with the yet hidden principle which thrills through the nerves of ani- mated beings, and binds life to matter, by the ties of sensation. But while you do well, sir, in your High School to make provision for these advanced studies, I know that as long as it remains under your in- struction, the plain elementary branches will not be undervalued. There is perhaps a tendency in that direction in some of our modern schools : I venture to hope it will not be encouraged here. I know it is not to be the province of this school to teach the elements; but I am sure you will show that you entertain sound views of their importance. I hold, sir, that to read the English language well, that is with intelligence, feeling, spirit, and effect ; to write with dispatch, a neat, handsome, legible hand, (for it is after all. a great object in writing to have others able to read what you write,) and to be master of the four rules of arithmetic, so as to dispose at once with accuracy of every question of figures which comes up in practical life : I say I call this a good education ; and if you add the ability to write pure grammatical English, with the help of very few hard words. I regard it as an excellent education. These are the tools ; you can do much with them, but you are helpless without them. They are the foundation ; and unless you begin with these, all your flashy at- tainments, a little natural philosophy, and a little mental philosophy, a little physiology and a little geology, and all the other ologiesand osophies, are but ostentatious rubbish. There is certainly no country in the world in which so much money is paid for schooling as in ours. This can be proved by figures. I believe there is no country where the common schools are so good. But they may be improved. It is not enough to erect commodious school-houses ; or compensate able teachers, and then leave them, masters and pupils, to themselves. A school is not a clock which you can wind up and then leave it to go of itself. It is an organized living body : it has sensibili- ties ; it craves sympathy. You must not leave the School Committee t* do all the work. Your teachers want the active countenance of the whole body of parents, of the whole intelligent community. I am sure you, Mr. Smith, would gladly put up with a little injudicious interference in single cases, if you could have the active sympathies of the whole body of parents to fall back upon in delicate and difficult cases, and to support and cheer you under the burthen of your labors, from day to day. I think 464 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. this matter deserves more attention than it has received ; and if so small a number as thirty parents would agree together, to come to the school, some one of them, each in his turn, but once a month, or rather if hut 25 or 26 would do it, it would give your teacher the support and countenance of a parent's presence every day ; at a cost to each individual of ten or eleven days in the year. Would not the good to be effected be worth the sacrifice ? I have already spoken too long. Mr. Mayor, and will allude to but one other topic. In most things, as I have said, connected with education, we are incalculably in advance of other days : in some, perhaps, we have fallen below their standard. I know, sir, old men are apt to make unfa- vorable contrasts between the present time and the past ; and if I do not soon begin to place myself in that class, others will do it for me. But I really think that in some things, belonging, perhaps, it will be thought, to the minor morals, the present promising generation of youth might learn something of their grandfathers, if not their fathers. When I first went to a village school, sir, I remember it as yesterday ; I seem still to hold by one hand for protection, (I was of the valiant age of three years) to an elder sister's apron ; with the other I grasped my primer, a volume of about two and a half inches in length, which formed then the sum total of my library, and which had lost the blue paper cover from one corner, (my first misfortune in life ;) I say it was the practice then, as we were trudging along to school, to draw up by the road-side, if a traveller, a stranger, or a person in years, passed along, " and make our manners," as it was called. The little girls courtesied, the boys made a bow; it was not done with much grace, I suppose : but there was a civility and decency about it. which did the children good, and produced a pleasing impression on those who witnessed it. The age of village chivalry is past, never to return. These manners belong to a forgotten order of things. They are too precise and rigorous for this enlightened age. I sometimes fear the pendulum has swung too far in the opposite extreme. Last winter I was driving into town in a carriage closed behind, but open in front. There was in company with me, the Rev. President Woods, of Bowdoin Col- lege, Maine, and that distinguished philanthropist and excellent citizen, Mr. Amos Lawrence. Well, sir, we happened to pass a school-house just as the boys (to use the common expression) were "let out." I sup- pose the little men had just been taught within doors something about the laws, which regulate the course of projectiles, and determine the curves in which they move. Intent on a practical demonstration, and tempted by the convenient material, I must say they put in motion a quantity ol spherical bodies, in the shape of snow balls, which brought the doctrine quite home to us wayfarers, and made it wonderful that we got off with no serious inconvenience, which was happily the case. This I thought was an instance of free and easy manners, verging to the opposite ex- treme of the old fashioned courtesy, which I have just described. I am quite sure that the boys of this school wquld be the last to indulge an ex- periment attended with so much risk to the heads of innocent third persons. Nothing remains, sir, but to add my best wishes for teachers and pu- pils ; You are both commencing under the happiest auspices. When 1 consider that there is not one of you, my young friends, who does not en- joy gratuitously the opportunity of obtaining a better school education, than we could have bought, Mr. Mayor, when we were boys, with the wealth of the Indies. I cannot but think that each one of you, boys and girls, will be ready to say with grateful hearts, the lines have fallen to me in pleasant t)laces ; yea. I have a goodly heritage. i-/S> 3 At 33 A 001408418 o - -- - ... >^ V. . '. - - I . '- .. . . - ...