i I
t'-j
-.
HUGHE'S CITY HIGH SCHOOL, CINCINNATI.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE;
CONTRIBUTIONS
THE IMPROVEMENT OF SCHOOL-HOUSES
THE UNITED STATES.
BY HENRY BARNARD. LL. D v
SUPERINTENDENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS IN CONNECTICUT
FIFTH EDITION
NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY CHARLES B. NORTON.
No. 71, CHAMBERS STREET.
1854.
PREFACE.
AT the National Convention of the Friends of Public Education, held
in Philadelphia, on the 17th, 18th, and 19th of October, 1849, and of which
Hon. Horace Mann was President, ,Prof. James Henry, Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington City, Hon. Elisha R. Potter,
Commissioner of Public Schools of Rhode Island, and Greer B. Duncan,
Esq. of New Orleans, were appointed a Committee to report to the next
Convention on the subject of School Architecture, including the location,
size, ventilation, warming, and furniture of buildings intended for educa-
tional purposes. At the second Convention held in Philadelphia, on the
23d, 24th, and 25th of August, 1850, and of which Rev. Dr. Nott, of Union
College, was President, the following Report, prepared by Mr. Potter, of
Rhode Island, was submitted by Prof. Henry, with some introductory re-
marks on the general subject of American Architecture. The Report
was ordered to be printed with the Proceedings of the Convention.
REPORT.
The subject of School Architecture has not, till within a comparatively
recent period, received that attention from the public generally, or from
practical educators in particular, which its important bearings, direct and
indirect, on the health, manners, morals, and intellectual progress of chil-
dren, and on the health and success of the teacher, both in government
and instruction, demand. The earliest publication on the subject in this
country, which has met the notice of the Committee, maybe found in the
School Magazine, No. 1, published as an Appendage to the Journal of
Education, in April, 1829. In 1830, Mr. W. J. Adams, of New York, de-
livered a lecture before the American Institute of Instruction, " an School
houses and School Apparatus " which was published in the first volume of
the transactions of that association. Stimulated by that lecture, the Di-
rectors of the Institute in the following year offered a premium of twenty
dollars for the best " Essay on the Construction of School-houses." The
premium was awarded by a committee of the Institute to the Essay by
Dr. William A. Alcott, of Hartford, Conn., now residing in West New-
ton, Mass. This " Prize Essay" was published in the second annual
volume of lectures before the Institute, as well as in a pamphlet, and
was widely circulated and read all over the country. In 1833, the Essex
County Teachers' Association published a " Report on School-houses"
prepared by Rev. G. B. Perry, which is a searching and vigorous ex-
posure of the evils resulting from the defective construction and arrange-
g PREFACE.
ment of School-houses. From this time the subject began to attract
public attention, and improvements were made in the construction and
Furniture of school-rooms, especially in large cities and villages.
In 1838 Hon. Horace Mann submitted a Report on School-houses' as
supplementary to his First Annual Report as Secretary of the Board ol
Education in Massachusetts, in which the whole subject and especially
that of ventilation, is discussed with great fullness and ability. 1 his Ke-
portwas widely circulated in a pamphlet form, and in the various educa-
tional periodicals of the country, and gave a powerful impulse to improve-
ment in this department, not only in Massachusetts, but in other states.
In the same year. Hon. Henry Barnard prepared an <; Essay on School
Architecture," in which he embodied the results of much observation,
experience and reflection, in a manner so systematic and practical as to
meet the wants of all who may have occasion to superintend the erection,
alteration, or furnishing of School-houses. This Essay was originally
prepared and delivered as a lecture in the course of his official visits to
different towns of Connecticut, as Secretary of the Board of Commis-
sioners of Common Schools. It was first published in 1841, in the Con-
necticut Common School Journal, and in 1842 was submitted, with some
modifications and numerous illustrations, as a Report on School-houses, to
the Legislature. It may be mentioned as an evidence of the low apprecia-
tion in which the whole subject was regarded at that time, in a State which
prides herself on the condition of her common schools, and on the liberality
with which her system of public education is endowed, that the Joint
Standing Committee on Education, on the part of the Senate and House,
refused to recommend the publication of this Essay, although it is by far
the most thorough, systematic and practical discussion of the subject
which has appeared in this country or in Europe. And it was. only
through the strenuous efforts of a few intelligent friends of school improve-
ments that its publication was secured, and then, only on condition that
the author should bear the expense of the wood-cuts by which it was
illustrated, and a portion of the bill for printing. Since its first publica-
tion more than one hundred thousand copies of the original Essay have
been printed in various forms and distributed in different states, without
any pecuniary advantage to the author.
In 1842, George B. Emerson, Esq., in Part Second of the School and
Schoolmaster, devoted a Chapter to " The School-house," in which sound
and practical views of the location, size, and ventilation and warming of
edifices ibr school purposes, are presented and illustrated by appropriate
cuts. A copy of this valuable work was presented to each of the 11,000
school districts in the State of New York, and each of the 3,400 districts
in Massachusetts. In 1846, Nathan Bishop, Esq., Superintendent of
Public Schools in the City of Providence, published a Report on the
School-houses of that city, with numerous wood-cuts illustrative of the
peculiarities of the furniture and internal arrangements of the buildings
devoted to each grade of school. These houses were constructed after an
exam ination'of the latest improvements which had been introduced in the
School-houses of Boston, Salem, and other large cities and villao-es in
Massachusetts, and have been much consul ted by committees and build-
ers as models.
In 1848, Mr. Barnard republished his Essay, with plans and descrip-
tions of numerous School-houses which had been erected under his direc-
node Island and Connecticut, and including by permission all of
the plans ol any value, which had been published by Mr. Mann, Mr.
Emerson, Mr : Bishop, and other laborers in this field -with the title of
School Architecture, or Contributions to the Improvement of School-
ne* m .the United States." As the title conveys a very inadequate
view of the fullness and completeness of this valuable work, the Committee
PREFACE. 7
feel that they can not better promote the object of their appointment than
by calling the attention of the Convention to the general views with
which the subject was approached by this Author, and to the table of
contents which will be found appended to the extracts which we have
been permitted to make from this volume.
" The subject was forced on the attention of the author in the very out-
set of his labors in the field of public education. Go where he would, in
city or country, he encountered the district School-house, standing in dis-
graceful contrast with every other structure designed for public or domes-
tic use. Its location, construction, furniture and arrangements, seemed
intended to hinder, and not promote, to defeat and not perfect, the work
which was to be carried on within and without its walls. The attention
of parents and school officers was early and earnestly called to the close
connection between a good school-house and a good school, and to the
great principle, that to make an edifice good for school purposes, it should
be built for children at school, and their teachers ; for children differing in
age, sex, size, and studies, and therefore requiring different accommoda-
tions ; for children engaged sometimes in study and sometimes in recita-
tion ; for children whose health and success in study require that they
shall be frequently, and every day, in the open air, for exercise and rec-
reation, and at all times supplied with pure air to breathe ; for children
who are to occupy it in the hot days of summer, and the cold days of
winter, and to occupy it for periods of time in different parts of the day, in
positions which become wearisome, if the. seats are not in all respects com-
fortable, and which may affect symmetry of form and length of life, if the
construction and relative heights of the seats and desks which they occu-
py are not properly attended to ; for children whose manners and morals,
whose habits of order, cleanliness and punctuality, whose temper, love
of study, and of the school, are in no inconsiderable degree affected by
the attractive or repulsive location and appearance, the inexpensive out-
door arrangements, and the internal construction of the place where they
spend or should spend a large part of the most impressible period of their
lives. This place, too, it should be borne in mind, is to be occupied by a
teacher whose own health and daily happiness are affected by most of the
various circumstances above alluded to, and whose best plans of order,
classification, discipline and recitation, may be utterly baffled, or greatly
promoted, by the manner in which the School-house may be located,
lighted, warmed, ventilated and seated. With these general views of
school architecture, this essay was originally written."
The volume will be found on examination to contain:
1. An exposition, from official documents, of common errors in the loca-
tion, construction, and furniture of School-houses as they have been here-
tofore almost universally built, even in states where the subject of edu-
cation has received the most attention.
2. A discussion of the purposes to be answered, and the principles to be
observed, in structures of this kind. ,
3. Descriptions of a variety of plans, adapted to schools of every grade,
from the Infant School to the Normal School, in a variety of styles, hav-
ing a Gothic, Elizabethan, or classic character, and on a large or small
scale of expense ; either recommended by experienced educators, or fol-
lowed in buildings recently erected in this country or in Europe.
4. Numerous illustrations of the most approved modes of constructing
and arranging seats and desks, and of all recent improvements in appa-
ratus for warming and ventilating school-rooms and public halls generally.
5. A catalogue of maps, globes, and other means of visible illustra-
tion, with which each grade of school should be furnished, with the price,
and place where the several articles can be purchased.
6. A list of books, with an index or table of contents to the most impor-
g PREFACE.
tant volumes on education, schools, school systems, and methods of teach-
ing, suitable for school libraries, with reference to catalogues from which
village libraries may be selected.
7. Rules and regulations for the care and preservation of School-houses,
grounds, and furniture.
8. Examples of exercises suitable to the dedication of School-houses to
the sacred purposes of education.
9. A variety of hints respecting the classification of schools.
It will not be necessary to specify further the official reports and peri-
odicals in which the subject has been discussed within a few years past,
or to mention in detail the various improvements which have been intro-
duced in the construction of school furniture, and in modes of ventilation
and warming, Most of the plans which have been brought before the
public, and which have been found on trial to be valuable contributions to
plans before published, are embodied in the recent editions of Mr. Barnard's
work. In conclusion, the Committee beg leave to present the following
summary* of the Principles of School Architecture, which the author of
that work has drawn up at their request, as presenting the result of his
observations and practical knowledge in this department of educational
improvement. He has also placed at the disposal of the Committee nu-
merous plans for schools of different grades, selected from his book, or
prepared for subsequent editions, which are herewith communicated as a
part of this Report
PhiladelpKia, Aug. 23, 1850.
The above Report was published as an Introduction to an abridg-
ment of this work, under the title of Practical Illustrations of the Prin-
ciples of School Architecture, and is adopted in this revised and en-
larged edition, of the original treatise, because it contains not only a brief
and accurate sketch of the various publications on the subject of School
Architecture, but a summary of the aims and contents of this volume.
HENRY BARNARD.
Qff.ce of Superintendent of Common Softools.
HARTFORD, CONN., February 1st, 1854.
CONTENTS,
PAGE.
PREFACE.
Report of Committee on School-houses, to
the National Convention of the Friends
of Education, in 1850 5
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
I. COMMON ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED.
Extracts from Official School Documents,
showing the condition of School-houses in
Connecticut, 16
Massachusetts, 26
New York, 29
Vermont, - 34
New Hampshire, 36
Maine, 37
Rhode Island, 38
Michigan, 39
New England, generally, 44
lUitttratitnw,
School-houses as they are, 45
II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED.
1. Site, 47
2. Yard, 47
3. Size of Building, 47
4. Size of School-room, 47
5. Class room, 47
6. Light, 47
7. Warming, 47
8. Ventilation, 47
9. Desk, 47
10. Seats, 48
I 1. Aisles, 48
12. Accommodation for Teacher, 48
13. Library and Apparatus, 48
14. External Appearance, 48
15. Residence for Teacher, 48
16. Privies, 48
17. Gymnastic and Calisthenic Exercises, 48
PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES.
Circumstances to be regarded, 49
One school of scholars of different ages, 49
Two school-rooms, 49
Two or more schools, 49
Different systems, 49
PLANS or SCHOOL-HOUSES WITH ONE
SCHOOL-ROOM.
District Schools, General Condition, 50
Infant and Primary Schools, do 50
Locution, Yard, and Play Ground, 51
Play Ground of Infantand Primary School, 52
Apparatus for Gymnastic Exercises, 56
Russell's Gymnasium, New Haven, 58
Bell, Wood, or Coal-house, and Privy, 63
Illustrations,
Play Ground of Infant School, 53
Climbing Stand, 56
Horizontal Bars, 56
PAGE.
Parallel Bars, 57
Wooden Swing, 57
Double Inclined Plane, 58
Wooden Hone, 58
Slanting Ladder, 58
Plan of Russell's Gymnasium, 59
Inclined Ropes, 60
Vaulting Bar, 60
Rotary Swing 54
Water-closet, 63
PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES RECOMMENDED
BY PRACTICAL TEACHERS AND EDUCA-
TORS.
Plan by Dr. William A. Alcott,
Illustration,
School-room for 56 pupils,
Plan by Horace Mann,
Illustrations,
School-room, ,
Location in Union District,. . .
64
65
64
65
65
66
66
67
68
70
70
71
72
72
73
73
74
73
74
75
76
Plan of Octagonal School-house near Lon-
don, 76
Illustration,
School-room, 76
Plan for Village School, by Dr. Dick, 77
Illustration,
Plan of Yard, &c 77
Plans of School-rooms for different systems
of instruction, 79
Plan for Infant School 78
Illustration,
School-room and Grounds, 78
Plan by Wilderspin, 55
Plan for Schools on the Monitorial System, 81
Illustrations,
School-room on the plan of Lancaster, 82
School-room on the plan of Dr. Bell,. . 82
Plans for Schools on the Mixed System, re*
commended by Committee of Council on
Education, 83
Plan by George B. Emerson,
General Principles to be observed,
Illustrations,
Perspective of School-house, &.C.,
Front Projection, with Trees, &c.,...
Movable Blackboard,
Section of Fire-place,
Ventilating Apparatus,
School-room for 120 pupils,
School-room for 48 pupils,
Plan by Messrs. Town and Davis,
Advantages of the Octagonal shape,....
Mode of lighting by skylight,
Illustrations,
Perspective of octagonal School-house,
School-room,
Section of smoke and ventilating pipe,
Design in the pointed style,
10
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Organization of Schools in parallel groups
of Desks, c
"stehwi-r^m, with Movable Partition, . 83
Bchool-room, with four Class rooms,. . H
Fection of Desk, b
Arrangement of Curtain to separate
Classes, B
Plans of School-rooms, with Classes sepa-
rated bv Curtains, '.V* V*J
No. 1. "School for 48 boys and girls, in 4
classes, <*>
2. School for 48 boys and girls, with
class room,
3. School for 72 boys or girls, in 5
daises, 89
4. School for 72 boys and girls, 89
5. " " 120 " or " in 5
classes, 9
6. School for 1C8 boys or girls, 90
7 " "240 " in 8 classes,.. 91
a Infant School, 91
Plan of Village National School, 92
Illustrations,
Perspective, 92
Ground Plan, 92
Plans for Rural and Village School, recom-
mended by Massachusetts Board of Edu-
cation 9
Mode of Ventilation, 9
Directions for making Black-plaster Wall,. 93
HinU for the iirrangement of School-rooms, 94
Illurtration*,
Plans f>r Rural and Village Schools,. . 94
No. 1. School-room ; building 46 by 30 94
2. " " 36 by 26 95
3.
PACK.
Perspective, ........................
Seat and Desk, ..................... {
Ground Plan, ....................... J1/
Plan of District School, 34 by 25 .......... 113
Illustration,
Ground Plan, ....................... *
Plan of District School-house, 36 by 27,. . . 118
Illustration,
Ground Plan, ....................... U
Plan of District School-house, 50 by 30 ---- 119
Illustration,
Ground Plan, ...................... IW
Plan of District School-houses in Michigan, 119
Illustration,
Ground Plan, ....................... 119
Plans of District School-houses recently
erected in New Hampshire, ........
Illustration.'',
District School-room in Dublin, ...... 120
" " Greenland N. H. 121
120
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
0.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14
i:..
4* by 30 96
40 by 28 97
50 by 42 98
44 by 48 99
44 by 48 100
40 by 52 101
60 by 48 102
45 by 60 103
40 by 60 104
35 by 62 105
52 by 70 106
37 by 40 107
37 by 38 107
Section exhibiting Mode of Ventilation, 108
Plan by Dr. A. D. Lord, 109
School-room, 109
PLAXS or SCHOOL-HOUSES RECENTLY
ERECTED.
Remarks on Plans furnished or sanctioned
by the Author, Ill
PLAXI TOR DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSES,
CM: BTURY num.
Plan of School-house, 30 by 20, in Bloom-
field, Conn 112
Illattration- ,
Front Ktevatinn,
Plan of Wnriiiing and Ventilation,. . . .
Ground Plan,
Plan of School-house, 34 by 22, in Wind-
tor, Conn., H4
Jlluntration*,
Perspective, 114
Ground Plan, 115
Plan of DHtrirt Prhool-house, 40 by 25, in
fOotrtitoitit,
PLANS or SCHOOL-HOUSES TOR LMOH OR
GRADED SCHOOLS.
Classification of Schools 123
Plan of School-house for two schools in
Centerdale, R. I., 133
Illustrations,
Elevation, Trees, &c , 133
Ground Plan, 26 by 51, 133
Plan of School-house for two schools in
Washington Village, R. I., 134
Illustration.
Ground Plan, 134
Plan of School-house for two schools in
Warren, R. I., 135
Illustrations,
Location and Yard? 136
First Floor, 62 by 44, 137
Second Floor, 137
Plan of School-house for three schools in
Chepachet 133
Illustrations,
Side and Front Elevations, 138
First Floor, 50 by 34, 139
Second Floor, 139
Plan of School-house for four schools in
Pawtucket, R. I., 140
Illutttrations,
Perspective, 140
First Floor, three schools, 14i
Second Floor, 141
Plans of School-houses for schools of dif-
ferent grades in Providence, 11. I., 14~i
Primary School-house, 142
llliiftrntiuns,
Perspective of a Primary School-house, 14-
Ground Plan, 143
Tops of desks for two pupils, 144
Section of seat and desk for two pupils, 144
Intermediate School-house, 144
Illustrations,
Perspective of Inter. School-house,... 14o
Section of Ventilators, 144
Internal arrangement 17G
Section of Writing Desk and Seat, 177
Grammar School-house, 148
Illaatratimis,
Perspective of Grammar School-house, 149
Plan of Yard, Basement, &c., do 150
First Floor, Primary and Inter. Schools, 151
Second Floor, Grammar School, 152
Section, 153
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PAOK.
High School-house, 154
lUtutratiom,
Perspective, 155
Basement, 156
First Floor, 157
Second Floor, 157
Movable Seat and Desk for two, 158
Vertical Section of Furnace, 158
Plan of Graded School-house in Arsenal
District, Hartford, 160
Illustrations,
Front Elevation, 160
Ground Plan 160
Perspective, for two Schools, 161
Plan of Graded School-house in South Dis-
trict, Hartford, 162
Illustrations,
Perspective, 162
First Floor, 163
Second Floor 164
Third Floor, 165
Plan of High School-house in Hartford,.. . 166
List of Apparatus, 168
Illustrations,
Perspective, 170
Plan of Yard and Basement, 171
First Floor, 172
Second Floor 172
Section showing Ventilation, 173
Seat and Desk, 173
Plans of School-houses recently erected in
Boston, 174
Organization of Public Schools, 174
Ingraham Primary School-house, Boston,.. 176
Educational value of School decorations,.. 189
Specifications for building Primary School-
house 191
Composition for making Black Wall, 197
Illustrations,
Play Ground and First Floor 177
Internal arrangements, Second Floor... 179
Third Floor, 180
Primary School Chair, 181
View of Front Wall, 181
Section of Smoke Flues, 182
Section of Ventiducts 183
Position of Flues and Ventiducts, 184
Ventilation, &c., of Privies, 186
Plan of Brimmer Grammar School-house,. . 198
Illustrations,
First and Second Floor, 198
Third Floor, 199
Plan of Bowdoin Grammar School-house, 200
Illustrations,
First and Second Floor, 201
Third Floor, 201
Plan of Quincy Grammar School-house,.. 202
Illustration,
First Floor, 203
Remarks at Dedication of (Juincy Grammar
School, 204
Classification of large schools in Boston, . . 206
Internal Arrangement of School-houses,. . . 206
Form of Specification, 207
Plan of Putnam Free School-house, New-
buryport, 210
Illustrations,
First Floor, 212
Second Floor, 213
Plan of East Public School, Salem, 114
Illustration,
First Floor, 116
Second Floor, 1]7
Kimball's Chair and Desk, 115
11
PAOK.
Description of Latin and English High
School, Salem 218
Plans of School-houses in city of New
York 220
History of Public Schools, 220
Plan of Public School-house, 222
Illustrations,
Primary Department, 223
Second Floor, 224
Plan of Primary School-house, 225
Illustrations,
Section of Gallery, 226
Seat and Desk, 226
Mott's Patent Revolving Chair, 227
Plan of Ward School, No. 29, 228
Illustrations,
Perspective, 228
Basement, 230
Primary Department, 233
Ink-box and Well, 231
Plan of Ward School-house, No. 30, 232
Illustrations,
Front Elevation, 232
Basement 233
First Floor, 234
Second and Third Floor, 235
Primary School Chair and Desk, 235
Teacher's Desk, 235
Cover to Ink-well, 234
Plan of Free Academy-building 236
Illustrations,
Perspective, 218
Mode of Warming and Ventilation,.. 238
Basement, 239
First Floor, 240
Second and Third Floor, 241
Desk and Chairs 241
Plan of Academy-building, Rome, N. Y.,.. 243
Illustrations,
Perspective, 243
Basement, 243
Desk and Chairs, 244
First Floor, 245
Second FJoor, 245
Plans of School-houses recently erected in
Philadelphia, 246
History and Condition of Public Schools,. . 246
Plans of Jefferson Grammar School-house, 248
Illustrations,
Perspective, 248
First Floor, 249
Plans of North-East Grammar School-house, 250
Illustrations,
Perspective, 250
First Floor, 251
Plans of Warner Grammar School-house,. 252
Illustrations,
Perspective, 252
First Floor, 252
Plans of Greenwood School-house, 253
Illustrations,
Perspective, 253
First Floor, 253
Plans of Central High School,. 254
Mode of Ventilation, 256
Influence of the School, 258
Occupations of Pupils, 259
Illustrations,
Perspective, 254
Basement, 255
First Floor, 256
Second and Third Floor, 256
12
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PAOK.
HatorY of Public Schools of Cincinnati,.. 261
Hughes City High School, w
JUuitrationf, Ofi0
Perspective, ,.
Basement Laboratory, -"
First Floor, Z
Second Floor, *
High Schools, their place in a System of
Public Instruction, - 400
Plans for Normal Schools and Schools of
Practice, j21
History of Normal Schools, *'
Plans of Normal School Buildings in Mass., 274
Illustrations,
Bridgewater State Normal School, "
Front Elevation, .274
First Floor, *|
Second Floor, 27o
Westfield State Normal School, 2ji7
Front Elevation, 2/7
First Floor, 2,8
Second Floor S 7 "
Franiinghain State Normal School,... 280
Front Elevation, 280
First Floor, 281
Plans of State Normal School Building at
Albany, N. Y., 282
Illustrations,
Perspective, 282
Basement, 283
First Floor, 284
Second Floor, 285
Third Floor, 286
Fourth Floor, 287
Desk and Chairs,.... 286
Plan* of State Normal School at New Brit-
ain, Conn., 288
lUtiftratiuns,
Perspective, 288
Basement, 290
First Floor, 291
Second Floor, 292
Third Floor, 293
Plans of City Normal School, Philadelphia, 294
Illuttrationt,
Perspective, 294
Cellar Furnaces, 294
First Floor, 295
Second Floor, 295
Third Floor, 295
Plans of Normal and Model School Building
at Toronto, Upper Canada, 296
illustration.*,
Front and Side View, 297
Ground Plan, 299
Second Floor, 301
Rear and Side View, 300
Plans of Kneller Hall Training School, Eng-
land 3K
Illustration,
Perspective,
VBNTILATIOII AND WARMINO.
General Principle" 30
Report of Dr. II. G. Clark on Ventilation of
Grammar School in Boston, 30"
General Rules of Boston Committee, 31
Construction of Ventiducts 33
Mode recommended by J. YV. Ingraham,. . If
Mode adopted by Prof. Hart, 24
Mode recommended by G. B. Emerson, 35
lltuitrationt,
Eiample of imperfect Ventilation, .... 3]
Plan in Elicit School-house, Boston, .. 3]
14 Endicott School-house, 3]
PAOK.
General Plan in Grammar Schools, ... 314
Section of Chilson's Furnace, 317
Section of Ventilating Stove, 317
Emerson's Ejecting Ventilator, 318
" Injecting Ventilator, 319
Elevation of Ventiducts 320
Cold-air Ducts and Smoke Flues, JiJO
Section of Apparatus in a building
two stories 321
First Floor of do., 322
Second Floor of do., >*
Section of Ingraham School-house, ... 1W4
Section of Hartford High School-house, 173
Plan recommended by D. Leach 109
Vpparatus for Warming, 324
ulver's Hot-Air Furnace, *-4
" Portable Furnace, !5
lirections for using, 326
'ulver's Laboratory Furnace, J~
lott's Ventilating School Stove, 330
Joston Ventilating Stove, 331
Ihilson's Portable Furnace, 331
" Air Warming and Ventilating
F,,rnnPP .. 332
Directions for setting Chilson's Furnace,. . 334
" for using, do., 334
" for making Ventiducts, 338
^ushnell's Hot-air Furnace, 339
Jouble Fire-place, 340
Illustrations,
Double Fire-place horizontal section, 340
" " perpendicular " 340
Mott's Ventilating School Stove 329
Boston Ventilating Stove, 33
Chilson's Trio Portable Furnace, 331
" School Stove, 331
" Ventilating Furnace, 332
Plans for setting Chilson's Furnace,. . . 334
Section ground and plan, 334
" position and thickness of walls, 335
Culver's Hot-air Furnace, 324
BushneU's Hot-air Furnace, 339
SCHOOL FCRNITURE.
General Principles, 341
Scale of Dimensions, 343
Illustrations,
Bench with Back, 344
Gallery for Infant School, 344
Sand Desk 344
Gallery used in National Schools, 345
Gallery in Burough Road School, 345
Closing Gallery,. v 345
Desks and Seats made of wood, 34ti
Range of Seats and Desks, 346
Shattuck's Primary School Chair, 349
Boston High School Desk and Chair,.. 34(i
Mott's School Chair and Desk 348
Hartford School Chair and Desk, 347
Wales' Improved School Furniture,. . . 350
No. 1. American School Chairs, 350
2. do., with desk for two pupils, 350
3. do., " one pupil, 354
4. New England School Chairs,.. 351
5. do., with desk for two pupils, 351
6. do., do., one pupil, 352
7. Bowdoin School Chairs, 352
8. do., with desk for two,.. 352
9. do., do., one,.. 353
10. Washington School Chair 358
11. do., with desk for two pupils, 353
12. do., do.. one pupil, 354
13. Normal School Desk for two,.. 354
14. do., do., do., one,.. 353
15. Improved Writing Stools, 355
16. Primary School Chair, 355
17. Basket Primary School Chair,.. 555
18. Improved Settees, 356
19. Improved Lyceum Settees,.... 356
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
13
FADE.
Teacher's Arm Chair, 356
do. do., with cushions, 357
Teacher's table without drawers, 357
do. do., with one drawer, 357
do. do., with two drawers, 358
Movable Skeleton Desk, 358
" Portable Desk, 358
Teacher's Desk, 358
do. with drawers and table top, 358
do. and top desk, 358
two drawers and ta
ip desk,
ble top,
do. and top des
p, 5
k, 35
four drawers and table top, 359
do. and top desk, 359
six drawers and table top, 360
do. and top desk, 360
with bookcase in front, 360
do. do. 361
do. do. 361
Teacher's desk, with bookcase, 361
Drawing Desks,
Illustrations,
A Leaf and Drawing Desk,
Bracket to support Leaf,
Ross' Movable Drawing Desk,
Drawing Desk and Board recommended in
Schools of Practical Art, England,
Movable Support and Drawing Board,. ...
Ross' American School Furniture,
Scale of Heights,
Illustrations,
No. 1. N. Eng. Primary School Chair,
2. N. Y. Primary School Chair,..
3. N. Eng. Pri. Sch. Basket Chair,
4. do. Pri. Sch. Desk and Chair,
5. do
6. do. Intermediate,
7. do. do.
8. N.Y. Pri. double desk and chair,
9. Village desk, with seat attached,
10. Improved Writing Stool,
11. Improved sand top Chair,
12. Sin. Gram. sch. desk and chair,
13. Double do
14. Single high school desk, with lid,
15. Double do
16. Desk and chair for young ladies,
17. do. with portfolio,
18. do
19. do
20. do
21. Lowell Institute Drawing Desk,
22. Improved Ink Well,
23. " " "
24. Settee for Recitation Room,. . .
25. Teacher's Chair,
26. " "
27. " "
28. Recitation Room Tuble,
29. Primary School Table,
30. " " "
31. Teacher's Table with drawer,.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
Desk
APPARATUS.
General Arrangements, 383
Articles indispensable in every school, 384
" for Primary and District Schools, . 384
PAOX
Articles for Grammar Schools, 397
" High School 401
Illustrations,
Movable Lesson Post, 384
Gonigraph, 391
Allen's Spelling and Reading Table,.. 385
Hanging Blackboard and Shelf, 386
Movable Blackboard, 387
Easel, or Movable Stand for Black-
board, 387
Map Exhibitor, 387
Sponge Box or Damper, 390
Box and Cover for Glass Ink Well,. . . 391
Arithmeticon or Numeral Frame, 391
Geometrical Forms and Solids, 392
Block to illustrate Cube Root, 394
Drawing Slate 394
Terrestrial Globe, 395
Hemisphere Globe, , .. 395
Tellurian, 396
Planetarium, 396
Inertia Apparatus, 398
Collision Balls and Stand, 398
Laws of Motion, 399
Mechanicals, 400
Hydrostatics, 400
Hydraulics, 401
Pneumatics, 401
Electricity, 402
Composition for Blackboard, 387
Directions for making Blackboard, 387
" " Black Plaster Wall,. 389
" " " " Canvas, 388
" " " Crayons, 389
" " procuring Large Slates, 390
Goodyear's applications of Metallic Gum to
school purposes, 403
Book Binding and Covers, 403
Maps and Charts, 403
Globes, 403
Blackboard, 404
Calisthenic Exercises, 404
Set of Apparatus cost, $50, 403
" " " 100 404
" " 200 406
" " 400, 407
" " 500, 408
" " 700 409
" " 1000, 410
List of Examples and Casts for Drawing
Classes, 411
LIBRARY.
Arrangements for a School Library, 413
Catalogue of Books on Education, 413
CARE AND PRESERVATION OP SCHOOL-
HOUSES.
Rules adopted in Rhode Island, 435
Suggestions respecting Fires, Sweeping,
Dusting, 436
Regulations of Chauncey Hall School,
Boston, 438
Remarks of Mr. Thayer, 440
DEDICATORY EXERCISES.
School Celebration at Salem, Mass., 402
Remarks of G. B. Emerson, 402
" " G. F. Thayer 405
Dedication of School-house, N. Providence, 450
Address of President Wayland, 450
Dedication of High School, Cambridge,... 457
Remarks of President Everett 459
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE,
IN treating of School Architecture, it will be convenient to pie
ent
I. Common Errors to be avoided.
II. General Principles to be observed.
Ill Plans and directions for erecting and fitting up school-houses
adapted to the varying circumstances of country and city, of a
small, and a large number of scholars, of schools of different
grades and of different systems of instruction.
I. COMMON ERRORS IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Under this head it will be sufficient to enumerate the principal
features of school-houses as they are.
They are, almost universally, badly located, exposed to the noise;
dust and danger of the highway, unattractive, if not positively repul-
sive in their external and internal appearance, and built at the least
possible expense of material and labor.
They are too small. There is no separate entry for boys and girls
appropriately fitted up ; no sufficient space for the convenient seating
and necessary movements of the scholars ; no platform, desk, or re-
citation room for the teacher.
They are badly lighted. The windows are inserted on three or
four sides of the room, without blinds or curtains to prevent the in-
convenience and danger from cross-lights, and the excess of light
falling directly on the eyes or reflected from the book, and the dis-
tracting influence of passing objects and events out of doors.
They are not properly ventilated. The purity of the atmosphere
is not preserved by providing for the escape of such portions of the
air as have become offensive and poisonous by the process of breath-
ing, and by the matter which is constantly escaping from the lungs
in vapor, and from the surface of the body in insensible perspiration
They are imperfectly warmed. The rush of cold air through
cracks and defects in the doors, windows, floor and plastering is not
guarded against. The air which is heated is already impure from
having been breathed, and made more so by noxious gases arising
from the burning of floating particles of vegetable and animal matter
coining in contact with the hot iron. The heat is not equally dif-
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
fused so ne ortion of a school-room is frequently overheated,
. l
1 are turned from the teacher, and a portion of them at east are
"mpted constantly to look out at the windows,-or the seats are at-
3d to th\ walfon opposite sides, and the scholars sit facing each
other The aisles are not so arranged that each scholar can go to
and from his seat, change his position have access to his book. ,, a -
tend to his own business, be seen and approached by the teacher,
without incommoding any other.
They are not provided with blackboards, maps, clock, thermometer
and other apparatus and fixtures which are indispensable to a wel
regulated and instructed school.
They are deficient in all of those in and out-door arrangements
which help to promote habits of order, and neatness, and cultivate
delicacy of manners and refinement of feeling. There are no ver-
dure, trees, shrubbery and flowers for the eye, no scrapers and mats
for the feet, no hooks and shelves for cloaks and hats, no well, no
gink, basin and towels to secure cleanliness, and no places of retire-
ment for children of either sex, when performing the most private
officer of nature.
LEST the author should be thought to exaggerate the deficiencies of
school-houses as they have been heretofore constructed, and as they are
now almost universally found wherever public attention has not been
earnestly, perseveringly, and judiciously called to their improvement, the
following extracts from recent -official school documents are inserted, re-
specting the condition of school-houses in states where public education
has received the most attention.
CONNECTICUT.
EXTRACT from the " First Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board
of Commissioners of Common Schools for 1838-39.
" In the whole field of school improvement there is no more pressing
need of immediate action than here. I present with much hesitation,
the result of my examinations as to several hundred school-houses in dif-
ferent parts of the State. I will say, generally, that the location of the
school-house, instead of being retired, shaded, healthy, attractive, is in
gome cases decidedly unhealthy, exposed freely to the sun and storm, and
in nearly all, on one or more public streets, where the passing of objects,
the noise and the dust, are a perpetual annoyance to teacher and scholar,
that no play-ground is afforded for the scholar except the highway,
that the size la too small for even the average attendance of the scholars,
that not one in a hundred has any other provision for a constant supply
of that indispensable element of health and life, pure air, except the
rents and crevices which time and wanton mischief have made ; that the
SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 17
seats and desks are not, in a majority of cases, adapted to children 6T different
sizes and ages, but on the other hand are calculated to induce physical
deformity, and ill-health, and not in a few instances (I state this on the
authority of physicians who were professionally acquainted with the
cases,) have actually resulted in this and that, in the mode of warming
rooms, sufficient regard is not had either to the comfort and health of the
scholar, or to economy.
That 1 have not stated these deficiencies too strongly, I beg leave to
refer you to the accompanying returns, respecting the condition of school-
houses in more than eight hundred districts in the State, and in more
than forty particulars in each. These returns were made from actual
inspection and measurement of school-houses by teachers and others.
An abstract of them in part will be found annexed, together with ex-
tracts from letters received from school officers on the subject. I might
accumulate evidence of the necessity of improvement here for every
district in the State. Without improvement in many particulars which
concern the health, the manners and morals of those who attend school,
it is in vain to expect that parents who put a proper estimate, not only
on the intellectual, but the physical and moral culture of their children,
will send to the district school.
The following extracts are taken from official documents, published in
1846 and 1847, and fair specimens of the manner in which school-houses
are spoken of, in the reports of local commjttees, from different parts oi
the State.
" In one district the school-house stands on the highway, with eighty
pupils enrolled as in attendance, in a room nineteen and a hah 1 ' feet
square, without any outbuildings of any kind.
In another in the same town, the school-house is less than seven feet
high, and the narrow slab seats are twenty-one inches high, (four inches
higher than ordinary chairs. ) The walls, desks, &c., are cut and marked
with all sorts of images, some of which would make heathens blush.
In another, the room is fourteen feet square, and six feet five inches
high. The walls are very black."
" In this town there is one of the most venerable school servants in the
State. The room is small, and less than seven feet high. Slab seats
extend around three sides of the room, and are too high for men. The
skill of several generations must have been expended in illustrating the
walls with lamp smoke and coal images. The crevices of the floor will
admit any quantity of cold air. The door sill and part of the house
eill have rotted away. The day I visited it, the teacher and pupils were
huddled around the stove."
" In one district, the house stands near the travelled road, is low and
email, being only seventeen feet by seventeen, and seven feet two
inches high, for the accommodation of sixty or seventy pupils. The
seats on the outside are from seventeen to eighteen inches. The
walls, door, and sides of the house are disfigured with obscene images."
" There are only three good school-houses in the society ; only three
that have any out-houses. The rest of 'the school-houses are in a miser-
able condition. One is thirty-five or forty years old. Most of them
have only slab seats, with the legs sticking through, upwards, like
hatchel-teeth, and high enough to keep the legs of the occupants swing-
ing. They are as uncomfortable to little children as a pillory. Seats
and desks are adorned with every embellishment that the ingenuity of
professional whittlers can devise."
2
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
18
Two of our school-houses, those in the two largest districts, are in a
bad condition, old, unpainted and inconvenient. They are built and con
structed inside on the old Connecticut plan. Only one row of desks, and
that fastened to the wall of the school-room, running quite around it ;
and loner forms, without backs to rest on, the scholars sitting with their
backs to the centre of the room. The other two are in better condition,
though one is constructed on the same plan as above. The out-buildings
are in bad condition generally. One school-house has no out-building
nor wood-house. One school-house only is painted outside."
" Of the nine school-houses in this society, not one is really what they
all ought to be, for the morals, health, and intellectual improvement of
the pupils. Four of them are considered tolerably good, having one out-
building, the other five are hardly passable. The desks in most or all of
them are where they never ought to be, against the sides of the room
and against one end. and with few exceptions, all of a height, with poor
accommodations for loose clothes, hats, &c.; all located on or near some
highway ; no play-ground attached to any of them, except the highway."
" A part of our school-houses are comfortable buildings, but destitute of
every thing like taste or ornament in the grounds, structure, or the furni-
ture of the rooms. Being generally built in the. public highway or close
by its side, they are. one and all, without enclosures, ornamental or shade
trees. But the want of ornament is by no means the greatest defect of
our school-houses ; a majority of them are not convenient. Although
there has been some improvement in those recently built, yet they are not
so good as would be desirable. The out-buildings in too many cases are
in a neglected condition, and in some districts are not provided at all, in-
dicating an unpardonable neglect on the part of parents and guardians."
East Windsor.
" It appears that a great proportion of the school-houses are in a sad
condition and of bad architecture. Architectural drawings should, there-
fore, be scattered over the state, so that in the buildings to be erected
those abominations may be avoided which are now so abundant." Glas-
tenbury.
" The internal construction of most of our school-houses is bad. and occa-
sions great inconvenience and hindrance to the prosperity of our schools.
Let as much be done as can be, to remove those miserable prison-houses
for our children, and in their stead let there be good, large, and conven-
ient school-houses." Suffield, 2d.
' None of our school-houses have play-grounds attached ; they generally
stand in the highway, and some on a corner where several roads meet."
oethany.
'Another evil is the poor, cold, inconvenient and gloomy school-houses
:h we find in many districts. There is one in this society not more
jtive than a barn, for comfort and accommodation in a cold day : the
:an say about it is. it is thoroughly ventilated." Lebanon, <lth.
u The houses and the internal arrangement are inconvenient ; a slantino-
board the whole length of the house for a desk, and a slab-board for a seal
: the scholars cannot reach the floor with their feet, constitute
the conveniences of hall of the schools in this society." Easton.
B . choo J-he which looks more like some gloomy,
e r rnlnth S1S ^ d ^ the delention and Punishment of some
of nl P V K? a ?' aCe , designed for the intellectual training of the
ren of an enlightened and prosperous nation. Instead of bein* ren-
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
19
dered pleasant and attractive to the youthful mind, they are almost aa
cold and cheerless as an Indian wigwam." Chaplin.
" Many of our school-houses are in a miserable condition, possessing less
attractions outwardly than our prisons, while within they are dark,
gloomy and comfortless. They are all destitute of an appearance of any
out-house." Warren.
" The general plan of all the school-houses is the same. Writing desks
are placed around the room against the walls ; these are generally so
high that it would be inconvenient for adults, much more for children to
use them. The seats stand in front of these, so that the pupil has his
option to sit with his face or his back to the teacher. In the former case,
he has the edge of the writing desk to support his back ; in the latter,
nothing. An arrangement like this is the worst possible. Of the five
school-houses in the society, two may be warmed so as to be comfortable
at all times; a third needs nothing but a good stove; but the remaining
two cannot be made fit for a school to occupy without thorough repairs.
There is but one out-building of any kind connected with the school-
houses of this society, and this is entirely unfit for use." Winchester.
'' Throughout Middlesex county the school-houses, taken as a whole, are
several degrees below respectability rarely ever painted within or with-
out, and if painted at all, they ever afterward show a worn and weather-
beaten coat, like the half starved, half clothed outcast of society. Yet
these houses are owned by the public, worth its tens of thousands, and
they groan grievously if a small tax is levied to improve them. Of the
four locations of school-houses in this town, not one has sufficient land for
a private dwelling, and all the land combined would be less than an acre.
One stands wholly on the highway; another stands on a bleak and rocky
elevation, and during some portions of the winter, almost inaccessible.
This location was chosen probably because it was cheaper than the
pleasant field on the opposite side of the way. Why should the public
school-house which accommodates from thirty to fifty pupils, ten and
eleven months in the year, five and a half days of each week, not require
as much land as a church or private dwelling?" Chester.
'.< Our school-houses are not what they ought to be either in their loca-
tion or construction. In their location they are generally found upon some
barren knoll, or too near the highway, forming part of the fence between
the highway and the adjoining proprietor, alike destitute of ornament or
shade calculated to render them pleasing or attractive. The desks are
almost always too high and continuous, instead of single, nor is there
generally a gradation in reference to the size of the scholar. Few school-
rooms are well ventilated ; not more than one or two properly or health-
fully warmed ; the consequence is unnecessary frequency of colds, head-
aches and ill health." Tolland.
The Superintendent (Hon. Seth P. Beers) of Common Schools, thus
introduces the subject in his Annual Report for 1848.
" The reports of school visitors from - every part of the state speak in
strong terms of condemnation of the deplorable condition of many district
school-houses. The progress of renovation and improvement in this de-
partment has not been as rapid or as thorough, during the past year, as in
other sections of New England, or as the true interests of the common
schools imperiously demand. Badly located school-houses still " encum-
ber the highway," "without shrub or shade-tree around." "without
20 SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
playground, yard, or out-house, mat or scraper "-without means of ven-
tilation and uniform temperature,"-" with seats too high and destitute
of support for the back,"" with desks attached to three sides of the room,
"with windows destitute of glass,"-" clapboards hanging loose,"
blinds propped up to be kept in their places,"-" the wood without shel-
ter," and the stove without a door." These are specimens of the lan-
guage used by school visitors in describing the places where the children
of Connecticut are receiving their early training in taste, manners, morals,
and health language which it is hoped will touch the pride of the dis-
tiicts, and lead to some efficient action on the subject."
" How surprising and disgraceful is the fact, that a very large propor-
tion of the school-houses of our state present vastly fewer attractions, in
point of comfortable arrangement and tastefulness, than are seen about
our poor-houses, our jails, and our state penitentiary ! This remark is
too true of the school-houses in this society. They are all located directly
on the road or in it, with hardly a shrub or shade-tree around any one of
them ; and with no play-ground except the highway, which the children,
in several districts, have to share in common with geese and swine. Of
their external condition nothing very creditable or gratifying can be said.
Six, of the nine school-houses in this society, are wooden ones, and they
generally bear a time-honored, weather-beaten aspect. Unpainted and
blindless, with clapboards agape to catch the winds of winter, and win-
dow-panes rattling, or fallen from the decayed sash, they present a most
forlorn and gloomy aspect, which, to say the least, is not very well suited
to woo the youthful mind, and fill it with pleasant fancies. One, unac-
quainted with their original design, might mistake them for the abodes
of the evil genii, which would naturally be supposed to haunt the dreary
solitudes which surround them!
The internal condition of these school-houses is in perfect keeping with
the external. In several of them, the plastering is broken and missing,
to say nothing of the dark and dingy color of what remains. The stoves
are smoky, and the benches and desks are so high as to be better adapted
to the children of a race of giants, than to those of the present generation ;
and these are hacked and gashed by the pupils, as if in retaliation for the
torture suffered from them. My compassion has been deeply moved as I
have frequently entered these abodes of suffering, and seen their unhappy
inmates the children of protestant parents doing penance upon their
high seats, with no support to their backs but the soft edge of the project-
ing board which forms the desk, and with their feet dangling in mid-air
several inches from the floor. And when I have looked upon these
youthful sufferera, thus seated and writhing with pain, the question has
often arisen in my mind, what have these ill-starred children done that
they phould be doomed to so excruciating torture ? What rank offenses
have they committed that they should thus be suspended between the
heavens and earth for six hours each day ? And from deep-felt pity for
the innocent sufferers, I have sometimes wished (perhaps it was cruel)
that their parents had to sit for one hour in a similar position, that they
might learn how to pity their children, and be prompted to attend to their
health and comfort in the internal arrangement of the school-room.
Add to all this the fact, so outrageous to common decency, that most
; these school- houses have no out-buildings whatever attached to them ;
:s not the case appeal movingly to the friends of humanity, and
mand prompt and decisive measures of reform ? Is it not passing
strange that while many parents incur considerable expense in providing
themselves with cushioned and carpeted slips in church, where they ordi-
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 21
narily spend, perhaps, but three hours each week, they should be BO
utterly regardless of the comfort and happiness of their offsprings in the
school-room ?" Bloomfield.
" Three of the houses are located in the highway ; an excellent device
for saving land, but a miserable one for the comfort, safety and improve-
ment of children. In selecting sites for the new houses, recently erected,
a good degree of space fronting was provided for. Only two houses have
blinds or shutters; all the others give full scope for the sun to see what is
going on in the school-room, often to the manifest annoyance of the chil-
dren and teacher; unless, perchance, the latter has genius enough to con-
vert a stray newspaper, or some other available article, into a temporary
curtain to shut him out." Manchester.
" Our school-houses, though not cold and leaky, are very badly con-
structed within, and are therefore very inconvenient. Two of them stand
mostly in the highway, so that one passing in a carriage or on horseback
may look in upon the whole school, and as a matter of course the scholars
will look at whatever passes. When the school-house is so exposed, it
would seem, that modesty in our children would require the convenience
of good out-houses ; but this is not the case with any two school-houses
in the town. We have urged the importance of these things, but with
poor success." SuffiekL 2d.
" There are some houses unfit for their purpose ; the weather-boards are
starting off, " and the wind enjoys quite freely the luxury of coming in
and being warmed by the fire; and the dear children suffer much between
a cold northwester and a red-hot stove." It is very common to find the
school-houses mutilated by the cuttings of obscene figures ; this should
draw forth the unqualified censure of proprietors and teachers. Further,
there are cases where there are no out-houses for the use of children.
This is a sore evil, and ought to be remedied immediately." Groton.
" Among the ten school-houses in this district are several very good
buildings ; but, taking in view the size and proportions of the edifices,
the internal arrangement, the fitness of the seats and desks for the object
designed, we feel impelled to say, that in our opinion there are no very
good school-houses. In some of the districts it is said the people are
obliged to go among strangers to procure teachers, on account of the
shabbyness of the school-houses." Brooklyn. '
" Not more than one-half of our school-houses in this society are very
good, if, indeed, they can be termed more than comfortable. The remain-
der are bad, some of them very bad, exhibiting nothing of comfort or con-
venience. In some of them, there are no desks fit to be used for writing
purposes. The seats are so constructed as to afford no place to rest the
back, or, in some cases, even the sole of the foot. Many of the schools
are destitute of out-houses. Some of them have no conveniences for
hanging up the hats or clothes of the children, or even to shelter the wood
from the weather. And more than half our school-houses are destitute
of black-boards, a fact alike discreditable to the district and to the teach-
ers who have served in them." Stafford, 1st.
" It appears from the superintendent's report for 1847, that of 1663
school-houses in the state, 873 have out-houses, and 745 have none!
This fact is, undoubtedly, a burning shame and a deep disgrace to the
state. It is unworthy of a civilized country, and indicates a state of things
that ougfrt to exist only among savages. The committee are happy to
say that we have little or no share in this shameful fact: but our school-
houses are by no means what they should be, and call for improvement.
22 SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
They are generally on or in the street, whereas every building devoted to
Buch a purpose ought to be in a retired situation with;suitable yards for
play-grounds, and convenient fixtures. The windows in some do not let
Sown'frora the top, and therefore are not properly ventilated. In only
two out of ei<rht school-houses are the benches what they should be.
Large desks running around the room for the older scholars ought to be
whofly discarded as intolerable nuisances. The scholars are of necessity
always looking into the street; the windows can be opened only by climb-
ing over the benches and desks. The scholars' backs are turned toward
the teacher; they sit close together, and of course are often whispering.
Large girls can leave their seats only by placing their feet on a level with
their hips, which it is not always best that females should do. The
smaller benches often have backs that are so low as to be of little service.
Every school-house ought to be provided with a single desk for each
pupil, and every pupil ought to have a slate and books to keep in the
desk." Vernon.
The following extracts are taken from the Annual Reports lor 1849.
" The school-houses are not what they should be. Some of them are de-
cidedly bad. They are neither convenient nor pleasant. The benches
and desks are inconvenient. Some of the small scholars are reduced to
the miserable necessity of swinging in the air, without being able to either
get a foothold or a place to rest their backs against. Ventilation is
not attended to. Every school-room should be so constructed that it can
be freely ventilated, so that the scholars may have pure atmospheric air to
breathe. This every one must appreciate, who knows the value of
health, and does not wish to see a generation of sickly drones coming on
to the stage. As a general thing, the external appearance of the school-
houses is bad. A stranger passing through a district, can easily select
the school-house. If you see a very unique-looking building, a " squatter"
in the highway, or standing by permission on the side of some lot. in a
corner rendered useless by a location on the border of some swampy
moor, or on some arid field, where no vestige of life is that you may
conclude is the district school-house. That is the place where our chil-
dren are to resort, during three-fourths of the first sixteen years of their
lives, to get an education. Such are the associations with their early,
perhaps all their education! Why is not the district school the place
where correct taste should be demonstrated 1 Impressions will be made,
and if they ever yield to good -taste, school-house associations, in their
present state, will not deserve the credit." Enfield.
i: Our school-houses are in a bad condition. Look into the school some
warm, comfortable day, when the children are more likely to be irt at-
tendance, and if you please, walk in and breathe a specimen of the air in
a New England unventilated school-house. If you are a well-bred man,
you must do violence to your kind feelings, when you take a seat and
)k around and find that the teacher has nothing left for his accommo-
dation but a standee ; our school-houses are literally jammed full. i. e.
the seats any attempt at improvement is voted down on account of the
cost" bouth Windsor, Wapping.
" One district, for a wonder, occupied a new school-house ; but while it is
excellent compared with the old one, it is contemptible, if not wicked,
i pared with what it ought to be. The only plan about it seems to be
immum scale of e.rpenditure. Its dimensions are too limited even
3 email a school. The desk or counter is uniform, and attached to
:s ol the room, and almost out of the tallest scholar's reach ! I
bave protested to the district, and possibly they will lower the counter,
SCHOOL-HOOSES AS THEY ARE. 23
some time or other. The other districts need new school-rooms, and some
talk of building." Wolcott.
" In regard to the school-houses in our five districts, only one can be said
to be very good. Another, recently repaired, may be called good in a
qualified sense ; while the remaining three are quite ordinary, if not bad.
This neglect to provide neat and comfortable school-houses, doubtless
has a tendency to dampen the ardor of children in literary pursuits, and
in various ways to retard their progress." Plainjield.
"The school-room in the third district presents the same unsightly ap-
pearance which it has in years past ; and from the height to which the
writing desks, and slabs used for seats, are elevated, some persons would
naturally infer that they were originally designed for a race of giants."
Pom/ret, Abinglon.
'"'' Most of the school-7io?ises are in a bad condition, being old, ill- construct-
ed, and inconvenient. Especially is this the case with regard to the inte-
rior of some of them, the seats of which are too high for the comfort of
the scholars, with nothing to rest the back against, except the sharp edge
of a plank or board, which serves as a writing desk, and this placed so
high as to bring the arm to an unnatural and uneasy position when at-
tempting to write. The school-houses, too. with one or two exceptions,
stand in the highway, many within a few feet of the traveled path, with
windows looking directly upon it, so that the attention of the scholar is
necessarily attracted to every passer-by, thus diverting his attention from
his studies, retarding his progress, and annoying his teacher." Litchfield,
Milton.
The Annual Report of the Superintendent of Common Schools for 1850
contains the following remarks on the condition of the school-houses.
' If any reliance can be placed on the representations made by teachers
and school visitors from two hundred and four out of the two hundred and
seventeen school societies in the state, as collected from written commu-
nications to this department in the course 'of the last four years, a majority
of our school-houses are badly located, badly ventilated, imperfectly warm-
ed in winter, having uncomfortable seats and desks, without apparatus
except a black-board, and destitute of the most ordinary means of cleanli-
ness and convenience. To this overwhelming mass of testimony (Appen-
dix G) as to the necessity of immediate and thorough improvement in
this portion of the educational field, I will here add an extract from a
communication by a teacher of much experience and distinction, who re-
ceived his education and commenced his experience in teaching in the
district schools of this state. His remarks refer to the condition of school-
houses in a single county to three-fourths of which he had just made a
personal visit."
" OLD SCHOOL-HOUSES. These are the Antiquities of Connecticut, rude
monuments of art, that must have had their origin coeval with the pyra-
mids and catacombs, for aught we can learn to the contrary, save by the
uncertain information of tradition. "It always stood there," says "the
oldest inhabitant," when asked the date of the erection of one of them.
Little brown structures of peculiar aspect, meek, demure, burrowing in
some lone, damp and depressed spot, or perchance perched on the pinna-
cle of a rock, as if too contemptible and abject to occupy a choice piece of
earth, exposed to the remorseless winds of winter, and the fervid rays of
24
SCHOOL-BOUSES AS THEY ARK.
rammer, at one end a narrow and dingy entry, the floor covered with
wood, chips, stones, hats, caps, odd mittens, old books, bonnets, shawls,
cloakk dirt, dinner baskets, old brooms, ashes, &c., all thrown together in
the order as here catalogued, the principal room retaining its huge stone
chimney, which for generations boasted its ghastly fire-place, affording a
ready oblivion to annual piles of green and snow-soaked wood, the burnt,
smoked, scratched and scrawled wainscoting. the battered and mutilated
plastering. the patched windows, the crippled and ragged benches,
the desks which have endured a short eternity of whittling, the masses
of pulverized earth in constant agitation, filling the throat, eye and nos-
trils of the inmates, the unmistakable compound of odors which come not
from " Araby the blest" all point to the remote antiquity of these build-
ings. and intimate the veneration in which they are held. That some of
these structures are always to remain, does not seem to admit of a ' ; rea-
sonable doubt." The records of their origin, as we have seen, are gone,
and the testimony of the past few generations is conclusive that no change
has been effected in their appearance from a remote period ; hence the
deduction that they are among the " things to remain," and never to pass
away. Though the "annual miracle of nature" may not be vouchsafed
to preserve them, yet, like the monuments of the American Indians which
receive their annual votive offering of stones, and are thus rendered im-
perishable. so these " antiquities," receiving their semi-occasional patches
upon windows, upon clapboards, roofs and floors, together with the au-
tumnal embankment of earth around their base, and all these given and
received obsequious to the annual solemn votes of the district, stand, de-
spite the advance of public opinion, the " war of elements," and ; ' the tooth
of time."
MODERN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. It is much to be regretted that a
work similar to " Barnard's School Architecture" had not been issued
and circulated throughout the state some ten years ago, that such as have
since that time erected new houses, (that are to stand forever.) might
have consulted approved models for the size and forms of their structures,
and improved plans for their internal arrangements. It would seem, how-
ever. that enough had been said by the author of that work in his annual
reports, and occasional addresses in the state, to have excited interest suf-
ficient in those intending to build new houses, to extend their inquiries
and observations beyond the limits of their own district, and beyond the
pattern of their own recently condemned school-house', and at least to
select suitable locations for houses and necessary out-buildino-s, if not for
a yard and play-ground. .
The material changes observed in the construction of new houses about
1 count .y'. cons ' st m P lac '"g the end of the building toward the street
i the side, and giving a very narrow entry across the end of the
ling, attordmg, in some instances, two entrances into the school-
x>m with only one into the entry. A portion of the entry is used for
ZS W ,h K Mr gthr0 u W , nagainst the Plastering, lays bare the lathing,
making the building, while yet new, bear the tokens of age. In a few in-
the
in many instances,
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 25
nent benches with backs. The windows, in all cases perhaps, in the new
houses, have made a sensible step downward toward the floor ; and the
desks and seats of the larger scholars, have also been brought down from
their inconvenient and dizzy heights, that their occupants may not be
" while in, above the world."
Where change has been wrought in the fixtures of the room, the desks
are almost always clumsy, occupying unnecessary portions of the room,
and rendering them inconvenient lor the evolutions of the school.
Ventilation has received a passing thought in the erection of most of
the new houses, yet its importance is not probably fully appreciated, nor
the best methods of securing it clearly understood. Some ventilate from
the windows so successfully, as to part with the warm air almost entirely,
and at the same time to retain the offensive gases and odors of the room.
Some ventilators are placed in the ceiling in the corners of the rooms,
others are placed immediately over the stove pipe, some are movable,
and moved with a cord. others are simply a scuttle, expected to rise by
the expansive power of the gases, as safety valves of engines operate by
accumulation of steam.
The substitution of stoves (mainly box stoves.) for the engulphing fire
place, as a means of warming school-rooms, is noticed in the new houses.
OF SCHOOL-HOUSES GENERALLY. To ascertain if improvement has
been effected in this class of structures in the state, we must resort to one
or two devices of the astronomer, in observing the motions of the heavenly
bodies, viz., to notice their respective positions at different and remote
periods of time. The progress of improvement has been so slow, (if im-
provement has been made in school-houses.) that an observer from year
to year only, might be at a loss to know that such was the fact; but a
comparison of the structures fifteen or twenty years a^o, with the build-
ings now occupied for schools, will doubtless enable one to say that pro-
gress has been made. It is stated on very creditable authority that in
some societies and some towns, one, and in some instances, more than one
house has been built, and one or more has been painted.
The contributions upon old hats, upon writing books that are " writ
through." &c., &c., are levied less frequently than formerly to repel the
winds at the windows ; fewer clapboards are now seen swinging gaily by
a single nail, than in bye-gone days ; the asthmatic wheezing of the
winds through the uncounted apertures is hushed, and the pupils enjoy
an irrigation through the roof less frequently than formerly. Curtains
are occasionally found to protect the eyes of the pupils from the blinding
rays of the sun ; the comfort of the smaller children is materially increas-
ed by the addition of backs to their hard seats; the desks and seats of the
larger pupils have descended toward the floor; the use of stoves giving
a comfortable temperature to the rooms, instead of the former equatorial
heat and the polar cold ; in rare instances the ingenious designs in chalk
and charcoal upon the walls and ceiling have retired behind a coating of
whitewash, and the yawning fire-place has been plastered over. All
these movements distinctly indicate that vitality at least exists among the
people of this commonwealth, and that the best good of their children, as
they tell us, lies nearest their hearts.
It is earnestly hoped that all persons will be open to conviction and
receive the above statement of facts as a perfect demonstration of the
earnestness of the community for the well being of the schools.
When we come to the et ceteras of the school-rooms, such as shovel
and tongs, brooms, brushes, bells, globes, sinks, wash-basins, towels, pegs,
hooks and shelves for hats, clothing, &c., it is feared such great, such mo-
mentous changes, such rapid advances, will not appear to have been
made ; probably not three districts in the county have gone so fast, or so
2 g SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
far in advance of the others as to have procured all these articles ; proba-
bly not more than half a dozen districts have supposed it important, that
even a mat and scraper are necessary for pupils to use after walking, per-
haps a mile in the mud ; yet we should be doing them injustice m not
supposino- that they really feel this quenchless interest which they repre-
sent themselves as possessing for their children, and should greatly mis-
judge them if we supposed them not doing all in their po\ver to encourage
their children in obtaining useful knowledge, and in cultivating the minor
virtues while in school.
OUT-BUILDINGS. An appalling chapter might be written, on the evils,
the almost inevitable results of neglecting to provide these indispensable
appendages to school-houses in our state. Who can duly estimate the
final consequences of the first shock given to female delicacy, from the
necessary exposure, to which the girls in the public schools are inevitably
subjected ; and what must be the legitimate results of these frequent ex-
posures during the school-going years of youth ? What quenchless fires
of passion have been kindled within the bosom of the young of both sexes
by these exposures, fires that have raged to the consuming of personal
happiness, to the. prevention of scholastic improvement, and to the de-
struction of personal character ? again, what disgust has been created in
both sexes by the results of not having the appropriate retirements which
nature imperiously demands? and finally, may not the disinclination, the
aversion of large numbers of families, of mothers especially, to sending
their daughters to the public schools, have been created by the sufferings
they themselves have endured, from the above cause ; and an unwilling-
ness to subject the delicacy of their daughters to the obnoxious trial?
Were the question not so peculiar as almost to defy examination, it is
apprehended this ^vould be found to be the truth. Will it not seem in-
credible, even to Connecticut men, to be informed that less than one-halt
of the school-houses in this commonwealth are without these necessary
buildings? yet such is probably the fact ; thus dooming thousands of girls
to bear a loathsome burden of mortification, which they cannot remove
without withdrawing from the schools. I have no exact data for the
above estimate, yet it is probably not far below the truth, if indeed it is at
all. So filthy are most of those that are provided, that they are not only
quite useless, but disgusting in the extreme. In one society of nine
schools but one out-house was provided, and that, I was informed, could
only be reached in dry weather, such was its location ; nor could it be
used even then, such was its condition. This state of things, it would
seem, should be utterly changed, and that speedily."
MASSACHUSETTS.
EXTRACTS from the "Report of the Secretary (Hon. Horace Mann) of
the Board of Education for 1846."
"For years the condition of this class of edifices, throughout the State,
ten as a whole, had been growing worse and worse. Time and decay
were always doing their work, while only here and there, with wide
spaces between, was any notice taken of their silent ravages : and, in
fewer instances, were these ravages repaired. Hence, notwith-
standing the improved condition of all other classes of buildings, general
SduE was the fate of these. Industry and the increalinj pecu-
mary ab.hty which it creates, had given comfort, neatness, and even
afctlv rCh r eUU1 f- ? ubll " C S P irit h *<l erected commodious
1 ^?* largely taxed, had yet uncom-
and spacious court-houses and public offices.
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 27
In 1837, not one third part of the Public School-houses in Massachu-
setts would have been considered tenantable by any decent family, out
of the poor-house, or in it. As an incentive to neatness and decency,
children were sent to a house whose walls and floors were indeed painted,
but they were painted, all too thickly, by smoke and filth ; whose benches
and doors were covered with carved work, but they were the gross and
obscene carvings of impure hands; whose vestibule, after the oriental
fashion, was converted into a veranda, but the metamorphosis which
changed its architectural style, consisted in laying it bare of its outer
covering. The modesty and chastity of the sexes, at their tenderest age,
was to be cultivated and cherished, in places, which oftentimes were as
destitute of all suitable accommodations, as a camp or a caravan. The
brain was to be worked amid gases that stupefied it. The virtues of
generosity and forbearance were to be acquired where sharp discomfort
and pain tempted each one to seize more than his own share of -relief,
and thus to strengthen every selfish propensity.
At the time referred to, the school-houses in Massachusetts were an
opprobrium to the State; and if there be any one who thinks this
expression too strong, he may satisfy himself of its correctness by
inspecting some of the few specimens of them which still remain.
The earliest effort at reform was directed towards this class of build-
ings. By presenting the idea of taxation, this measure -encountered the
opposition of one of the strongest passions of the age. Not only the
sordid and avaricious, but even those, whose virtue of frugality, by the
force of habit, had been imperceptibly sliding into the vice of parsimony,
felt the alarm. Men of fortune, without children, and men who had
reared a family of children, and borne the expenses of their education,
fancied they saw something of injustice in being called to pay for the
education of others ; and too often their fancies started up into spectres
of all imaginable oppression and wrong. The school districts were the
scene where the contending parties arrayed themselves against each
other; the school-house itself their arena. From time immemorial, it
had been the custom to hold school district meetings in the school-house.
Hither, according to ancient usage, the voters were summoned to come.
In this forum, the question was to be decided, whether a new edifice
should be erected, or whether the ability of the old one to stand upon its
foundations for another season, should be tried. Regard for the health,
the decent manners, the intellectual progress and the moral welfare of the
children, common humanity, policy, duty, the highest worldly interests of
the race, were marshalled on one side, demanding a change ; selfishness,
cupidity, insensibility to the wants and the welfare of others, and that
fallacious plea, that because the school-house had answered the purpose
so long, therefore it would continue to answer it still longer, an argument
which would make all houses, and roads, and garments, and every thing
made by human hands, last forever, resisted the change. The dis-
graceful contrast betweeifthe school-house and all other edifices, whether
public or private, in its vicinity ; the immense physical and spiritual sacri-
fices which its condition inflicted upon the rising generation, were often
and unavailingly urged ; but there was always one argument which the
advocates for reform could use with irresistible effect, the school-house
itself. Cold winds, whistling through crannies and chinks and broken
windows, told with merciless effect upon the opponents. The ardor of
opposition was cooled by snow-blasts rushing up through the floor. Paii\-
imparting seats made it impossible for the objectors to listen patiently
even to arguments on their own side ; and it was obvious that the tears
they shed were less attributable to any wrongs which they feared, than
to the volumes of smoke which belched out with every gust of wind from
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
28
broken funnels and chimneys. Such was the case in some houses. In
others, opposite evils prevailed; and the heat and stifling air and nau-
seating effluvia were such as a grown man has hardly been compelled to
live uC since the time of Jonah.
Though insensible to arguments addressed to reason and conscience,
vet the "senses and muscles and nerves of this class of men were less
hardened than their hearts ; and the colds and cramps, the exhaustion and
debility, which they carried home, worked mightily for their conversion to
truth. Under such circumstances, persuasion became compulsory.
Could the leaders of the opposition have transferred , f he debate to some
commodious public hall, or to their own spacious and elegant mansions,
they might have bid defiance to humanity and remained masters of the
field. But the party of reform held them relentlessly to the battle-ground ;
and there the cause of progress triumphed, on the very spot where it had
been so long dishonored.
During the five years immediately succeeding the report made by the
Board ot ? Education to the Legislature, on the subject of school-houses,
the sums expended for the erection or repair of this class of buildings fell
but little short of seven hundred thousand dollars. Since that time, from
the best information obtained, I suppose the sum expended on this one
item to be about one hundred and fifty thousand dollars annually.
Every year adds some new improvement to the construction and arrange-
ment of these edifices.
In regard to this great change in school-houses, it would hardly be too
much to call it a revolution, the school committees have done an excel-
lent work. or rather, they have begun it; it is not yet done. Their
annual reports, read in open town meeting, or printed and circulated
among the inhabitants, afterwards embodied in the Abstracts and distri-
buted to all the members of the government, to all towns and school com-
mittees have enlightened and convinced a State.
Notwithstanding the great revolution actually wrought in the condi-
tion of school-houses in certain villages and cities of Massachusetts, the
following picture of these buildings in the rural towns is drawn by Mr.
Leach, one of the agents of the Board of Education, in 1853:
Since the commencement of my agency, I have examined more than one thous-
and school-houses, and have noticed the following defects in their location and
construction. I have found very many school-houses situated in the highways,
but a few feet from the traveled road, and without any yard for the scholars to
play in. Some I have found in wet and marshy places, which were often sur-
rounded by standing water. Some were quite near ponds or streams, which was
the cause of very great annoyance, both in summer and winter. Some were near
stores and public places of resort, which were frequently visited during the inter-
mission. Some were near workshops, or manufactories, or railroads, or depots,
exposing the children to interruption and accidents. Some were on eminences,
surrounded by dangerous declivities. Not one in fifty have I found with suitable
backyards, well-fenced, and with de.cent water closets. But very few have two
entrances, one for each sex. In consequence of this arrangement, teachers are
compelled to sacrifice thirty minutes each day, one-twelfth of the whole school
time, or commit the gross impropriety of sending out boys and girls into the same
yard at the same time. Very few houses are constructed with any regard to ex-
ternal beauty or internal convenience. Many are quite too small, not affording,
in some instances, more than forty or fifty cubic feet to each pupil, instead of one
hundred and fifty, which is regarded as the minimum. Very many are not more
than eight feet in height, instead of eleven or twelve feet. A Very common and
erious defect is the want of good blackboards, placed at the proper height. In
very many cases, instead of a blackboard in the rear of the teacher's desk, there
M a window to admit light directly in the face of the pupils. In many houses of
oent construction there are no blackboards, except in the rear of the pupils, so
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 29
that they were obliged to stand or sit on the top of the desks to witness any illus-
tration from the teacher. Where such arrangements existed, I found that but
very little use was made of the blackboard by the teacher. Very many schools 1
have found badly lighted, some admitting too much light, and others too little, and
quite often the light was admitted directly in the faces of the pupils, win conse-
quence of too little light, the pupils become short-sighted, and contract a stoop-
ing posture by bringing the head near the book. The cases are quite numerous
where pupils have become short-sighted and round-shouldered, by being com-
pelled to study in an improper posture. By an excess of light, the sight of pupils
has been very much impaired, and, in some cases, entirely lost.
In a large majority of cases, the stairs leading to the upper rooms have been
badly constructed, endangering the lives and lirnbs of pupils. Very many cases
of serious injury I have found, which have resulted from this cause. But very
few houses are furnished with large closets, or book-cases, to preserve maps,
globes, and books of reference. But few are provided with a well, pump, and
sink, a very necessary appendage to every good school. In but few instances
have there been any attempts to beautify the grounds, by setting out trees, shrub-
bery, &c. Globes, clocks, thermometers, mats and scrapers, have not been in-
troduced extensively into the country schools. In school districts in the country,
when the pupils live some distance from the school, there is seldom any provision
for the pupils who wish to stop at noon, or who come in the morning before the
time of commencing the school. Many houses have been built, and some re-
cently, with large rooms, containing from one hundred to two hundred pupils
each. I have made it a particular point of inquiry to ascertain the advantages
and disadvantages of large rooms, as compared with small ones. I have con-
sulted more than one hundred experienced teachers on this subject, and have
found but four or five who do not much prefer small rooms to large ones.
In all my examination, I have found but few houses well ventilated. In a large
majority of cases, there are no means of ventilating but by opening the windows
and doors. And where attempts have been made, it has been but imperfectly
accomplished. The ventilating tubes have almost invariably been too small.
NEW'YORK.
ExTRACT_/rom the "Annual Report of the Superintendent (Hon. Samuel
Young) of Common Schools, made to the Legislature, January 13,
1844."
(; The whole number of school-houses visited and inspected by the
county superintendents during the year was 9,368 : of which 7,685 were of
framed wood ; 446 of brick ; 523 of stone, and 707 of logs. Of these,
3,160 were found in good repair; 2.870 in ordinary and comfortable repair,
and 3.319 in bad repair, or totally unfit for school purposes. The number
furnished with more than one room was 544, leaving 8,795 with one room-
only. The number furnished with suitable play-grounds is 1,541 ; the
number not so furnished, 7,313. The number furnished with a single
privy is, 1,810 ; those with privies containing separate apartments for male
and female pupils, 1,012 ; while the number of those not furnished with
any privy whatever, is 6.423. The number suitably furnished with con-
venient seats, desks, &c., is reported at 3,282, and the number not so fur-
nished, at 5,972. The number furnished with proper facilities for ventila-
tion is stated at 1.518 ; while the number not provided with these essen-
tial requisites of health and comfort is 7,889.
No subject connected with the interests of elementary instruction
affords a source of such mortifying and humiliating reflections as that of
the condition of a large portion of the school-houses, as presented in the
above enumeration. One-third only of the whole number visited, were
found in gouu repair: another third in ordinary and comfortable condition
3 Q SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
only in this respect in other words, barely sufficient for the convenience
and accommodation of the teachers and pupils; while the remainder, con-
sisting of 3.319, were to all intents and purposes unfit for the reception of
man or beast.
But 544 out of 9.368 houses visited, contained more than one room ;
7,313 were destitute of any suitable play-ground; nearly six thousand
were unfurnished with convenient seats and desks ; nearly eight thousand
destitute of the proper facilities for ventilation ; and upwards of six thou-
sand without a privy of any^ort; while of the remainder but about one
thousand were pro/ided with privies containing different apartments for
male and female pupils ! And it is in these miserable abodes of accumu-.
lated dirt and filth, deprived of wholesome air, or exposed without adequate
protection to the assaults of the elements, ^with no facilities for necessary
exercise or relaxation, no convenience for prosecuting their studies;
crowded together on benches not admitting of a moment's rest in any
position, and debarred the possibility of yielding to the ordinary calls of
nature without violent inroads upon modesty and shame ; that upwards
of two hundred thousand children, scattered over various parts of the
State, are compelled to spend an average period of eight months during
each year of their pupilage ! Here the first lessons of human life, the
incipient principles of morality, and the rules of social intercourse are to
be impressed upon the plastic mind. The boy is here to receive the
model of his permanent character, and to imbibe the elements of his
future career; and here the instinctive delicacy of the young female, one
of the characteristic ornaments of the sex, is to be expanded into matu-
rity by precept and example ! Is it strange, under such circumstances,
that an early and invincible repugnance to the acquisition of knowledge
is imbibed by the youthful mind ; that the school-house is regarded with
unconcealed aversion and disgust, and that parents who have ar.y desire
to preserve the health and the morals of their children, exclude them
from the district school, and provide instruction for them elsewhere ?
If legislation could reach and remedy the evil, the law-making power
would be earnestly invoked. But where the ordinary mandates of
humanity, and the laws of parental feeling written by the finger of
heaven on the human heart, are obliterated or powerless, all statutory
provisions would be idle and vain. In some instances during the past
year, comfortable school-houses have been erected to supply the place of
miserable and dilapidated tenements which for years had been a disgrace
to the inhabitants. Perhaps the contagion of such worthy examplesmay
spread ; and that which seems to have been beyond the influence of the
ordinary impulses of humanity, may be accomplished by the power of
example or the dread of shame.
The expense of constructing and maintaining convenient buildings,
and all other proper appliances for the education of the young, is a mere
trifle^when contrasted with the beneficial results which inevitably follow.
[)f all the expenditures which are calculated to subserve the wants or
gratify the caprices of man. there are none which confer such important
and durable blessings as those which are applied to the cultivation and
expansion of the moral and intellectual powers. It is by such cultivation
that human happiness is graduated, and that from the most debased of
: savage tribes, nation rises above nation in the scale of prosperity and
The penuriousness which has been manifested on this sub-
, and the reckless profligacy exhibited on others, is strongly charac-
teristic -of the past. In future times, when the light of scienco shall be
more widely diffused, and when the education of the youn<r shall claim
and receive the consideration it deserves, a retrospection to the records of
exhibit preceding generations in no enviable point of view
SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 31
The following remarks and extracts from the Reports of the special
visiters appointed by the State Superintendent (Hon. John G. Spencer)
in each of the counties, for 1840, and for 1841, are taken from Part I of
that admirable work, the " School and the Schoolmaster," Part I, by Prof,
(now Bishop) Potter, and Part II, by George B. Emerson, Esq., of
Boston.
/
" I ask, then, first, are our common schools places of agreeable resort,
calculated to promote health, and to connect pleasant associations with
study ?
Ans. Say the visiters, in one of the oldest and most affluent towns of
the south-eastern section of the state, 'It may be remarked, generally
that the school-houses are built in the old style, are too small to be con-
venient, and, with one exception, too near the public roads, generally
having no other play-ground.' Twelve districts were visited in this
town. See Report of Visiters (1840), p. 47.
Say the visiters of another large and wealthy town in the central part
of the state, ; Out of the 20 schools they visited, 10 of the school-houses
were in bad repair, and many of them not worth repairing. In none
were any means provided for the ventilation of the room. In many of
the districts, the school-rooms are too small for the number of scholars.
The location of the school-houses is generally pleasant. There are, how-
ever, but few instances where play-grounds are attached, and their condi-
tion as to privies is very bad. The arrangement of seats and desks is
generally very bad, and inconvenient to both scholars and teachers.
Most of them are without backs.' P. 28 (Rep., 1840.)
From another town in the north-western part of the state, containing a
large population, and twenty-two school districts, the visiters report of
district No. 1, that the school-house is large and commodious, but scan-
dalously cut and marked ; the school-room but tolerably clean; the privies
very filthy, and no means of ventilation but by opening the door or
raising the window. No. 2 has an old school-house > the room not clean;
seats and desks well arranged, but cut and marked ; no ventilation ; the
children healthy, but not clean. No. 3 has an old frame building, but
warm and comfortable. No. 4 has a very poor, dilapidated old frame
school-house, though the inhabitants are generally wealthy . for that
country. No. 5 has a frame school-house, old and in bad condition;
school-room not clean ; seats and desks not convenient ; No. 6 has a frame
school-house, old and in bad condition; the school-room is not clean; no
cup or pail for drinking water. No. 7 has a log school-house, in a very
bad condition; desks and seats are inconvenient. 'Here, too,' say the
visiters, ' society is good, and people mostly in easy circumstances, but
the school-house very unbecoming such inhabitants. It does not com-
pare well with their dwellings.' No. 8, say the visiters, is ' a hard case.'
No. 9 has a frame house in good condition and in a pleasant location, but
is 'too small for the number of children.' No. 10 has a log school-house.
No. 11 has a 'log shanty for a school-house, not fit for any school.' No.
12 a log house. No. 13 has a log shanty, in bad condition, not pleasantly
located, school-room not clean. ' The school-house or hovel in this dis-
tnct is so cold in winter, so small and inconvenient, that little can be done
towards preserving order or advancing education among so many schol-
ars ; some poor inhabitants and some in good circumstances ; might have
a better school-house.' No. 14 has a good frame house, in good condi-
tion, pleasant location, with ample and beautiful play-ground ; school-room
in clean condition. The visiters add, ' In this district the inhabitants are
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
Door and the scholars attend irregularly ; the house was built by one man
mlow circumstances, who has a large family of boys to educate; a noble
act' No 15 has a frame house, in a good, warm, and comiortable con-
dition, with a pleasant and retired location and a play-ground. No. 16 has
a loo- shanty for a school-house. No. 17, 'no regular school-house other
than some old log house.' No. 18, no school-house. No. 19, a log shanty.
No 20 and 21 are new districts. No. 22 has a frame school-house, in
good repair and pleasantly situated. Thus, out of twenty-two school-
houses, not more than Jive are reported as respectable or comfortable ;
none have any proper means of ventilation ; eight are built of logs ; and
but one of them, according to the visiters, has a privy Report (1840),
p. 142.
It is also a subject of frequent complaint in these reports, that the seats
are too high (too high, say the visiters in one case, for a man of six feet,
and all alike), and are, therefore, uncomfortable for the children, as well
as productive of much disorder. ' We have found,' says the report from
one town, ' except in one school, all the seats and desks much too high,
and in that one they were recently cut down at our recommendation. In
many of our schools, a considerable number of children are crowded into
the same seat, and commonly those seated beyond the entering place
have no means of getting at their seats but by climbing over those
already seated, and to the ruin of all regard to cleanliness.'
' We have witnessed much uneasiness, if not suffering, among the
children, from the dangling of their legs from a high seat, and, with the
one exception, have seen them attempting to write on desks so high that,
instead of .the elbow resting to assist the hand in guiding the pen, the
whole arm has, of necessity, been stretched out ; for, if they did not this,
they must write rather by guess than sight, unless some one may have
the fortune to be near-sighted, and, from this defect, succeed in seeing his
work. This is a great evil, and ought to be remedied before we complain
of the incompetency of teachers.' Report (1841), p. 38.
These specimens will serve to show how far many of the school-
houses, in this state, are pleasant places of resort, or study, and in what
degree they are likely to inspire a respect for education, or a desire to
enjoy and improve its advantages. The condition and aspect of the
building, with its appendages and surrounding landscape, are inseparably
associated, in a child's mind, with his first day at school, and his first
thoughts about education. Is it well, then, that these earliest, most
lasting, and most controlling associations, should be charged with so
much that is offensive ? Is it to be expected, that the youthful mind can
regard that as the cause, next to religion, most important of all others,
which is upheld and promoted, in such buildings, as the district school-
house usually is ? Among the most comfortless and wretched tenements,
which the pupil ever enters, he thinks of it with repugnance ; the tasks
which it imposes, he dreads ; and he at length takes his leave of it, as of
a prison, from which he is but too happy to escape.
This seems to me to be the greatest evil connected with our school-
houses. But their deleterious effect on health, is also to be considered.
Air which has been once respired by the lungs, parts with its healthy
properties, and is no longer fit for use. Hence a number of persons,
breathing the air of the same apartment, soon contaminate it, unless the
space is very large, or unless there is some provision for the introduction
of jrcsh, as well us the exclusion of foul air. This ventilation is espe-
cially important for school-houses, since they are usually small in propor-
tion to the number of scholars ; the scholars remain together a lono- while
at once, and are less cleanly in their personal habits than adults. Yet,
important as it is, probably not one common school in fifty, in this state,
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 33
will be found supplied with adequate means to effect it. The cracks and
crevices, which abound in our school-houses, admit quite enoigh of cold
air in winter, but not enough of fresh. What is wanted at that season,
for both health and economy, is a constant supply of fresh warm air ; and
this is easily obtained by causing the air, as it enters from without, to
pass through heated flues, or over heated surfaces.
It is also important, to the health of scholars and teachers in common
Bchools, that the rooms should be larger and have higher ceilings ; and
that much more scrupulous attention should be paid to the cleanliness of
both the room and its inmates. ' An evil,' say the visiters of one of the
towns, ' greater than the variety of school-books or the want of necessary
appap,tus. is having school-rooms so unskilfully made and arranged.
Of our 13 school-rooms, only 3 are ten feet high, and of the residue only
one is over eight feet. The stupidity arising from foul, oft-breathed air,
is set down as a grave charge against the capacity of the scholars or the
energy of the teacher. A room for 30 children, allowing 12 square feet
for each child, is low at 10 feet, and for every additional ten children an
extra foot in elevation is absolutely necessary, to enable the occupants of
the room to breathe freely.' Report (1841), p. 38.
Are common schools so conducted, as to promote habits of neatness and
order, and cultivate good manners and refined feelings ?
From the quotations already made from the reports of visiters, it
appears that the school-rooms, in many cases, were not clean ; and the
same thing is often alleged of the children. I will add but one other
passage, to which I happen to open on p. 39 of the Report (1840). It
relates to a town containing 24 school districts, of which 16 were visited.
Of these 16, one quarter are represented to have been almost entirely
regardless of neatness and order. vi. : No. 4 ' has a dirty school-room,
and the appearance of the children was dirty and sickly.' No. 2 'has a
dirty school-room, inconveniently arranged, and ventilated all over ;' the
children ' rather dirty,' and no means of supplying fresh water except
from the neighbor's pails and cups. No. 3 has ' an extremely dirty school-
room, without ventilation, the children not clean, and no convenience for
water.' No. 24 ' has a school-house out of repair, dirty, and inconvenient
in its arrangements.'
It is also a subject of almost universal complaint, that the school-houses
are without ^privies. On an average, probably not more than one in
twenty, of the school-houses throughout the state, has this appendage;
and in these, it was almost invariably found, by the visiters, to be in a bad
state, ^his fact speaks volumes, of the attention, which is paid at these
schools, to delicacy of manners, and refinement of feeling. None but the
very poorest families think of living without such a convenience at home;
and a man, who should build a good dwelling-house, but provide no place
for retirement when performing the most private offices of nature, would
be thought to give the clearest evidence of a coarse and brutal mind.
Yet respectable parents allow their children to go to a school where this
is the case ; and where the evil is greatly aggravated bv the fact, that
numbers of both sexes are collected, and that, too, at an age of extreme
levity, and when the youthful mind is prone to the indulgence of a pru-
rient imagination. Says one of the visiters (Report, 1840, p. 77), ' In
most cases in this town, the scholars, male and female, are turned promis-
cuously and simultaneously into the public highway, without the shelter
of so much (in the old districts) as a ' stump' for a covert to the calls oS
nature. The baneful tendency, on the young and pliant sensibilities, of
this barbarous custom, are truly lamentable.' So the visiters of one of
the largest and oldest counties: ' We regret to perceive that many of the
districts have neglected to erect privies for the use of the children at
3
, SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
school This is a lamentable error. The injury to the taste and morals
of the children which will naturally result from this neglect, is of a char-
acter much more serious than the discomfort which is obviously produced
by it' (Report, 1840, p. 131.)"
VERMONT.
EXTRACT from the First Annual Report of the State Superintendent
(Hon. Horace Eaton,} of Common Schools, October, 1846," made to the
Legislature.
"It might occur to any one in travelling through the fcjtate, thj* our
school-houses are almost uniformly located in an uninteresting and un-
suitable spot, and that the buildings themselves too generally exhibit an
unfavorable, and even repulsive aspect. Yet by giving some license to
the imagination it might be supposed that, notwithstanding their location
and external aspect were so forbidding, the internal appearance would be
more cheerful and pleasant or at least, that the arrangement and con-
struction within would be comfortably adapted to the purposes which the
school-house was intended to fulfil. But an actual inspection of by far
the greatest number of the school-houses in the State, by County Super-
intendents, discloses the unpleasant fact, that or linarily the interior does
but correspond with the exterior, or is, if possible, still worse. A very
large proportion of these buildings throughout the State must be set
down as in a miserable condition. The melancholy fact is established by
the concurrent report of all our County Superintendents, that in every
quarter of the State they are, as a class, altogether unsuited to their
high purposes. Probably nine-tenths of them are located upon the line
of the highway; and as the geographical centre of the district usually
determines their situation, aside from the relation with the road, it is a
rare chance that one is not placed in an exposed, unpleasant and uncom-
fortable spot. In some cases especially in villages their location
seems to be determined by the worth, or rather by the worthlessness of
the ground on which they stand that being selected which is of the
least value for any other purpose. Seldom or never do we see our school-
houses surrounded by trees or shrubbery, to serve the purpose which
they might serve so well that of delighting the eye, gratifying the
taste, and contributing to the physical comfort, by shielding from the
scorching sun of summer, and breaking the bleak winds of winter. And
from buildings thus situated and thus exposed, pupils are turned out into
the streets for their sports, and for other purposes still more indispensable.
What better results could be expected under such a system than that
our ' girls should become hoydens and our boys blackguards ?' Indeed
it would be a happy event, if in no case results still more melancholy and
disastrous than this were realized.
But this notice of ordinary deficiencies does not cover the whole ground
of error in regard to the situation of school-houses. In some cases they
are brought into close connection with positive nuisances. In a case
which has fallen under the Superintendent's own personal observation,
one side of the school-house forms part of the fence of a hog-yard, into
which, during the summer, the calves from an extensive dairy establish-
ment have been thrown from time to time, (disgusting and revolting
spectacle.!) to be rent and devoured before the eyes of teacher and pu-
pilsexcept such portions of the mutilated and mangled carcasses as
were left by the animals to go to decay, as they lay exposed to the sun
and Btorm. It is true the windows on the side of the building adjoining
the yard, were generally observed to be closed, in order to shut out the
SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 35
almost insupportable stench which arose from the decomposing remains.
But this closure of windows could, in no great degree, ' abate the nui-
sance ;' for not a breath of air could enter the house from any direction
but it must come saturated with the disgusting and sickening odor that
loaded the atmosphere around. It needs no professional learning to tell
the deleterious influence upon health, which must be exerted by such an
agency, operating for continuous hours.
Such cases, it is hoped and believed, are exceedingly rare. But it is
much to be feared that the usual exemption enjoyed by teachers and pu-
pils, from even such outrages upon their senses and sensibilities, as have
been detailed, is to be attributed to the fact that such arrangements are
not ordinarily convenient, rather than to any prevailing conviction of
their impropriety, or any general and settled purpose to avoid them.
The case is named as at least strong evidence that the pertinency of con-
siderations, involving a regard either to taste, comfort, or even health it-
self, is generally overlooked or disregarded, in fixing upon a site for a
school-house. At all events these purposes are all exposed to be violated
under the prevailing neglect of districts to secure the possession of suf-
ficient ground for a yard around the school-house. But it would seem
unnecessary to urge, beyond the bare suggestion, the importance of pro-
viding for school-houses, a comfortable location, a sufficient yard and
play-ground, a wood-house and other out-buildings, a convenient access
to water, and the surrounding of the premises with shade-trees which
might serve for shelter, as well as delight the eye, and aid to render the
school-house what it should be one of the most attracting and delight-
ful places of resort upon the face of the earth. It should be such, that
when the child shall have changed into the gray-haired man, and his
memory wanders back through the long vista of vanished years, seeking
for some object on which it may repose, this shall be the spot where it
shall love to rest.
In the construction of the school-house embracing its material, style
of architecture, and finish as little care and taste are exhibited, as
might be expected from the indifference manifested in regard to its loca-
tion and surrounding circumstances. Cheapness of construction seems,
in most cases, to be the great governing principle, which decides upon
its materials, its form, and all its internal arrangements. No complaint
on this score could justly be made, if the general condition of these build-
ings were clearly and fairly attributed to want of ability. But while our
other edifices, both public and private, have improved in elegance, con-
venience, and taste, with the increasing wealth of our citizens, our school-
houses linger in the rear and bear the impress of a former age. In this
respect
' That which in days of yore we were
We at the present moment are. '
Low walls might be instanced as one of the prevailing defects in
school-house architecture. The quantity of air contained in a school-
room of the usual height, is so small as to be soon exhausted of its oxy-
gen; and the dullness, headache and depression which succeed to this
result, are but too well known and too often felt, although they may fail
of being attributed to their true cause. And why should our children be
robbed of a comfortable supply of that pure and wholesome air, with
which our Creator, in the largeness and richness of his bounty, has sur-
rounded the earth and filled the sky ? But if the condition of the house
is such, as in part to prevent the injurious effects arising from a deficiency
of pure air, by means of broken windows and gaping crevices--then
colds, coughs and as the ultimate and crowning result consumption
,, SCHOOL HOUSES A3 THEY ARE.
00
( and of this disease, what thousands of cases have had their foundations
laid in the school-house !) must be the consequence of this sort ot ex
oosure This is true in regard to all classes and conditions of pupils.
But it should be distinctly kept in mind, although it is ordinarily overlooked
and forcrotten, that children accustomed to be comfortably protected
acrainst cold or vicissitudes of temperature, at home, will inevitably suffer
the more when exposed to them in the school-house. And here is an ad-
ditional reason why these structures should be improved, as our dwelling
houses are generally becoming more comfortable.
But there is not room here for details not even to exhibit this topic in
all its important bearings. And it has been thus hinted at only to prove
that the general charge of faulty construction is not wholly unfounded.
It was the purpose of the Superintendent to discuss at some length,
the pernicious influence exerted, both upon the health of pupils, and
their progress in learning, by the miserable structures in which the State
abounds, but the extent 'of the remarks already made precludes it.
One cause of the prevailing fault in regard to the construction and in-
ternal arrangement of school-houses, doubtless, is the want of proper
models. Districts, when about erecting a school-house, cannot well do
more than follow the examples before them. To form the plan of a
proper school-houseone well adapted to all the various ends which
should be sought, such as the convenience, comfort, and health of pupils,
convenience for supervision and conduct of the school, and facilities for
the most successful prosecution of study-'-would require such an extent
of observation and so full an acquaintance with the laws of health, of
mind and morals and then such a skill in designing a structure in which
all the necessary conditions should be observed and secured, that it would
be unreasonable to expect that a district could command them, without
an opportunity to avail itself of the experience and observation of others.
And districts have almost universally felt this lack of guidance. But it
is believed that hereafter, information on the subject of school-house
architecture, will be more accessible ; and if, as a first step, some one
district in every town in the State would avail itself of the necessary
information, and make a vigorous effort to secure the erection of a well
located, well planned, and well constructed school-house, they would per-
form an act of high public beneficence, as well as confer upon themselves
an inestimable blessing. And shall not one or two years realize the ac-
complishment of this noble purpose? What district will lead the van ?
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
EXTRACTS from the "Report of the Commissioner, (Prof. Haddw}*. nf
Dartmouth College) of Common Schools, to the Legislature oj ^'.c,^
Hampshire, June Session. 1847."
" The success of our whole system depends as much on a thorough re-
form in the construction and care of school-houses as upon any other
single circumstance whatever.
It is wonderful, and when their attention is called to it, strikes the in-
habitants of the Districts themselves as really unaccountable, that care-
ful and anxious parents have been content to confine their children for so
many hours a day through a large part of the severest and most tryino-
sons ol the year, in houses so ill constructed, so badly ventilated, so
imperfectly warmed, so dirty, so instinct with vulgar ideas, and so utterly
repugnant to all habits of neatness, thought, taste, or purity. There are
multitudes ot houses in the State, not only inconveniently located, and
awkwardly planrted, but absolutely dangerous to health and morals.
SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 37
And it has struck me with the greater surprise, that this is true not only of
the thinly peopled parts of the State, but of flourishing villages. In one
of the largest towns the principal District School was kept, the last win-
ter, in a dilapidated, rickety, uncouth, slovenly edifice, hardly more com-
fortable than some barns within sight of it. In one enterprising village
the school-house, as I looked at it from a little distance, appeared deci-
dedly the shabbiest and most neglected building, not to say dwelling,
within reach of my eye. I have been in houses, which no scrubbing
could keep clean; they were never made to be clean: and this, in places
where private taste is adorning the town with the ornaments of architec-
ture and enriching the country with the fruits of rural industry.
It is, however, encouraging to find, that a better feeling is coming to
prevail on this subject. Many districts are rebuilding, and, in most in-
stances, upon an improved plan. Some examples have been set of good
judgment and liberal expenditure for this important object. And it is
liop'ed, that other districts will be stimulated to imitate them.
Whenever a new house is to be erected, it should first be carefully lo-
cated, so as best to accommodate the whole district, and by all means, on
an open, healthy, agreeable site, with ample room about it on all sides,
and out of the way of floods of water or of dust.
MAINE.
EXTRACT from a special "Report of the Secretary of the Board of Ed
ucation, upon the subject of School-Houses"
" It is worthy of note, and of most serious consideration, that a ma-
jority of the returns speak of ill-constructed school-houses as one of the
most prominent 'defects in the practical operation of the law establishing
common-schools.' The strength and uniformity of the language made
use of, as well as the numerous applications to the members of the board,
and their secretary, for information upon this subject, leave no room for
doubt as to the existence of a wide-spread evil'; an evil, the deleterious
influence of which, unless it is reformed, arid that speedily, is not to be con-
fined to the present generation, but must be entailed upon posterity. In
remarking upon this subject, as long ago as 1832, it was said by the
board of censors of the American Institute of Instruction, that ' if we
were called upon to name the most prominent defect in the schools of our
country ; that which contributes most, directly and indirectly, to retard
the progress of public education, and which most loudly calls for a
prompt and thorough reform, it would be the want of spacious and con-
venient school-houses.' From every indication, there is reason to believe
that the remark is applicable to our school-houses, in their present con-
dition, as it was when made. For the purpose of contributing, in some
small degree, towards effecting a reform for which so urgent a necessity
exists, and rendering some assistance, in the way of counsel, to those who
are about erecting new school-houses, or remodelling old ones, this report
is prepared, under the direction of the board. It makes no claim to origi-
nality of thought or language ; it is, in fact, a mere compilation of the
thoughts and language of others who have given the subject a carefu
investigation, whose opinions are the result of close observation and long
experience, and are therefore entitled to our confidence and respect. To
save the necessity of giving credit, upon almost every page of this report
for borrowed language, as well as ideas, it may here be remarked, that
the principal sources from which the information herewith communicated
has been compiled, are, the reports upon the subject of school-houses, by
Hon. Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, Esq., and ' The School-master,'
by Mr. George B. Emerson ; gentlemen to whom, for their efforts in the
og SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
cause, a large debt of gratitude is due from the friends of education ; a
debt which can be discharged in no manner more acceptable to them,
than by entering into their labors, a-nd adopting and reducing to practice
their very valuable suggestions."
RHODE ISLAND.
EXTRACTS from " Report on the condition and improvement of the Pub-
lic Schools of Rhode Island, submitted Nov. 1, 1845, by Henry Barnard,
Commissioner of Public Schools."
" The condition of the school-houses, was. in my circuit through the
schools, brought early and constantly under my notice, and to effect an
immediate and thorough reform, public attention was early and earnestly
called to the subject. The many and great evils to the health, manners,
morals, and intellectual habits oi children, which grow out of their bad
and defective construction and appurtenances, were discussed and ex-
posed, and the advantages of more complete and convenient structures
pointed out. In compliance with the request of the Committee on Edu-
cation, a law authorizing school districts to lay and collect a tax to repair
the old. and build new school-houses, was drafted and passed ; and in
pursuance of a resolution of the General Assembly, a document was pre-
pared embodying the results of my observations and reflections on the
general principles of school-architecture, and such plans and descriptions
of various structures recently erected, for large and small, city and coun-
try districts, and for schools of different grades, as would enable any com-
mittee to act understandingly. in framing a plan suitable to the wants of
any particular district or school. The same document was afterwards
abridged and distributed widely, as one of the 'Educational Tracts,'
over the state. I have secured the building of at least one school-house
in each county, which can be pointed to as a model in all the essential
features of location, construction, warming, ventilation, seats and desks,
and other internal and external arrangements.
During the past two years, more than fifty school-houses have been
erected, or so thoroughly repaired, as to be substantially new and most
of them after plans and directions given in the above document or fur-
lushed directly by myself, on application from districts or committees."
"Of these, (three hundred and twelve school-houses visited.) twenty-
nine were owned by towns in their corporate capacity; one hundred and
>rty-seyen by proprietors; and one hundred and forty-five by school dis-
I two hundred and eighty school-houses from which full re-
is were received, including those in Providence, twenty-five were in
very good repair; sixty-two were in ordinary repair; and eighty-six
were pronounced totally unfit for school purposes ; sixty-five were located
in the pub ic highway, and one hundred and eighty directly on the line
le road without any yard, or out-buildings attached ; and but twenty-
had a play-ground inclosed. In over two hundred school-rooms, the
ntho" ff W f CSS than r eight feet ' without anv P enin S in the ceil-
SLhSdLm CtU l me f ns for ventilation; the seats and = desks were
Serom nnlT ^ ntW pUpl ' S > arran ged on two or three sides of
w * Sn It h" I fV nstances > where ^e results of actual measurement
r eter ' and0n!yfive Were r vide with a --per and
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 39
"Such was the condition of most of the places where the public schools
were kept in the winter of 1843-44, in the counties of Kent, Washington
and Newport, and in not a few districts in the counties of Providence and
Bristol. In some districts, an apartment in an old shop or dwelling-house
was fitted up as a school-room ; and in eleven towns, the school-houses,
such as they were, were owned by proprietors, to whom in many in-
stances, the districts paid in rent a larger amount than would have been
the interest on the cost of a new and commodious school house. Since
the passage of the Act of January, 1844. empowering school districts to
purchase, repair, build and furnish school-houses, and since public atten-
tion was called to the evils and inconvenience of the old structures, and to
better plans of construction and internal arrangement, by public addresses,
and the circulation of documents, the work of renovation in this depart-
ment of school improvement has gone on rapidly. If the same progress
can be made for three years more, Rhode Island can show, in proportion
to the number of school districts; more specimens of good houses, and
fewer dilapidated, inconvenignt and unhealthy structures of this kind, than
any other state. To bring about thus early this great and desirable
result, I can suggest nothing beyond the vigorous prosecution of the
same measures which have proved so successful during the past two
years.
1. The public mind in the backward districts must be aroused to an
active sense of the close connection of a good school-house with a good
school, by addresses, discussions, conversation and printed documents on
the subject, and by the actual results of such houses in neighboring dis-
tricts and towns.
2. Men of wealth and intelligence in their several neighborhoods, and
capitalists, in villages where they have a pecuniary interest, can continue
to exert their influence in this department of improvement.
3. School committees of every town can refuse to draw orders in favor
of any district which will not provide a healthy and convenient school-
room for the children of the district ; and to approve plans for the repairs
of an old, or the construction of a new house, which are to be paid for by
a tax on the property of the district, unless such plans embrace the essen-
tial features of a good school-house.
4. The Commissioner of Public Schools must continue to furnish gra-
tuitously, plans and directions for the construction and arrangement of
school-houses, and to call the attention of builders and committees to such
structures as can be safely designated as models.
Districts should make regulations to "preserve the school-house and
appendages from injury or defacement, and authorizing the trustees to
make all necessary repairs, without the formality of a special vote on the
subject."
MICHIGAN.
EXTRACTS from "Annual Report of the Superintendent (Hon. Ira May
hew,) of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan, submitted Decem-
ber 10, 1847."
" The place where our country's youth receive their first instruction, and
where nineteen twentieths of them complete their scholastic training
claims early attention. We may then profitably dwell upon the condi-
tion of our common school-houses.
In some instances school-houses are favorably located, being situated
on dry, hard ground, in a retired though central part of the district, in the
midst of a natural or artificial grove. But they are usually located with-
out reference to taste, or the health and comfort of teacher or children.
They are generally on one corner of public roads, and sometimes adja-
SCHOOL HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
the school-house, leaving it on a small triangle, bounded on all sides by
public roads.
At other times the school-house is situated on a low and worthless
piece of ground, with a sluggish stream of water in its vicinity, which
sometimes even passes under the school-house. The comfort and health
even of children are thus sacrificed to the parsimony of their parents.
Scholars very generally step from the school-house directly into the
highway. Indeed, school-houses are frequently one half in the highway,
and the other half in the adjacent field, as though Jhey were unfit for
either. This is the case even in some of our principal villages.
School-houses are sometimes situated in the middle of the highway, a
portion of the travel being on each side of them. When scholars are en-
gaffed in their recreations, they are exposed to bleak winds and the in-
clemency of the weather one portion of the year, and the scorching rays
of the meridian sun another portion. Moreover, their recreations must
be conducted in the street, or they trespass upon their neighbors' premi-
ses. Such situations can hardly be expected to exert the most favorable
influence upon the habits and character of the rising generation. * *
Although there is a great variety in the dimensions of school-houses,
yet there are few less than sixteen by eighteen feet on the ground, and
fewer still larger than twenty-four by thirty feet. Exclusive of entry and
closets, when they are furnished with these appendages, school-houses
are not usually larger than twenty by twenty-four feet on the ground,
and seven feet in height. They are, indeed, more frequently smaller
than larger. School-houses of these dimensions have a capacity of three
thousand three hundred and sixty cubic feet, and are usually occupied by
at least forty-five scholars in the winter season. Not unfrequently sixty
or seventy, and occasionally more than a hundred scholars occupy a room
of this size.
A simple arithmetical computation will abundantly satisfy any person
who is acquainted with the composition of the atmosphere, the influence
of respiration upon its fitness to sustain animal life, and the quantity of
air that enters the lungs at each inspiration, that a school-room of the
preceding dimensions does not contain a sufficient quantity of air to sus-
tain the healthy respiration of even forty-Jive scholars, three hours, the
usual length of each session ; and frequently the school-house is imper-
fectly ventilated between the sessions at noon, or indeed, for several days
in succession. .
The ordinary facilities for ventilating school-rooms, are opening" a door,
or raising the lower sash of the windows. The prevailing practice with
refrence to their ventilation, is opening and closing the door, as the schol-
ars enter and pass out of the school-house, before school, during the re-
cesses, and at noon. Ventilation, as stick, I may-safely say, has not
hitherto been practiced in one school in fifty. It is true, the door has been
occasionally set open a few minutes, and the windows have been raised,
but the object has been, either to let the smoke pass out of the room, or
to cool it when it has become too warm, not TO VENTILATE IT. Ventila-
tion, by opening a door or raising the windows, is imperfect, and fre-
quently injurious. A more effectual and safer method of ventilation, is
to lower the upper sash of the windows, or, in very cold or stormy
weather, to open a ventilator in the ceiling, and allow the vitiated air to
escape into the attic. In this case, there should be a free communication
etween the attic and the outer air, by means of a lattice window, or
>therwise A ventilator may be constructed in connection with the
wumney, by carrying up a partition in the middle. One half the chim-
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 41
ney, in this case, may be used for a smoke flue, and the other half for a
ventilator.
There are few school-houses the internal construction of which is in all
respects alike ; yet, by far the majority of them will rank in one of the
three following classes :
1. The first class embraces those which are constructed with one or
two tiers of desks along each side of the house, and across one end of it ;
the outer seat having the wall of the house for its back, and the front of
each tier of desks constituting the back to the next inner seat. There is
usually an alley on each side of the house and at the end of it, leaving
the seats of sufficient length to accommodate from five to eight scholars.
Those sitting next the alleys can pass to and from their seats without
discommoding others. All the rest, (usually riot less than three-fourths
the entire number.) disturb from one to five or six scholars every time
they pass to or from their seats; unless, (which is about as commonly
practiced, especially with the scholars most distant from the alleys,) they
climb over the desks in front of them.
Occasionally the des1<s are shorter, accommodating three or four schol-
ars; and, sometimes, they are intended to accommodate two scholars only,
so that each of them, (excepting the outer ones at the end desks,) sits ad-
jacent to an alley, and can pass to and from his seat without disturbing
others. There is usually a desk, or table, for the teacher's use, (or at
least a place for one,) at the end of the house not occupied by the cross
seats.
2. The second class embraces those in which the desks extend across
the house, with an alley through the middle of it lengthwise", and occa-
sionally one around the outside of the room. All the desks of the second
class front the teacher's desk or table.
3. The third class embraces those which are constructed with a row of
desks along each side of the house, and across one end of it. the desks
fronting the walls of the house, so that the backs of the scholars, while
sitting at them, are turned towards the teacher. In this class of houses
there are usually three long seats without backs, just within the desks.
Sometimes the seats are joined at the corners so as to continue unbroken,
twice the length of the house and once its width, a distance of forty-five
or fifty feet. There is usually a second tier of seats, and sometimes desks
within them, fronting the central part of the room.
There is one impropriety in the construction of- a majority of school-
houses. The desks are generally constructed with close fronts extend-
ing to the floor, whereby a free circulation of air, and consequent equili-
brium of temperature, are interrupted, which would take place were the
seats and desks so arranged as to allow suitable channels of communica-
tion. The scholars behind the desks are necessarily troubled with cold
feet, unless the room is kept too wafm. Were this evil removed, the
first class, with short desks/would constitute a very comfortable and con-
venient arrangement, except from the circumstance that the children are
placed opposite each Sther, which is a serious evil, especially where both
sexes are in the same room, as is the case in nearly all of our common
schools.
Another objection to long desks, is the inconvenience to which the
scholars are subjected in passing to and from their seats. This objection
exists' to a considerable extent in the second class of houses, especially
where there is not an alley around the outside of the room. Were it not
for this inconvenience, which might be obviated by introducing a greater
number of alleys and shortening the desks, so as to accommodate but two
scholars, each of whom would sit adjacent to an alley, and could pass to
and from his seat without disturbing others the second would, in my
'udgment, constitute the preferable plan. All the scholars should face
. SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
the teacher, but none of them should face each other. % This is particu-
larly important where both sexes attend the same school.
And what shall I say of the third class? I can readily enumerate
some of its inconveniences, but its real advantages are, in my opinion,
few The following are some of the inconveniences : 1. I here is little
or no uniformity, usually, in the position of the scholars. Some of them
face the walls, others the inner part of the room, and others still sit astride
the seat 2. When the teacher desires the attention of the school, a por-
tion of the scholars must either turn about, or sit with their backs towards
him while he addresses them. 3. In changing their positions in foul
weather 'the scholars are apt to muddy the seats, and the clothes of those
who sit adjacent to them. 4. The change of position is frequently em-
barrassing'to the girls. 5. Front lights are less pleasant, and more inju-
rious to the eyes, than side lights or back ones are. 6. Sitting on a plane
seat, without a back, is uncomfortable, and often engenders disease of the
spine, especially in childhood and youth.
The principal supposed advantage of this construction is, I believe, that
it affords the teacher a better opportunity for detecting the scholars when
engaged in mischief. I do not see how any material advantage of this
kind can exist, till the bodies of children become transparent.
But were the supposed advantage real, it seems to me to be tempting
children to do wrong, to give the teacher an opportunity of displaying his
skill in detecting them. When children cannot see their teacher, they
frequently think he cannot see them, and conduct accordingly.
There are several inconveniences not yet specified, existing to a less
or greater extent, in each of the three classes of houses I have described.
1. The height of the seats, although sometimes adjusted with great
care, is frequently determined without any apparent regard to the size
and comfort of the scholars who are to occupy them. I have visited
many schools in which the majority of the scholars reverse the ordinary
practice of standing up and sitting- do~xn. They literally sit up and stand
down, their heads being higher while sitting than when standing.
2. The desks, with their close fronts, are frequently several inches too
high. I have visited many schools in which all that could be seen of a
majority of the scholars occupying the back seats, was a part of their
heads, and that, too, when they sat erect upon their seats. The desks,
moreover, are frequently inclined twenty-five or thirty degrees, so that a
book laid upon them immediately slides off. An inclination of one inch
to the foot will be found more convenient than greater obliquity. A
space of three inches on the most distant portion of the desk, should be
left horizontal, for inkstands, pencils, pens, etc.
3. The floor is sometimes considerably inclined, for the purpose, I sup-
pose, of giving the teacher a better opportunity of seeing the more dis-
tant scholars. The whole school is not only subjected to the inconven-
ience of walking up and down an inclined plane, but what is much worse,
when scholars sit upon their seats, and rest their feet upon the floor,
when within reach, they are constantly sliding from under them.
School-houses are not generally furnished with suitable conveniences
for disposing of the loose wearing apparel of the scholars, their dinners.
There are sometimes a few nails or shelves, in a common entry,
through which all the scholars pass, upon which a portion of their clothes
may be hung or laid, and where dinners may be deposited. But in such
cases, the ouUnde door is usually left open, the rain and snow beat in, and
the scholars, in haste to get their own clothes, frequently pull down as
many more, which are trampled under foot. Moreover, the dinners are
frozen and not unfrequently they are devoured by dogs, and even by the
hogs that run in the street. But the majority of school-houses are not
lurmshed with an entry; and where there is one, frequently not even a
SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE. 43
nail can be found in it, upon which a single article of clothing may be
hung. Neither are there nails or shelves for this purpose within the
school-room. Scholars generally are obliged to throw their clothes
across the desks, upon the seats, or into the windows.
School-houses are generally warmed by means of stoves, some of
which are in a good condition, and supplied with dry wood from the wood-
house. The instances, however, in which such facilities for warming
exist, are comparatively few. 1 1 is much more common to see cracked
and broken stoves, the doors without either hinges or latch, and rusty pipe
of various sizes. Green wood, and that which is old and partly decayed,
either drenched with rain or covered with snow, is much more frequently
used for fuel, than sound, seasoned wood, protected from the weather by
a suitable wood-house. With this state of things, it is difficult to kindle
a fire, which burns poorly, at best, when kindled. The room is filled
with smoke a considerable part of the time, especially in stormy weather.
The school is frequently interrupted two or three times a day, to fasten
together and tie up the stove pipe. This may seem a little like exagger-
ation. I know there are many exceptions. But in a majority of in-
stances some of these inconveniences exist, and the most of them are
united in more cases than people are aware of. I have heard trustees
and patrons who have visited their school with me, for the first time in
several years, say, " We ought to have some dry wood to kindle with ;."
" I did'nt know as it was so smoky ;" " We must get some new pipe ;
really our stove is getting dangerous," etc. And some of the boys have
relieved the embarrassment of their parents by saying, " It don't smoke
near as bad to-day as it does sometimes."
The principal reason why the stoves in our school-houses are so cracked
and broken, and why the pipes are so rusty and open, lies in the circum-
stance that green wood from the snow bank, is used for fuel, instead of
dry wood from the wood-house. There are at least three reasons why
this is poor policy.
1. It takes at least double the amount of wood. A considerable portion
of the otherwise sensible heat becomes latent in the conversion of ice,
snow and moisture into steam.
2. The steam thus generated cracks the stove and rusts the pipe, so
that they will not last one half as long as though dry wood from the wood-
house were used. And,
3. It is impossible to preserve an even temperature. Sometimes it is
too cold, and at other times it is too warm. Several teachers have in-
formed me that in order to keep their fires from going out, it was neces-
sary to have their stoves constantly full of wood, that a portion of it
might be seasoning while the rest was burning. Moreover, very offen-
sive and injurious gases are generated in this manner.
There are, perhaps, in the majority of school-houses, a pail for water,
cup, and broom, and a chair for the teacher. Some one or more of these
are frequently waiting. I need hard!/ say every school-house should be
supplied with them all. In addition to these, every school-house should
be furnished with the following articles : 1. An evaporating dish for the
stove, which should be supplied with clean pure water. 2. A thermom-
eter, by which the temperature of the room may be regulated. 3. A
clock, by which the time of beginning and closing school, and conducting
all its exercises, may be governed. 4. A shovel and tongs. 5. An ash-
pail and ash-house. For want of these, much filth is frequently suffered
to accumulate in and about the school-house, and not unfrequently the
house itself takes fire and burns down. 6. A wood-house, well supplied
with seasoned wood. 7. A well, with provisions not only for drinking,
but for the cleanliness of pupils. 8. At last, though not least, in this con-
nection, two privies, in the rear of the school-house, separated by a high
. 4 SCHOOL-HOUSES AS THEY ARE.
close fence, one for the boys and the other for the girls. For want o.
these indispensable appendages of civilization, the delicacy ol children
is frequently offended, and their morals corrupted. Nay, more, the un
natural detention of the faces, when nature calls for an evacuation, is fre-
quently the foundation for chronic diseases, and the principal cause of
permanent ill health, resulting not unfrequently in premature death.
In architectural appearance, school-houses have more resembled barns,
eheds for cattle, or mechanic shops, than. Temples of Science, windows
are broken benches are mutilated desks are cut up wood is unpro-
videdout buildings are neglected obscene images and vulgar deline-
ations meet the eye without and within the plastering is smoked and
patched the roof is so open as to let in a flood of water in a storm, suffi-
cient to drown out a school, were not the floor equally open."
We close this mass of testimony as to the deplorable condition of
the common, or public school-houses in States where public instruc-
tion has received the most attention, with an extract from a " Report
on School-houses published by order of the Directors of the Essex
County Teachers' Association in 1833."
" There is one subject more to which we must be permitted to refer.
One in which the morals of the young are intimately connected, one in
which parents, instructors, and scholars, should unite their efforts to pro-
duce a reform ; there should be nothing in or about school-houses, calcu-
lated to defile the mind, corrupt the heart, or excite unholy and forbidden
appetites ; yet considering the various character of those brought together
incur public schools, and considering also how inventive are corrupt
minds, in exhibiting openly the defilement which reigns within, we do not
know but we must expect that school-houses, as well as other public
buildings, and even fences, will continue to bear occasional marks both of
lust and profaneness. But we must confess that the general apathy
which apparently exists on this subject, does appear strange to us. It is
a humbling fact, that in many of these houses, there are highly indecent,
profane, and libidinous marks, images and expressions, some of which are
spread out in broad characters on the walls, where they unavoidably
meet the eyes of all who come into the house, or being on the outside,
salute the traveler as he passes by, wounding the delicate, and annoying
the moral sensibilities of the heart. While there is still a much greater
number in smaller character, upon the tables and seats of the students,
and even in some instances, of the instructors, constantly before the eyes
of those who happen to occupy them. How contaminating these must
be, no one canie entirely insensible. And yet how unalarmed, or if not
entirely unalarmed, how little is the mind of community directed to the
subject, and how little effort put forth to stay this fountain of corruption.
We will mention as evidence of the public apathy, on* house which we
suppose is this day, it certainly was a few months since, defiled by images
and expressions of the kind referred to, spread out in open observation
upon its walls, which are known to have been there for eight or ten
In this building during all this time, the summer and winter
lools nave^been kept; here the district have held their business meet-
ings; here frequently has been the singing-school; here, too, religious
meetings have often been held ; here, too, the school committee, the fathers,
mothers, and friends of the children, have come to witness the progress
their children in knowledge and virtue; all of whom must have wit-
nessed, and been ashamed of their defilement, and yet no effectual effort
has been put forth to remove them
THE DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE AS IT IS.' 4,3
The following views are engraved from " Daguerreotype Likenesses " of two
district school-houses in Connecticut, as they were in 1852, and in which
schools were not taught, but *' kept according to law." Although a good work
has been accomplished within their *v^ls, in years which go back beyond the
memory of the oldest inhabitant, they are now neither attractive without, or con-
venient within.
II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
1. A location, healthy, accessible from all parts of the district;
retired from the dust, noise, and danger of the highway ; at-
tractive, from its choice of sun and shade, and commanding, in one
or more directions, the cheap, yet priceless educating influences of
fine scenery.
2. A site large enough to admit of a yard in front of the building,
either common to the whole school or appropriated to greensward,
flowers and shrubbery, and two yards in the rear, one for each sex,
properly inclosed, and fitted up with rotary swings, and other means
of recreation and exercise, and with.privies, which a civilized people
never neglect.
3. Separate entrances to the school-room fof each sex ; each en-
trance distinct from the front door, and fitted up with scraper, mats,
and old broom for the feet ; with hooks, shelves, &c., for hats, over-
coats, over-shoes, and umbrellas ; with sink, pump, basin and towels,
and with brooms and duster, and all the means and appliances
necessary to secure habits of order, neatness and cleanliness.
4. School-room, in' addition to the space required by aisles and
the teacher's platform, sufficient to accommodate with a seat and
desk, not only each scholar in the district who is in the habit of at-
tending school, but all who may be entitled to attend ; with verge
enough to receive the children of industrious, thoughtful, and reli-
gious families, who are sure to be attracted to a district which is
blessed with a good school-house and a good school.
5. At least one spare room for recitation, library, and other uses,
to every school-room, no matter how small the school may be.
6. An arrangement of the windows, so as to secure one blank wall,
and^it the same time, the cheerfulness and warmth of the sunlight, at
all nines of the day, with arrangements to modify the same by blinds,
shutters, or curtains.
s7. Apparatus for warming, by which a large quantity of pure air
from outside of the building can be moderately heated, and intro-
duced into the room without passing over a red-hot iron surface, and
distributed equally to different parts of the room.
8. A cheap, simple, and efficient mode of ventilation, by which
the air in every part of a school-room, which is constantly becoming
vitiated by respiration, combustion, or other causes, may be constantly
flowing out of the room, and its place filled by an adequate supply of
fresh air drawn from a pure source, and admitted into the room at
the right temperature, of the requisite degree of moisture, and without
any perceptible current.
9. A desk with at least two feet of top surface, and in no case for
more than two pupils, inclined towards the front edge one inch in a
foot, except two to three 'inches of the most distant portion, which
should be level, and covered with cloth to prevent noise fitted with
an ink-pot (supplied with a lid and a pen-wiper,) and a slate, with a
pencil-holder and a sponge attached, and supported by end-pieces or
48
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
stanchions, curved so as to be convenient for sweeping, and to admit of
easy access to the seat these of varying heights for small and
iarge pupils, the front edge of each desk being from seven to nine
inches (seven for the lowest and nine for the highest,) higher than
the front edge of the seat or chair attached.
10. A chair or bench for each pupil, and in no case for more than
two, unless separated by an aisle, with a seat hollowed like an ordi-
nary chair, and varying in height from ten to seventeen inches from
the outer edge to the floor, so that each pupil, when properly seated,
can rest his feet on the floor without the muscles of the thigh press-
ing hard upon the front edge of the seat, and with a support for the
muscles of the back, rising above the shoulder-blades.
11. An arrangement of the seats and desks, so as to allow of an
aisle or free passage of at least two feet around the room, and be-
tween each range of seats for two scholars, and so as to bring each
scholar under the supervision of the teacher.
12. Arrangements for the teacher, such as a separate closet for
his overcoat, &c., a desk for his papers, a library of books of reference,
maps, apparatus, and all such instrumentalities by which his capa-
cities for instruction may be made in the highest degree useful.
13. Accommodations for a school library for consultation and cir-
culation among the pupils, both at school and as a means of carrying
on the work of self-education at their homes, in the field, or the work-
shop, after they have left school.
14. A design in good taste and fit proportion, in pkce of the
wretched perversions of architecture, which almost universally char-
acterize the district school-houses of New England.
15. While making suitable accommodation for the school, it will be
a wise, and, all things considered, an economical investment, on the
part of many districts, to provide apartments in the same building or
in its neighborhood, for the teacher and his family. This arrangement
will give character and permanence to the office of teaching, and at
the same time secure better supervision for the school-house and
premises, and more attention to the manners of the pupils out of
school. Provision for the residence of the teacher, and not un-
frequently a garden for his cultivation, is made in connection with the
parochial schools in Scotland, and with the first class of public schools
in Germany.
1 G. Whenever practicable, the privies should be disconnected from
the play-ground, and be approached from a covered walk. Perfect
seclusion, neatness and propriety should be strictly observed in re-
lation to them.
17. A shed, or covered walk, or the basement story paved under
feet, and open for free circulation of air for the boys, and an upper
room with the floor deafened and properly supported for calisthenic
exercises for the girls, is a desirable appendage to every school.
III. PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES.
In determining the details of construction and arrangement for a
school-house, due regard must, of course, be had to the varying cir-
cumstances of country and city, of a large and a small number of
scholars, of schools of different grades, and of different systems of
instruction.
1. In by far the largest number of country districts as they are
now situated, there will be but one school-room, with a smaller room
for recitations and other purposes needed. This must be arranged
and fitted up for scholars of all ages, for the varying circumstances of
a summer and of a winter school, and for other purposes, religious
and secular, than those of a school, and in every particular of con-
struction and arrangement, the closest economy of material and labor
must be studied. A union of two or more districts for the purpose of
maintaining in each a school for the younger children, and in the
center of the associated districts a school for the older children of all
or, what would be better, a consolidation of two or more districts into
one, for these and all other school purposes, would do away with the
almost insuperable difficulties which now exist in country districts,
in the way of comfortable and attractive school-houses, as well as of
thoroughly governed and instructed schools.
2. In small villages, or populous country districts, at least two
school-rooms should be provided, and as there will be other places for
public meetings of various kinds, each room should be appropriated
and fitted up exclusively for the use of the younger or the older
pupils. It is better, on many accounts, to have two schools on the
same floor, than one above the other.
3. In large villages and cities, a better classification of the schools
can be adopted, and, of course, more-completeness can be given to
the construction and arrangement of the buildings and rooms appro-
priated to each grade of schools. This classification should embrace
at least three grades viz. Primary, with an infant department ; Sec-
ondary, or Grammar 5 Superior, or High Schools. In manufacturing
villages, and in certain sections of large cities, regularly organized
Infant Schools should be established and devoted mainly to the cul-
ture of the morals, manners, language and health of very young
children.
4. The arrangement as to supervision, instruction and recitations,
must have reference to the size of the school ; the number of teachers
and assistants ; the general organization of the school, whether in
one room for study, and separate class rooms for recitation, or the
several classes in distinct rooms under appropriate teachers, each
teacher having specified studies ; and the method of instruction pur-
sued, whether the mutual, simultaneous, or mixed.
Since the year 1830, and especially since 1838, much ingenuity
has been expended by practical teachers and architects, in devising
and perfecting plans of school-houses, with all the details of con-
struction and fixtures, modified to suit the varied circumstances enu-
merated above, specimens of which, with explanations and descrip-
tions, will be here given.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
oO
PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES WITH ONE SCHOOL-ROOM.
THE largest number of school-houses vhich are erected with but
one school-room, are intended for District, or for Primary Schools.
DISTRICT SCHOOL.
By a District School, in this connection, is understood a public
school open to all the children of the district, of both sexes, and of
the school age recognized by the practice of the district, or the regu-
lations of the school committee of the town to which such district
belongs. It is an unclassified school, and is taught in one apartment,
by one teacher, usually without any assistance even from older pupils
of the school. It varies in the character of its scholars, and its
methods of instruction, from summer to winter, and from winter to
summer. In summer, the younger children and classes in the ele-
mentary studies predominate, and in the winter the older pupils, and
classes in the more advanced studies, whilst some of both extremes,
as to age and studies, are to be found in both the winter and summer
session of the district school. This variety of ages and studies, and
consequent variety of classes, increased by the irregularity of at-
tendance, is not only a serious hinderance to the proper arrangement,
instruction and government of the school, but presents almost insu-
perable obstacles to the appropriate construction and furniture of the
school-house, which is too often erected on the smallest possible
scale of size and expense. A vast amount of physical suffering and
discomfort to the pupils is the necessary result of crowding the older
and younger pupils into a small apartment, without seats and furniture
appropriate to either, and especially when no precaution has been
taken to adapt the supply and arrangements of seats and desks ac-
cording to the varying circumstances of the same school in winter
and summer. In every district, or unclassified school, the school-
room should be fitted up with seats and desks for the older and
younger pupils, sufficient to accommodate the maximum attendance of
each class of scholars at any season of the year. And if this cannot
be effected, and only a sufficient number of seats can be secured to
accommodate the highest number of both sexes in attendance at any
one time, then in winter the seats arid desks for the smaller children
should be removed to the attic, and their place supplied by additional
seats and desks for the older pupils ; and in summer this arrange-
ment should be reversed.
By a Primary School, m our American School Systems, is under-
stood, not generally an Elementary School, embracing a course of
instruction for the great mass of the children of the community
PRIMARY SCHOOLS 5}
under fourteen years of age but specifically, that class or grade of
schools which receive only the youngest pupils, and those least
advanced in their studies.
Any scheme of school organization will be imperfect which does
not include special arrangements for the systematic training and in-
struction of very young children, especially in all cities, manufactur-
ing villages, and large neighborhoods. Among the population of
such places, many parents are sure to be found, who, for want of
intelligence or leisure, of constancy and patience, are unfitted to
watch the first blossoming of the souls of their children, and to train
them to good physical habits, virtuous impulses, and quick and accu-
rate observations ; to cleanliness, obedience, openness, mutual kind-
liness, piety, and all the virtues which wise and far-seeing parents
desire for their offspring. The general result of the home training
of the children of such parents, is the neglect of all moral culture
when such culture is most valuable ; and the acquisition of manners,
personal habits, and language, which the best school training at a
later period of life can with difficulty correct or eradicate. To meet
the wants of this class of children, Halls of Refuge and Infant
Schools were originally instituted by Oberlin, Owen, and Wilderspin,
and now constitute under these names, or the names of Primary
Schools, or Primary Departments, a most important branch of ele-
mentary education, whether sustained by individual charity, or as
part of the organization of public instruction.
No one at all acquainted with the history of education in this
country, can doubt that the establishment of the Primary School for
children under six years of a.ge, in Boston, in 1818, as a distinct
grade ot schools, with the modifications which it has since re-
ceived there, and elsewhere, from the principles and methods of
the Infant School system, has led to most important improvements in
the quality and quantity of instruction in our public schools, and the
sooner a Primary School properly organized, furnished and man-
aged, can be established in every large neighborhood, and especially
in the " infected districts" of cities and manufacturing villages, the
more rapid and more thorough will be the progress of education.
LOCATION, YARD, AND PLAY GROUND.
The site or location of a school-house should be quiet, retired,
accessible, attractive, and in all respects healthy. To secure these
conditions, no reasonable expense should be spared for a house
thus situated promotes in many ways the highest objects for which
a school is instituted.
Noisy and dusty thoroughfares, and the vicinity of places of idle
and vicious resort, as well as bleak plains, unsheltered hill tops,
and stagnant marshes, should all be avoided, no matter how cen-
tral, accessible, or cheap the land may be.
In a city or village, a rear lot, with access from two or more
streets, will not only be more economical, quiet and safe, but will
secure, at the same cost as a narrow front lot, the advantages of a
spacious play ground, and admit of the adornments of flower plats,
shrubbery, and trees.
52
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
In the country, and in small villages, there will be no difficulty,
to a liberal and enlightened community or committee, in procuring
a spacious lot, attractive from its choice of sun and shade, of trees
and flowers, and commanding, in one or more directions, the cheap
yet priceless educating influences of fine scenery.
In city or country, a site should be provided, large enough to
admit of a yard in front of the building, either common to the
whole school, or appropriated to greensward, flowers, and shrub-
bery, and two yards in the rear, one for each sex. properly graded,
inclosed, and fitted up with apparatus for recreation and exercise
in all states of the weather, and with privies, which a civilized people
never forgets, and in respect to which the most perfect seclusion,
neatness, and propriety should be enforced.
The extent to which facilities for gymnastic and calisthenic ex-
ercises shall be introduced into the play-ground, must be deter-
mined by the circumstances of the school, and mainly by the place
which they are to occupy as part of the physical education of the
pupils. For purposes of recreation, except in the simplest and
cheapest form, and for very young children, and at all times under
the direction and supervision of the teacher, who should be spe-
cially trained to superintend the exercises and amusements of the
play ground, this apparatus has not much value. When pursued
at all times, without system, without reference to age, or strength,
or the purposes intended, without direction, from day to day for a
whole term, the exercises become wearisome, the apparatus is
abused, and serious accidents not unfrequently occur. But when
gymnastics can be taught and practiced as a regular branch of
education when the more difficult fetes of activity, strength, and
endurance, are attained by elementary trials of various sorts, gradu-
ated to the age and constitution of each pupil, and so alternated
as to keep the interest constantly alive when walking exercises
in the field, or to remarkable places, and even ordinary spots, are
occasionally substituted for the military drill, and running, leaping.
vaulting, balancing, climbing, and lifting, in the gymnasium
when the incidental acquisition of the moral habits of cleanliness
in person, neatness in dress, punctuality, promptitude, and obedi-
ence. is made a matter of even greater importance than the direct
result of muscular development, an erect and graceful carriage, a
firm and regular step, which are the direct objects of these exer-
cises then, they are truly valuable, and every facility for their in-
troduction should be provided in the play ground. Whenever in-
troduced, the machines and instruments should be constructed of
the best material and by the best workmen, for life and limb must '
not be endangered to save expense in these respects.
The following cuts and description may be useful to an ingeni-
ous carpenter, who can not consult a systematic treatise on gym-
The cut which follows, of a play-ground for an infant,
or primary school, is copied from Wilderspin's Early Education.
We should prefer to see a female teacher presiding over the scene.
. t7CT !i OI; 'H IN GYI J NAS Tics, containing a full description of more than eight nun-
r of rT' "'^ '" ustr , ale i b y five hu " d <l engravings, By J. E. D'Alfonce, late pro-
. ' * *' Peterebur * h ' aud in Paris ' New York :
54
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The house should stand in a dry and airy situation, large enough to allow
a spacious play ground. No pains should be spared on this principal and par-
amount department of a proper infant school. The more extensive the
ground may be, the better ; but the smallest size for 200 children ought to be
100 feet in length, by at least 60 in breadth. It should be walled round, not
so much to prevent the children from straying, as to exclude intruders upon
them, while at play : for this purpose, a wall or close paling, not lower than
six feet high, will be found sufficient. With the exception of a flower border,
from four to six feet broad all round, lay the whole ground, after leveling and
draining it thoroughly, with small binding gravel, which must be always kept
in repair, and well swept of loose stones. Watch the gravel, and prevent the
children making holes in it to form pools in wet weather ; dress the flower
border, and keep it always neat ; stock it well with flowers and shrubs, and
make it as gay and beautiful as possible. Train on the walls cherry and other
fruit trees and currant bushes ; place some ornaments and tasteful decora-
tiqns in different parts of the border as a honeysuckle bower, &c., and sepa-
rate the dressed ground from the graveled area by a border of strawberry
plants, which may be protected from the feet of the children by a skirting of
wood on the outside, three inches high, and painted green, all round the
ground. Something even approaching to elegance in the dressing and decking
of the playground, will afford a lesson which may contribute to refinement
and comfort for life. It will lead not only to clean and comfortable dwellings,
but to a taste for decoration and beauty, which will tend mainly to expel
coarseness, discomfort, dirt, and vice, from the economy of the humbler
classes.
For the excellent and safe exercise afforded by the Rotary Swing, erect, at
the distance of thirty feet from each other, two posts or masts, from sixteen
to eighteen feet high above the ground ; nine inches diameter at the foot, di-
minishing to seven and a
half at top ; of good well-
seasoned, hard timber;
charred with fire, about
three feet under ground,
fixed in sleepers, and
bound at top with a strong
iron hoop. In the mid-
dle of the top of the post
is sunk perpendicularly
a cylindrical hole, ten
inches deep, and two
inches in diameter, made
strong by an iron ring
two inches broad within
the top, and by a piece of
iron an inch thick to fill
up the bottom, tightly
fixed in. A strong pivot
of iron, of diameter to
turn easily in the socket
described, but with as
little lateral play as pos-
sible, is placed vertically
in the hole, its upper end
standing 4 inches above
it. On this pivot, as an
axle, and clos* to the
top of the post, but so as
to turn easily, is fixed a
wheel of iron, twenty-
four inches diameter,
strengthened by four
Rotary Swing.
PLAN FOR INFANT SCHOOL-HOUSE AND GROUNDS.
55
spokes, something like a common roasting-jack wheel, but a little larger. The
rim should be flat, two inches broad, and half an inch thick. In this rim are
six holes or eyes, in which rivet six strong iron hooks, made to turn in the
holes, to prevent the rope from twisting. To these hooks are fixed six well-
chosen ropes, an inch diameter, and each reaching down to within two feet of
the ground, having half-a-dozen knots, or small wooden balls, fixed with nails,
a foot from each other, beginning at the lower extremity, and ascending to
six feet from the ground. A tin cap, like a lamp cover, is placed on the top
of the whole machine, fixed to the prolongation of the pivot, and a little larger
than the wheel, to protect it from wet. To this, or to the wheel itself, a few
waggoners' bells appended, would have a cheerful effect on the children.
The operation of this swing must, from the annexed cut, be obvious. Four,
or even six children, lay hold of a rope each, as high as they can reach, and,
starting at the same instant, run a few steps in the circle, then suspend them-
selves by their hands, drop their feet and run again when fresh impulse is
wanted ; again swing round, and so on. A child of three or four years old,
will often fly several times round the circle without touching the ground.
There is not a muscle in the body which is not thus exercised ; and to render
the exercise equal to both halves of the body, it is important that, after sever-
al rounds in one direction, the party should stop, change the hands, and go
round in the opposite direction. To prevent fatigue, and to equalize the ex-
ercise among the pupils, the rule should be, that each six pupils should have
thirty or forty rounds, and resign the ropes to six more, who have counted
the rotations.
Toys being discarded as of no use, or real pleasure, the only plaything of
the playground consists of bricks for building, made of wood, four inches by
two and one and a-half. Some hundreds of these, very equally made, should
be kept in a large box in a corner of the ground, as the quieter children delight
to build houses and castles with them ; the condition, however, always to be,
that they shall correctly and conscientiously replace in the box the full com-
plement or tale of bricks they take out ; in which rule, too, there is more than
one lesson.
In a corner of the playground*, concealed by shrubbery, are two water clos-
ets for the children, with six or eight seats in each ; that for the boys is sepa-
rate from, and entered by, a different passage from that for the girls. Sup-
ply the closets well with water, which, from a cistern at the upper end, shall
run along with a slope under all the seats, into a sewer, or a pit in the ground.
See that the closets are in no way misused, or abused. The eye of the teach-
er and mistress should often be here, for the 'sake both of cleanliness and
delicacy. Mr. Wilderspin recommends the closets being built adjoining the
small class-room, with small apertures for the teacher's eye in the class-room
wall, covered with a spring lid, and commanding the range of the place.
There is nothing in which children, especially in the humbler ranks, require
more training.
The annexed cut
represents an infant
school-room, modi-
fied in a few unim-
portant particulars,
from the ground plan
recommended by
Mr. Wilderspin in
his " Early Educa-
tion" published in
1840. The original
plan embraces a
dwelling for the
teacher's family, and two school-rooms, one for the boys and the other for the
girls, each school having a gallery, class-room, and playground. The school-
room is about 60 feet long by 38 wide, and the class-rooms each 13 ft. by 10.
D. Desks and Seats. G. Gallery, capable of accommodating 100 children.
56
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The chief requisites in an infant-school play-ground are the following :
\ Climbing Stand ; a Horizontal Bar ; Parallel Bars; Wooden Swings ; a
Double Inclined Plane.
The Climbing Stand consists essentially
of a frame-work of poles, which support ropes
for climbing. One of the most simple and
economical is made of two ordinary scaffold
poles, planed smooth and painted, which sup-
port a transverse beam having hooks, to
which the ropes are attached.
The dimensions maybe as follows : Length
of perpendicular poles, 15 feet, of which 4
feet are sunk in the ground ; circumference
of poles at the surface of the ground, 14
inches ; length of transverse beam at top, 9
feet. To this beam are attached, by screw-
ing in, two iron hooks, which support the
ropes; these are 1J inches in diameter, to ,.
afford a firm grasp to the hand. In order
that the ropes may not wear through where attached to the hooks, they are
spliced round an iron ring, which is grooved on the outer surface to give a
firmer hold to the rope. Both the ropes should be attached to the bottom of
the poles so as to hang loosely : if not fastened at the bottom, the children
use them as swings while clinging to them, and are apt to injure themselves
by falling, or others by coming violently in contact with them.
No apparatus is more advantageous : it is economical in its erection, and
not liable to get out of order ; it affords exercise to a number of children at
the same time, a succession being constantly engaged in climbing and de-
scending the ropes and poles ; the muscular exertion is not violent, but
decidedly beneficial, expanding the chest, and giving power and freedom of
motion to the arms. This exercise is also quite free from danger, the chil-
dren never advancing higher up the ropes than they feel themselves secure.
During the seven years the Home and Colonial Infant-school has been
established, 200 children have been the average attendance, but no accidents
have occurred from the use of the climbing-stand.
The Horizontal Bar consists of a wooden bar formed of beech, red deal,
or some other tough wood not apt to splinter or warp, about three inches in
diameter, and usually six feet long, turned or planed round and smooth, in
order that the hands may nt be blistered by the friction.
Every play-ground should possess two or three of these useful additions ;
one 6 feet from the ground, another 5 feet, and a third 4 feet high, each one
being supported and fixed firmly by a post at both ends. Or they may be
arranged so that four posts will support the three bars. The exercises per-
formed on the horizontal bars consist in the child remaining suspended by
the arms and hands ; in drawing the body up so as to look over the bar sev-
eral times in succession ; in traversing from one end of the bar to the other
(suspended by the hands,) both backwards and forwards ; in swinging the
body whilst suspended from the bar.
PLAY-GROUND OF INFANT SCHOOL.
57
The Parallel Bar consists of two bars
placed parallel with one another, each being
from 6 to 8 feet 'long, 4 inches deep by 2
inches wide, with the corners rounded off.
The posts that support these bars in their po-
sition should be 18 inches apart. The bars
should project four inches beyond the post.
Two sets of parallel bars are advantageous, one being 2 feet 9 inches high
for the younger children, the other 4 feet high for the elder.
The exercises on these bars consist in supporting the body on the arms,
one hand resting on each bar, and by moving each hand alternately, proceed-
ing forwards and backwards along the bars ; in swinging the body between
the arms ; and in springing over the bar on each side, both backwards and
forwards.
The Wooden Springs afford a kind of exercise extremely popular with
the younger children, who are not sufficiently active to take part in the other
exercises. Each swing consists of two distinct parts : 1. A piece of 2-inch
deal, 1 foot wide and 3 feet long, one end of which is sunk firmly in the
ground, the other projecting 18 inches above the surface. At each edge of
this piece is screwed on an iron plate, with an eye to receive the iron pivot
on which the upper piece works. The upper, or horizontal piece, is made of
2-inch plank, 1 foot wide and 12 feet long. At each end of this piece three
handles, formed of H-inch deal, are strongly mortised in, 1 foot apart, thus
forming seats for three children at each end. Between the handles the
plank should be rounded at the edges, so as to form an easy seat. At the
under surface of each end a small block of wood is fixed, to prevent the
plank wearing by striking the ground.
The above directions should be adhered to. If the support be made lower,
the motion of the swing is much lessened; if the plank be made shorter, or
the support higher, the swing approaches too nearly to the perpendicular,
and serious accidents may ensue from the children being thrown violently
from the seats. The whole should be made as stout as recommended, other-
wise it is apt to break from the violent action.
The Double Inclined Plane is adapted more especially for the younger chil-
dren. It consists merely of a support of two-inch deal, 1 foot wide, and pro-
jecting 3 feet from the ground. On this is laid the ends of two planks, each
12 feet long, 1 foot wide, and U inch in thickness. On the upper surface of
each plank may be nailed, at intervals of eight or ten inches, small cross-
pieces, to prevent the feet slipping.
The use of the inclined plane is, that by ascending and descending it, chil-
dren acquire a facility in balancing themselves. The exercise is beneficial,
as it calls into action the muscles of the legs and even of the body. It also
furnishes an excellent situation to jump from, as the children can themselves
vary the height of the leap at pleasure.
The general use of all these various exercises is, that the different muscles
of the body may be strengthened, and the children thus fitted for a future life
of labor, and better prepared to escape in case of accidents
58
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
In addition to these simple appliances of the playground, and which are particu-
larly adapted to young children, there are a variety of gymnastic machines or
apparatus, designed for the systematic exercise of the entire physical organization
of scholars, some of which it would be desirable to provide in some sheltered
position of the yard, in all city schools, but which should be accessible only under
strict regulations, and the instructions of a well-trained master. As an illustra-
tion both of the machines and their arrangement, we give below engravings of
the ground plan and principal machines of the gymnasium attached to the Collegi-
ate and Commercial Institute a private school of the highest grade of William
H. Russell, of New Haven which has the best apparatus which has fallen under
our observation in this country.
In the large cut, there will be observed a partition running across the building,
near the stove and staircase TV. This marks the limit of a boarded platform at
this end, upon which arrangements may be made for a dressing-room, or at least
for clothes pegs.
As the letters upon the cuts of single machines designate the same machines in
the larger engraving, the descriptions which we will give of them will apply to
both.
The wooden horse, A, is a log, which may be, if preferred, rudely fashioned
like a horse's body, and is set upon four legs, about breast high. Two cross-
pieces, which do not appear in the cut, should be set transversely in the places of
the pommel and cantle of the saddle, raised high enough to allow of being well
grasped by the hand, and rounded over the top. The exercises upon this ma-
chine are leaps and vaulting with the help of the hands, which are set upon the
ve cross-pieces, or on various parts of the machine. 5, is a spring-board ; an
elastic plank raised upon blocks at the ends, to assist the spring. It is, however,
doubtful whether such aids are desirable, for they do not habituate the pupil to
the unyielding surface from which leaps must generally be taken. The wooden
horse exercises g.ve elasticity and spring to the frames and are useful to riders.
0, is a slanting ladder, and D, a horizontal one. The exercises upon these
sist in hanging upon or under them*, and passing from one end to the other
-D
D
ri the ar S l T' ,'? Vari US Way8 ' and are intended to strengthen the
' dre - The slantin S ladder ma y run at an angle of
^ ab Ut fqur feet hi h > to an altitud * *> great
GYMNASTIC APPARATUS.
59
JD
_D
E
J?
Ground Plan of Gymnasium attached to Russell's Collegiate and Commercial Institute,
New Haven.
60
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
E, la a pair of parallel bars, both horizontal and slanting. The exercises upon
this machine widen the shoulders, open the chest, and strengthen that and the
shoulders. They are somewhat difficult, but exceedingly strengthening. The
bars are large enough to grasp, say two and a half inches in thickness by three
and a half deep, set upon strong uprights, so framed that the uprights at their
insertion do not extend beyond the bars. About five feet is a proper height for
the upper side of the bars.
F, is a pair of inclined ropes, with their sliding-boxes. The windlass at Y, with
a stout ratchet, is used to keep the ropes strained tight. This machine is not
very useful ; the principal operation to be performed upon it being to put the
suding-boxes under the arms, and progress up the ropes by swinging the body.
e &
i
The machines marked G, H, 7, K, O, e, d, and e, are fixed between timbers
*-piecfs, whose places are shown by dotted lines, and the ground. G. G.
' weights They run in wooden tubes, and are suspended upon ropes, at
the other end of wh.ch are rings for handles, seen hanging down in the cut.
inese are used to exercise the arms; and the exercisers upon them are capable
of rap.dly developing the muscles of the fore arm, upper arm, shoulder and chest.
re performed by drawing or pushing out the weights with the fingers, hands,
or feet, m various positions. H, is a slanting ladder, such as was above described!
running rope, running over two sheaves set in a cross-piece upon
PLAY-GROUND AND GYMNASTIC APPARATUS.
61
the timbers overhead, and with a stout wooden handle, hung by the middle, at
each end ; so that these handles hang loose, perhaps six feet apart, and five or six
feet from the ground. Two persons, of nearly equal weight, are best fitted to use
this machine. One jumps up a few inches, while the other weighs down upon
his end of the rope so as to keep it strained tight ; and as the first comes down
again, the second jumps in his turn ; the motion being increased, if desired, until
the jumps carry the hands up to the timber overhead, and the lower of the two
pupils crouches down to the ground. K, is a single and double vaulting bar.
The bars are movable in slips in the uprights, and are set at any desired height
by iron pegs running in holes in the uprights and through the bars. The bars,
either alone or together, are used for performing jumps from the ground, with
the hands on the bar, and for various other exercises with the feet off the ground.
The vaulting exercises strengthen the lower limbs and give elasticity ; the re-
maining ones are chiefly calculated, as indeed are the majority of the apparatus
exercises, to strengthen the body above the waist, and the arms. O, is a trape-
zium or bar-swing ; a hard-wood cross-bar, hung by two ropes, and which should
be about five and a half or six feet from the ground. The trapezium exercises
are numerous, and consist of jumping, swinging, and turning, in many ways.
gn SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
They are not very difficult, and quite pleasant to perform, e, e, are two upright
ropes for climbing, and d is a perpendicular pole for the same purpose. These
should be as high as the building arrangements will allow, c, c, are upright poles,
with pegs in them fitting loosely into holes. These poles are to be climbed by
taking a peg in each hand and- setting them one after another into the holes. At
b in the large cut, are two upright poles at about the width of the shoulders apart.
These may be used for climbing, and for exercising the chest, by holding the
poles, one in each hand, nearly shoulder high, and pushing the head and shoul-
ders 'through between them. P, is a wide spring-board for jumping forward.
R, is a rope swing. S, is a pair of iron rings, hung upon single ropes from a bar
overhead, about as high as the trapezium ; and the exercises upon them are of
the same character, though more varied, difficult, and pleasant. They demand
and develope great quickness, and strength of arm and chest, and, if practiced with
care, are among the most useful of the gymnastic exercises.
T, is a spring-beam set firmly into the wall, and resting upon a fulcrum a short
distance from it, so as to furnish considerable elastic force. It is used for perpen-
dicular jumping.
U, is a flying-machine or rotary-swing, which is described on page 86.
V, is a movable leaping -stand, for standing or running jumps. It consists of
two light uprights, set in heavy bases, so as to stand firmly, and with a row of
holes, an inch or two apart, at corresponding heights in each. Pegs fit into these,
over which, at any desired height, may be hung a string with a weight of about
five pounds at each end. By this means all danger of catching the feet in jump-
ing is avoided, as a light touch throws the string off" the pegs.
A', (which does not appear on the large cut) is a horizontal beam ; a stout
square stick of hard wood about twenty feet long, with tenons at each end,
running in slits in the uprights. Iron pins pass through the uprights, and through
holes in the tenons, and hold the beam at any height desired. The uprights
may stand about four feet above the surface of the ground, and the holes in them
may be three inches apart. The beam should be not less than four inches square.
This machine is used for various leg exercises, which are of considerable value.
Exercises in marching, military drill, walking, and running, should be combined
with the apparatus exercises, as these latter generally serve as to strengthen
and develope the body and arms more than the legs. Mr. Russell has found a
most healthy and valuable disciplinary influence in the military drill constantly
practiced by his pupils. It gives them promptness, an upright and graceful car-
riage, and habits of regularity and quick obedience. They exercise with cadet
muskets, which are stored in a small loft in one end of the gymnasium, and are
organized into a very neat uniform company.
All gymnastic apparatus should be made of the best materials and put together
in the best manner, in order to withstand the great strain to which it is subject,
and to prevent accidents from breaking. Most or all of the uprights should be
strongly framed, and braced into mud-sills at least two feet under ground. No
exercises should be ordinarily allowed in the gymnasium, except in the presence
and under the directions of a competent and reliable teacher. The exercises
should be reduced to a regular and progressive system, and should be performed
nth as much regularity and care as those of the school recitations ; according to
the instructor's directions, and by no means according to the caprice of the pupils.
This precaution will almost certainly prevent the accidents whose occurrence is so
often used as an argument against gymnastics, and ill-directed efforts to perform
3 harder exercises before the easier are mastered ; it will likewise insure a
proper amount of drilling thorough acquisition, and the utmost pleasure and ad-
vantage to the pupils.
PLAY GROUNDS AND PRIVIES.
63
Every school-house should be provided with a room, where the pupila
can resort, before and after school and during recess, in unpleasant
weather ; with a shed, or other suitable place for fuel, which should be
supplied of the best quality, in due season, and in the right condition for
use ; with a well, or other mode of furnishing pure water ; and with a
bell, large enough to be heard over the district from which the school is
gathered.
No department of school architecture among us requires such imme-
diate and careful attention as the arrangement and construction of pri-
vies. In none is there now such niggardly economy, or outrageous dis-
regard to health, modesty, and morals, practiced. Over this portion of
the school premises the most perfect neatness, seclusion, order, and pro-
priety should be enforced, and every thing calculated to defile the
mind, or wound the delicacy or modesty of the most sensitive should be
immediatly removed, and any vulgarity in respect to it, on the part of
the pupils, should receive attention in private, and be made a matter of
parental advice and co-orporation. Neglect in this particular, on the part
of the community, in providing suitable buildings and premises, or of the
teacher, in enforcing proper regulations, has been followed with the most
disastrous results to the health and happiness of thousands of pupils.
There should be one provided for each sex, widely separated from
each other inclosed from the general play ground, and accessible by
a covered walk, and, if practicable, from the basement, or clothes-room
appropriated to each sex, and kept locked, except during school-hours.
They should be ventilated, and frequently and thoroughly cleansed.
Where water closets can be introduce^!, it will be a wise economy to
adopt them. The following plan is copied from " Richson's School-
Builder's Guide."
A Cross sections, without the end wall and entance.
a The seat, with water channel to the level of the floor. At the back and
front of a, dipping 1 inch into the water, is a Valentia slate, 1 inch thick. The
channel, although here drawn angular, would be better of an oval form.
b The level of floor.
B Longitudinal section.
C Cistern, supplied by ball tap, with sliding valve to lift and flush the chan-
nel G.
E (With line above) a sloping Valentia slate, 1^ feet high, to form urinal, dip-
ping 1 inch into the water.
n A sliding valve to lift and let off water.
tn An inclined trough or drain to carry off water when the channel is flushed
by opening valves c and n.
d An escape pipe, bent to form a trap at <Z, fixed at the level of the floor,
behind the girt in the corner of E, to carry off superfluous water.
The valves, at c, and n, being opened every evening, or more frequently, will
thoroughly cleanse the channel ; and the valve at n being first shut, the channel
G may be filled before c is closed.
g A SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
1. PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES RECOMMENDED BY PRACTICAL
TEACHERS AND EDUCATORS.
PLAN &c. RECOMMENDED BY DR. ALCOTT,' AND BY THE AMERICAN INSTI
TUTE OF INSTRUCTION.
In 1830 the American Institute of Instruction offered a premium for the
best Essay " On the Construction of School-houses" which was awarded in
Aug. 1831, to Dr. William A. Alcott, of Hartford. The Prize Essay* was
published in the proceedings of the Institute of the same year, together with
a " Plan for a Village School-house," devised by a Committee of the Direc-
tors of the Institute.
The plan of the school-room recommended by Dr. Alcott, although less
complete in some of its details, is substantially the same as that recommended
by Mr. Mann, and can be easily understood by reference to the cut of the
latter on the opposite page. The room, to accommodate 56 pupils each, with
a separate seat and desk, and from 8 to 16 small children with seats for two,
should be 40 ft. long by 30 wide. The teacher's platform occupies the north
end of the room, towards which all the scholars face when in their seats.
Each scholar is provided with a seat and desk, (each 2 ft. by 14 inches,) the
front of one desk constituting the back of the seat beyond. The top of the
desk is level, with a box and lid for books, &c. The aisles on each side of the
room, are 2 feet wide, and those between each range of seats and desk is 18
inches. A place for recitation 8 feet wide extends across the whole width of
the room, in the rear, with movable blackboards. The room can be warmed
by stove, placed as in the cut referred to, or by air heated by furnace or stove
in the basement. The room is ve'ntilated by openings in the ceiling. A
thermometer, library, museum, &c., are to be furnished.
In the " Plan for a village School-house" the school-room is 48 ft. long by
35 wide, to accommodate eighty scholars with separate seats. The details
of the arrangements are nearly the same as were at that date recommended
for schools on the Lancasterian plan, and as are now recommended by the
British and Foreign School Society except that the floor of the room is
level, and the seats are provided with backs. In the explanations accompany-
ing the plan, the Directors recommend, that in villages and populous neigh-
borhoods, the children be classified according to age and attainment into a
series of schools, and that appropriate rooms for each school be provided.
PLAN RECOMMENDED BY HORACE MANN.
In 1838, Mr. Mann submitted a Report on School-houses, supplementary to
his " First Annual Report as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Edu-
cation," which discusses the whole subject of school architecture with great
fulness and ability. This document may be found entire in the Massachu-
setts Common School Journal, Vol 1., and nearly so, in the Connecticut
Common School Journal, Vol. 1., and the New York District School Journal,
Vol. 3. It fixed public attention on the defects of these edifices, and has led
to extensive improvement all over that Commonwealth. During the five
years immediately following its publication, over $516,000 were expended in
the construction of 405 new houses, including land, fixtures, &c., and over
8118,000, in the substantial repairs of 429 more. The larger portion of the
first sum has been expended in the cities and large villages in the eastern part
of the state, where may now be seen specimens of the best school-houses, and
the best schools, in our country. The following plan embodies substan-
tially the views submitted by Mr. Mann, in his Report.
i * T i h - 8 Fo'wf f Dr - lcott was tl e pioneer publication on this subject. It was fol-
J3by a "Report on School-houses" prepared by the Rev. G. B. Perry, and
published by the Essex County Teacher's Association. This last is a searching and
rous exposition of the evils resulting from the defective construction, and arrange
menu of school-houses, as they were at that date almost universally found.
PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE BY MR. MANN.
65
J L
G
A. Represents the teacher's desk. B B. Teacher's platform, from 1 to 2 ft. in height.
C. Step for ascending the platform. L L. Cases for books, apparatus, cabinet, &c.
H. Pupils' single desks, 2 ft. by 18 inches. M. Pupils' seat, 1 ft. by 20 inches. 7. Aisles,
1 ft. Cinches in width. D. Place for stove, if one be used. E. Room for recitation, for
retiring in case of sudden indisposition, for interview with parents, when necessary, &c.
It may also be used for the library, &c. F F F F F. Doors into the boys' and girls'
entries from the entries into the school-room, and from the school-room into the recita-
tion room. G G G G. Windows. The windows on the sides are not lettered.
For section of seat and desk constructed after Mr. Mann's
plan, see p. 47. To avoid the necessity of fitting Up the
same school-room for old and young, and the inefficiency of
such country schools as we now have, Mr. Mann proposed
in this Report a union, for instance of four districts which
did not cover more than four miles square, and the erection
of four primary school-houses, (a a a a) for the younger chil-
dren of each district, to be taught by female teachers, and
one central or high school, (A) for the older children of the
four districts, taught by a well qualified male teacher. This
plan is recommended for its wise use of the means of the
districts, and the efficiency of the instruction given.
2 m
5Q SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLANS, &c., RECOMMENDED BY GEORGE B. EMERSON.
The ' School and Schoolmaster,"* contains a very valuable chapter on
school-houses, by Mr. Emerson, the President of the American Institute of
Instruction, illustrated by drawings, which, with the permission of the authors
and publishers are introduced here. The whole chapter, as the production
of one of the most eminent teachers and writers on education of the age,
should be studied by every one who would become thoroughly acquainted with
he subject. Most of his valuable suggestions are subjoined.
Situation. So much do the future health, vigor, taste, and moral principles
f the pupil depend upon the position, arrangement, and construction of the
school-house, that everything about it is important. When the most desira-
ble situation can be selected, and the laws of health and the dictates of taste
may be consulted, it should be placed on firm ground, on the southern declivi-
ty of a gently sloping hill, open to the southwest, from which quarter comes
the pleasantest winds in summer, and protected on the northeast by the top of
the hill or by a thick wood. From the road it should be remote enough to
escape the noise, and dust, and danger, and yet near enough to be easily
accessible by a path or walk, always dry. About it should be ample space,
a part open for a play-ground, a part to be laid out in plots for flowers and
shrubs, with winding alleys for walks. Damp places, in the vicinity of stag-
nant pools or unwholesome marshes, and bleak hilltops or dusty plains, should
be carefully avoided. Tall trees should partially shade the grounds, not in
stiff rows or heavy clumps, but scattered irregularly as if by 'the hand of Na-
ture. Our native forests present such a choice of beautiful trees, that the
grounds must be very extensive to afford room Tor even a single fine speci-
men of each ; yet this should, if possible, be done, for children ought early to
become familiar with the names, appearance, and properties of these noblest
of inanimate things. The border of a natural wood may often be chosen for
the site of a school ; but if it is to be thinned out, or if trees are to be planted,
and, from limited space, a selection is to be made, the kingly, magnificent
oaks, the stately hickories, the spreading beech for its deep mass of shade,
the maples for their rich and abundant foliage, the majestic elm, the useful
ash, the soft and graceful birches, and the towering, columnar sycamore,
claim precedence. Next may come the picturesque locusts, with their hang-
ing, fragrant flowers ; the tulip-tree ; the hemlock, best of evergreens ; the
celtis, or sweet gum ; the nyssa, or tupelo, with horizontal branches and pol-
ished leaves ; the walnut and butternut, the native poplar, and the aspen.
Jf extremely beautiful American shrubs, the number is so great that I have
T r ii 0r l! f r - ? list ' What p!ace intended to form the taste of the young,
1 be without the kalmias, rhododendrons, cornels, roses, viburnums,
ignolias, clethras, honeysuckles, and spiraeas ] And whoever goes into the
s to gather these, will find a multitude of others which he will hardly
consent to leave behind. The hilltop should be planted with evergreens,
lormmg, at all seasons, a barrier against the winds from the north and east.
ut the flower plots, little need be said. They must be left to the taste of
teacner, and of cultivated persons in the district. I can only recommend
Jcl American plants, and again remind the reader, that there is hardly a
* J he " Sch . l and Schoolmaster," a Manual for the use of Teachers, Employers,
Part II M? ' ctors '* ;c -' &c -. of Common Schools. Part I. By Alonzo Potter, D. D.
YoVk Price ll' 86 merson ' PP- 552 ' Har P er & Brothers, 82 Cliff street, ]\ew
FM 11 .
erature ofmir c ' St valuaHe contribution yet made to the educational lit-
Wadsworth Es ^tji^v a published originally at the expense of James
PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOrSE, BY MR. G. B. EMERSON. gg
country town in New York or New England, from whose woods and mead-
ows a hundred kinds of flowers might not be transplanted, of beauty enough
to form the chief /ornament of a German or English garden, which are now
neglected only because they are common and wild. Garden flowers need not
be excluded ; and if either these or the former are cultivated, the great ob-
ject, to present something to refine and inform the taste, will be, in some de-
gree, accomplished.
If proper inclosed play-grounds are provided, the master may often be pres-
ent at the sports, and thus become acquainted with the character, of his pu-
pils. If children are compelled to resort to tTie highway for their amusements,
we ought not to wonder that they should be contaminated by the vices, brawl-
ings, and profanities, which belong to frequenters of highways.
Size. The room should be sufficiently large to allow every pupil, 1. to sit
comfortably at his desk ; 2. to leave it without disturbing any one else ; 3. to
see explanations on his lessons, and to recite without being incommoded or
incommoding others ; 4. to breathe a wholesome atmosphere.
If the first three objects are fully provided for, the space on the floor will be
sufficient. But to secure the advantage of an adequate supply of air, the room
must be not less than 10, and, if possible, 12 or 14, feet high.
Arrangement. For the accommodation of 56 scholars, so as to give ample
room for moving, for recitations, and for air, the dimensions of the house
should be 38 feet by 25, and 10 feet in height within. This will allow an en-
try of 14 feet by 7-|, lighted by a window, to be furnished with wooden pegs
for the accommodation of clothes ; a wood-room, 10 feet by 7*, to serve also
as an entry for girls at recess, or as a recitation room ; a space behind the
desks 8 feet wide, for fireplace, passage, and recitations, with permanent
seats against the wall 10 or 11 inches wide ; a platform, 7 feet wide, for the
teacher, with the library, blackboards, globes, and other apparatus for teach-
ing ; the remaining space to be occupied by the desks and seats of the schol-
ars. For every additional 8 scholars the room may be lengthened 2^ feet.
The desks and seats for scholars should be of different dimensions. A desk
for two may be 3| or 4 feet long. If the younger children are placed nearest
the master's desk, the desks in the front range may be 13 inches wide, the
two next 14, the two next 15, and the two most remote 16, with the height,
respectively, of 24, 25, 26, and 27 inches. The seats should vary in like
manner. Those in the front range should be 10 inches wide, in the two next
10|, m t he two next 11, in the two last 11| or 12 ; and 13 J, 14, 15, and 16
inches, respectively, high. All edges and corners are to be carefully rounded.
It is very desirable that the north end of the school-house be occupied by
the master's desk ; that this end be a dead wall ; that the front be towards
the south ; and that the desks be so placed that the pupils, as they sit at them,
shall look towards the north. The advantages of this arrangement are, 1.
that the scholars will obtain more correct ideas upon the elements of geo-
graphy, as all maps suppose the reader to be looking northward ; 2. the
north wall, having no windows, will exclude the severest cold of winter ;
3. the scholars will, in this case, look towards a dead wall, and thus avoid
the great evil effacing a glare of light ; or, if a window or two be allowed in
the north wall, the light coining from that quarter is less vivid, and, therefore,
less dangerous, than that which comes from any other ; 4. the door, being
on the south, will open towards the winds which prevail in summer, and/r0ra
the cold winds of winter.
If, from necessity, the house must front northward, the master's desk
should be still in the north end of the room, and the scholars, when seated,
look in that direction.
The end of the room occupied by the master should be fitted with shelves
for a library and for philosophical apparatus and collections of natural curios
ities, such as rocks, minerals, plants, and shells, for globes and for black-
boards. The books, apparatus, and collections should be concealed and pro-
tected by doors, which may be made perfectly plain and without panels, so as
to be painted black and serve as blackboards. They may be conveniently
divided by pilasters into three portions, the middle one for books, the others
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
70
for apparatus *nd collections. On one of the pilasters > m ay be the dock ; ^n
of scholars' desks, should be not less
than seven or eight feet wide ; ten
or twelve would be much better.
The sides and front of this space
hould be furnished with seats ten
or eleven inches wide, for recitation.
13y means of a large movable black-
board, this space may be, in case of
need, converted into two, so that
two classes may recite at a time.
In a school intended to accommo-
date more than 64 pupils, there
ought also to be a space for recita-
tion in the south end of the room,
separable by movable blackboards
into two.
The entry should be lighted by a
window, and be furnished with
wooden or iron pins for the accom-
modation of hats, bonnets, and
cloaks ; and there should be a wood-
closet large enough to contain two
or three cords of wood, which may,
if it is preferred, be used as a recita-
tion room.
Movable Blackboard.
By making the ceiling of the entry and wood-closet only seven feet high,
two commodious rooms for recitation may be formed above them, lighted
from the window over the front door, and accessible by stairs from within the
school-room.
Warming. In a suitable position,
pointed out in the plates, near the door,
let a common brick fireplace be built. Let
this be inclosed, on the back and on each
side, by a casing of brick, leaving, be-
tween the fireplace and the casing, a space
of four or five inches, which will be heat-
ed through the back and jambs. Into this
space let the air be admitted from beneath
by a box 24 inches wide and 6 or 8 deep,
leading from the external atmosphere by
an opening beneath the front door, or at
some other convenient place. The brick
casing should be feontinued up as high as
six or eight inches above the top of the
fireplace, where it may open into the room
by lateral orifices, to be commanded by
iron doors, through which the heated air
will enter the room. If these are lower,
part of the warm air will find its way into
the fireplace. The brick chimney should
Fireplace.
A. Horizontal section. D. Perpendicular section, c. Brick walls, 4 inches thick.
d. Air space between the walls, e. Solid fronts of masonry. /. Air box for supply of fresh
air, extending beneath the floor to the front door. ? . Openings on the sides of the fire-
e heated air to pass into the room. h. Front of the fireplace and mantelpiece,
i / Fl' d ' a meter. j. Space between the fireplace and wall. k. Par-
PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE, BY MR. G. B. EMERSON.
71
rise at least two or three feet above the hollow back, and may be surmounted
by a flat iron, soap-stone, or brick top, with an opening for a smoke-pipe,
which may be thence conducted to any part of the room. The smoke-pipe
should rise a foot, then pass to one side, and then over a passage, to the oppo-
site extremity of the room, where it should ascend perpendicularly, and issue
above the roof. The fireplace should be provided with iron doors, by which
it may be completely closed.
The advantages of this double .fireplace are, 1. the fire, being made against
brick, imparts to the air of the apartment none of the deleterious qualities
which are produced by a common iron stove, but gives the pleasant heat of an
open fireplace ; 2. none of the heat of the fuel will be lost, as the smoke-pipe
may be extended far enough to communicate nearly all the heat contained in
the smoke ; 3. the current of air heated within the hollow back, and constant-
ly pouring into the room, will diffuse an equable heat throughout every part ;
4. the pressure of the air of the room will be constantly outward, little cold
will enter by cracks and windows, and the fireplace will have no tendency to
smoke ; 5. by means of the iron doors, the fire may be completely controlled,
increased or diminished at pleasure, with the advantages of an air-tight stove.
For that purpose, there must be a valve or slide near the bottom of one of the
doors.
If, instead of this fireplace, a common stove be adopted, it should be placed
above the air-passage, which may be commanded by a valve or register in the
floor, so as to admit or exclude air.
Ventilation. A room warmed by such a fireplace as that just described,
may be easily ventilated. If a current of air is constantly pouring in, a cur-
rent of the same size will rush out wherever it can find an outlet, and with it
will carry the impurities wherewith the air of an occupied room is always
charged. For the first part of the morning, the open fireplace may suffice.
But this, though a very effectual, is not an economical ventilator ; and when
the issue through this is closed,
some other must be provided. The
most effective ventilator for throw-
ing out foul air, is one opening into
a tube which incloses the smoke-
flue at the point where it passes
through the roof. Warm air natu-
rally rises. If a portion of the
smoke-flue be inclosed by a tin tube,
it will warm the air within this tube,
and give it a tendency to rise. If,
then, a wooden tube, opening near
the floor, be made to communicate,
by its upper extremity, with the tin
tube, an upward current will take
place in it, which will always act
whenever the smoke-flue is warm.
It is better, but not absolutely es-
sential, that the opening into the [Scale 8 feet to an inch.]
wooden tube be near the floor. The Ventilating Apparatus,
carbonic acid thrown out by the A - Air box > 1 foot square, or 24 inches by 6,
lungs rises, with the warm breath, covered by the pilaster, and opening at the floor,
and the perspirable matter from the i n ., th . e base of the pilaster. B. Round iron tube
fli A ** -ui 15 inches in diameter, being a continuation of
&km, with the warm, invisible va- the air boX) th h ^ cent | r of which passes
por, to the top of the room. There c. The smoke flue, 8 inches in diameter. D
both soon cool, and sink towards Caps to keep out the rain,
the floor ; and both carbonic air and
the vapor bearing the perspirable matter are pretty rapidly and equally dif-
fused through every part of the room.
Seats and Desks. Instead of a seat and desk for each pupil, Mr. Emer-
son recommends that two seats should be contiguous. In his drawings, tho
desk is perfectly level like^a table, and the back to the seat is perpendicular.
72 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
SCHOOL FOR ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY PUPILS.
51 feet by 31 feet outside.] [Scale 16 feet to the inch.
D. Entrance door. E. Entry. F. Fireplace. C. "Wood closet. T. Teacher's plat-
form. a. Apparatus shelves. I. Air tube beneath the floor, d. Doors, g. Globes. Z. Li
brary shelves, m. Master's table and seat. p. Passages, r. Recitation seats, s. Schol-
ars' desks and seats, rs. Stairs to recitation rooms in the attic, v. Ventilator, w. Win-
dows. 6. Movable blackboard, a s. Air space behind the fireplace.
SCHOOL FOR FORTY-EIGHT PUPILS.
f. Globes.
E '
.] lc.
n F " F u irc P lac ". C. Wood closet, or recitation room
/ I ! , a '. A PP arat shelves - ' Air tube beneath the floor. d. Doors
Ll^ 'T i helve f' m ' Master 's table and seat. p. Passages, r. Recitation
ft^tSiT^ : Ventilator, w. Windows. \Movableblack-
Air space behind the fireplace.
OCTAGONAL PLAN FOR DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE.
73
PLANS, &c., OP AN OCTAGONAL SCHOOL-HOUSE.
Furnished for the "School and School-master," by Messrs. Town and Dams,
Fig. 1.
THIS design for a school-house intends to exhibit a model of fitness and close
economy. The principles of fitness are, 1. Ample dimensions, with very
nearly the least possible length of wall for its inclosure, the roof being con-
structed without tie beams, the upper and lower ends of the rafters being helo
by the wall plates and frame at the foot of the lantern. The ceiling maj
show the timber-work of the roof, or it may be plastered. 2. Light, a uniform
temperaliire, and a free ventilation, secured by a lantern light, thus avoiding
lateral windows (except for air in summer,) and gaining wall-room for black-
boards, maps, models, and illustrations. Side windows are shown in the
view, and may be made an addition by those who doubt the efficiency of the
lantern light. (The lantern is not only best for light, but it is essential for a
free ventilation.) With such a light, admitted equally to all the desks, there
will be no inconvenience from shadows. The attention of the scholars will
not be distracted by occurrences or objects out of doors. There will be less
expense for broken glass, as the sashes will be removed from ordinary acci-
dents. The room, according to this plan, is heated by a fire in the center,
either in a stove or grate, with a pipe going directly through the roof of the
lantern, and finishing outside in a sheet-iron vase, or other appropriate cap.
The pipe can be tastefully fashioned, with a hot-air chamber near the floor, so
as to afford a large radiating surface before the heat is allowed to escape.
This will secure a uniform temperature in every part of the room, at the same
time that the inconvenience from a pipe passing directly over the heads of
children, is avoided. The octagonal shape will admit of any number of seats
and desks, (according to the size of the room,) arranged parallel with the sides,
constructed as described in specification, or on such principles as may be pre-
ferred. The master's seat may be in the center of the room, and the seats be
BO constructed that the scholars may sit with their backs to the center, by
which their attention will not be diverted by facing other scholars on the op-
posite side, and yet so that at times they may all face the master, and the
whole school be formed into one class. The lobby next to the front door is
made large, (8 by 20) so that it may serve for a recitation-room. This lobby
74
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
is to finish eight feet high,
the inside wall to show like
a screen, not rising to the
roof, and the space above
be open to the school-
room, and used to put
away or station school ap-
paratus. This screen-like
wall may be hung with
hats and clothes, or the
triangular space next the
window may be inclosed
for this purpose. The
face of the octagon oppo-
site to the porch, has a
wood-house attached to it,
serving as a sheltered way
to a double privy beyond.
This woodhouse is open
on two sides, to admit of
a cross draught of air,
preventing the possibility
of a nuisance. Other
wing-rooms (A A) may be
Fig. 2.
attached to the remaining sides of the octagon, if additional conveniences for
closets, library, or recitation-rooms be desired.
The mode here suggested, of a lantern in the center of the roof for lighting
all common school-houses, is so great a change from common usage in our
country, that it requires full and clear explanations for its execution, and plain
and satisfactory reasons for its general adoption, and of its great excellence in
preference to the common mode. They are as follows, viz. :
1. A skylight is well known to be far better and stronger than light from
the sides of the building in cloudy weather, and in morning and evening. The
difference is of the greatest importance. In short days (the most used for
schools) it is still more so.
2. The light is far better for all kinds of study than side light, from its quiet
uniformity and equal distribution.
3. For smaller houses, the lantern may be square, a simple form easily
constructed. The sides, whether square or octagonal, should incline like the
drawing, but not so much as to allow water condensed on its inside to drop
off, but run down on the inside to the bottom, which should be so formed as
to conduct it out by a small aperture at each bottom pane of glass.
4. The glass required to light a school-room equally well with side lights
would be double what would be required here, and the lantern would be se-
cure from common accidents, by which a great part of the glass is every year
broken.
5. The strong propensity which scholars have to look out by a side win-
dow would be mostly prevented, as the shutters to side apertures would only
be opened when the warm weather would require it for air, but never in cool
weather, and therefore no glass would be used. The shutters being made
very tight, by calking, in winter, would make the school-room much warmer
than has been common ; and, being so well ventilated, and so high in the cen-
ter, it^ would be more healthy.
6. The stove, furnace, or open grate, being in the center of the room, has
great advantages, from diffusing the heat to all parts, and equally to all the
also admits the pipe to go perpendicularly up, without any incon-
venience, and it greatly facilitates the ventilation, and the retention or escape
of heat, by means of the sliding cap above.
C0>w*ruc/z0n. Foundation of hard stone, laid with mor-
ptar; the superstructure framed and covered with \\ plank,
,;^ tongued, grooved, and put on vertically, with a fillet, chamfered
;
OCTAGONAL PLAN FOR DISTRICT SCIIOOL-HOUSE. 75
at the edges, over the joint, as here shown. In our view, a rustic
character is given to the design by covering the sides with slabs ; the curved
side out, tongued and grooved, without a fillet over the joint ; or formed of
logs placed vertically, and lathed and plastered on the inside. The sides di-
minish slightly upward. A rustic porch is also shown, the columns of cedar
boles, with vines trained upon them. The door is battened, with braces upon
the outside, curved as shown, with a strip around the edge. It is four feet
wide, seven high, in two folds, one half to be used in inclement weather.
The cornice projects two feet six inches, better to defend the boarding ; and
may show the ends of the rafters. Roof covered with tin, slate or shingles.
Dripping eaves are intended, without gutters. The roof of an octagonal
building of ordinary dimensions may with ease and perfect safety be con-
structed without tie beams or a garret floor (which is, in all cases of school-
houses, waste room, very much increasing the exposure to fire, as well as
the expense.) The wall-plates, in this case, become ties, and must be well
secured, so as to form one connected hoop, capable of counteracting the pres-
sure outward of the angular rafters. The sides of the roof will abut at top
against a similar timber octagonal frame, immediately at the foot of the lan-
tern cupola. This frame must be sufficient to resist the pressure inward of
the roof (which is greater or less, as the roof is more or less inclined in its
pitch,) in the same manner as the tie-plates must resist fhe pressure outward.
This security is given in an easy and cheap manner ; and may be given en-
tirely by the roof boarding, if it is properly nailed to the angular rafters, and
runs horizontally round the roof. By this kind of roof, great additional height
is given to the room by camp-ceiling ; that is, by planing the rafters and roof-
boards, or by lathing and plastering on a thin half-inch board ceiling, immedi-
ately on the underside of the rafters, as may be most economically perform-
ed. This extra height in the center will admit of low side-walls, from seven
to ten feet in the clear, according to the size and importance of the building,
and, at the same time, by the most simple
principle of philosophy, conduct the heated
foul air up to the central aperture, which
should be left open quite round the pipe of the
stove, or open grate standing in the center of
the room. This aperture and cap, with the
ventilator, is shown by the figure adjoining,
which is to a scale of half an inch to a foot.
The ventilator is drawn raised, and the dot-
ted lines show it let down upon the roof. It
may be of any required size, say two feet
.vide and twelve inches high, sliding up and
i.nvn between the stovepipe and an outward
<-;ise, forming a cap to exclude water. This
cap may be pushed up or let down by a rod
affixed to the under edge, and lying against
the smokepipe.
In the design given, the side-walls are ten
feet high, and the lantern fifteen feet above
the floor ; eight feet in diameter, four feet
high. The sashes may open for additional ventilation, if required, by turning
on lateral pivots, regulated by cords attached to the edges above. The
breadth of each desk is seventeen inches, with a shelf beneath for books, and
an opening in the back to receive a slate. The highest desks are twenty-
seven inches, inclined to thirty, and the front forms the back of the seat be-
fore it. The seat is ten to twelve inches wide, fifteen high, and each pupil is
allowed a space of two feet, side to side.
For the sake of variety, we have given a design in the pointed style, revised
from a sketch by , an amateur in architecture. Any rectangular plan
will suit it ; and the principles of light and ventilation dwelt upon in the de-
scription of the octagon design, may be adapted to this. The principal light
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
' Fig. 3.
is from one large mullioned window in the rear end. The side openings are
for air in summer not glazed, but closed with tight shutters. The same ven-
tilating cap is shown, and height is gained in the roof by framing with collar
ieams set up four or five feet above the eaves. The sides, if not of brick or
stone, may be boarded vertically, as before described.
"f
The following PLAN OF AN OCTAGONAL SCHOOL-HOUSE represents the School
Practice annexed to St. Mark's Primary College, near London. In the cen-
ter (6) is thefire-place and ventilating apparatus. On the four sides of the brick-
ork, forming the ventilating apparatus and the chimneys, blackboards, maps, and
niu s .cal tablets, are suspended, so as to be seen by the classes in the square or
recesses oppose Each of the four recesses is 20 feet square, and accommodates
ibout 60 pupils, d.yided into two classes separated by a curtain (c.) In one is a
gallery (a) for an infant class.
PLAN OF VILLAGE SCHOOL-GROUND BY DR. DICK.
77
PLAN OF SCHOOL-ROOM AND GROUNDS FOR A VILLAGE SCHOOL.
The following sketch by Dr. Dick, (author of Mental Illumination), of the
plan and accommodations of a Village School is copied from the Pennsylvania
Common School Journal, vol. 1, p. 120.
A. B Covered walks for exercise in winter and rainy days. C. D. E. F
Plats for flowers, shrubs, evergreens, and a few forest trees. G. H Circles
with twelve compartments each, for a different class of plants. I. K Yards
divided with a wall, with suitable accommodations for either sex. L Portion
of ground, smoothed and graveled for play-ground, with circular swing, Ate.
M Room, 50 by 30 feet, and 14 feet high. N. N . Class-rooms, 18 by 15.
S. T. Closets for apparatus, &c.
/j.g SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN, &c., OF SCHOOL-ROOM AND GROUNDS FOR AN INFANT SCHOOL.
The following plan and explanations are condensed from a valuable manu-
al for teachers in infant and primary schools, entitled " Infant Education,"
one of Chambers' Educational Course, published at Edinburgh, in 1840. It
is nearly similar to the plan recommended by Mr. Wilderspin in his " Infant
School System," and his " Education for the Young," and by Mr. Stow, in
the " Manual on the Training System for Infant and Juvenile Schools."
CO
******
Play Ground 80 ft. by 60.
Flower Border.
1 -I
a^.?I|-s
f E'O o
*"t O M) -
V
O
o ^.2~
-oo"
.5 c'J=:2
t~ ~ w
, -= i C *- C
co-jociwpw
o->- >~ a <L J- -y
.- -5 C. >>T3
' ' *> S;5 Pi
^ w H
K SP---o"S^
c z --?.=; S ,, c
ft E
u o
o
E
3 F>
g ^ a r T
.= o 50
, c Cl = >M - .
sf^or
l 1 ^/^
lJ&l^>
""= S^ J J w"a '*
II o-S.5 Sj"-!
-c _=2 ^o c ^ 9
feMgl -*
-^^3
. 7; * C s .
b c rt tso-
-; i r" > r
sfJ
f.-ss^^g
C^: C5 C ^ O t=
|||^5|S
i I'M! if
c|^^^ 5 ^
P c o "~ "M. " ^2
= " s-r~ a -^
= -il* K
T o~^:JS-d
j= o-B * 2 g g
*~ "" ~ r& '" '
^sl| J-fls
. ^ ir ,., o
^ U ~ -3 - >> t "
3"Zc-~'-j2aJ" J
-2 Si g 5 S~3 s
rsg^c^oS-^
g~-stl-
^: = SOM-^ <u i
"g 2^ .-5- c 3
PuJ! rt o ^ 0) g
.^ ea5^- S S
- ..Ou C '-'c^>-Z
^ ^ _^ -- ^- -^
^ ^O"5 5<S
PLANS FOR SCHOOLS OF DIFFERENT GRADES. 79
PLAN, &c., OF SCHOOL-ROOMS Foti SCHOOLS OF DIFFERENT GRADES AND
DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION.
The plans and remarks for arranging school-rooms thus far, are more par-
ticularly applicable to comparatively small, or country schools, where the in-
struction and government is conducted by one teacher, with at most but one
assistant. A few remarks explanatory of the terms used by writers on edu-
cation, when speaking of systems of organization and instruction, may be
useful to a full comprehension of the principles of arrangement embraced in
the plans which follow.
1. The individual method is the practice on the part of the teacher, of calling
up each scholar by himself for recitation, or giving instruction to each scholar
in his seat, or calling up classes and hearing each scholar individually, which
is practically the same thing. This method will answer a valuable end in a
very small school, and must be introduced to some extent in our small country
districts where there are children of every age, and in 'a great variety of
studies, and of different degrees of proficiency in each study. It prevails,
however, altogether too generally, even in larger districts which admit of a
classification of children into schools of different grades, and' of the children
in each grade of schools. This classification is the first great step towards
school improvement.
2. In the simultaneous method, the whole school, together, or in succes-
sive classes carefully arranged according to their intellectual proficiency, is
instructed directly by the teacher. Questions and explanations are addressed
to the whole school, or the whole class, as the case may be, and answers are
given by all together, or by some one pointed out by the teacher, while all
must show by some silent sign, there ability to do so. This method keeps
every mind attentive, gives confidence to the timid, admits of the liveliness
of oral and interrogative instruction, economizes the time and labor, of the
teacher, and enlists the great principle of sympathy of numbers engaged in
common pursuit. The extent to which this method can be properly carried,
will depend not so much OR the size of the schools, as on the fact that the
school is composed of children in the same studies, and of the same proficien-
cy. This method ought not to exclude entirely individual instruction.
When the number of children increases beyond that which one teacher can
conveniently instruct together, or in successive classes, he must adopt the
monitorial, the mixed, or the Facher system, for such classes as he cannot
superintend or teach.
3. By the monitorial or mutual method, is understood the practice of em-
ploying the advanced pupils, and many of them very young, to assist in the su-
pervision and instruction of the school, or of particular classes, as systematized
by Mr. Lancaster, or Dr. Bell, and as pursued in the schools connected with
the National, and the British and Foreign School Societies, England. This
method, in different countries, on its first promulgation, attracted much of
public faVor, on account of its economy, especially in populous districts.
In England it still receives the sanction of the two great Societies
named above. In Germany it was never adopted in the public schools. In
Holland it was tried, and abandoned, but not without modifying very material-
ly the method^ of instruction before pursued, and finally leading to the adoption
of the mixed method. In the large cities of the United States, it was early
adopted, but there is hardly a school in the whole country now conducted on
the pure monitorial or Lancasterian system, although there are many so
called. As pursued in the excellent, schools of the New York Public School
Society, it is nearly the mixed method as understood and practiced in Hol-
land, and as recommended by the Committee of Council on Education in
England.
With these modifications, and the limitation of the duties of the younger
monitors to keeping the registers, heading the classes in marching to and
from their class-rooms, or the playground, taking charge of books, &c., and in
other matters of order and mechanical arrangements, the monitorial system
migh f be advantageously adopted in schools of every grade, and of any sys-
tem of instruction.
gQ SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
4. The mixed method, as the term is generally understood, is a modifica-
tion of the simultaneous and monitorial system, in which the principal teacher,
while he has the superintendence at all times of the whole school, and
gives generr^sngtruction at certain hours, and in certain studies, to the whole
school, as well^ to particular classes, employs in the work of class instruc-
tion, assistants who are better instructed, and, as a general rule, are older than
those employed as monitors under the Lancasterian system, and are not yet
qualified to have the whole charge of a school. For example, in Holland.
" every schoolj)roduces two classes of assistants, who are most usefully and
economically employed in aiding him in the management and instruction of
the school, and may be called pupil teachers and assistant teachers. By
pupil teacher is meant, a young teacher, in the first instance introduced to the
notice of the master by his good qualities, as one of the best instructed and
most intelligent of the children ; whose attainments and skill are full of
promise ; and who,- having consented to remain at a low rate of remuneration
in the school, is further rewarded by being enabled to avail himself of the op-
portunities afforded him for attaining practical skill in the art of teaching, by
daily practice in the school, and by the gratuitous superintendence of his
reading and studies by the master, from whom he receives lessons on technical
subjects of school instruction every evening- He commonly remains in the
school in the rank of pupil teacher from the age of 14 to that of 17, daily im-
bibing a more intimate acquaintance with school management, and all the
matter of instruction in elementary schools, and he then proceeds, by attend-
ance at a Normal school, or by further proficiency attained by his own exer-
tions, to qualify himself to act as an assistant teacher. The assistant teacher
prepared by these preliminary studies in the elementary Normal school com-
mences his duties at 18 or 20 years of age.
Assistants thus reared in the atmosphere of schools are exceedingly pre-
ferable to the best instructed men who are not familiarized by daily habitude
with the minutest details of school management. Such assistants constantly
replenish the ranks of the teachers with men, all the hopes of whose youth
have been directed towards success in the profession of a schoolmaster, and
whose greatest ambition is to be distinguished by the excellence of their
schools.
5. The Packer system, as it is termed in Germany where it is most popu-
ar, consists in employing separate teachers for separate studies, or as we
should apply it here, for distinct departments of government, and of instruc-
tion; This is the principle on which instruction in our colleges and most of
our higher seminaries is given, and is in reality the mixed method carried to
its highest perfection. The vital error in our common schools, a.s they are
now organized, is the practice of employing one teacher for the governrnent
and instruction of fifty or sixty children of every age, of both sexes, in a
great variety of studies, and in different stages of proficiency in each study.
It is very rare to find a teacher with the varied qualifications, which success
under these circumstances presupposes, while it is not very difficult to find a
teacher with talent and experience sufficient to teach some one study, or a
few cognate branches, as an assistant, acting under the general direction of a
well qualified principal.
Any school organization and arrangements would be imperfect which did
not include the systematic training and instruction of very young children,
especially in cities and manufacturing villages. Whatever may have been
done by others at an earlier date, it seems to be generally conceded now, that
to Mr. Wilderspin belongs the credit of having reduced infant education to
the science which it now is. It was unfortunate for the improvement of the
quality of education given in our schools, that the infant school system was
tried in this country, without a full comprehension of its legitimate principles,
methods and end, and that the experiment was abandoned so hastily. Its
partial and temporary success, however, led to the extension and improvement
of our primary schools, and this circumstance renders the success of any
well directed effort for their re-establishment more certain.
PLANS FOR SCHOOLS ON THE MONITORIAL PLAN. gl
PLANS, &c., FOR SCHOOLS ON THE MONITORIAL OR MUTUAL SYSTEM.
The " Manual of the System of Primary Instruction pursued in the Model
Schools of the British and Foreign School Society," published in 1839, con-
tains the following remarks on the arrangement for schools of mutual in-
struction connected with that Society. v
The school-room should be a parallelogram, the length about twice the
breadth.
The height of the walls should be proportioned to the length of the room,
and may be varied from 11 to 19 feet. It is recommended that the walls be
worked fair and lime whitened, in order to give a neat and clean appearance,
reflect light, and contribute to the preservation of health. As it is of great
importance to admit as much light as possible into the school, there must be
a considerable number of windows, each of which should be fixed in a wooden
frame, and movable upon pins or pivots in the center, so that by drawing the
upper part into the room, the school may be sufficiently ventilated in hot
weather a circumstance of the utmost importance to be attended to, as the
health of the pupils in a great measure depends upon it.
The lower parts of the windows should be at least 6 feet from the floor, in
order that the light may not be inconvenient, and the walls be at liberty for
the reading lessons, &c., which are to be attached to it ; if piers are required,
they should be on the outside of the building.
There should be holes in the roof, or in the wall near it, to let foul air
escape. This may be effected by a sufficient number of tubes so contrived
that they can be opened or shut at pleasure, and at the same time fresh air be
admitted from the outside of the building by tubes communicating with the
lower part of the room.
All projections in the walls, as well as pillars to support the roof, ought to
be avoided; for they interfere with the arrangement of the school, and ob-
struct the view of the master and of visitors. But if pillars are necessary,
they should be placed at each end of the desks, but never in the middle of the
room.
Roman Cement, cast into flags, and jointed with the same material, forms a
good flooring ; it is perfectly dry and durable, and emits but little sound.
In order that all the children may be completely seen by the master, it is of
great importance that the floor should be an inclined plane, rising one foot in
twenty from the master's desk, to the upper end of the room, where the high-
est or eighth class is situated.
At the lower end is the platform, elevated in proportion to the length of the
room from 2 to 3 feet. The length and breadth of the platform must be in
proportion to the size of the room.
The center of the platform is the place for the master's desk ; and on each
side there may be a small desk for the principal monitors.
The entrance door should be on the side of the platform, in order that visit-
ers on entering the school, may have a commanding view of all the children
at once.
Whatever be the size of the school-room, it may be sufficiently warmed by
means of one or two stoves placed at the extremities of the apartment. But
the most uniform and constant temperature is obtained by steam, when con-
ducted along the lower parts of the room through pipes, or by heated air con-
veyed into the room through tubes communicating with a stove, which is sur-
rounded by a close casing of iron, leaving a sufficient space for a current of
fresh air to be brought in through a tube : this, coming in contact with the
stove and the outside of the flue or iron chimney which passes through the
casing, is heated, and may be discharged into the room by means of iron
pipes. This method has been found to answer extremely well.
The middle of the room is occupied by the forms and desk, a passage being
left between the ends of the forms and the wall, 5 or 6 feet broad, where the
children form semicircles for reading.
The forms and desks must be fixed firmly in the ground ; the legs or sup-
ports should be 6 inches broad and 2 inches thick, but cast iron legs are pre-
6
82
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
forable as they support the desk-board with equal firmness, occupy less room,
erawe, as jpw . th num ber of course will be in proportion
t'o theTen^rof theTms IVirm 20 feet long will require five, and they
i LH that the supports of the forms may not be immediately
"posi e e SS^Sti&fSy* *> ftj- ? e fs are to be
made round, in order that the children may not hurt themselves.
The general rules for fitting up
school-rooms are, I. One foot for
the space or passage between a form
and the next desk.
2. Three inches for the horizontal
space between a desk and its form.
3. Nine inches for the breadth of a
desk, and six for the breadth of a
form.
4. Twenty-eight inches for the
height of a desk, and sixteen for the
height of a form.
5. Eighteen inches in length of the
desk for every child to occupy while
seated upon his form.
6. From five to six feet for the
passage between the walls and the
ends of the forms and desks.
The semi-circles for the reading
classes are formed opposite to the
wall, and are marked by an incision
in the floor.
Dimensions of school-rooms for
300 children, length, 62| ft., breadth,
34 feet ; for 200~ do. 55 by 28 ; for
150 do. 52| feet by 25.
The following suggestions are abridged from the " General Observations on
the construction and arrangements of
school-rooms, 4~c.," published by the
National Society, London.
The form of the room should be ob-
long. If the room is built large to ac-
commodate boys and girls together, it
may be divided by a frame partition,
made to slide upon rollers in an iron
groove.
The superficial area should include
7 square feet for each child : hence,
50 children will require 350 ft ; 80 do.
560 ft. ; 100 do. 700 ft., &c.
The desks are generally attached to
the wall, and consist of a horizontal
ledge two or three inches wide to re-
ceive the inkstand, and an inclined
plane ten inches wide, made to let
down by hinges and movable brackets.
The benches or forms are ten inches
wide, and supported by standards of
cast iron.
The benches for the classes in reci-
tation, are arranged in the floor with-
out desks. The floor is entirely level.
School-room for 56 scholars.
D
D
D
D
D
PLANS FOR SCHOOLS ON THE MIXED SYSTEM.
PLANS, &c., FOR SCHOOLS ON THE MIXED AND FACHER SYSTEM.
83
y
The two plans on the preceding page^for schools of 56 children, arranged on
the monitorial or mutual system, are taken from the " Minutes of the Com-
mittee of Council on Education, 1840, relative to Plans of School-houses."
In each plan, given in the " Minutes," the arrangement of the school-room is
delineated, 1. according to the system of 'mutual instruction, distinguishing, as
above, that of the National Society from that of the British and Foreign
School Society ; and 2. according to the mixed method, in which a modifica-
tion of the mutual system, through the agency of better instructed and paid
monitors, or pupil teachers, is employed in combination with the simultaneous
method. Thus, on the same sheet, with the school-room for 56 children on
the mutual system, there is also the following plan on the mixed system.
The school-room is 18 feet
wide by 31 long, the space (20
feet by 12) occupied by the
desks and seats being divided
into two parts, one for boys and
the other for girls, by a mova-
ble partition. The desks and
benches are arranged on a
series of platforms, rising each
6 inches above the preceding
one. The school, if taught on
the mixed method recommended
would be divided into four class-
es, the boys of the first class
occupying the first bench on one
side, and the girls, do. on the
other, &c., and employing one
pupil teacher and four monitors.
The teacher would give general
instruction from the platform to
the whole school, and hear any
class separately, arranged in a
circle around him. Two other
classes might be heard in the
entry, or class rooms attached.
C^ie plan in this cut is modified
slightly from the original inprint
when it is connected with the dwelling house.)
The " Minutes" contain four series of plans, each presenting a different
arrangement.
In the first series, there are five plans for schools varying from 30 to 56
scholars, each with the classes arranged and seated as above, and two of them
presenting additional accommodations for an infant department, one of 20,
and the other of 30 children.
In the second series, there is a separate range of desks for each class, with
five varieties of arrangements, to accommodate 60 to 100 children, with a
separate room for an infant school in two. In this series preference is ex-
pressed for the plan copied from the model school of the Normal School of
Dejon. In this plan, the room is 56 feet by 16, divided into two apartments,
each 28 by 16, one for 55 boys and the other for 55 girls. Each department
is divided into three classes, one class occupying a group of desks, rising on
platforms directly in front of the teacher, and the other two, one on the left,
and the other on the right, so that they form a sort of amphitheater around the
level portion of the floor occupied by the teacher. Each class can be taught
separately, occupying its own group of desks, as arranged around the teacher's
desk.
In the third series the accommodations ascend from 144 children, and 150
infants, to an indefinitely greater number, by a larger or smaller number of
class-rooms arranged on each side of a central school-hall, which is lighted by
sky-lights.
84
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The following plan of a building
exhibits the arrangement of a school
forthree hundred children, including
one hundred and fifty in an infant
school. A is a private room or
study for the principal. B is the
school hall (54 ft. by 27) for the as-
semblage of the whole school for
morning and evening prayers, and
other general exercises, and for the
occupancy of the infant school, and
C the gallery of the latter. D, D,
D, D, are four class-rooms, (each
19 by 17) each again divided by a
partition into two, so that both can
be superintended by one assistant
teacher, and one pupil teacher. Each subdivision of class-room will accom-
modate about 40 scholars each. The boys and the girls under eleven years
arranged according to attainments, each on separate benches are taught
together, while those over eleven years are taught separately in class-rooms
appropriated to each. This arrangement affords greater facilities for giving
to the instruction of the older children such a particular character as will
prepare them for the application of their knowledge to the actual duties of
life. Such knowledge must differ, in a class of boys, from that given in a
class of girls.
In the fourth series, the same principles of arrangements are observed, ex-
cept that the boys and girls occupy rooms on different floors.
In all of the plans recommended in the " Minutes," of the Committee, ac-
commodations are provided for 1. the technical instruction of the children
in classes carefully arranged according to their intellectuaf proficiency; 2. for
the general instruction and exercises of the whole school ; and, 3d, for the
residence of the teacher. This last feature is common to almost all school
houses in Europe, and the use of the same constitutes a part of the teacher's
compensation. In the larger structures of Prussia and Saxony, there is an
entire room appropriated to each class. Thus in a school-house for 600 chil-
dren, at Berlin, there are eight rooms, and in these rooms the children are
classed according to their ages, capacities and attainments. Eight masters
are employed, besides auxiliary masters for special purposes ; and two mis-
tresses, for teaching at certain hours sewing and knitting to the girls. ^
The " Minutes" contain many valuable suggestions respecting the location,
ventilation, and warming of school-rooms, similar to what has been already
printed. The following section exhibits three forms of desks. The stand
ards are of wrought or cast iron.
Desk with Lid.
Simple Desk.
Desk with Shelf.
PLANS RECOMMENDED BY COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL. 35
In the <: Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education for
1851-52," under the general head of Organization of Schools, the follow-
ing memorandum and diagrams "respecting the organization of schools
in parallel groups of benches and desks." are published to aid commit-
tees in determining the internal dimensfrjn of school-rooms, and the best
modes of fitting them up, in reference to schools organized on the plan
recommended by the committee.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
"Before a school-room is planned, and the observation applies equally to al-
terations in the internal fittings of an existing school-room, the number of chil-
dren who are likely to occupy it, the number of classes into which they ought to
be grouped, whether the school should be ' ; mixed, " or the boys and the girls
should be in different rooms, should be carefully considered, in order that the ar-
rangements of the school may be designed accordingly.
A. Every class, when in operation, requires a separate teacher, be it only a
monitor acting for the hour. Without some such provision it is impossible to
keep all the children in a school actively employed at the same time.
The apprenticeship of pupil-teachers, therefore, is merely an improved method
of meeting what is ; under any circumstance, a necessity of the case ; and, where
such assistants are maintained at the public expense, it becomes of increased im-
portance to furnish them with all the mechanical appliances that have been found
by experience to be the best calculated to giv.e effect to their services.
B. The main end to be attained is the concentration of the attention of the
teacher upon his own separate -class, and of the class upon its teacher, to the ex-
clusion of distracting sounds and objects, and without obstruction to the head mas-
ter's power of superintending the whole of the classes and their teachers. This
concentration would be effected the most completely if each teacher held his class
in a separate room ; but such an arrangement would be inconsistent with a proper
superintendence, and would be open to other objections. The common school-
room should, therefore, be fitted to realize, as nearly as may be, the combined ad-
vantages of isolation and of superintendence, without destroying its use for such
purposes as may require a large apartment. The best shape (see diagrams an-
nexed) is an oblong about eighteen feet in width. Groups of desks are arranged
along one of the walls. Each group is divided from the adjacent group or groups
by an alley, in which a light curtain can be drawn forward or back. Each class,
when seated in a group of desks, is thus isolated on its sides from the rest of the
school. The head master, seated at his desk placed against the opposite wall, or
standing in front of any one of the classes, can easily superintend the school ;
while the separate teacher of each class stands in front of it, where the vacant floor
allows him to place his easel for the suspension of diagrams and the use of the black-
board, or to draw out the children occasionly from their desks, and to instruct
them standing, for the sake of relief by a change, in position. The seats at the
desks and the vacant floor in front of each group are both needed, and should
therefore be allowed for in calculating the space requisite for each class.
C. By drawing back the curtain between two groups of desks, the principal
teacher can combine two classes into one for the purpose of a gallery lesson ; or a
gallery (doubling the depths of rows) may substituted for one of the groups. For
simultaneous instruction, such a gallery is better than the combination of two
groups by the withdrawal of the intermediate curtain ; because the combined
width of the two groups is greater than will allow the teacher to command at a
glance all the children sitting in the same line. It is advisable therefore always to
provide a gallery.
The drawings annexed to the following rules purport simply to show the best
internal dimensions of school-rooms, and the best mode of fitting them up, the
doors and windows being placed accordingly. The combination of such rooms
with others of the same kind, with teachers' residences, and with the remainder
of the school premises, as well as the elevations which may thereby be obtained,
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
OD
depending, as they always must, upon local circumstances, are not intended to bo
here shown.* '
The Committe of Council do not recommend that the benches and desks should
be immovably fixed to the floor in any schools. They ought to be so coustructed
as to admit of being readily removed when necessary, but not so as to be easily
pushed out of place by accident, or t be shaken by the movements of the children
when seated at them.
The reasons of the following rules will be readily inferred from these preliminary
explanations.
1. In planning a school-room, if it be not more than 18 feet in width, about 8
or 9 square feet will be sufficient for each child in actual attendance. If the width
be greater, there must be a proportionate increase of area allotted to each child.
2. A school not receiving infants should generally be divided into at least four
classes. (The varying capacities of children between seven and thirteen years
old will be found to require at least thus much subdivision.)
3. Parallel benches and desks, graduated according to the ages of the children,
should be provided for all the scholars in actual attendance, (see Preliminary Re-
marks, B. ;) and therefore a school-room should contain at least four groups of
parallel benches and desks. (See Rule 2.)
4. A group should not contain more than three rows of benches and desks,
(otherwise the distance of the last row is to great for the teacher to see the
children's slates, and he must also raise his voice to a pitch which is exhausting
to himself and adds inconveniently to the general noise.)
5. As a general rule, no group of benches and desks should accommodate more
than twenty-four children, z. e. eight children in each of the three rows of the
group, (otherwise the width is too great. See Preliminary Remarks, C.)
6. The proper lengths are 7 feet 6 inches for five children in a row ; 9 feet for
six in a row; 10 feet 6 inches for seven in a row; 12 feet for eight in a row;
t. e. 18 inches for each child.
[The other dimensions and details are shown in the annexed drawings.]
7. Each group of desks must be separated from the contiguous group, either by
an alley for the passage of the children, or by a space sufficient for drawing and
withdrawing the curtains.
It will be sufficient to provide an alley for the passage of children at one end
only of each group. At the other end a space of 3 inches will suffice for drawing
and withdrawing the curtains.
[Alleys intended for the passage of children must not be less than 18 inches
wide in the smallest school, and need not be more than 2 feet wide in any school,
unless where a door or fireplace requires a greater interval.]
8. The best width for a school-room, intended to accommodate any number of
children between 48 and 144, is 17 or 18 feet. This gives sufficient space for
each group of benches and desks to be ranged (with its depth of three rows; along
one wall, for the teachers to stand at a proper distance from their classes, and for
the classes to be drawn out, when necessary, in front of the desks around the mas-
ter or pupil-teachers. (No additional accommodation being gained by greater
width in the room, the cost of such an increase in the dimensions is thrown
away.)
9. Where the number of children to be accommodated is too great for them to
be arranged in five, or at most, six groups, an additional school-room should be
built, and placed under the charge of an additional schoolmaster, who may. how-
ever, be subordinate to the head master, or a large school may be built on the plan
of diagram No. 6. Where neither of these arrangements can be accomplished,
the school-room should not be less than 32 feet wide, and the groups should be
arranged along both sides of the room, the children in all cases facing the centre.
(But such an arrangement is very inferior to that of the single row along one
wall. The opposite classes see each other, and their several teachers have to
stand too close, together. See Preliminary Remarks, B.)
10. A curtain, capable of being readily drawn and withdrawn, should separate
* Specimen of the plans recommended by the committee, combining the foregoing object
may be seen on page
PLANS RECOMMENDED BY COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL. Q7
the several groups ; but not so as, when drawn, to project into the room more than
4 inches in fropt of the foremost desk.
11. If the school-room be lighted from above, which is the best possible mode,
great care should be taken to prevent the skylights from leaking, and to provide
channels for the water which the condensation of the children's breath will deposit
on the inside of the glass.
12. All sashes, both upper and lower, should be hung ; and all windows, whether
in the roof or elsewhere, should be made to open.
13. It is better to have a few large and well placed windows than many small
ones.
14. It is important to provide that the faces of the children and teachers, and also
the blackboards and diagrams, should be placed in full clear light.
15. If the school-room be not lighted from above, there should be windows, if
possible, at each end and on one side of the room. The windows should be car-
ried up as high as possible ; and those which are placed at the backs of the chil-
dren, an arrangement which should be avoided as far as possible, should not come
down within 5 feet 6 inches, or at least 5 feet, from the floor.
16. When the benches and desks are arranged on both sides of the room, it
should be lighted from above, or there should be, if possible, windows in each of
the side walls.
17. Except when a school-room is very Abroad, there should be no fireplace in
the center of an end wall.
[A good place for a fireplace is under a window.]
18. The desks should be either quite flat or very slightly inclined. The objec-
tions to the inclined desks are, that pencils, pens, &c., are constantly slipping from
it, and that it San not be conveniently used as a table. The objection to the flat
desk is, that it obliges the children to stoop. A raised ledge in front of a desk
interferes with the arm in writing.
19. A large gallery for the simultaneous instruction of two or more classes, with-
out desks, may advantageously be provided in a class-room or at one end of the
school-room. Such a gallery may be better placed along than across the end of
the school-room, for the reason stated in the Preliminary Remarks, B.
20. No such gallery, nor any gallery in an infant school-room, should be placed
in front of a window, unless it be very high up above the heads of the children
when they stand on the top row of the gallery.
21. No infant gallery should hold more than eighty or ninety infante.
22. An infant school should (besides a large gallery) have a small group of
benches and desks, for the occasional use of the elder infants.
23. The alleys leading to a gallery should be at its sides, not in its center. (See
Rules 5 and 6.)
24. Great care should be taken that the valves which admit the fresh air into
the school-room should be placed so as not to create draft where the teachers and
children sit.
25. An easel and a blackboard should be provided for each class, and a larger
blackboard for the gallery.
26. The dimensions shown in the drawings annexed to this memorandum, are
adapted to children of from 11 to 12 years of age. It is very important that
these dimensions should be graduated to suit the sizes of the elder and younger
children in a school. "
Although the following diagrams of the internal arrangements of
school-rooms are drawn in reference to schools organized on a peculiar
plan, as set forth in the foregoing memorandum, they will suggest valu-
able hints to a judicious architect or committee. There are some features
in them, which we do not approve, and we think will not be found in
practice as convenient as several of the more recent plans embodied in
this volume.
88
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
No. 1. A School for 48 children of one sex, in 4 classes ; with a class-room
having a gallery capable of containing two of the classes.
. 1^ .
No. 2. A School for 48 boys and girls, in 4 classes ; with a class-room having
a gallery capable of containing two of the classes.
PLANS OF COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL.
39
No. 3. A School for 72 children of one sex, in classes ; with a class-room
having a gallery capable of containing two of the classes.
r
z
z
E
i-
o
8
" fl' /7 /X 9
/' / rr
39. 3" x
18 te'HICH
No. 4. A School for 72 boys and girls, in 4 classes ; with a class-room having
a gallery capable of containing two of the classes.
s:a". /;<?. ^;^5 j'. 6- a', o-- r:e"-0. o'--
QQ SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
No. 5. A School for 120 children of one sex. in 5 classes; with a class-room
having a gallery capable of containing two of the classes.
No. 6. A School for 168 children of one sex, in 7 classes, with a gallery ; and
with a class-room having a gallery capable of containing two of the classes.
PLANS OF COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL.
91
No. 7. A School for 240 children of one sex, in 8 classes, and a gallery ; with
a class-room having also a gallery capable of containing two of the classes.
z
z
z
s
ff
h-
1
o
f'
2' 12' J
" 12'
" ]$'
GALLERY
f
I
,
f
72'. 0*
ff7.0 X 32 12 HIGH
s '...-.j2'3-12'- 1.6-12- 3- -12'- 3-
No. 8. Infant Schools for 100 infants, with a gallery capable of accommoda-
ting 72 infants, and a group of benches and desks capable of accommodating 15
infants.
Q2 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN OF A VILLAGE SCHOOL-HOUSE IN ENGLAND.
Fig. 4.
^ We are indebted fo A. J. Downing, Esq. for the reduced cuts of a plan by J.
Kendal, for a National School near Brentwood, in England/' It affords accom-
modation for sixty children. The door is sheltered by a porch, and on the
other side is a covered waiting-place for the children coming before school-
hours- The cost, with the belfry, was $750. A house in this old English
domestic character would give a pleasing variety to the everlasting sameness of
our rural school architecture.
Fig. 5. GROUND PLAN.
PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS. 93
PLANS FOR RURAL TOWNS AND VILLAGES, RECOMMENDED BY THE
MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION.
The following Plans were prepared by Mr. Leach, one of Jhe agents
employed by the Board of Education in Massachusetts to co-operate
with their Secretary in visiting schools in different towns, and in con-
ferring with school officers and teachers in regard to the construction
and condition of school-houses, the teaching and governing of the
schools, and the action of the towns in relation to them.
MODE OF VENTILATION.
By your particular direction, I have given considerable attention to the sub-
ject of ventilation. In all my examination, I have found but few houses well
ventilated. In a large majority of cases, there are no means of ventilating but by
opening the windows and doors. And where attempts have been made, it has
been but imperfectly accomplished. The ventilating tubes have almost invariably
been too small. As the result of my investigations, I would make the following
suggestions. To ventilate a room properly containing fifty persons, the ventilat-
ing tube should not be less than fifteen square inches inside. The tube should be
made of very thin boards, well seasoned, with a smooth inside surface, and it
should be perfectly tight. It should be wholly within the room, and opposite to
the register or stove. There should be an opening at the top and bottom. The
ventilating tubes should be connected in the attic, and conducted through the
roof, and furnished with a suitable cap. Another method, which is far prefera-
ble, is as follows : The smoke pipes may be conducted into a cast iron pipe rest-
ing on soap-stone in the attic floor, instead of a chimney built from the bottom of
the cellar. This cast iron pipe may be surrounded by a brick chimney into which
the ventilating tubes should lead. The space in the chimney should be equal to
the spaces in the tubes, after making suitable allowance for the pipe, and the in-
crease of friction. By this arrangement, the air in the tubes will be rarefied, and
a rapid current of air produced. All attempts to ventilate rooms with tubes in
the wall, or of less size than fourteen or fifteen square inches for fifty persons, have,
so far as I have examined, failed. No artificial means will secure good ventilation
when the temperature of the room and that of the outer air are nearly the same,
without the application of heat to the air in the tubes. Unless the air is heated
before being admitted into the room, it should be let in at the top, and not at the
bottom, and always through a large number of small apertures. The quantity of
pure air admitted must always be equal to that which is to be forced out.
The expense of introducing a proper ventilating apparatus into houses already
built in the country towns, will vary from twenty-five to a hundred dollars, ac-
cording to the size and character of the house.
DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING BLACKDOARDS.
To 100 pounds of common mortar, add 25 pounds of calcined plaster; to this
add twelve papers, of the largest size, of lampblack. This is to be put on as a skim
eoat, one sixth of an inch thick to rough plastering, and should be made as smooth
as possible by hard rubbing. It may also be put on to old plastering, after it has
been thoroughly raked and prepared. This should be covered with a coat of
paint, made in the following manner ; To one quart of spirits, add one gill of
boiled oil. To this add one of the largest papers of lampblack, after it has been
thoroughly mixed with spirits. To this add one pound of the finest flour of
crnery. This paint may also be put on boards or canvas. This should be con-
stantly stirred, when used, to prevent the emery from settling. If too much oil,
or if any varnish be used, the board will become more or less glazed and unfit for
use. Some prefer to have the board behind the teacher green or bronze, which
is more grateful to the eye. This can be done by using chrome green instead
of lampblack. None but the very finest flour of emery should be used. Some
prefer pulverized pumice-stone to emery.
NOTE. All the Plans are drawn on a scale of ten feet to an inch, with the ex-
ception of Numbers 9 and 10, which are drawn on a scale of twelve feet to an inch.
04
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN No. 1, FOR RURAL OR VILLAGE SCHOOL-HOUSE.
SO A.
d
H Y 8.
'14x8
This plan represents the ground floor of a school-house one story high, 46 by
30 feet on the inside.
e, e Entries, one for each sex, 14 by 8 feet, a Anteroom, 14 by 14 feet.
This may be used as an assembly-room for the pupils before school and at noon,
or for a recitation-room and library. Where it is practicable, there should be
separate rooms for the pupils to assemble in. This can usually be provided in the
basement at a small expense, p Teacher's platform, 14 feet long and 6 feet wide,
and 7 or eight inches high. Behind the teacher's desk there should always be n
blackboard the whole length of the platform, from 4 to 5 feet wide, the lower
edge of which should be 3 feet from the top of the platform. /, /Aisles. The
inner aisles should be from 16 to 18 inches wide. The outer aisles from 36 to 48
inches, d, <Z, d, d Seats for two pupils each. The desks should be from 40 to 48
inches long ; and the desks and seats should be from 30 to 36 inches wide, and
adapted in height, to the age of the pupils, c Closet for maps, books of refer-
ence, &c. s Stove. The dotted lines an air-box, 10 inches square, to admit
pure air. t>, c Ventilating tubes, 12 by 10 inches each. They should be placed
within the room, and made of thin boards, perfectly tight, and smooth on the in-
side. They should be united in the attic, and lead through the roof.
PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS.
95
t, i Settees for recitations, o, o, o, o Doors. , , u Windows.
Blackboards should be placed entirely around the room except in the narrow
spaces between the windows. They should be from 4 to 5 feet wide for large
scholars, and 3 or 3^ for small ones. The lower edge should he from 2^ to 3 feet
from the floor. Every school-house designed for both sexes should have two
entrances, one for each sex. There should also be two separate backyards, in-
closed with a high tight fence. The entrance to the water-closets should be
through the basement, or through doors on the outside 1 which should be kept
locked. This is a very important arrangement, and has too generally been over-
looked. The best interest of a school can not be secured without it. It is desira-
ble that there should be a basement under every school-house. The bottom may
bo covered with a floor, with brick, or with hydraulic cement. The basement
should be divided into two parts, one for each sex. There should be a well in
the center, and a pump and sink in each part. A part of it can conveniently be
used for storing fuel, &c. The best mode of heating a school-room is by coal or
wood furnaces in the basement. When stoves are used, the pipe may be con-
ducted through the floors, well protected by soap-stone, into a chimney in the
attic. In this way valuable room may be saved, which would otherwise be occu-
pied by the chimney. It is also desirable that the teacher's desk be placed at the
end of the building at which the pupils enter.
Single desks are generally to be preferred to double ones. The whole expense
for room and desks is about twenty per cent. more. When practicable, the house
should be so placed, that pupils as they sit, may face the north. In rooms to be
used in summer as well as winter, it would be better that there should be no win-
dows* on the south. In all cases there should be outside or inside blinds. Out-
side blinds are to be preferred to keep a room cool. Inside blinds can be more
easily managed to modify the light. The gable end should also be toward the
south, since by this arrangement the roofs would be much less^heated in summer.
On the ceiling of every school-room the four points of the compass should be
painted in distinct colors, with letters designating the several points.
PLAN ISTo. 2.
36ft.
ft.
This plan is essentially the same as the preceding one, excepting in size. It is 36
by 26 feet inwde. This can be adopted when it is desirable to sacrifice conveni-
ence for economy. It will be perceived that the outer aisles are much narrower
* It will be better to provide curtains and shutters to modify, rather than a blank wall to
exclude altogether the cheerful sunlight. H. B.
96
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
than those in the Plan Number One. Wide aisles are much more convenient for
scholars to stand in during recitations, and to work at the blackboard without being
annoyed by others passing them. It .is also important that the aisles be wide
enough to accommodate settees on days of examination, &c.
PLAN No. 3.
30ft.
cL
f
This represents the ground floor of a building two stories high. It is 48 by 30
feet inside. The description of Plan Number One will apply to this, with the ex-
ception of the entries.
e, e Entries, one for each sex, 16 by 8 feet, a Anteroom. The one on the
lower floor communicating with the boys' entry, the upper one communicating
with the girls' entry. There never should be winding stairs in a school-house.
hey should be made as represented on the plan, or in some form with broad
B if PS i j u / landm S P lace should ne ver be directly opposite the door. The rooms
d be from 11 to 13 feet in height. In large schools the outside door should
wing outward, to enable the pupils to rush out easily in case of an alarm.
PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS.
PLAN No. 4.
28ft.
This differs from Number Three chiefly in its size. Its dimensions are 40 by
28 feet inside. It has no anteroom, and the entrances are on the sides. There
should always be a basement under houses constructed after this plan. This
should be divided into two rooms, which should be well finished, warmed, and
lighted.
98
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN No. 5.
a
15X12.
e
15X9.-
(L
15X12.
This represents the lower room of a building two stories high. Its dimensions
are 50 by 42 feet inside, and contains two rooms and two anterooms that may be
used for recitations ; and two entries, one for each sex. The doors are at the
end, but when it is practicable it would be better to have them on the side.
, e Entries, 15 by 9 feet each, a, a Ante-rooms, 15 by 12 feet each.
c, c Closets for books and apparatus. The windows should be so placed as not
to be directly opposite to the teacher. Neither pupils nor teachers should be com-
pelled to face a strong light.
PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS.
99
PLAN No. 6.
44ft.
This is a plan of the upper room of a building, the lower floor of which has
been described in Number Five. It contains one school-room, 44 feet by 31, two
recitation rooms, and two entries. The school-room will accommodate 96 pupils.
The recitation rooms can be used as an assembly-room by the pupils, in the morn-
ing and at noon. There are many serious objections to large rooms, excepting for
advanced pupils, who learn most of their lessons out of school. The testimony of
nearly all experienced teachers is against large rooms for schools in which there
are numerous classes.
100
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN No. 7.
44 t.
16X11.
a
16X11.
This is a plan of the lower floor of a building 48 by 44 feet. It contains two rooms
for primary or intermediate scholars. Two modes of arranging the seats are pre-
sented, that either may be adopted. The entrances are on the sides. The form
of the stairs differs from the preceding plans, and has some advantages. There
are two anterooms, 16 by 11 feet each.
PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS.
101
PLAN No. 8.
dLOA.
a,
The dimensions of the building represented by this plan are 52 by 40 feet
inside. There are two rooms on the lower floor, for small scholars. The en-
trances are on the sides. There are two anterooms, with closets, in which there
is a sink and a pump, communicating with each. This and Number Nine are
regarded as the best plans for houses two stories high, containing four rooms each.
There are many advantages in having the stairs as represented on the plan, as
they occupy less room and there will be much less disturbance by pupils going
up and down.
102
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE
PLAN No. 9.
48ft.
80*30
This is similar in its outline to Number Eight. Its dimensions are 60 by 48
feet inside. The entries, anterooms, and closets, are the same in form as Num-
ber Eight. It has also a large recitation room or library, (marked L) communi-
cating with both rooms. This combines more advantages, perhaps, than are to
be found in any of the plans presented. If the building is built two stories and a
half high, a large upper room might be finished for assembling the whole school
at stated times, or one or both of the partitions might be made to slide up by
weights.
PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS.
103
PLAN No. 10.
45 ft.
The dimensions of this building are 60 by 45 feet inside. The entrances are
on the end. The form of the stairs is similar to Number Seven. In other re-
spects it resembles plans already described.
104
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
FLAN No. 11.
40ft
1
The dimensions of this building are 60 feet by 40. It differs from the preceding
chiefly in the size of the entries, and in the form of the stairs ; also, in having
much smaller anterooms. The entrances are also on the sides.
PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS.
PLAN No. 12.
105
An excellent plan, when furnished with a suitable basement, where pupils cuu
assemble before and after school, and at recess, when the weather is unpleasant.
The sexes enter on the opposite sides of the house. The entrances to the water-
closets should be from the basement.
Plan No. 13, represents the lower floor of a building, with three rooms on the
lower floor. The arrangements of the rooms are the same as already described.
106
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN No. 13.
u,
42ft.
PLANS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS.
107
108
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN OF VENTILATION.
, v Ventiducts or ventilating tubes. These should be at least 14 inches
square for a room containing 50 scholars, a, a Apertures into the ventiducts
p Cast iron smoke flue, resting on soapstone in the attic floor, c, c Chimney
surrounding the smoke flue. This should contain as many square inches as the
ventiducts leading into it, after deducting the space occupied by the Hue. The
inside of the chimney should be circular, and plastered perfectly smooth. This
mode of ventilating is applicable to any method of heating, either by stoves or by
furnaces. The heat of the smoke flue will rarefy the air in the chimney, and
produce a strong draught in the ventiducts. This is regarded as the most
effective, and, at the same time, the most economical mode of ventilation. The
lower aperture should always be kept open. The upper aperture should be closed,
excepting near the close of the morning and afternoon session, when it should be
opened. It has been ascertained, by repeated experiments, that carbonic gas
diffuses itself rapidly into every part of the room. In a room of 50 scholars, from
200 to 500 cubic feet of air are vitiated every minute, and unless some effectual
means are devised for expelling the impure air, the most serious consequences
must ensue.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
109
PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-ROOM, RECOMMENDED BY DR. A. D LOUD,
COLUMBUS, OHIO.
The following plan and description are copied from the Ohio
School Journal, Vol. II., edited by Dr. Lord, Superintendent of the
Common Schools of Columbus, Ohip.
The building here presented should be 20 by 3G feet on the ground, or, at
least, 25 by 35 feet inside. The plan is drawn on a scale of ten feet to the inch.
A C Entries 8 feet square, one for each sex.
B Library and apparatus room, 8 by 9 feet, which may be used for a recita-
tion room for small sized classes.
D Teacher's platform, behind which, on the wall, should be a blackboard 13
feet long by 5 feet wide.
E E E E Recitation seats, those on the sides placed against the wall, those
in front of the platform having backs and being movable.
F F F Free space, at least two feet wide, next the wall on three sides of the
room.
G Desk, for two pupils, four feet long by 18 inches wide.
H Seat, " " do " " 13 " "
I Centre aisle two feet wide ; the aisles on either side of this should be from
18 to 21 inches wide.
The area on either side and in front of the Teacher's platform, is intended
for reading and spelling classes, and any other class exercises in which the
pupils stand; and the space next the wall may be used to arrange the greater
part of the school as one class in any general'exercises requiring it.
Four windows are represented on each side of the house, and two on the end
opposite the Teacher's stand. The door to the Library-room opens from one
of the entries, and the room is lighted by a large window in the front end of the
house.
PRINCIPLES OF SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES RECENTLY ERECTED.
Under this head will be found plans and descriptions of a few
of the best school-houses, which have been recently erected in
Connecticut and Rhode Island, for schools of different grades, from
designs or directions furnished by the author of this treatise. They
are not presented as faultless specimens of school architecture, but
as embracing, each, some points of excellence, either in style, con-
struction, or arrangement. Although the author, particularly as
Commissioner of Public Schools for Rhode Island, was consulted
in almost every instance by the local building committee, and was
always gratified in having opportunities to furnish plans, or make
suggestions, yet he was seldom able to persuade the committee or
the carpenters to carry out his plans and suggestions thoroughly.
Something would be taken from the height, or the length, or the
breadth ; some objections would be made to the style of the exte-
rior or the arrangement of the interior ; and particularly the plans
recommended for securing warmth and ventilation were almost in-
variably modified, and are in many instances entirely neglected.
He desires, therefore, not to be held responsible for the details of any
one house as it now stands, for, being thus held responsible, he
should probably receive credit for improvements which others are as
much entitled to as himself, and should in more instances be held
accountable for errors of taste, and deficiencies in internal arrange-
ments, against which he protested with those having charge of the
construction. He wishes the reader to bring all the plans published
in this volume, no matter by whom recommended, or where erected,
to the test of the principles set forth on pages 47 and 48. If in an}'
particular they fall short of the standard therein established, so far
they differ from the designs which the author desires to see followed
in houses erected under his own eye. But, with some reservation,
most of the school-houses recently erected in Rhode Island, (and
the same may be said of the new houses in Hartford, described in
this volume,) can be pointed to as embracing many improvements in
school architecture. Although the last state in New England to
enter on the work of establishing a system of common schools, it is
believed, she has now a system in operation not inferior in efficiency
to any of her sister states. Be that as it may, Rhode Island can
now boast of more good school-houses, and fewer poor ones, in pro-
portion to the whole number, than any other State more than one
hundred and fifty thousand dollars having been voluntarily voted for
this purpose in less than three years, by school districts, not includ-
ing the city of Providence.
To Thomas A. Teft, Esq., Architect, of Providence, much credit
is due for the taste which he has displayed in the designs furnished
by him, and for the elevations which he drew for plans furnished or
suggested by the Commissioner. He should, not, however, be held
responsible for the alterations made in his plans by the committees
and carpenters having charge of the erection of the building.
With all their imperfections of execution, Mr. Teft's plans are
among the best specimens of School Architecture.
112
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
2. PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES RECENTLY
ERECTED.
The following school-houses are selected for representation and descrip-
tion, not because they are superior to all others, or are unexceptionable in
every respect, but because the plans could be conveniently obtained, and in
them all, the great principles of school-architecture are observed.
PLANS, &c., OF SCHOOL-HOUSE, DISTRICT No. 6, WINDSOR, CT.
The building stands 60 ft. from the highway, near the center of an ele-
vated lot which slopes a little to the south and east. Much the larger por-
tion of the lot is in front, affording a pleasant play ground, while in the rear
there is a woodshed, and other appropriate buildings, with a separate yard
for boys and girls. The walls are of brick, and are hollow, so as to save
expense in securing the antaes or pilasters, and to prevent dampness.
This building is 33 ft. 6 inches long, '21 ft. 8 inches wide, and 18 ft. 9
inches high from the ground to the eaves, including 2 ft. base or under-
pinning.
The entries A A, one for boys and the other for girls, are in the rear ol
the building, through the woodshed, which, with the yard, is also divided by
a partition. Each entry is 7 ft. 3 inches, by 9 ft. 3 inches, and is supplied
with a scraper and mat for the feet, and shelves and hooks for outer gar-
ments.
The school-room is 24 ft. 5 inches long, by 19 ft. 4 inches wide, and 15
ft. 6 inches high in the clear, allowing au area of 472 ft. including the re-
cess for the teacher's platform, and an allowance of 200 cubic feet of air to
a school of 36.
The teacher's platform B, is 5 ft. 2 inches wide, by 6 ft. deep, including
3 ft. of recess, and 9 inches high. On it stands a table, the legs of which
are set into the floor, so as to be firm, and at the same time movable, in
case the platform is needed for declamation, or other exercises of the
DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE, WINDSOR.
113
scholars. Back of the teacher is a range of shelves b, already supplied with a
library of near 400 volumes, and a globe, outline maps, and other apparatus.
On the top of the case is a clock. . A blackboard 5 ft. by 4, is suspended
on weights, and steadied by a groove on each end, so as to admit of being
raised and lowered by the teacher, directly in front of the book case, and in
full view of the whole school At the bottom of the blackboard is a trough to
receive the chalk and the sponge, or soft cloth.
The passages D D, are 2 ft wide, and extend round the room ; E E are
15 inches, and allow of easy access to the seats and desks on either hand.
F is 5 ft. 3 inches, and in the center stands an open stove 0, the pipe of
which goes into one of the flues, a. The temperature is regulated by a ther- ,
mometer.
. Each pupil is provided with a desk G, and seat H, the front of the former,
constituting the back or support of the latter, which slopes 2-J- inches in 16.
The seat also inclines a little from the
edge. The seats vary in height, ~~f?~~f? "j"HJf
from 9 inches to 17, the youngest L\ vT y( ^\
children occupying those nearest the
platform. The desks are 2 ft. long by 18 inches wide, with a shelf beneath
for books, and a groove on the back side b, (Fig. 4) to receive a slate, with
which each desk is furnished by the district. The upper surface of the
desk, except 3 inches of the most distant portion, slopes 1 inch in a foot,
and the edge is in the same perpendicular line with the front of the seat.
The level portion of the desk has a groove running along the line of the
Top of Desk.
Section of Seat and Desk.
slope a, (Fig. 4) so as to prevent pencils and pens from, rolling off, and an
opening c, (Fig 8) to receive an inkstand, which is covered by a metal-
lic lid.
The windows, I, three on the north and three on the south side, contain
each 40 panes of 8 by 10 glass, are hung (both upper and lower sash) with
weights so as to admit of being raised or lowerea conveniently.
Ti A SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN or SCHOOL-HOUSE IN MEADOW DISTRICT, IN BLOOMFIELD, CONN.
The new school-house in Meadow District, in the town of Bloomfield, for loca-
tion, neatness, mode of seating, warming, and ventilation, is a good specimen of a
cheap, convenient, and attractive edifice for a small country district. It is built of
brick, and the cost, excluding the land, and including fences, appendages, and fur-
niture, was about $500. The style and arrangement of the seats and desks are
indicated in Figs. 3 and 4. The building is 30 feet by 20. The district is indebted
mainly to Hon. Francis Gillette for his zeal and determination in getting up the
plan, and superintending the work.
The room is heated by Mott's Ventilating School Stove, designed both for wood
and hard coal. Fresh air is introduced from outside of the building by a flue
beneath the floor, and is warmed by passing along the heated surfaces of the
stove as indicated in the following section.
FIG. 2.
A. A chamber, for coal or
wood.
B. A revolving grate with a cam
motion, by which the ashes
are easily detached and made
to drop into the ash-pit be-
low.
C. Ash-pit, by which also the
draught can be regulated, and
the stove made an air-tight.
D. Duct, or flue under the floor,
by which fresh air from with-
out is admitted under and
around the stove, and circu-
lates in the direction indi-
cated by the arrows.
DISTRICT SCHOOL HOUSE IN BLOOMFIELD.
115
The smoke-pipe is carried in the usual way, high enough to prevent any
injurious radiation of heat upon the heads of the pupils below, to the centre of
the opposite end of the room, where, after passing through the ceiling.it enters
the ventilating flue, which, commencing at the floor, is carried up through the
attic and out above the roof, as shown in Figures 3 and 4. The heat of th<}
smoke-pipe produces a lively upward current of the air in the upper portion
of the ventilating flue, suflicienl to draw off' the lower stratum of air near the
floor, and at the same time draw down, and diffuse equally through the room,
the fresh air which is introduced and warmed by the stove at the opposite end.
A Front entrance.
B Girls' Entrance and lobby.
C Boys' do. do.
D Teachers' platform.
E Seat and desk, for the pupils.
S Mott's ventilating school stove.
V Flue for ventilation.
F Seats for classes at recitation.
d Teacher's desk.
e Library of reference in front of
teacher's desk.
c Closets for school library and ap-
paratus.
f Fence dividing back yard.
116
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN BAE.RINGTON, R. I.
The above cut represents in perspective the new school-house in District No.
2, in the town of Harrington, Rhode Island the most attractive, convenient,
and complete structure of the kind in any agricultural district in the Stale and.
it is believed, in New England.
The house stands back from the highway in a lot, of an acre in extent, and
commands an extensive view up and down Narraganset Bay, and of the rich
cultivated fields for miles in every other direction.
The building is 40 feet long by 25 wide, and 12 feet high in the clear, and
is built after working plans drawn by Mr. Teft, of Providence.
The school-room is calculated to accommodate 64 pupils, with seats and
desks each for two pupils, similar to the folowing cut, and arranged as in
Figure 3.
The end-piece, or supports, both of the desk and seat, are of cast-iron, and
the wood-work is attached by screws. They are made of eight sizes, giving a
seat from ten inches to seventeen, and a desk at the edge next to the scholar
from seventeen to twenty-six inches from the floor.
Each pupil, when properly seated, can rest his feet on the floor without the
muscle of the thigh pressing hard upon the front edge of the seat, and with a
support for the muscles of the back.
DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN BARRINGTON.
117
The yards and entrance for the boys and girls are entirely separate, and each
is appropriately fitted up with scraper, mats, broom, water-pails, sink, hooks
and shelves.
A Front entrance.
B Girls' entrance and lobby, fitted up with mats, scrapers, hooks, shelves.
C Boys' entrance.
D Teacher's platform.
S Boston Ventilating Stove.
-V Flue for ventilation surmounted, by Emerson's Ejector.
L Cases for library.
E Closets for apparatus, &c.
The school is well supplied with blackboards, maps, globes, and diagrams,
and such other instrumentalities as are necessary and useful in the studies
usually taught in a district school.
There is abundance of unoccupied space around the sides of the room and
between the ranges of desks lo allow of the free movements of the teacher and
of the pupils, in passing to and from their seals.
There is also a district library of about 600 volumes, containing a large
number of books of reference, such as Dictionaries, Encyclopedia, and a va-
riety of the best text books in the several studies of the school, to enable the
teacher to extend his knowledge, and illustrate his recitations by additional
information.
There are about one hundred volumes selected with reference to the youngest
class of children, and about 400 volumes in the different departments of useful
knowledge, calculated for circulation among the older pupils, in the families
of the district generally.
The maps, apparatus and library were purchased by the Commissioner ol
Public Schools at an expense of $250, which was contributed by five or six
individuals. The building, furniture and land, cost about $1200.
The school-room is warmed and ventilated under the direction of Mr.Gard-
ner Chilson, Boston, by one of the Boston Ventilating Stoves, and by a flue
constructed similar to those recently introduced into the Boston Public School
houses by Dr. Henry G. Clark, and surmounted by Emerson's Ejector.
A cut and description of this stove, and of MotCs Ventilating Stove for bum-
ing wood as well as coal, is given on the next page.
The flue for ventilation is carried up in the partition wall, and is constructed
of well seasoned boards, planed smooth on the inside.
118
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
More than sixty District school-houses have been erected in Rhode Island
on the same general plan as that presented in the cuts of the Barrington and
Glocester school-house, with some slight variations required by the nature of
the site, or the peculiar views of the majority of the district, or of the building
committee, in each case. The following plans present some of these modifi-
cations. The first is 34 ft. by 25, and the second, 36 ft. by 27.
PLAN OF SCHOOL-HOUSE IN DISTRICT No. 10, CRANSTON.
\ .
$ .,
i-D
I c
I
^ -
V
t^.^j. f f >,;.s /, -, .
_
u.
fo fl
O F -^
o C
]
A
n fc
Q \fczz.
.
o n
o y
|
A Front entrance.
B Girls' entrance.
C Boys' do.
D Teacher's platform.
E Library.
S Worcester Ventilat-
ing Stove.
V Flue for ventilation.
F Seat and desk with
iron ends,
g Cold air duct.
V
o
o
o
o
I
o
o
o
o
V
1 ^
'I
i
!<
w
!]
![
B
J L -. . . ,
D
c
F
PLAN OF SCHOOL-HOUSE AT CLAYVILLE, SCITUATB.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN OF SCHOOL-HOUSE IN CENTREVILLE, WARWICK, R. I
The following plan presents a mode of seating a District School-House sim
ilar to that adopted in several public school-houses in the city of New York.
T
I
T
.
o
O "
"O
O
O
o
O
o
o
o
r>
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
oooo
O
r.
o
B
1 1
"3 C
o
o
o
',';
o
O
E
D
3
A
o
o.
O
p
D
o
D
3
b
ooooo
o
o
o
oooo
oooo
o
Q
D
OOOC
o
o
o
n
r>
; >
' 1
u
-'
O
o
o
V
'' p=T
1
O
The building is 50 feet long Cbeside'the porch 5-^ feet in front) by 30 feet wide
A Porch. R Recit"ation-room for assistant.
B Girls' entrance and lobby. S Stove.
C Boys' do. T Smoke flue.
D Teacher's platform. V Flue for ventilator.
E Mott's school desk and chair.
The above mode of seating has been adopted in other districts, and in one in-
stance, with the desks attached at one end to the wall, as in the following plan
recommended by Hon. Ira Mayhew. There are serious objections 10 this ar-
rangement of the seats and desk.
D, entrance and inner doors. W, windows. E, entries, lighted over doors,
one for boys and the other for girls. A, teacher's platform. B, blackboard,
reaching entirely across the end of the house. T, teacher's desk. H, desks 1 1
feet long, except the two next the entrance doors. C, Mott : s patent cast-iron
chairs. S stove. O, an air tube under the floor, through which pure air from
without is introduced beneath the stove. L, shelves for library, apparatus, etc.
120
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES RECENTLY ERECTED IN NEW
HAMPSHIRE.
The following plans, and the descriptions of the same, are taken, by
permission, from the "Third Annual Report of the Commissioner of Com-
mon Schools (Hox. R. S. RUST,) to the Legislature of New Hampshire,
Jamuiry, 1849."
PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN DUBLIN, N. H.
The building is 42 by 32 feet on the ground, and 11 feet high in the clear.
The school-room of 29 by 35 feet inside, and is furnished with 64 seats (1,1,1,)
and as many desks (H,H,H.) The desks are made of birch board, and painted
green, each 2 feet long and from 10 to 18 inches wide, and are all numbered.
The supports at the end of the desks are framed down through the floor into
the sleepers, or joints under the floor. The seats are in the form of wooden
chair bottoms, and are 16 inches down to 10 in height, and are placed at the
left hand of the writing desk, so as to make it convenient for the scholar in
writing, and give him space to stand within the line of his desk. The outside
aisles are 18 inches, the center 24 inches, and the outer 16 inches wide. There
are movable seats (N,N,) in front, and on either side of the teacher; for recita-
tion. The entrances (G,G,), one for boys and one for girls, are fitted up for
hats, bonnets, &c., and can be used for recitation rooms. Back of the teacher's
platform (A,) is a small room for a library, apparatus, and the use of the
teacher. The room is heated by one of the Worcester Common School
Stoves, which cost about $18. By means of a flue under the floor, the air is
introduced beneath the stove, and circulates through heated tubes before it is
admitted into the room, on the principle of a furnace.
The ventilation of the room is partially secured by openings into the attic,
and hence into the open air.
SCHOOL-HOUSES IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. J21
PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN GREENLAND, N. H.
The building is 50 feet long by 30 feet wide, and 12 feet high in the clear.
It is built of brick. A large entry (E), is partitioned off from the school-room,
and fitted up not only to receive the hats, bonnets, &c., of the pupils, but to
accommodate all the pupils in rainy weather during recess, as well as those
who reside at a distance, when they arrive at the school-house before the
school-room is opened, and those who may be obliged to stay during recess.
The entry and the school-room is heated by a large stove (S) placed in the
partition. The teacher's platform (P) is placed at the end of the school-room,
and is raised one step above the floor. Back of the teacher, along the wall,
are cases (B) for apparatus, and a well-selected library of 200 vols. There
are 48 separate desks of different heights, framed on posts permanently fixed
to the timbers of the floor, and fitted with seats of corresponding heights set in
cast iron frames secured to the floor ; both seats and desks are stained and
varnished.
122
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PRIMARY SCHOOL ix WESTERLY, R. L
VILLAGE SCHOOL-HOUSE IN ALLENDALE, N. PROVIDENCE, R. L
UNION SCHOOLS. 123
PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES FOR UNION SCHOOLS.
BEFORE describing a few of the best school-houses which have
been recently erected in the large villages of Rhode Island, for two
or more schools of different grades in the same building, a brief con-
sideration of the importance of classification, or gradation, as ap-
plied to the schools of a district, or town, cannot be deemed
irrelevant.
To enable children to derive the highest degree of benefit from
their attendance at school, they should go through a regular course
of training in a succession of classes, and schools arranged according
to similarity of age, standing, and attainments, under teachers pos-
sessing the qualifications best adapted to each grade of school. The
practice has been almost universal in Nefr England, and in other
states where the organization of the schools is based upon the
division of the territory into school districts, to provide but one
school for as many children of both sexes, and of all ages from four
to sixteen years, as can be gathered in from certain territorial limits,
into one apartment, under one teacher ; a female teacher in summer,
and a male teacher in winter. The disadvantages of this practice,
both to pupils and teachers, are great and manifold.
There is a large amount of physical suffering and discomfort, as
well as great hinderarices in the proper arrangement of scholars and
classes, caused by crowding the older and younger pupils into the
same school-room, without seats and furniture appropriate to either ;
and the greatest amount of suffering and discomfort falls upon the
young, who are least able to bear it, and who, in consequence, ac-
quire a distaste to study and the school-room.
The work of education going on in such schools, cannot be
appropriate and progressive. There cannot be a regular course of
discipline and instruction, adapted to the age and proficiency of
pupils a series of processes, each adapted to certain periods in the
development of the mind and character, the first intended to be fol-
lowed by a second, and the second by a third, the latter always
depending on the earlier, and all intended to be conducted on the
same general principles, and by methods varying with the work to
be done, and the progress already made.
With the older and younger pupils in the same room, there cannot
be a system of discipline which shall be equally well adapted to both
classes. If it secures the cheerful obedience and subordination of
the older, it will press with unwise severity upon the younger
pupils. If it be adapted to the physical wants, and peculiar tem-
peraments of the young, it will endanger the good order and habits
of study of the more advanced pupils, by the frequent change of
pbsture and position, and other indulgences which it permits and
requires of the former.
With studies ranging from the alphabet and the simplest rudiments
of knowledge, to the higher branches of an English education, a
variety of methods of instruction and illustration are called for,
which are seldom found together, or in an equal degree, in the same
124 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
teacher, and which can never be pursued with equal success in the
same school-room. The elementary principles of knowledge, to be
made intelligible and interesting to the young, must be presented by
a large use of the oral and simultaneous methods. The higher
branches, especially all mathematical subjects, require patient ap-
plication and habits of abstraction, on the part of the older pupils,
which can with difficulty, if at all, be attained by many pupils, amid
a multiplicity of distracting exercises, movements and sounds. The
recitations of this class of pupils, to be profitable and satisfactory,
must be conducted in a manner which requires time, discussion
and explanation, and the undivided attention both of pupils and
teachers.
From the number of class and individual recitations, to be attended
to during each half day, these exercises are brief, hurried, and of
little practical value. They consist, for the most part, of senseless
repetitions of the words of a book. Instead of being the time and
place where the real business of teaching is done, where the
ploughshare of interrogation is driven down into the acquirements of
each pupil, and his ability to comprehend clearly, remember accu-
rately, discriminate wisely, and reason closely, is cultivated and
tested, where the difficult principles of each lesson are developed
and illustrated, and additional information imparted, and the mind of
the teacher brought in direct contact with the mind of each pupil, to
arouse, interest, and direct its opening powers instead of all this
and more, the brief period passed in recitation, consists, on the part
of the teacher, of hearing each individual and class in regular order,
and quick succession, repeat words from a book ; and on the part of
the pupils, of saying their lessons, as the operation is significantly
described by most teachers, when they summon the class to the
stand. In the mean time the order of the school must be maintained,
and the general business must be going forward. Little children
without any authorized employment for their eyes and hands, and
ever active curiosity, must be made to sit still, while every muscle is
aching from suppressed activity ; pens must be mended, copies set,
arithmetical difficulties solved, excuses for tardiness or absence re-
ceived, questions answered, whisperings allowed or suppressed, and
more or less of extempore discipline administered. Were it not a
most ruinous waste of precious time, did it not involve the deaden-
ing, crushing, distorting, dwarfing of immortal faculties and noble
sensibilities, were it not an utter perversion of the noble objects
for which schools are instituted, it would be difficult to conceive of
a more diverting farce than an ordinary session of a large public
school, whose chaotic and discordant elements have not been reduced
to system by a proper classification. The teacher, at least the con-
scientious teacher, thinks it any thing but a farce to him. Com-
pelled to hurry from one study to another, the most diverse, from
one class to another, requiring a knpwledge of methods altogether
distinct, from one recitation to another, equally brief and unsatis-
factory, one requiring a liveliness of manner, which he does riot feel
and cannot assume, and the other closeness of attention and abstrac-
GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 125
tion of thought, which he cannot give amid the multiplicity and
variety of cares, from one case of discipline to another, pressing on
him at the same time, he goes through the same circuit day after
day. with a dizzy brain and aching heart,. and brings his school to a
close with a feeling, that with all his diligence and fidelity, he has
accomplished but little good.
But great as are the evils of a want of proper classification of
schools, arising from the causes already specified, these evils are
aggravated by the almost universal practice of employing one
teacher in summer, and another in winter, and different teachers
each successive summer and winter. Whatever progress one
teacher may make in bringing order out of the chaotic elements of a
large public school, is arrested by the termination of his school
term. His experience is not available to his successor, who does
not come into the school until after an interval of weeks or months,
and in the mean time the .former teacher has left the town or state.
The new teacher is a stranger to the children and their parents, is
unacquainted with the system pursued by his predecessor, and has
himself but little or no experience in the business ; in consequence,
chaos comes back again, and the confusion is still worse confounded
by the introduction of new books, for every teacher prefers to teach
from the books in which he studied, or which he has been accus-
tomed to teach, and many teachers cannot teach profitably from any
other. Weeks are thus passed, in which the school is going through
the process of organization, and the pupils are becoming accustomed
to the methods and requirements of a new teacher some of them
are put back, or made to retrace their studies in new books, while
others are pushed forward into studies for which they are not pre-
pared ; and at the end of three or four months, the school relapses
into chaos. There is constant change, but no progress.
This want of system, and this succession of new teachers, goes
on from term to term, and year to year a process which would in-
volve any other interest in speedy and utter ruin, where there was
not provision made for fresh material to be "experimented upon, and
counteracting influences at work to restore, or at least obviate the
injury done. What other business of society could escape utter
wreck, if conducted with such want of system, with such constant
disregard of the fundamental principle of the division of labor, and
with a succession of new agents every three months, none of them
trained to the details of the business, each new agent acting without
any knowledge of the plan of his predecessor, or any well settled
plan of his own ! The public school is not an anomaly, an excep-
tion, among the great interests of society. Its success or failure de-
pends on the existence or absence of certain conditions ; and if
complete failure-does not follow the utter neglect of these conditions,
it is because every term brings into the schools a fresh supply of
children to be experimented upon, and sweeps- away others beyond
the reach of bad school insrfuction and discipline ; and because the
minds of some of these children are, for a portion of each day, left
126 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE
to the action of their own inherent forces, and the more kindly influ-
ences of nature, the family and society.
Among these conditions of success in the operation of a system of
public schools, is such a classification of the scholars as shall bring
a larger number of similar age and attainments, at all times, and in
every stage of their advancement, under teachers of the right qualifi-
cations, and shall enable these teachers to act upon numbers at once,
for^years in succession, and carry them all forward effectually together,
in a regular course of instruction.
The great principle to be regarded in the classification, either of
the schools of a town or district, or of scholars in the same school,
is equality of attainments, which will generally include those of the
same age. Those wjio have gone over substantially the same ground,
or reached, or nearly reached the same point of attainment in several
studies, should be put together, and constitute, whenever their num-
bers will authorize it, one school. These again should be arranged
in different classes, for it is seldom practicable, even if it were ever
desirable, to have but one class in every study in the same grade of
school. Even in very large districts, where the scholars are pro-
moted from a school 6f a lower grade to one of a higher, after being
found qualified in certain studies, it is seldom that any considerable
number will have reached a common standard of scholarship in all
their studies. The same pupil will have made very different prog-
ress in different branches. He will stand higher in one and lower
in another. By arranging scholars of the same general division in
different classes, no pupil need be detained by companions who have
made, or can make less progress, or be hurried over lessons and sub-
jects in a superficial manner, to accommodate the more rapid ad-
vancement of others. Although equality of attainment should be
regarded as the general principle, some regard should be paid to
age, and other circumstances. A large boy of sixteen, from the
deficiency of his early education, which may be his misfortune and
not his fault, ought not to be put into a school or class of little chil-
dren, although their attainments may be in advance of his. This
step would mortify and discourage him. In such extreme -cases, that
arrangement will be best which will give the individual the greatest
chance of improvement, with the least discomfort to himself, and
hindrance to others. Great disparity of age in the same class, or the
same school, is unfavorable to uniform and efficient discipline, and
the adaptation of methods of teaching, and of motives to application
and obedience. Some regard, too, should be had to the preferences
of individuals, especially among the older pupils, and their probable
destination in life. The mind comes into the requisitions of study
more readily, and works with higher results, when led onward by
the heart ; and the utility of any branch of study, its relations to
future success in life, once clearly apprehended, becomes a power-
ful motive to effort.
Each class in a school should be as large as is consistent with
thoroughness and minuteness of individual examination, and practi-
GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 127
cable, without bringing together individuals of diverse capacity,
knowledge, and habits of study. A good teacher can teach a class
of forty with as much ease as a class of ten, and with far more profit
iO each individual, than if the same amount of time was divided up
among four classes, each containing one-fourth of the whole number.
When the class is large, there is a spirit, a glow, a struggle which
can never be infused or called forth in a small class. Whatever
time is spent upon a few, which could have been as profitably spent
on a larger number, is a loss of power and time to the extent of the
number who were not thus benefited. The recitations of a large
class must be more varied, both as to order and methods, so as to
reach those whose attention would wander if not under the pressure
of constant excitement, or might become slothful from inaction or a
sense of security. Some studies will admit of a larger number in a
class than others.
The number of classes for recitation in the same apartment, by
one teacher, should be small. This will facilitate the proper division
of labor in instruction, and allow more time for each class. The
teacher intrusted with the care of but few studies, and few recita-
tions, can have no excuse but indolence, or the want of capacity, if
he does not master these branches thoroughly, and soon acquire the
most skillful and varied methods of teaching them. His attention
will not be distracted by a multiplicity and variety of cares, pressing
upon him at the same time. This principle does not require that
every school should be small, but that each teacher should have a
small number of studies and classes to superintend.
In a large school, properly classified, a division of labor can be
introduced in the department of government, as well as in that of
instruction. By assigning the different studies to a sufficient num-
ber of assistants, in separate class-rooms, each well qualified to teach
the branches assigned, the principal teacher may be selected with
special reference to his ability in arranging the studies, and order of
exercises of the school, in administering its discipline, in adapting
moral instruction to individual scholars, and superintending the
operations of each class-room, so as to secure the harmonious action
and progress of every department. The talents and tact required for
these and similar duties, are more rarely found than the skill and
attainments required to teach successfully a particular study. When
found, the influence of such a principal, possessing in a high degree,
the executive talent spoken of, will be felt through every class, and
by every subordinate teacher, giving tone and efficiency to the whole
school.
To facilitate the introduction of these, and similar principles of
classification, into the organization and arrangements of the schools
of a town or district, as fast and as far as the circumstances of the
population will admit, the following provisions should be engrafted
into the school system of every state.
1. Every town should be clothed with all the powers requisite to
establish and maintain a sufficient number of schools of different
grades, at convenient locations, to accommodate all the children re-
|23 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
siding within their respective limits irrespective of any territorial
division of the town into school districts.
2. Should provision be made for the creation of territorial school
districts, a gradation of districts should he recognized, and every
district having over sixty children of an age to attend school, should
be obliged to maintain a primary school under a female teacher for
the young pupils, and provide a secondary school for the older and
more advanced pupils.
3. No village, or populous district, in which two or more schools
of different grades for the younger and older children respectively,
can be conveniently established, should be sub-divided into two or
more independent districts.
4. Any two'or more adjoining districts, in the same, or adjoining
towns, should be authorized to establish and maintain a secondary
school for the older and more advanced pupils of such districts, for
the whole, or any portion of the year.
5. Any district, not having children enough to require the perma-
nent establishment of two grades of schools, should be authorized to
determine the periods of the year in which the public school shall
be kept, and to determine the age and studies of the children who
sliall attend at any particular period of the year, and also to send the
older pupils to the secondary school of an adjoining district.
The extent to which the gradation of schools can be carried, in
any town or district, and the limit to which the number of classes
in any school ca.n be reduced, will depend on the compactness,
number, and other circumstances of the population, in that town or
district, and, the number and age of the pupils, and the studies and
methods of instruction in that school. A regular gradation of schools
might embrace Primary, Secondary and High Schools, with Inter-'
mediate Schools, or departments, between each grade, and Supple-
mentary Schools, to meet the wants of a. class of pupils not provided
for in either of the above grades.
1 . Primary Schools, as a general rule, should be designed for
children between the ages of three and eight years, with a further
classification of the very youngest children, when their number will
admit of it. These schools can be accommodated, in compact villa-
ges, in the same building with the Secondary or High School ; but
in most large districts, it will be necessary and desirable to locate
them in different neighborhoods, to meet the peculiarities of the pop-
ulation, and facilitate the regular attendance of very young children,
and relieve the anxiety of parents for their safety on their way to and
from school. The school-room should be light, cheerful, and large
enough for the evolutions of large classes furnished with appropri-
ate seats, furniture, apparatus and means of visible illustration, and
haying a retired, dry and airy play-ground, with a shelter to resort to
in inclement weather, and with flower borders, shrubbery and shade
trees, which they should be taught to love and respect. The play-
ground is as essential as the school-room, for a Primary School, and
is indeed the uncovered school-room of physical and moral educa-
GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 129
tion, and the place where the manners and personal habits of children
can be better trained than elsewhere. With them, the hours of play
and study, of confinement and recreation, must alternate more fre-
quently than with older pupils. -To teach these schools properly,
to regulate the hours of play and study so as to give varjety, vivacity,
and interest to all of the exercises, without over-exciting the nervous
system, or over-tasking any faculty of mind or body, to train boys
and girls to mild dispositions, graceful and respectful manners, and
unquestioning obedience, to cultivate the senses to habits of quick
and accurate observation and discrimination, to prevent the forma-
tion of artificial and sing-song tones, to teach the use of the voice,
and of simple, ready and correct language, and to begin in this way,
and by appropriate exercises in drawing, calculation, and lessons on
the properties and classification of objects, the cultivation of the
intellectual faculties, to do all these things and more, require in
the teacher a rare union of qualities, seldom found in one in a hun-
dred of the male sex, and to be looked for with the greatest chance
of success among females, "in whose ^own hearts, love, hope and
patience, have first kept school."
The earlier we can establish, in every populous district, primary
schools, under female teachers, whose hearts are made strong by
deep religious principle, who have faith in the power of Christian
love steadily exerted to fashion anew the bad manners, and soften
the harsh and self-willed perverseness of neglected children, with
patience to begin every morning, with but little if any perceptible ad-
vance beyond where they began the previous morning, with prompt
and kind sympathies, and ready skill in music, drawing, and oral
methods, the better it will be for the cause of education, and for ev-
ery other good cause.
2. Secondary Schools should receive scholars at the age of eight
years, or about that age, and carry them forward in those branches
of instruction which lie at the foundation of all useful attainments in
knowledge, and are indispensable to the proper exercise and devel-
opment of all the faculties of the mind, and to the formation of good
intellectual tastes and habits of application. If the primary schools
have done their work properly, in forming habits of attention, and
teaching practically the first uses of language, in giving clear ideas
of the elementary principles of arithmetic, geography, and the sim-
plest lessons in drawing, the scholars of a well conducted secondary
school, who will attend regularly for eight or ten months in the year,
until they are twelve years of age, can acquire as thorough knowl-
edge of reading, arithmetic, penmanship, drawing, geography, history,
and the use of the language in composition and speech, as is ever
given in common or public schools, as ordinarily conducted, to chil-
dren at the age of sixteen. For this class of schools, well qualified
female teachers, with good health, self-command, and firmness, are
as well fitted as male teachers. But if the school is large, both a
male and female teacher should be employed, as the influence of
both are needed in the 'training of the moral character and manners.
9
130
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Schools of this grade should be furnished with class-rooms for reci-
tations, and if large, with a female assistant for every thirty pupils.
3. High Schools should receive pupils from schools of the grade
below, and carry them forward in a more comprehensive course of
instruction, embracing a continuation of their former studies, and
especially of the English language, and drawing, and a knowledge
of algebra, geometry and trigonometry, with their applications, the
elements of mechanics and natural philosophy and chemistry, natural
history, including natural theology, mental and moral science, politi-
cal economy, physiology, and the constitution of the United States.
These and other studies should form the course of instruction, modi-
fied according to the sex, age, and advancement, and to some extent,
future destination of the pupils, and the standard fixed by the intelli-
gence and intellectual wants of the district a course which should
give to every young man a thorough English education, preparatory
to the pursuits of agriculture, commerce, trade, manufactures, and
the mechanical arts, and if desired, for college ; and to every young
woman, a well disciplined mind, high moral aims, and practical
views of her own duties, and those resources of health, thought,
manners and conversation, which bless alike the highest and lowest
stations in life. All which is now done in private schools of the
highest grade, and where the wants of any considerable portion of
the community create such private schools, should be provided for
in the system of public schools, so that the same advantages, with-
out being abridged or denied to the children of the rich and the
educated, should be open at the same time to worthy and talented
children of the poorest parent. In some districts a part of the
studies of this grade of schools might be embraced in the Secondary
Schools, which would thus take the place of the High School ; in
others, the High School could be open for only portions of the year ;
and in others, two departments, or two schools, one for either sex,
would be required. However constituted, whether as one depart-
ment, or two, as a distinct school, or as part of a secondary school,
or an ordinary district school, and for the whole year, or part of the
year, something of the kind is required to meet the wants of the
whole community, and relieve the public schools from impotency.
Unless it can be engrafted upon the public school system, or rather
unless it can grow up and out of the system, as a provision made
for the educational wants of the whole community, then the system
will never gather about it the warmth and sustaining confidence and
patronage of all classes, and especially of those who know best the
value of a good education, and are willing to spend time and money
to secure it for their own children.
4. Intermediate Schools or departments will be needed in large
districts, to receive a class of pupils who are too old to be continued,
without wounding their self-esteem, in the school below, or interfering
with its methods of discipline and instruction, and are not prepared
in attainments, and habits of study, or from irregular attendance, to
be arranged in the regular classes of the school above.
Connected with this class of schools there might be opened a
GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 131
school or department for those who cannot attend school regularly,
or for only a short period of the year, or who may wish to attend
exclusively to a few studies. There is no place for this class of
scholars, in a regularly constituted, permanent school, in a large
village. .
5. Supplementary Schools, and means of various kinds should be
provided in every system of public instruction, for cities and large
villages, to supply deficiencies in the education of individuals whose
school attendance has been prematurely abridged, or from any cause
interfered with, and to carry forward as far and as long as practicable
into after life, the training and attainments commenced in childhood.
Evening Schools should be opened for apprentices, clerks, and
other young persons, who have been hurried into active employment
without a suitable elementary education. In these schools, those
who have completed the ordinary course of school instruction, could
devote themselves to such studies as are directly connected with
their several trades or pursuits, while those whose early education
was entirely neglected, can supply, to some extent, such deficiencies.
It is not' beyond the legitimate scope of a system of public instruc-
tion, to provide for the education of adults, who, from any cause ,
in early life were deprived of advantages of school instruction.
Libraries, and courses of familiar lectures, with practical illustra-
tions, collections in natural history, and the natural sciences, a sys-
tem of scientific exchanges between schools of the same, and of
different towns, these and other means of extending and improving
the ordinary instruction of the school-room and of early life, ought
to be provided, not only by individual enterprise and liberality, but
by the public, and the authorities entrusted with the care and advance-
ment of popular education.
One or more of that class of educational institutions known as
" Reform Schools," " Schools of Industry," or " Schools for Juvenile
Offenders," should receive such children, as defying the restraining
influence of parental authority, and the discipline and regulations of
the public schools, or such as are abandoned by orphanage, or worse
than orphanage, by parental neglect or example, to idle, vicious and
pilfering habits, are found hanging about places of public resort, pol-
luting the atmosphere by their profane and vulgar speech, alluring,
to their own bad practices, children of the same, and other conditions
of life, and originating or participating in every street brawl and low-
bred riot. Such children cannot be safely gathered into the public
schools ; and if they are, their vagrant habits are chafed by the re-
straints of school discipline. They soon become irregular, play
truant, are punished and expelled, and from that time their course is
almost uniformly downward, until on earth there is no lower point to
reach.
Accustomed, as many such children have been from infancy, to
sights and sounds of open and abandoned profligacy, trained to an
utter want of self-respect, and the decencies and proprieties of life,
as exhibited in dress, person, manners and language, strangers to
those motives of self-improvement which spring from a sense of so-
132 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
cial, moral and religious obligation, their regeneration involves the
harmonious co-operation of earnest philanthropy, missionary enter-
prise, and sanctified wisdom. The districts of all our large cities
where this class of children are found, are the appropriate field of
home missions, of unobtrusive personal effort and charity, and of
systematized plans of local benevolence, embracing friendly inter-
course with parents, an affectionate interest in the young, the gather-
ing of the latter into week-day, infant, and primary schools, and
schools where the use of the needle, and other forms of labor appro-
priate to the sex and age of the pupils can be given, the gathering
of both old and young into Sabbath schools and worshipping assem-
blies, the circulation of books and tracts, of other than a strictly
religious character, the encouragement of cheap, innocent and hu-
manizing games, sports and festivities, the obtaining employment for
adults who may need it, and procuring situations as apprentices,
clerks, &c., for such young persons as may be qualified by age,
capacity and character. By individual efforts and the combined
efforts of many, working in these and other ways, from year to" year,
these moral jungles can be broken up, these infected districts can
be purified, these waste places of society can be reclaimed, and
many abodes of penury, ignorance and vice can be converted by ed-
ucation, economy and industry, into homes of comfort, peace and joy.
DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN CENTREMILL.
133
FLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN CENTREMILL,
NORTH PROVIDENCE, R. I.
This house was erected after designs by Mr. Teft, of Providence. It
etands back from the highway, on an elevated site, in the midst of a
grove, and for beauty oi design
and convenience of arrangement,
is not surpassed by any similar
structure in New England. It is
26 feet by 51, and 13 feet high in
the clear, with two departments
on the same floor.
A, Boys' entry, 6 feet by 10.
B, Girls' ditto.
C, Primary department, 20 feet by
25, with desks and seats attached
for 70 pupils.
D, Secondary, or Grammar depart-
ment, 25 feet by 25, with desks
and chairs for 04 pupils; see p.
120.
r, Register for hot air.
v, v, Flues for ventilation.
c, Closets for dinner pails of those
who come from a distance
s. Sink.
The smoke pipe is carried up be-
tween the ventilating flues, and the
top of the chimney is finished so as to
accommodate the bell.
o o
O
o o
o o
o o
O
o o
O
O' O
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
r
O
o o
O
O
o o
r
,
r
T
c. \
-
c\
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
O
o o
o o
o o
o o
a ft
o o
o o
o o
o o
O
o o
o o
o o
134
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN OF SCHOOL-HOUSE AT WASHINGTON VILLAGE IN COVENTRY, R. L
The following cut presents the ground plan of the new school-house in the
village of Washington, in the town of Coventry, R. I. The location is on the
high ground in the' rear of the village, and commands an extensive prospect in
every direction. The site and yard, occupying one acre, was given to the dis-
trict by Governor Whipple. The whole structure, without and within, is an
ornament to the village, and ranks among the best school-houses in Rhode
Island.
A Boy's entrance.
B Girl's entrance.
C Primary school-room.
D Secondary, or Grammar Depart-
F Desks for two, with iron end-piece.
G Chairs supported on iron pedestal.
H Register lor hot air.
R Flue for ventilation, within which
is carried up the smoke-pipe.
ment.
E Teacher's platform.
The two school-rooms can be thrown into one, for any general exercise of
the two schools, by sliding doors.
The two rooms are uniformly heated by a furnace in the basement.
There is a well, sink, basin, mats, scrapers, bell, and all the necessary fixtures
and appendages of a school-house of the first class.
The cost of the building and furniture was $2,300.
The district possesses a library of upwards of four hundred volumes, the cost
of which was raised by subscription in the District.
ALBANY NORMAL SCHOOL CHAIR AND DESK.
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE.
135
PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSE m WARREN, R. I.
Fig. 1.
THE above cut exhibits a front view of the Public School-house
erected in the village of Warren, at the expense of the town, in
1847-48, after drawings made by Mr. Teft, of Providence, under the
directions of a committee of the town, who consulted with the Com-
missioner of Public Schools, and visited Providence, Boston, Salem,
Newburyport and other places, in order to ascertain the latest im-
provements in school architecture, before deciding on the details of
the plan. To this committee, and particularly to two of its members,
Mr. E. W. Burr and Mr. G. S. Gardiner, is the town largely indebted
for the time and personal supervision which they devoted to this
public improvement, from its first inception to its completion, without
any other reward than the realization of their wish to secure for their
town the best school-house, for the amount of money,expended, in
the State. The Commissioner of Public Schools remarked, in his
address at the dedication of the house, in September, 1848, " that, for
location, style, construction, means of warming, ventilation, and clean-
liness, and for the beauty and convenience of the seats and desks, he
had not seen a public school-house superior to this in New England.
It is a monument at once of the liberality of the town, and of a wise
economy on the part of the committee." The town appropriated
$10,000, and the committee expended $8,594.
The opening of the Public School in this edifice was followed by
a large increase of attendance from the children of the town.
136
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The lot is 225 deep and 100 feet wide for a depth of 125 feet, and 161 feet wide
for the remaining G4 feet. It is divided into three yards, as exhibited in the
ground plan, (Fig. 2,) each substantially inclosed, and planted with trees and
shrubbery.
The dimensions of the building are 62 feet by 44 on the ground. It is built of
brick in the most workmanlike manner.
Most of the details of construction, and of the arrangement in the interior, are
similar to those described on page 214.
Each room is ventilated by openings controlled by registers, both at the floor
and the ceiling, into four flues carried up in the wall, and by a large flue con-
structed of thoroughly seasoned boards, smooth on the inside, in the partition
wall, (Fig. 3, x.)
The whole building is uniformly warmed by two of Culver's furnaces placed
in the cellar.
Every means of cleanliness are provided, such as scrapers, mats, sink with
pump, wash basin, towels, hooks for outer garments, umbrella stands, tec.
The tops of the desks are covered with cloth, and the aisles are to be cheaply
carpeted, so as to diminish, if not entirely prevent, the noise which the moving
of slates and books, and the passing to and fro, occasion in a school-room.
A Front yard,
B Girls' yard.
C Boys' yard.
P Privies.
W Well.
F Culver's Furnace.
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE IN WARREN.
Fig. 3 FIRST FLOOR.
137
A Front entrance.
B Girls' entrance, with mats, scra-
pers, hooks for clothes, a sink, pump,
basin, &c.
C Boys' entrance do.
R Recitation rooms, connected by
sliding doors.
R, P Platform for recitation, with a
blackboard in the rear.
T Teacher's platform.
S Seats and desks ; see page 205.
Q. Library and apparatus.
w Windows, with inside Venetian
blinds,
c Flues for ventilation in the outer
wall.
x Flue for ventilation, lined with
smooth, well seasoned boards,
y Bell-rope, accessible to the teacher
by an opening in the wall,
r Hot air registers.
ijr. 4. SECOND FLOOR.
nnn!
u
LJoUoUoL
DOKDCDO
Q
P
loi b id
A - VXX.
138
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
UNION SCHOOL-HOUSE, AT WOONSOCKET AND CHEPACHET, R. I.
By the school law of Rhode Island, two or more adjoining school districts in
the same, or adjoining towns, may, by concurrent vote, agree to unite for the
purpose of maintaining a secondary or grammar school, for the older and more
advanced pupils of such associating districts. Under this provision the four
school districts in the town of Cumberland, which comprise the village of
Woonsocket, voted to unite and provide a school-house for the more advanced
pupils, leaving the younger to be accommodated in their respective districts.
The Union school-house is located on a beautiful site, the donatioif of Edward
Harris, Esq., and is built substantially after the plan of the Warren Public
school-house, already described, at a cost of $7,000. The following are the front
and side elevations, as originally drawn by Mr. Teft, but not adopted by the
committee.
SIDE ELEVATION.
_ FRONT ELEVATION.
Under the provision above cited, the three districts into which the village of
Chepachet, in the town of Glocester, is divided, voted to establish a Union
School, and to provide a suitable house for the same. The building is 50 feet by
34, with two stories, and stands in the centre of a large lot, a little removed from
the main street, and is the ornament and pride of the village. The lower floor
is divided into two apartments ; one for the Primary, and the other for an Inter-
mediate School, for the younger pupils of the village, while the Union or Sec-
ondary School occupies the whole of the second floor.
UNION SCHOOL-HOUSE IN CHEPACHET.
Fig. 1. PLAN op FIRST FLOOR.
139
V
<
1
i
\\
2 mmrnmrnrr
II i
1
1 11 1
^^
LULULULJjLULL
p nnmmn
1
[
Uli
III
LL
T
i
m
A
. annnnn
1 mmm
1 mmnTTTTP'
E
!
1 '
F
[
[
r
Dffl
Dffi
irn
I
T
m
m
mm
ffl D
m D
m
L
r I I Ji Ml I Ji 1 II Ml i
mrnmrnrnrr
L
r
JLJJ
nrn
LL-
LULU
rrm
jj
paa.
\ r
B
1 LULiJLiJLLJLlJLL
L
LJuJ
"
uJLU
rf
vl
' 1
I
t l
i
A Entrance for Girls to Secondary School. U.
B " " Boys "
C " " Girls to Primary, E, and Intermediate School, F.
D " " Boys " " " " "
E Primary School-room.
F Intermediate "
U Secondary " L Manton Glocester Library of 900 volumes.
R Recitation room. S Stove. V Flue for ventilation.
G Seat and desk attached, for two pupils, with iron ends.
Fig. 2. PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR.
Oi
D
-A U
140
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN, &c., OF UNION SCHOOL-HOUSE IN PAWTUCKET, R. I
V
Fig. 1 PERSPECTIVE.
This school-house is calculated to accommodate, on the first floor, a Pri-
mary School, (D,) with seats and desks for one hundred and sixty pupils; two
Intermediate Schools, (E, E,) lor sixty-four pupils each ; and on the second floor
a High School, (F,) for one hundred and seventy pupils.
The building is warmed and ventilated by a furnace in the cellar, from which
the hot air is conveyed into the several apartments, as indicated by the regis-
ters, (r, r, r, r ; ) in Figs. 2 and 3, and discharged by flues carried up in the walls,
as seen at v, v, v, v.
Each school-room is furnished with an appropriate place for outer garments,
and with scrapers, mats and other means of neatness and cleanliness.
The boys and girls have each a separate yard in the rear, and separate en-
trances into the school- rooms.
The High School is furnished with seats and desk having cast-iron end
pieces similar to those described on page 282.
The Primary and Intermediate school-rooms are furnished with the patent
Revolving Pivot Chair, and School-desk, manufactured by J. L. Mott, 264 Water
street, New York. The seat of the chair is wood; all other parts are of cast-
iron. The seat and back turn on a pivot, while the pedestal is screwed fast to
the floor. The height of the lower part of the top of the desk is just equal to
the highest part of the back of the chair, so as to allow it to pass under. The
front edge of the seat is in a perpendicular line with the edge of the top of the
desk, so that the scholar is required to sit erect when engaged in writing or
studying, and the same time that part of his back which requires support is fully
in contact with the chair.
Since the chairs above described were placed in this house, Mr. Mott has
modified the patterns so as to carry the back piece higher, and thus give sup-
port to the muscles above the small of the back. The iron can be covered with
felt, and thus the rapid conduction of heat from the body, especially from the
spinal column, in children thinly clad, and of delicate constitutions may be
prevented.
UNION SCHOOL HOUSE IN PAWTUCKET.
141
UNION SCHOOL- HOUSE IN PAWTUCKET.
Fig. 2. PLAN OP FIRST FLOOR.
F
\
COOOOOOO OOOOOOOO !
r
c
OOCOOOCO OOOOOOOO
r
1 II 1
OOOOOCOO OOOOOOOO ;
i i ; i
oooooooooooooooooot
OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOO
1 11 1
1
><* ooooooooooooooooooc
1
E
''\ '
9
9
A
Ifl oooooooooooooooooo
OOOOOOOQOOOOOOOOOO(
1
_A_
E j
OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOO !
oooooooooooooooooo
w*
B
1 1 1 1
OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOO OOOOOOOO
, 1 11 1
OOOOOOOO ^OOOOOOOO
l*^_ l'EL3-.-l \W.;/;l > -W\ VfAOt \,-'tf< ,
A Entrance to High School.
B Entrance for Boys to the Primary and Intermediate Schools.
C Entrance for Girls to the Primary and Intermediate Schools.
D School-room, 30 feet by 24, for Primary School.
E, E " " 40 feet by 16, for Intermediate Schools.
F '' " 40 feet by 40, for High School.
G Room for Apparatus, &c.
H Recitation room to High School, 20 feet by 1G.
I K Entrance room, one for Boys and the other for Girls, fitted up with
hooks, shelves, wash-stand, &c.
T Teacher's desk without any platform.
Fig. 3. PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR HIGH SCHOOL.
142
PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSES, PROVIDENCE.
PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSES IN
PROVIDENCE, R. I.
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSES.
THESE buildings are located in different parts of the city, and are designed
for the accommodation of children from four to six or seven years of age, or
until they are prepared to enter the intermediate schools.
No. 1. View of a Primary School-House.
These school-houses stand back from thirty to sixty feet from the line of
the street, and near the center of lots varying from eighty to one hundred feet
in breadth, and from one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet in length.
Each lot is inclosed by a neat and substantial fence, six feet high, and is
divided into two yards one for boys and the other for girls with suitable
out-buildings, shade trees, and shrubbery.
> These houses are each forty feet long by thirty-three feet wide, with twelve-
feet posts, built of wood, in a plain, substantial manner, and, with the fences,
are painted white, presenting a neat and attractive exterior.
The entrance is into a lobby [A] and thence into an open area, where stands
the stove [a]. A portion of the lobby is appropriated to bins for charcoal, [c]
and anthracite D/], which is the fuel used in all the schools; the remainder [Bj
is occupied by a sink, and as depositories for brooms, brashes, &c. Each
room is arched, thereby securing an average height of thirteen feet, with an
opening in the center of the arch, two feet in diameter, for ventilation. The
ventilator is controlled by a cord passing over a pulley, and descending into
the room near the teacher's desk [l>]. In each end of the attic is a circular
window, which, turning on an axis, can be opened and closed by cords, in the
same manner as the ventilator.
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE.
143
No. 2. Interior of a Primary School-House.
The teacher's platform [C] is five feet wide, twenty feet long, and seven
inches high, with a black-board ten feet long and three feet wide on the wall
in the rear.
The floor is of inch and a half plank, tongued and grooved ; and, for the
purpose of securing warmth and firmness, and avoiding noise, is laid on
cement.
The windows, eleven in number, of twenty-four lights, of seven by nine
glass, are hung with weights, and furnished with inside blinds. The sides of
the room and entries are ceiled all round with wood as high as the window-
sills, which are four feet from the floor. The rest of the walls are plastered,
and covered with white hard finish. Each room is provided with sixty seats
[s] and desks [t,], placed in six ranges ; each range containing ten seats and
desks, of three different sizes, and each seat and desk accommodating two
scholars, or one hundred and twenty in all.
The center aisle is three feet and a half wide, and each of the others about
two feet.
The desks are over three feet long, by sixteen inches wide, with a shelf
beneath for books. The upper surface of the desk [a], except about two
'"nches at the top [b], slopes one inch and a half in a foot.
144
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
No 3. View of Top of a Desk, and Sectional View of Primary Seats and Desks.
The front of the desk, constituting the back of the next seat, slopes one
inch in a foot. The seat also inclines a^ery little from the edge. The seats
are of four different sizes, varying from seven to ten inches wide, and from
nine to fourteen inches in height, the lowest being nearest the teacher's
platform.
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL-HOUSES.
All the buildings of this class are two stories high, affording accommoda-
tions for two schools, a primary and an intermediate. These houses are
generally in pleasant situations, on large lots, varying in size from one hundred
feet wide by one hundred and twenty feet long, to one hundred and fifty by
two hundred feet.
Rows of shade trees, consisting of elms, lindens, and maples, are planted
along the side-walks and the fences inclosing the yards ; and evergreens, the
mountain ash, and other ornamental trees, are placed within the inclosures.
These houses are forty-four feet long, by thirty-three feet wide. Some of
them are built of wood, the remainder of brick, and all in a tasteful and
substantial style.
The rooms are large, and easily ventilated, being twelve feet in the clear,
with large openings in the ceiling of the upper room, and on the sides in the
lower room, leading into flues in the walls, which conduct the foul air into the
attic, from which it escapes at circular windows in the gables of the buildings.
These flues and windows can be opened and closed by -cords passing over
pulleys, and descending into the rooms below, where the teachers can control
them with ease.
No. 5. Sections of Ventilators.
In this cut, the cord [?'], passing over the pulley [?'], raising [h], hung on
hinges at M, opens wholly or partially the ventilator [/], a circular aperture
three feet in diameter. The plan of ventilating the lower rooms is shown on
10
146
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
the other part of the diagram, in which [a] represents a cord running over a
pulley, and attached to [c], a board three feet long by one foot wide, opening
the space between [&], the top of the lower room, and [d], the floor of the
upper, leading into the flue [c], ascending to the atiic.
The windows, nine in number in each school-room, of twelve lights, of ten
by sixteen glass, are hung with weights, so as to be easily opened at top and
bottom, and furnished with Venetian blinds inside, to regulate the amount of
light admitted.
The floors are of hard pine boards, an inch and a half thick, and about six
inches wide, tongued and grooved, and laid on mortar, as a protection against
fire, for the prevention of noise, and to secure warmth and firmness. All the
rooms, entries, and stairways are ceiled up with matched boards about four
feet, as high as the window-sills. The remaining portions of the walls are
plastered, and coated with white hard finish.
o o o o o o
cm cm cm
o o
c o
o o
Q O
cm
o o
o o -p o o
cm cm
o o
cm
o o
cm
OO OO
o o
cm
o o
cm
o o
cm
OO
o o
cm
o o
cm
O O
o
o o
cm
o o
cm
O O
o o
cm
o o
O O
cm
o o
czn
o o
o o
cu
B
SO OS O O
' O Q
czu
OO
cm
o o
1 \m.
O O
BB B
B B B B B
B B B IB B
czi dj czi czzi
O
E
No. 6. Interior of an Intermediate School-House.
The walls of some of these buildings are solid stone-work, faced with
bnck ; others are built with double brick walls, as above shown, connected by
ties of iron or brick.
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE.
147
As the rooms in the lower stories of this class of buildings are appropriated
to primary sckools, and are furnished in the same manner as those already
described, the preceding cut is intended to serve the double purpose of exhibit-
ing on the first floor only the improvements on the former plan, and, on the
second, the whole view of a room for an intermediate school.
The steps [<z, , a] are broad, granite blocks, with scrapers on each end.
The side doors [A, A], one for boys, the other for girls, lead into entries, eight
feet by ten, from which the pupils of the primary schools pass through the
doors [B, BJ into the main rooms, which diner from those above described, in
having a space [0,0], two feet wide, on the back part of the rooms, for reading
and other class exercises ; and the recitation-room, [D], another valuable
improvement, as it avoids the confusion arising from having two recitations in
one room at the same time.
The flight of stairs in each entry, commencing at the points [R, R], and
ascending in the direction of [1, 2, 3], lands on the open space [P] in the upper
entry, from which the pupils pass through the doors [C, C] into the school-
room.
Coal-bins and convenient closets, for brooms, brushes, <kc., are built under
the stairs, in the lower entries ; and similar closets, for the same purposes, are
provided in the upper entries.
The large area [H, H], thirty feet long by seven wide, is the same in both
the rooms, and is occupied by the principal teacher in each school, for such
class exercises as may be more conveniently managed there than in the other
place 0, 0], left for the same purpose. The position of the stove [n\ is such as
not to render it uncomfortably warm on the front seats, and, at the same time,
not to interfere with the passage of classes through the door [G] into the
recitation-room [D], which is fourteen feet by ten, and, like all the school-
rooms, furnished with black-boards. The lower room is lighted by a window
over the front door, and by the side-lights ; and the upper one by a double or
mullion window, of sixteen lights, often by sixteen glass.
The side aisles [m, m] are two feet and a half wide ; the others [P, P, &c.]
are only eighteen inches wide, except the middle one [C], which is three and
a half feet. The passage across the center of the room is about a foot and a
half wide, and is very convenient for teachers in passing to the different parti
of the room, and also for scholars in going to ana from their recitations.
The seats and desks, in the front part of this room, are made and arranged
on the same plan as those in the primary school-rooms above described, differ
ing from them only in being one size larger. The lower end, or foot of each
perpendicular support, or end-piece, is strongly fastened into a groove in a
" shoe," or piece ol plank, which, being screwed to the floor, secures the desks
in a durable manner, and in a firm position. .
The others are constructed upon a different plan, designed especially for the
ar- commodation of pupils while writing. These desks and seats are of three
liflerent sizes,
No. 7. Section of a Writing-Dek and Seat
148 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The top of the desk [a] is of pine, one inch and a half thick, fifteen inches
wide, and three feet and a half long. These desks are twenty-seven inches
hih on the front, and twenty-four on the side next to the seats. A space
about three inches wide, on the front edge of the top, is planed down to a
level, and an inkstand is let into the center of this, even with the surface, and
covered with a small lid. The ends of these desks are an inch and a half
thick and fastened by a strong tenon to the shoe [G], which is screwed to the
floor.'' The front of the desk, and the shelf [i], for books, &c., are inch boards;
the whole desk, made in the strongest manner, is painted a pleasant green, and
varnished. In the next smaller size, the same proportion is observed, but all
the dimensions are one inch less; and in the third, or smallest size, the dimen-
sions are all one inch less than in the second. For each desk there are two
chairs, resting on cast-iron supporters [d], an inch and a quarler in diameter,
with a wide flange at each end; the upper one, screwed to the under side of
the seat |>], is a little smaller than the lower, which is fastened to the floor by
five strong screws, rendering the chair almost immovable. The largest size
seats [e] in these rooms are fourteen inches in diameter and fifteen inches
high, wilh backs, twenty-eight inches from [g] to the top, slanting an inch and
a quarter to a foot. These backs are made with three slats, fastened by strong
tenons into a top-piece, like some styles of common chairs, and screwed to the
seat, while the middle one extends down into a socket on the foot of the iron
standard. The seats, like the desks, are diminished one inch for the middle
size, and two for the smallest, preserving the proportions in the different sizes,
which adapts them to the sizes of the desks.
GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSES.
There are six buildings of this class, constructed on the same plan, and of
the same size. They are seventy feet long by forty wide, with a front pro-
jection, twenty-eight feet long by fourteen feet wide. They are located on
very large lots, varying from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet long
from a hundred and twenty to a hundred and fifty leet wide. All of them,
except one, are on corner lots, and all have large open spaces around them.
These, and all the other public school-houses in the city, are protected with
GLuimby's lightning-rods, and each is furnished with a bell, which can be heard
in the remotest parts of its district.
In the accompanying view, No. 9, the engraver has represented a. few trees, a
little larger than any at present around these buildings, because he could not
crowd all the trees and shrubbery into the picture, without obscuring the lower
part of the house.
The cut on p. 91, No. 10, is a ground plan, on a reduced scale, of a Grammar
School-House, including a general view of the cellar, yards, fences, gates,
sidewalks, &c.
The yards around each of the grammar school-houses contain from 18,000
to 20,000 square feet, or between a third and half an acre. These grounds are
inclosed, and divided into three separate yards, by substantial close board
fences [/,/,/, f], six feet high, neatly made, and painted white. The boys'
play-ground [Bl and that of the girls [G], are large; but the front yard [E] is
small, and, not being occupied by pupils, is planted with trees and shrubbery.
The graveled sidewalks [s, s, s], running on two sides of all the grammar school
lots, and on three of some of them, are shaded by rows of elms, maples, and
lindens, set near the curb-stones. The gates [A, C, D] and the graveled walks
[d, d,d] lead to the front and the two side doors of the school-house; and [/]
is a large gate for carting in coal, &c. The out-buildings [i,i] are arranged
with a large number of separate apartments on both sides, all well ventilated,
each furnished with a door, and the whole surrounded with evergreens.
In the plan of the projection [H] the stairway [r] leads to the cellar, which
is seven feet in the clear, and extends under the whole of the main building.
These cellars are well lighted, having eight windows [ W, W], with ten lights
t seven by nine glass. The windows, being hung with hinges on the upper
150
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
No.10 . Ground Plan, &c., of a Grammar School-House.
side, and fastened with hooks and staples at the lower edge, may be opened by
raising them intc a horizontal position, where they are fastened with hooks as
when closed. With this arrangement, it is easy to keep the cellars well ven-
tilated at all seasons. The openings for the admission of coal into the bins
[0,0], one for anthracite, and the other for charcoal, are furnished with sheet-
iron shutters, fastening on the' inside. Every school-house has, in the cellar,
an abundant supply of good water, obtained from a fountain, or from a well,
which is generally outside of the building, the water being brought in by a
pump [P]. A supply of good water for a school-house should not be consid-
ered merely as a convenience, but as absolutely necessary.
The horizontal section of a furnace [F] shows merely the ground plan.
The cold air passes through [] to the air-chamber, where it is warmed by the
fires in [p, p], two cast-iron cylinders, fourteen inches in diameter. The
evaporator [<?] holds about fifteen gallons of water, which is kept in a state of
rapid evaporation, thus supplying the air-chamber with an abundance of
moisture.
In the plan and construction of the various parts of these furnaces, special
pains have been taken to remove all danger of fire an important considera-
tion, which should never be overlooked. The furnace is covered with stone,
thickly coated with mortar, and the under side of the floor above is lathed and
plastered, not only above the furnace, but at least ten feet from it in every
direction.
A full description of the construction and operation of the furnaces used in
the public school-houses will be given under another diagram. The cellar
walls and the stone piers [c,c,e,e,cj are well pointed, and the whole inside,
GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE.
151
including the wood-work overhead, is neatly whitewashed, giving this apart*
ment a neat and pleasant appearance.
The walls of all these buildings are of stone, about two feet thick, faced
with common brick, and painted a tasteful color.
No. 11. Plan of the First Floor of a Grammar School-House.
There are three entrances to these houses; the front [A], and the two side
doors [B], for boys, and [G], for girls, leading into the entries [F, C, C]. The
front is a large double door, with a beautiful frontice of fine hammered duincy
granite. At all the outside doors are two or three hewn granite steps, fur-
nished with four or six scrapers at each door.
Pupils belonging to the schools in the lower story pass from the side entries
into the middle one, and, ascending two steps at [a], enter their respective
rooms [T, S], which are rather larger than those in the primary and interme-
diate school-houses, previously described, being thirty-six feet by thirty-two
inside, and eleven feet high in the clear.
In each of the entries [C, C] there is a provision [t, t, t, ?] for setting up um-
brellas. It resembles a ladder placed in a horizontal position, and is fastened
to the ceiling on one side, and supported on the other by substantial posts of
oak or other strong wood, turned in a tasteful style, and set into the floor.
The seals and desks in the rooms [T and S] are of the same dimensions,
and arranged in the same manner as those in the primary and the intermediate
school-rooms before described. The small iron posts [c, c,c, c], about two and
a half inches in diameter, supporting the floor above, are placed against the
ends of the seats, so close as not to obstruct the passages at all. Besides the
platforms [P, P], twenty feet by six the tables, three feet by four, for the
teachers, and the closets [1, 1], for brushes, fee., there are black-boards, painted
upon the walls, extending from the doors [D, D] to the windows, fourteen feet
long by four wide, with the lines of a stave painted on one end, to aid in
giving instruction in vocal music.
152
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The plan of ventilating these rooms on the first floor is represented by cut
No. 5, page 85. Every room is provided with two ventilators, each three feet
long by about twelve inches wide, opening into flues of the same dimensions,
leading into the attic, from which the impure air escapes at circular windows
in the gables. These flues should have extended down to the bottom of the
rooms, with openings on a level with the floors, so that, when the rooms are
warmed with air from the furnaces above the temperature of the human
breath, they might be ventilated by removing the foul air from the lower parts,
and thus causing fresh, warm air to be slowly settling down upon the scholars
a very pleasant and healthful mode of ventilation.
These rooms are well warmed by heated air, admitted through registers
[r,r], eighteen inches in diameter, from the furnace below, from which [p,p]
tin pipes, fourteen inches in diameter, convey the air to the grammar school-
rooms in the second story.
These rooms are large, with arched ceilings, measuring twelve feet to the
foot of the arch, and seventeen to its crown. They are each provided with
two ventilators, three feet and a half in diameter, placed in the crown of the
arch, about twenty feet apart.
The entrances to the Grammar School-rooms are by two short flights of
stairs on a side; from the lower entries to [s,s], spaces about three feet square,
j'3-ci
O O O O ,0
czn EZZD en:
No. 12. Plan of a Grammar School-Room.
and thence to [A, A], spaces three by five feet, extending from the top of the
stairs to the doors opening into the school-room.
The master's table [c], as well as tables [d,d], for the assistants are
movable. The large area [B,B], being fourteen inches above the floor o'f the
room, is eight feet wide by sixty-four long, with large closets [u. u] at the
ends, fitted up with shelves, &c., for the use of the teachers.
The school-room is warmed by heated air, admitted at the registers, [r,rj
and the re tita non-rooms [R, R] in the same manner, by the small registers,
[r,r] all of which are connected with the furnace in the cellar by large tin
pipes or conductors.
GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE.
153
The black-boards, four feet wide, painted upon the hard-finished walls, are
indicated by the lines [b,b,b, &c.] in the recitation-rooms, and along the walls
behind the master's table, extending on each side to the windows beyond, [e, e]
making, in each Grammar School, about Ihree hundred square feet of black-
board.
The long benches [e, e] are used for seating temporarily new pupils ou their
entering school, until the master can assign them regular seats ; also for seat-
ing visitors at the quarterly examinations. The space [P, P], a broad step,
eighteen feet long and two feet wide, is used for some class exercises on the
black-boards. The passage [t, I], about eighteen inches wide, running the
whole length of the room, affords great facility in the movements of pupils to
and from the recitations and other class exercises. The master's classes gen-
erally recite in the space [0, o] on the back side of the room, four feet wide
and sixty-four feet long, where seats are placed for scholars to sit during
recitation, when it is necessary; and the same accommodations are provided
in the recitation-rooms.
The windows [W, W, &c.], which are hung with weights, and furnished
with inside blinds, in the manner before described, contain twelve lights each,
of ten by sixteen glass, of the strongest kind, the Saranac or lledford glass.
The quantity of air furnished for each scholar in the public school-rooms is
a matter of no small importance. The rooms for the primary and the inter-
mediate schools the former designed to accommodate one hundred and
twenty, and the latter only ninety-six pupils contain between fifteen and six-
teen thousand cubic feet of atmospheric air. The rooms for the grammar
schools, intended to accommodate two hundred pupils, contain over thirty-five
thousand cubic feet, alter a suitable deduction for the furniture is made.
This estimate allows every child, when the rooms are not crowded, about
one hundred and fifty cubic feet of air for every hour and a half, on the sup-
position that no change takes place, except at the times of recess, and at the
close of each session. But the rate at which warm air is constantly coming
into the rooms from the furnaces, increases the allowance for every child to
about three hundred cubic feet for every hour and a half.
n HI n
i
m^m^i
No. 13. Transverse Section of a Grammar School-House.
154 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The preceding cut is given in order to show an end view, the projection, belfry,
rooms, seats, desks, and cellar. An imperfect section of the warming appa-
ratus is presented, giving an outline of the plan of its construction. The
smoke-pipe, connected with O], the heater, coiled twice around in the air-
chamber, passes off in the direction of [, 6] to the chimney. The short tin
fipes [c,c] conduct the warm air into the lower rooms; and the long ones
e,e] convey it to the rooms in the second story. On each side of the pi'ojec-
tion over the door [d] is a window, lighting the outside entry, and also the
middle entry by another window over the inside door. The end views of seats
and desks do not represent the different sixes very accurately, but sufficiently
so to give a correct idea of the general plan.
THE HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE.
This building occupies an elevated and beautiful situation, at the head of
President street, near the central part of the city. It is a specimen of plain,
but tasteful architecture, on which the eye reposes with pleasure. The lot,
somewhat irregular in its form, is equivalent to one a hundred feet by a hun-
dred and fifteen, and lies on a gentle hill-side, rendering it easy to construct a
basement almost entirely above ground, except on the back side. The exten-
sive grounds in front, and on either side, all planted with trees, and separated
from the High School only by the width of the streets, add much to the beauty
and pleasantness of its situation. The yards around it are inclosed bv a
handsome baluster fence, resting in front on heavy blocks of rough granite.
The steps are of hewn granite, twelve feet long, making a very convenient
entrance.
The High School being designed for both boys and girls, an entirely separate
entrance is provided for each department. The front door, at which the girls
enter, has a very beautiful frontispiece, with double columns (thus providing
for large side-lights), and a heavy ornamented cap, all cut from CLuincy granite
in the best style.
The door in the circular projection, fronting on another street, has also a
fine frontispiece, cut from duincy granite.
The size of this building is fifty feet by seventy-six, with a projection of
seven feet. The walls of the basement are of stone, three feet thick, and faced
with rough-hewn granite, laid in courses twenty inches wide. Each stone has
a "chiseled draft, fine cut," an inch wide around the face, and all the joints
as close and true as if the whole were fine hammered. The remaining por-
tions of the walls, diminishing in thickness as they rise, are faced with the
best quality of Danvers pressed brick, giving the building a beautiful appear-
ance. The roof is covered with tin, every joint soldered, and the whole sur-
face kept well painted.
The rooms in the basement story, which is twelve feet high in the clear, are
separated from each other by solid brick walls. The pupils in the girls' de-
partment, entering the house at [A], pass into the large lobby [C], twelve feet
by twenty-eight, from which they can go to all parts of the building appro-
priated to their use.
The furnace-room [H] has a brick floor, and is kept in as good order as the
olher parts of the house. The coal-bins [n, ri] and the furnace [F] are so con-
structed, that, with an ordinary degree of care, the room may be kept as clean
as any of the school-rooms. The arrangements [m, m\ for setting up um-
brellas have been described. The pump [p], accessible to all in the girls'
department, connected with a nice sink, lined with lead, affords an abundant
supply of excellent water. The rooms [E, G, I], each not far from sixteen by
iwenty-four feet, are appropriated as the Superintendent's Office, and for such
meetings of the School Committee, and of its sub-committees, as may be ap-
pointed there.
The large lecture-room, on the opposite side of the lobby, is furnished with
settees, which will accommodate about two hundred and fifty pupils. On the
156
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
No. 15. Plan of the Basement of High School.
platform [P], raised seven inches from the floor, a long table or counter [d],
made convenient for experimental lectures in Chemistry, Natural Philosophy,
&c., having pneumatic cisterns for holding gasses. At [F, &c.] are suitable
provisions for the fires used in the preparations of chemical experiments.
The pump [p], with a sink like the other, is used exclusively by the pupils in
the boys' department.
In all lectures, and other exercises in this room, the girls, entering at [a],
occupy the seats on the right of [D], the middle aisle. The boys, entering by
descending the short flight of stairs [&], are seated on the opposite side of the
room. This may seem like descending to useless particulars, but it is done to
show that there are no grounds for the objections sometimes made against
having a school for boys and for girls in the same building, where the depart-
ments are kept entirely separate, except in exercises in vocal music and occa-
sional lectures. The boys enter the house at the end door [B], which is six
feet aboVe the basement floor, and, by a short flight of stairs, they reach the
first story at [>].
The three rooms [C, D, F] are appropriated to the department for girls.
They are easy of access to the pupils, who, ascending the broad flight of
staiis, terminating at [B], can pass readily into their respective rooms.
The course of instruction in the school occupying three years, the room [D]
is appropriated to the studies for the first, [E] to those of the second, and
[F] to the course for the third year. In each room there are three sizes of
seats and desks, and their arrangement in all is uniform. The largest are on
the back side of the room. The largest desks are four feet eight inches long,
and twenty-two inches wide on the top; the middle size is two inches smaller,
and the other is reduced in the same proportions. The largest seats are as
high as common chairs, about seventeen inches, and the remaining sizes are
reduced to correspond with the desks. The passages around the sides of the
rooms vary from two to four feet wide, and those between the rows of desks,
Irom eighteen to twenty-four inches.
On the raised platforms [P, P, P, P] are the teachers' tables [d,d,d,d],
covered with dark woolen cloth, and furnished with four drawers each. The
registers [/,/,/,/] admit the warm air from the furnace, and the pipes [p,p, p]
conduct it into the rooms in the upper story. The passage [i] leads into the
back yard, which is ornamented with a variety of shrubbery.
HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE.
157
O O JQ-CL O Q O O O
f] l
O O OO DO o O O O O
r i run cm cm i i
b o 'oo o o o o o o
LUD LZZJ dm CHI C_~
o o o o o o F o o o o
! i ,TH I 1 C~]
00 'Q O O O 0~1T
oo OO L OO oo o o
No. 1G. Plan of the First Story of the High School.
The door leading from the room [F] i? used only for teachers and visitors,
except when the two departments assemble in the hall.
In the room [C] the bays pursue the studies prescribed for the first year;
the other rooms in this department are TH the next story.
Pupils ascending from the area'fc], by two circular stairways, land on the
broad space [a, c], from which, by a short flight of stairs, they reach [A], in
the following cut, the floor of the upper story, which is sixteen feet in the clear.
O O 00 00 00
i i cm i i i i
O (; o O O O O O
O O O Q O O O O O U
00 O O O O O O O O
No. 17. Plan of the Second Story of the High School-House
158
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The room [B] is appropriated to the middle class, and [C] to the senior
class. The arrangement of the seats and desks are
the same as in the other rooms, except they are
metafile being screwed to a frame not fastened to
the floor, as shown in this cut.
The cross partition [a] see cut No. 17 is com-
posed of four very large doors, about fourteen feet
square, bung with weights in such a manner that
they maf be raised into the attic, thus throwing the whole upper story into one
large hall an arrangement by which one room can be changed into three, and
three into one, as the occasion may require. On all public occasions, such as
Quarterly Examinations, and Annual Exhibitions, the rooms are thus thrown
together, and the seats and desks turned so as to face the platform [P], in
[E], the principal hall.
Observation and experiment, relative to the modes of -warming the public
school-rooms, have proved that very large stoves, eighteen inches in diameter,
render the temperature of the rooms more uniform and pleasant, and that they
are also more economical, both in regard to the amount of fuel consumed, and
the amount of repairs required. It is a general principle, that a warming
apparatus, containing a large quantity of fuel, undergoing a slow combustion,
is better than one containing a small quantity of fuel, in a state of rapid com-
bustion. The stoves in the small buildings, and the furnaces in the large
ones, are constructed on this principle.
In regard to the construction of furnaces for wanning public buildings or
private dwellings, so much depends upon circumstances, that no specific plan
can be given which would be successful in all cases* One familiar with the
principles which regulate the motions of currents of air at different tempera-
tures, can, with an ordinary degree of good judgment and mechanical skill,
make a furnace in any place, where one can be made at all, that will accom-
plish all which the laws of nature will permit.
The following cut is intended to illustrate two plans for a furnace.
No. 18. A Vertical Section of a Furnace
In the first, the cold air is admitted at [], through the outside walls of the
building, and descends in the direction described by the arrows, to [r], and
thence rises to the top of the furnace, as shown by the arrows. At this place,
the cold air diffuses itself over the whole upper surface, about eight feet by
ten, and passes down between the double walls of the furnace, in the spaces
[t, (], which extend all around the furnace, and rises from beneath, through a
HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE. 159
large opening [A], into the air-chamber, where it is heated and conducted to
the rooms by largp pipes, [/, h]. The object of this mode of taking in air is
two-fold. In the first place, the constant currents of cold air, passing over the
top of the furnace, keep that surface comparatively cool, and also keep the
floors above the furnace cool, thus removing all danger of setting fire to the
wood-work over the furnace.
In the second place, as the inside walls are constantly becoming heated,
and the currents of cold air, passing down on all sides of the walls, become
ranh'ed by their radiation, and thus, as it were, take the heat from the outside
of the inner walls, and bring it round into the air-chamber again, at Id]. This
is not mere theory, but has been found to work well in practice. On this
plan, the outside walls are kept so cool, that very little heat is wasted by
radiation.
In the second plan, the cold air is admitted as before; but, instead of
ascending from [r] to the top of the furnace, it passes through a large opening,
directly from [r], to [p,p,p], representing small piers, supporting the inside
walls, and thence into the air-chamber at [b], and also up the spaces [/, t~\, to
the top [s], from which the air warmed by coming up between the walls is
taken into the rooms by separate registers, or is let into the sides of the
pipes [ /, A].
By this plan, the air passes more rapidly through the air-chamber, and enters
the rooms in larger quantities, but at a Imcer temperature. This is the better
mode, if the furnace be properly constructed with large inlets and outlets for
air, so that no parts become highly heated ; otherwise, ihe wood-work over the
furnace will be in some danger of taking fire. The general defects in the
construction of furnaces are : too small openings for the admission of cold
air too small pipes for conveying the warm air in all horizontal and inclined
directions and defective dampers in the perpendicular pipes. A frequent
cause of failure in warming public buildings and private dwellings may be
found in the ignorance and negligence of attendants.
A single remark will close this report, which has been extended, perhaps
too far by specific details a want of which is often complained of by me-
chanics who are engaged in building school-houses.
It is believed to be best, and, all things considered, cheapest, in the end, tc
build very good school-houses to make their external appearance pleasan
and attractive, and their internal arrangements comfortable and convenient-
to keep them in first-rate order, well repaired, and always clean.
The amount of damage done to school property in this city has uniformly
been least in those houses in Mjhich the teachers have done most to keep ever;
thing in very good order. The very appearance of school property well taker
care of rebukes the spirit of mischief, and thus elevates the taste and char
acter of the pupils.
Respectfully submitted.
N. BISHOP,
Superintendent of Public Schools.
PROVIDENCE, August, 1846.
160
ARSENAL DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE.
PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN HARTFORD, CONN.
Fig. 1.
The above cut represents the front elevation of a new school-house erected
in Arsenal District, in Hartford, after designs by Octavius Jordan, Architect.
As originally planned there were to be two rooms, as shown in side elevation,
(Fig. 3.) The largest (Fig. 2) room is forty-five feet long by twenty-five
wide, with a recitation-room (C) fourteen feet by twelve, and two entries, one
for boys (A) and one for girls, (B), each twelve feet by six, furnished with sink,
nooks, &c. There are thirty-two desks, each for two pupils, with sixty-four
chairs, (page 141, Fig. 2), and thirty-two chairs for young children, (Fig. 3,
page 30.) The room is warmed by Mott's School Stove, (page 146,) and ven-
tilated by flues in the walls, opening at the top and boltom of the room, which
is fifteen feet high in the clear. The material is brick, and the cost $1800.
Pig. 2. GROCND PLAN.
f=*
n D n n
n n n n
n D n n
D D D D
POOD
a D n D
D D D D
anno
n o n o nn o n o [T
o l>U o LlUUU<
nononono,
U UUo[Jl
n o n o n o nn o n o n o n
UU U ULI U C IJ U
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
161
Fig. 3. SIDB ELEVATION.
I
it-
3 *<
r CO
c;a>
p a
B "
5
II
n a
c o 1
S-3L
H-. ^Jj
O f^
3" S2.
.go"
3
O CD
-^O-
P
^^
O
(X
CD
1
PLAN OF SOUTH DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE.
163
PLANS OF THE SOUTH DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN THE CITY OF
HARTFORD.
The house, illustrated in Figs. 1, 2, 3,4, 5, and 6, was erected in 1851, after
plans by E. D. Tiffany, Esq., at an expense, including lot, inclosure, building, and
furniture, of $13,000. The location is both central and retired, on the east side of
Wadsworth street, having a front of 320 feet, and depth of 150, and is rendered
surpassingly attractive and beautiful by a number of fine old majestic oaks and
graceful elms. The building is of br'ek, 70 fret by 58, exclusive of the towers, and
is three stories high, and was designed to accommodate 450 pupils but owing to
the attraction of the house and popularity < f the school, provision has been made
in it for 500 pupils classified into five departments.
FIG. 2. PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR.
ifl
oooooooo oooooooo
oooooooo oooooooo
oooooooo oooooooo
oooooooo oooooooo
Ig
D'i
I
II
DODDD
DDDDD
DDDDD
DDDDO
DDDDD
DDDDD
DDDDD K,
DDODD I
A Girls' entrance.
B Boys' do.
C Primary No. 1 . Seated with chairs. (Fig. 5.)
D Primary No. 2. Seated as No. 1.
E E Clothes rooms for Upper Department.
F F Culver's Furnaces in basement.
G Coal-room, extending under Primary No. 1.
II Girls' passage to play ground.
S S Stairs.
c Clothes room for boys.
d Clothes room for girls.
g Stairs to Furnaces, &c.
1 1 Teacher's table.
r Registers for heated air.
v Flues for ventilation surmounted by Emerson's Ejector.
164
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
FIG. 3. PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR.
I Primary Xo. 3. Seat and desk for two pupils. (Fig. 6.)
K Intermediate School seat and desk for one pupil.
i Clothes room for boys.
k Clothes room for girls.
FIG. 5. PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR.
PLAN OF SOUTH DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE.
165
FIG. 4. PLAN OF THIRD FLOOR.
M Upper Department, seats and desks for two pupils. (Fig. 6.)
L L Library and Apparatus.
FIG. 6. HARTFORD SCHOOL DESK.
JQQ SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE,
HARTFORD, CONN.
The Public High School-House of Hartford was built after more
than ordinary search for the best plan, (a committee having visited
Boston, Lowell, Salem, Newburyport, Worcester, Providence, and
Middletown, for this purpose,) under the constant oversight of a
prudent, practical and intelligent building committee, and with due
regard to a wise economy. , The committee were limited in their
expenditure for lot, building, and fixtures, to $12,000 ; and when it
was ascertained that a suitable building could not be constructed
for that sum, individuals on the committee immediately contributed
$2,400 out of their own pockets to complete the house with the
latest improvements. The committee have now the satisfaction of
knowing that their contributions and personal oversight have been
mainly instrumental in erecting and furnishing the most complete
structure of the kind in New England, when the aggregate cost is
taken into consideration.
The High School is designed for both males and females, and the arrange-
ments of the buildings, and the grounds, are made with reference to the separa-
tion of the sexes, so far as this is desirable in the same school.
The lot on which the building stands is at the corner of Asylum and Ann
streets, and is at once central, and large enough for the appropriate yards. The
yards are separated by a close and substantial board fence, and the grounds are
well laid out and properly inclosed ; they will also soon be planted with trees
and shrubbery. The building is of brick, three" stories high, upon a firm stone
basement. Its dimensions aie 50 by 75 feet. The basement is 13 feet in the
clear, six feet of which are above the level of the yard. This part of the build-
ing is occupied hyfurnac.es, coal bins, sinks, pumps, entrance rooms, &c. At one
end, and on two opposite sides of the building, a stair case eleven feet in width
extends from each of the two entrance rooms, to the upper story, with spacious
landings on the first and second floors. Two rooms, each 1 1 by 14 feet, are be-
tween the stair cases, the one on the first floor being used for a front entry to the
building, and the one on the second floor being appropriated to the Library
and Apparatus. Two closets, eleven by four feet on the first floor, and imme-
diately beneath the stair cases, receive the outer garments, umbrellas, &c., of
the teachers.
An aLsle of four feet four inches in width extends between the desks and
outer walls of the rooms, and between every two ranges of desks is an aisle of
two feet four inches in width. An aisle of eight feet in width passes through
the mjddle of the rooms, parallel to the narrower passages. A space of five
feet in width is likewise Deserved between the remote seats in the ranges and
the partition wall of the rooms. Around the sides of the rooms, tastefully con-
structed settees are placed for occasional recitations, and for the accommodation
of yisiters, and in the upper room for the use of the pupils of the room below,
during the opening and closing exercises of the school.
The pupils, when seated, face the teachers' desks and platforms,which occupy
the space between the entrance doors of each room.
A blackboard, or black plaster surface, forty feet long, and five broad, ex-
tends between the doors leading to the recitation rooms, which are also lined
with a continuous blackboard. There is also a blackboard extending the
entire length of the teachers' platform in the lower room, and two of smaller di-
mensions in the room above, a part of the space being occupied by the folding
doors leading to the library and apparatus room. Twenty chairs,' of small di-
ions and sixteen inches in height, are placed around each recitation room,
hirteen inches apart and seven inches from the walls, and securely fastened to
the floor. A clock, with a circular gilt frame and eighteen-inch dial plate, is
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL HARTFORD. 167
placed over the teachers' platform in each school room, in full view of the pupils.
A small bell is also placed above the teachers' platform in the lower room, with
a wire attached, passing to the desk of the Principal, in the room above, by
which the time of recesses, change of recitation classes, &c., are signified to
the members of the lower rooms.
The school-rooms in the first and second stories are 50 feet square, and 13 feet
in height to each of which, two recitation rooms 12 by 23 feet are attached.
The large rooms are furnished with " Kimball's improved School Chairs and
Desks," placed in six ranges, extending back from the teachers' platforms, ten
esks forming a range, and two chairs attached to each desk, furnishing accom-
odations in each room for 120 pupils 60 of either sex. Ample room yet
emains in front of these ranges to increase the number of desks when the
wants of the school demand them. The desks are four feet in length and one
-foot four inches in breadth, constructed of cherry, oiled and varnished. The
moderately inclined tops arejixcd to the end supporters, and the openings for
books are in front of the pupils. Glass inkstands are inserted in the tops of the
di-'sks, and the ink protected from dust and the action of the atmosphere by
mahogany covers turning on pivots. The chairs are constructed with seats
(>f basswood, hollowed, and backs of cherry, moulded both to add beauty to
the fonn of the chair, and to afford support and comfort to the occupants. All
< r <re neatly stained and varnished, and they, as well as the desks, rest on iron
supporters, firmly screwed to the floor.
The entire upper story is converted into a hall, being twelve feet in height at
the walls, rising thence in an arch to the height of seventeen feet. This is ap-
p opriated to reading, and declamation, and for the female department of the
school, to daily recess, and calisthenic exercises. A moderately raised platform
is located at due end, above which an extended blackboard is placed, and settees
;HV ranged around the walls; these, properly arranged, together with the settees
from the lower rooms, which are easily transported above, speedily convert the
oren Hall into a commodious Lecture room, and also adapt it to the purposes
of public examinations and exhibitions.
In each of the two entrance rooms are placed the means of cleanliness and
comfort, a pump of the most approved construction, an ample sink, two wash
t a^ins with towels, glass drinking tumblers, and a looking-glass. Ranges ot
hooks for hats, coats, bonnets, cloaks, &c., extend around the rooms, and are
numbered to correspond with the number of pupils, of eah sex, which the
capacity of the house will accommodate. In the girls' room, pairs of small
iron hooks are placed directly beneath the bonnet hooks, and twelve inches from
the floor, for holding the over-shoes. In the boys' room, boot-jacks are pro-
vided to facilitate the exchange of boots for slippers when they enter the build-
ing an important article, and of which no one in this department of the school
is destitute. A thin plank, moderately inclined by hollowing the tipper side, is
placed upon the floor, and extends around the walls of the room, to receive the
hoots and convey the melted ice and snow from thorn, by a pipe, bei.-eath the
fl.mr. A large umbrella stand is furnished in each of the two entrance rooms,
also with pipes for conveying away the water. Stools are secured to the floors
for convenience in exchanging boots, shoes, &c. Directly under the stairs is an
OMNIUM GATHERUM an appropriate vessel, in which are carefully deposited
shreds of paper, and whatever comes under the denomination of litter, subject,
of course, to frequent removal. These rooms, in common with the others, are
carefully warmed. The wainscoting of the entrance rooms, and the stair case,
is formed of narrow boards, grooved and tongued, placed perpendicularly, and
crowned with a simple moulding. The railing of the stair case is of black
walnut. A paneled wainscoting reaching from the floor to the base of the
windows, extends around the walls of the remaining rooms. All the wood
work, including the library and apparatus cases, is neatly painted, oak-grained,
and varnished. The teachers' tables are made of cherry, eight feet in length,
and two feet four inches in breadth, with three drawers in each, and are sup-
ported on eight legs. A movable writing desk of the same material is placed
on each. Immediately in front of the teachers' desk in the upper room, a piano
is to be placed, for use during the opening and closing exercises of the school,
and for the use of the young ladies during the recesses. Venetian window
blinds with rolling slats, are placed inside the windows, and being of a slight
bufl" color, they modify the light without imparting a sombre hue to the room.
jgg SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The building is warmed throughout by two of Hanks' Improved Air Heatei,
placed in the basement.
The ventilation of the school-rooms, or the rapid discharge of the air which
has become impure by respiration, is most thoroughly secured in connection
with a constant influx of pure warm air from the furnaces, by discharging ven-
tiducts or flues, situated on each side of the building at the part of the rooms
most distant from the registers of the furnaces. The ventiducts of each room
are eighteen inches in diameter, and are carried from the floor entirely separate
to theStationary Top, or Ejector above the roof. The openings into the ven-
tiducts, both at the top and bottom of the room, are two feet square, and are
governed by a sliding door or blind.
A flight of stone steps leads to the front and main entrance of the building.
The architectural entrance is of simple design, fourteen feet in width, and
twenty feet in height. All the parts are wrought from dark colored stone, and
on the crowning stone of the entablature, PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL, appears in
plain and prominent relief. Large folding doors, with side and top lights, close
the entrance.
A side knob commands a bell suspended in the Library Room, directly behind
the Principal.
A broad stone walk reaches from the steps to the street ; flagging walks also
extend from the street to the side entrances of the building, and thence to the
outbuildings.
The Library contains an Encyclopedia, the most approved Dictionaries, both
Classical and English, and other important books of reference for the use of the
School, together with selected works for the direct professional reading of the
teachers.
Several educational and scientific periodicals are furnished to the School,
and which at the end of each year will form additional volumes for the Libraiy.
Pelton's and Olney's, together with Mitchell's new series of outline maps,
published by J. H. Mather & Co., of Hartford, Ct., and a fourteen-inch terres-
trial globe, aid in the department of General Geography.
Mattison's series of sixteen astronomical maps; a fourteen-inch celestial
globe ; Vale's improved twenty-four-inch celestial globe and transparent sphere ;
a magic lantern, with sets of slides, containing thirty accurate telescopic and
astronomical views; a reflecting telescope of five feet focal distance, with
magnifying power of 700, and Chamberlins best Tellurium, aid in the depart-
ment of Astronomy.
Historical maps, charts, &c., an Isothermal chart, and set of large drawings
to illustrate the anatomical structure, and the physiological functions of the
system, will be procured.
The following apparatus has already been procured to aid in illustrating and
demonstrating in the studies named :
MECHANICS. Set of mechanical powers, arranged in a mahogany frame,
comprising three levers, each sixteen inches long. Five sets of brass pulleys
strung with cord and properly balanced. Brass weights from one to sixteen
ounces. Screw and lever with nut. Screw as an inclined plane. Ship cap-
stan. Wheel and axle. Wedge in two parts. Inclined plane, with carriage.
Movable fulcrum and lever, for combining the power of screw and lever.
Machine for illustrating the centrifugal and centripetal forces thirteen experi-
imenvs.
PNEUMATICS. Air Pump frame made of rose-wood beautifully polished-
barrel twelve by four inches inside ; large plate, stop-cock, and barometer in
vacuo, and worked with a polished steel lever four feet in length, 85,00.
Large swelled, o nPn -top bell glass. Several plain bell glasses of smaller
dimensions. Bell glass with brass cap to receive stop-(jock. Connector, sliding
rod, &c. Revolving jet in vacuo. Bursting squares and wire guard for same.
Condensing chamber and condensing gauge. Artificial fountain, with exterior
and interior jets. Sheet rubber bag in vacuo, illustrating the rarefaction of
confined air by removing the pressure of the external. Mercury tunnel to ex-
hibit the mercurial shower, porosity of wood, pressure of the air, and also the
luminous shower. Guinea and feather tube. Philosophical water hammer.
PUPLIC HIGH SCHOOL, HARTFC KD. 169
Apparatus illustrating the absurdity of suction, or the necessity of atmospheric
pressure to the operation of the lifting pump. Torricellian baiometer improved.
Bell in vacuo. Apparatus illustrating the buoyancy of air, gas, &c. Weighing
air and specific gravity apparatus. Freezing apparatus with thermometer.
Condensing syringe. Cylindrical open-top bell glasses, three sizes. Hand and
bladder glass, to illustrate atmospheric pressure. Bladder cap, with cap and
stop-cock. Double acting exhauster and condenser. Brass hemispherical caps
with handles, stop-cock and stand. Apparatus to illustrate the upward pressure
of the atmosphere. Connecting screws, guard screws, sliding rod, with pack-
ing screws and binding screws. Flexible hose and screw connectors. Hydro-
gen bottle. Lead hose for conducting gases. Floating bulbs for condensation.
Sheet rubber and sheet rubber bags. Glass bells and stems for freezing appa-
ratus. Pair magnetic swans. Detonating glass tubes. Wire gauze, to illus-
trate Davy's safety lamp.
HYDROSTATICS. Hydrostatic bellows, with glass and brass tubes, glass tun-
nels, weights, &c. Pair of working models of the forcing and lilting pump.
Graduated glass jars for cubic inches.
ELECTRICITY. Electrical machine, 24 inch plate, $50,00. Leyden jar of four
quarts. Do. do. for suspension with movable rings and points. Do. do. with
sliding discharger. Electrometer jar, by which the charge may be measured,
&c. Electric batteries with six four-quart jars. Sliding, directing rod. Spiral
spotted tube. Jointed discharger, glass handle. Universal discharger. Insu-
lating stand. Electric bells. Wax cylinder. Thunder house with fixtures.
Gas pistol. Gas generator and platina igniter, four quarts. Longhaired man.
Electric float wheel and point. Abbe Noloes' globe. Luminous bell glass.
Electric S. Aurora flask. Electric seasons machine. Elastic rubber ball.
Ether spoon. Chamberlin's cylindrical gasometers, for oxygen and hydrogen,
united, forming a compound blow pipe, $60,00. Iron retort for oxygen gas.
Metallic reflectors with stand, iron ball and stands and a thermDmeter. Glass
spirit lamp. Spirit boiler to use with reflectors. Dropping tube. Glass tun-
nels. Graduated glass hydrometer. Flask with screw-cap admitting thermom-
eter. Platina and copper pendant spoons. Brass pipe for blowing gas bubbles.
Hydrogen gas generator, with platina sponge for lighting a long detonating jet.
Lamp stand. Flexible hose for transferring and conducting gases. Scales and
weights for chemical purposes. Pyrometer with two lamps and rods. Section
model of the high pressure engine.
GALVANIC MAGNETIC AND ELECTRO MAGNETIC. Davis's cylindric battery.
Steel U magnet and armature. Magnetic needles and stands. Electro mag-
net. Electro coil and hemispheric magnets. Terrestrial helix. Primary coil
and handles for shocks. Separable helics for analysis of shocks.
OPTICS. Models of the human eye in three parts. Fig. 1st. A dissectible
eye four inches in diameter, showing the cornea, iris, ciliary process, choroid
tunic, crystalline lens, vitreous humor, retina, black pigment, optic nerve, &c.
Fig. 2d. Showing the eye in its socket, with the muscles. Fig. 3d. The eye
with rays of light passing from an object and forming the image on the retina.
The object and the image movable, showing the cause of lens light, short sight,
and perfect sight.
An oxy-hydrogen microscope will soon be added in this department.
With the "above apparatus more than eight hundred experiments can be per-
formed.
For the purpose of teaching practical surveying, and the elements of en-
gineering, a Theodolite, of approved English manufacture, is provided. Cost
$200.
Other apparatus will from time to time be added, as the wants of the School
may require.
Building Committee. A. M. COLLINS, D. F. ROBINSON, T. BELKNAP, J. M.
BUNCE, W. PEASE, Jr., EDWARD BUTTON, E. D. TIFFANY.
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL, HARTFORD.
171
Fig. 2 GROUND PLAN, YARD, BASEMENT, &c.
is-
AFront yard.
B Girls' yard.
C Boys' yard.
D Door.
E Boys' entrance rooms.
G Girls' entrance rooms.
F Furnace.
8-%-Stairs.
W Windows.
P Privies, with screen, doors, &c.
X Gates.
a Cold air ducts.
b Warm air ducts.
c Foul air ducts or ventilating flues.
d Smoke pipe.
e Pump, sink.
f Umbrella stand.
g Hollowed plank to receive wet
boots, overshoes, &c.
o Bins for hard coal, charcoal, &C.
j Close board fence.
172
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 3 PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR.
A Front entrance.
B Girls' entrance.
C Boys' entrance.
I Centre aisle, eight feet.
L Aisle between each range of seats and desks, two feet four inches.
K Side aisle, four feet four inches.
M Space five feet wide.
T Teachers' platform and desk.
R Recitation rooms, each twenty-three feet by twelve, furnished with
twenty chairs, seven inches from the wall and thirteen inches apart,
d Library and apparatus, from eleven feet by fourteen feet.
N Kimball's desk and two chairs.
O Piano.
r Hot air registers,
c Ventilating flue or foul air duct. N Settees.
3mm
11
UoMoMoLMMIoMol|o,
onoiio nanononorTonononci
"no
o
ono
onononononorfonon&
nnonononon
LJMoMo o lol o JoMo
o Honor |Q|
o|>|Jol
i o n a nn o n a i
ol olJoLJoMoLJo
Fig. 4 PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR.
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL, HARTFORD. ^73
Figs. 5 and 6. PLANS EXHIBITING MODS OF VENTILATION.
Fig. 5. Transverse section exhibiting the manner in which the ventiducts or
hot air flues are carried up on the inside of the walls, under the roof, till they
discharge into the Stationary Top or Ejector.
Fig. 6. Lateral section of the ventiducts or foul air flues, showing the man-
ner in which the fl ues are packed together and carried up separately from the
floor of each room until they discharge into the common Ejector. The cut does
not represent properly the manner in which the flues are carried under and out
of the roof.
Fig. 2.
Each desk is fitted up
with a glass ink-well
(Fig. 2,) set firmly into
the desk, and covered
with alid. The ink-well
may be set into a cast
iron box (Fig. 3,) having
a cover ; the box being
let in and screwed to
the desk, and the ink-well being removable for
convenience in filling, cleaning, and emptying
in cold weather.
1Y4
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN BOSTON.
The system of public schools in Boston originated in a vote of the town,
in 1642, by which " Brother Philemon Purmont was entreated to be-
come school-master for the teaching and nurturing of children with us,"
and the first records of the town contain a sum voted for the " maintenance
of a free school-master." By the Act of the General Court passed 1647,
" to the end that learning should not be buried in the graves of our fore-
fathers," every town having one hundred householders was required to
maintain a " free grammar school ; the master whereof being able to in-
struct youth so far as they may be fitted for the university." In that
year the present Latin School was founded, but was known as the Gram-
mar School till 1713, when it took the name of the South Latin School, a
new Grammar school having been established in that year, called the
North Latin School, and now known as the Eliot school.
In 1684, a class of free schools called writing schools were founded, to
teach children to " read and write." Of this class there were four in 1785.
In 1789, the schools were remodeled. One (the North) of the Latin
Schools were discontinued, and "reading schools" (now known as depart-
ments under the Grammar master) were established in separate depart-
ments from the " writing schools ;" and the whole placed under the
direction of a School Committee chosen annually by the town. Previous
to this, the schools were under the inspection of the Selectmen, " and of
such gentlemen of liberal education, together with the reverend minis-
ters" as should be appointed for the purpose.
In 1812, a separate school for colored children was established, and
called the Smith School.
In 1818, the School Committee were instructed by a vote of the town
to appoint three persons from each ward, whose duty it was made collec-
tively, to provide instruction for children between the ages of four and
seven years, out of the sum of $5000, appropriated for the purpose for
that year. This was the origin of the Primary Schools of Boston, and of
this class of schools in this country. Previous to this date, no child could
be sent to the Grammar schools, until he could read the English language.
In 1821 the English High School for boys was begun, and its success
was such, as to lead to the establishment in 1825 of the High School for
girls. This last school was discontinued in a few years. Its place is in
part supplied by allowing the girls to remain two years longer than the
boys in the Grammar school. But the fact that near two-thirds of all the
scholars in the private schools are females, shows that there is- a defi-
ciency in the system of public schools in reference to female education.
In 1828 ten schools, one in each primary district, were designated te
receive children who were over seven years, and were not prepared for
the Grammar schools.
In 1851, after repeated recommendations of the School Commitee,
the City Council authorized that body to elect a Superintendent of Pub-
lic Schools, whose duty it is made, " to study the school system, and the
condition of the schools ;" "to keep himself acquainted with the progess
of instruction and discipline in other places, in order to suggest appropri-
ate means for the advancement of Public Schools in this city ;" " to ex-
amine the schools semi-annually, and report to the Board respecting
them;" "to consult with the different bodies, who have control of the
building and altering school-houses, and with alt those through whom,
either directly or indirectly, the school money is expended, that there
may result more uniformity in their plans, and more economy in their
expenditures." To this office Nathan Bishop, Esq., was elected in May,
1851, and has already signalized his administration by suggesting many
practical improvements which have been adopted by the ^committee.
PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN BOSTON. j7g
All of the Public Schools of the city are under the care and superin-
tendence of a Board or Committee, consisting of the Mayor, the Presi-
dent of Common Council, and twenty-four other persons, annually
elected, two for each ward.
The Board employs a Superintendent, to act under their control and
direction, at a salary of twenty-five hundred dollars; a Primary School
Committee, to take particular charge of the Primary Schools; a commit-
tee of five members on the Latin and English High School; a com-
mittee of three members on each Grammar School, arid a committee on
school-houses, also of three members. The teachers are elected an-
nually by the Board, and their salaries are fixed for the year.
The system now (1854) embraces 196 Primary Schools. 22 Grammar
Schools, 1 English High School. 1 Latin School, and 1 Normal School.
The Primary Schools were instituted in 1818. and now include about
12,000 children, over 4 and under 8 years of age. under female teachers.
In these schools, the alphabet, pronouncing and spelling words, numera-
tion and combination of numbers, the stops and marks, mental arith-
metic, and reading are attended to. The cost of these schools, in 1853, for
the salaries of teachers, was $62508.82, or $5.45 per scholar; for inci-
dental expenses, $22231.46, or $1.85 per scholar; or $7.31) per scholar,
exclusive of expenditures for school- houses.
There are at present 22 Grammar Schools, (including three independ-
ent schools in the same building, and bearing the same name with other
schools,) with 10.237 scholars. These schools are not at present organ-
ized on a uniform plan; but efforts are making to constitute each Gram-
mar School of about 700 to 800 children, divided into twelve or thirteen
equal divisions, of about sixty pupils each, and each division into four
.large classes. Each school is to be under the charge of one principal
teacher, with a requsite number of assistants, one to each room. The
course of instruction embraces the common branches of an English edu-
cation. In these schools the boys remain until they are 15 years of age,
or until they pass to the English, High, or Latin School. Girls can
remain till they are seventeen. In 1852-3. the cost of the Grammar
Schools, for salaries arid teachers, was $130.531.18, or $12.63 per,
scholar; $35.849.82 for incidental expenses ; or $3.47 per scholar; or
$16.10 per scholar, exclusive of the expenditures on school-houses.
The English High School, was instituted in 1821, and receives pupils
who can pass a strict examination in spelling, reading, writing, arith-
metic, English grammar, modern geography, and the history of the United
States. The course of study embraces three years, and the privilege
of remaining one year longer. It embraces ancient geography, general
history, algebra, book-keeping, rhetoric, moral philosophy, natural theol-
ogy, evidences of Christianity, political economy, drawing, English lan-
guage, and literature French and Spanish languages, astronomy, higher
mathematics, and their applications to surveying, engineering, &c.
The Latin School was instituted in 1635, and receives boys who have
attained the age often years, and takes them through a course of studies
occupying six years, preparatory to entering the most respectable col-
lege. It includes the English, as well as the Latin and Greek languages.
The Normal School was instituted in 1852, with the design of furnishing
to those pupils who have passed through the usual course of study at the
grammar schools for girls, and other girls' schools in the city, an opportu-
nity of qualifying themselves in the best manner for the duties of teachers.
Candidates must be over 16. and not more than 19 years of age. The
school embraces two departments one consisting of pupils preparing
themselves to be teachers, and the other a model school, composed of
children of the age and qualification of pupils in the fourth classes ot
the Grammar Schools. The course of study embraces two years.
j^g SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF A PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON.
Three new Primary School-houses were erected in Boston, in 1847, under
the direction of, and on plans furnished by, JOSEPH W. INGRAHAM, Esq.,
Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Primary School Board, and
Chairman of their Committee on School-houses. Mr. Ingraham is also a
member of the Massachusetts Board of Education. He has devoted himself
assiduously, and without compensation, for upwards of twenty-five years, to
the Primary Schools of Boston, and the cause of Education generally ; and
no one is better acquainted than he with what the wants and conveniences
of both pupils and teachers require in edifices for this class of schools. The
following very minute description and plans were kindly furnished, on appli-
cation, by him. The plans are copied from those appended to his Address
at the Dedication (March 27, 1848) of one of the School-houses, that in
Sheafe street. They will be found worthy the attention of all who are inter-
ested in school architecture. The distinguished Secretary of the Massachu-
setts Board of Education, (Mr. Mann,) who was present at the dedication
of this building, in his remarks at the subsequent dedication of another
School-house in Boston, referred to this as " perfect of its kind," and said it
" might well be called the model School-house of the State, and in School-
houses Massachusetts was a model for the world." The teachers in one of
these buildings, after having occupied their rooms for five months, say they
"cannot imagine any improvement that can be made."
The City of Boston is so compact, and land is so very expensive, that it is
difficult to procure sufficient space for playgrounds and other conveniences ;
but the Schoolhouses erected during the past year, (1847,) are better pro-
vided for, in this respect, than any others in the City.
There were three Schoolhouses erected during the year 1847, on plans
devised and furnished by Mr. Ingraham, the Chairman of the Primary School
Committee on Schoolhouses. The general features of each are the same,
differing only in consequence of the size and location of the lots on which
they are erected.
These Schoolhonses are believed to possess greater conveniences, for the
comfort and happiness of both teachers and scholars, than any others ever
before constructed. In planning them, several objects were had in view.
Among these, were,
The desire to allow to each scholar sufficient space, and have the rooms
perfectly heated and ventilated, so that no one should suffer from want of
room, or comfortable and pure air :
To have all the light in the Schoolrooms come in from one side, and that
at the backs of the scholars, to prevent the detrimental effects of cross-lights,
which are very injurious to the eyes of young children when in a forming state :
To give suitable space, on the walls, for the display of maps, charts, pic-
tures, &c., and provide sufficient recitation-rooms, closets, cabinets, and other
necessary conveniences :
To have a separate entrance for each school :
To so arrange the usual out-door conveniences, that the scholars should
not have to go out of doors in stormy weather, or down stairs, to gain access
to them, and at the same time, by removing them from the play-ground, to
obviate the objections which have been made, by some teachers, to having
both sexes m the play-ground at the same time, during the recesses :
PRIMARY SC HOOL-HOU8E
177
INGRAHAM PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON.
The Schoolhouse, to which the following description and plans more par-
ticularly refer, is situated in Sheafe street, at the north part of the City, and on
the slope of Copp's Hill, famed in our Revolutionary history. It occupies a
space of twenty-six by fifty-three feet, exclusive of the play-ground in front,
between it and the street, which is sixteen by fifty-three feet. This front is
hardly long enough. Sixty feet would have been much better. The main
building is twenty-six by forty-four feet ; and there are projections at each
end, one on the west, four and a half by sixteen and a half feet, contain-
ing the privies, and one at the east end, three and a half by twenty-one and
a half feet, in which is the passage from the lower schoolroom to the play-
ground.
The building is three stories in height. Each story contains a Schoolroom,
Recitation-rooms, Closets, Entries, and Privies, and is finished twelve feet high,
in the clear. Each Schoolroom is lighted by four windows, which are all on
one side. The first floor is set eighteen inches above the ground at the front
of the building. The Cellar is finished seven and a half feet high, in the
clear ; and its floor is on a level with the surface of the ground at the back
of the building, where is the entrance-door to the first story.
The Schoolrooms in the first and second stories are thirty feet in length,
by twenty-two feet and four inches in width, and contain six hundred and
seventy square feet of floor. That in the third story is thirty-two feet in
length, by twenty-two feet and nine inches in breadth, and contains seven
hundred and thirty square feet of floor. Thus allowing from ten to twelve
or thirteen square feet of floor, and one hundred and fifty cubic feet of air, to
each scholar.
The following diagram will show the arrangement of the ground-floor,
with the Play-ground in front.
12
Scale 16 feet to the inch.
J7Q SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The following references will apply to the ground-plan of each of the three
stories.
1, Entrance to First Story, by a door under the window W, the back part of the
building being eight feet lower tha| the front.
2 3, Entrance-doors to the Second and Third Stones.
A, A, A, Stairs to First Story, from the Entrance-door 1.
B,' Blinds in Boys' Privies.
F Fireplace or Furnace-flue, or Stove, when one is used instead of a Furnace.
G', G, Entrance-gates to Second and Third Stories. The Iron Fence extends the whok
length of the front on the street, broken only by these two gates.
R, R, Recitation-rooms, or spaces used for that purpose. In ihe first story, that on the
right being the entrance-passage to the schoolroom, and that on the left, the passage
to the Second Story.
S, S, S, S, Large Slates, measuring four by two and a half feet, affixed to the walls,
instead of Blackboards.
T, T, T, Trees in Play-ground. That near the fence, is an old horse-chestnut tree.
U, Umbrella stands. The place of those of the second story only are shown. In
the other stories, they are also in the entrance-passages.
W, W, Windows.
a, Stairs to Second Story.
b, b, b, In second story, Entry; and place for Boys' Clothes-hooks, also used as a
Recitation-room. In third story, place for Clothes-hooks.
c, In second story, Door into the Recitation-room where are the Sink and Girls'
Clothes-hooks. In third story, Door into Recitation-room where is the Brush Closet
and entrance to Girls' Privy.
d, d, d, In second story, Girls' Clothes-hooks.
e, Sinks.
/, Privy for Girls. g, Privy for Boys. h, Trough in ditto.
, i, Space between the walls of the Privies and main building, for more perfect ven-
tilation, and cutting off of any unpleasant odor. [This space is here too much con-
tracted, on account of the want of room. It would be much better, if greatly increased.]
k, Entrance-door to Schoolroom, through which, only, scholars are allowed to enter.
In third story, the passage from the stairs to the Entrance-door is through the Recita-
tion-room.
/, Teachers' Platforms, six feet wide and twelve feet long, raised seven inches from
the floors.
m, Teachers' Tables.
n, Ventiduct. That for each room is in the centre of that room. These are better
shown in the diagram representing the Ventilating arrangement, (p. 183.)
o, o, Close_ts, in the vacant spaces on the sides of the Ventiducts, in the First and
Second Stories. In first story, they are on each side of the Ventiduct ; in second story
only on one side. In the third story, there are of course none. See the diagram of the
Ventilating arrangement, (p. 183.)
p,p, Ventiducts for other rooms. In plan of second story, p shows the position of the
Ventiduct for first story. In third story plan, p p show the positions of those for both
the lower stories.
q, q, q, Childrens' chairs, arranged in the second story. Their form is represented in
another diagram, (p. 181.)
r, s, t, Hot-air Flues from the Furnace, Cold-air Flues if Stoves are used, and Smoke
Flues. These will be better understood by a reference to the diagram explanatory of
the Chimney Pier, (p. 182.)
u, w, Cabinets for Minerals, Shells, and other objects of Natural History or Curiosity.
, Door of Recitation-room. In first story, this door leads to the entry in which
are the Sink, Brush-Closet, entrance to the Privies, and passage to Second Story. In
second story, it leads to the Recitation-room where is the Teacher's Press-closet ; and
in the third story, to that in which are the Sink, entrance to the Privies, and Stairs to
the Attic.
it, Teacher's Press-closet, fitted with shelves and brass clothes-hooks.
x, Closet for Brooms, Brushes, Coalhods, &c. That for the first story is under the
Second- Story stairs.
a, a, a, Stairs to the Third Story.
b, b. Doors connecting First and Second, and Second and Third Stories.
f, Place for Fountain, in the centre of the Play-ground.
g, g. g, Grass-plats, or Flower-beds.
p, Passage from the First-Story Schoolroom to the Play-ground.
The Plan of the second story, on the next page, is drawn on a larger scale,
for greater convenience in showing all the arrangements. The references on
this diagram are more copious and minute than on either of the others.
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON.
179
180
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE
The building fronts nearly N. N. E., and of course all the light comes into
the Schoolrooms from the North. At the same time, in order to secure the
benefit of the winds that prevail in Summer, and the admission of " a streak
of sunshine," which adds so much to the cheerfulness of any room, and
particularly of a schoolroom, there are windows in the back or southerly
wall, opening into the recitation-rooms or entries, through which, and the
entrance-doors, the sunlight finds its way into each schoolroom. The Nea-
politan proverb, " Where the sun does not come, the physician must," has
not been lost sight of; though it must be confessed that we have not been able
to pay so much attention to it as would be desirable.
The next diagram, which is_on the same scale with the first, will show
the arrangement of the third story, which differs from the first and second in
having a larger schoolroom, and more space for recitation-rooms ; less space
being occupied for stairways than in the other stories. The partitions at the
ends are set one foot each way nearer to the ends of the building, making
the Schoolroom thirty-two feet in length, while the others are only thirty.
Scale 16 feet to the inch.
It will be seen, that the ends of the building are cut off from the school-
rooms, by entries, stairways, recitation-rooms, &c., and the back and end
walls are left blank, for convenience in displaying Maps, Charts, Pictures, &c.,
and for the large Slates, used instead of Blackboards. As ample provision,
as was practicable, has been made for recitation-rooms, closets, and other
necessary conveniences.
It will be seen, from the Plans of the different Stories, that the Entrance-
door (k) to each Schoolroom is in that part of the partition nearest to the
back walls ; so that, on entering the room, the Teacher's Platform is directly
before the scholar or visiter. This Platform is six feet wide and twelve feet
long, and is raised seven inches above the floor, that being a sufficient height
to give the Teacher a full view of the whole school. In the transverse-sec-
tional elevation, (p. 184.) the raised Platform is shown at P.
On this Platform, is a Table, (m,) instead of a Desk, that being the more
convenient article for the Teacher's use. On it, are constantly kept, in full
view of the scholars, THE LA.WS OF THE SCHOOL, the Holy Bible, the Rule
and Guide of Life, the Moral and Religious Law; the Dictionary, the Law
of Language, the Authority for Orthography and Orthoepy ; and the Rules
and Regulations of the Committee. These should be always on every
ieacher's table or desk, and should be frequently appealed to. On this
Table, also, are the Record Book of the School, Ink-standish, Table Bell,
and other necessary articles.
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON.
181
In front of the Teacher's Platform, and facing it, ar-
ranged in a semi-circular form, as shown at q q q, in the
Plan of the Second Story, are the Seats for the schol-
ars. These are comfortable and convenient Arm-chairs,
of which the annexed diagram shows the form. Each
has a rack at the side (A) for convenience in holding
the books or slates of the scholars. These chairs were
the contrivance of Mr. Ingraham, and were introduced
by him into the Primary Schools, in 1842, since which
time, the Primary School Board have recommended their
introduction into all their schools, in preference to any
other seats, and about one hundred and thirty of the one hundred and sixty
schools are now supplied with them. They are not fastened to the floor, but
can be moved whenever necessary ; and this is found to be a great conve-
nience, and productive of no disadvantage. They have been strongly recom-
mended by the Committees on School and Philosophical Apparatus, at the
Exhibitions of the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics' Association, in 1844
and 1847, and premiums were awarded for them in both those years.
The following diagram is an elevation of the Front wall of the Schoolroom,
as seen from the Teacher's Platform. It is on the same scale with the pre-
ceding Plan of the Second Story, eight feet to the inch.
Each Schoolroom is lighted by lour windows ; and in the central pier, be-
tween the windows, are the Cold-air and Chimney Flues, or the Furnace
Flues. The Fire-place, or Furnace Flue, is represented at F, as in the pre-
ceding Plans of the different Stories. The arrangement of the Flues, in this
pier, will be seen in the next diagram.
On the mantel-piece, over the Furnace Flue, is, in one room, a Vase of Na-
tive Grasses, or 'Flowers, and in the others, ornamental Statues, or Statuettes,
furnished by the Teachers. Above this, suspended on the pier, is the Clock.
Between the other windows, are Cabinets, for the reception of Minerals,
Shells, and other objects of Natural History or Curiosity. Their location is
seen at u u, in the Plans of the respective Stories. There are two of these
Cabinets in each Schoolroom, between the windows, above the skirting, and
as high as the windows, with double sash-doors, of cherry-wood, hung with
brass hinges, fastened with thumb-slides and locks, and fitted with rosewood
knobs. There are twelve shelves in each, six of them being inclined, with
narrow ledges on each, to prevent the specimens from rolling off. Immedi-
ately below them are small Closets, with four shelves in each, and double
doors, hung and fastened in the same manner as the sash doors.
The Blinds of the Second Story, represented in this diagram, are framed,
two parts to each window, and are hung with weights and pulleys, in the
same manner as the window sashes. They run up above 'the tops of the
windows, and behind the skirting of the next story above, in close boxes, and
182
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
have rings on the bottom rails, to draw them down. In this elevation, they
are shown in different positions. The windows in the First Story are fitted
with Venetian Blinds, and those in the Third Story with Inside Shutter-Blinds.
All the window-stools are wide, and contain Vases of Native Grasses, or
Flowers.
Particular attention has been given to the mode of Heating and Ventilating
these buildings ; and provision has been made for a copious and constant sup-
ply of fresh air, from out-of-doors, which is so introduced, that it is suffi-
ciently warmed before it enters the Schoolrooms.
The Sheafe-street building is heated by one of Chilson's largest-sized Fur-
naces , though it was originally constructed with a view to using Dr. Clark's
excellent Ventilating Stoves, as in the other two buildings.*
The accompanying diagram shows the ar-
rangement of the Cold-air and Smoke Flues,
as arranged for the Stoves. It will be well to
examine it in connection with the transverse-
sectional elevation, (p. 184,) and the Floor
Plans of the different Stories, (pp. 177, 179,
180.)
1,2,3, Floorings of the First, Second, and Third
Stories. 4, Roof.
CA, Cold-air Flue for First Story, which deliv-
ers the air from without, under the Stove, as shown
at C A, in the transverse-section, (p. 184,) and at
F, in the floor-plans.
r, r, Cold-air Flue for Second Story, which empties
into the box under the Stove, at CA, in the Second
Story of the transverse-sectional elevation. It cor-
responds to r, in the Floor Plans of the first and
second stories.
t,t, Cold-air Flue for Third Story, which empties
into the box CA, under the Stove of that Story,
as seen in the transverse-sectional elevation, and
at F, in the Floor Plan. It corresponds to t, in the
Floor Plans.
These Cold-air Ducts are twelve by eighteen
inches, inside, and are smoothly plastered, through-
out. This is hardly large enougn, however.
s, s, Smoke Flues. That of First Story corre-
sponds to s, in the floor plan ofjirst story, and to r,
in those of the second and third. That of Second
Story corresponds to s, in second-story Plan, and to
t, in third-story Plan. That of Third Story cor-
responds to s, on the Plan of that Story.
These Smoke Flues are eight inches square, in-
side, and are smoothly plastered, throughout. That
of each Story commences in the centre of the pier
in the room to which it belongs.
[The pier in which these Cold-air Ducts and
Smoke Flues are placed, is wider than the piers be-
tween the other windows, in order to allow sufficient
width to the Ducts. It must be at least six feet.]
It will be seen, from the transverse-sectional
elevation, (p. 184,) (the Smoke Flue in which
is represented as continuous, it not being prac-
ticable to show the bends,) as well as from
the Plans of each Story, that the arrangements
I for Ventilation are directly opposite the Chim-
ney Flues. The Ventiducts are contained in
the projecting pier back of the Teachers'
Scale 10 feet to the inch. Platforms and Tables shown at /, m, in the
Floor Plans.
It has already been stated, that particular attention has been paid to the
* Descriptions and Plans of this Furnace and Stove will be found on page Ibo
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON.
183
mode of Ventilation ; and it is believed that the system, if not perfect, is
better adapted to its purpose than any other. The Ventiduct for each room
is of sufficient size for the room ; and the three are arranged as shown in the
next diagram. It will be seen, that the Ventiduct for each room is in the
centre of the pier, thus avoiding any unsymmetrical or one-sided (and of
course unsightly) appearance.
1 , 2, 3, 4, Floorings of the First, Second, and Third
Stories, and Attic. 5, Roof.
c, c, c, Ventiduct of First Story, commencing in
the centre of the pier. Between the ceiling of this
room and the floor of the Second Story, this flue is
turned to the left, and then continues in a straight
line to the Attic, where it contracts and empties into
the Ventilator V, on the Roof.
d, d, d, Ventiduct of Second Story, also commenc-
ing in the centre of the pier, and turning to the
right, between the ceiling of the Second and floor
of the Third Story, whence it is continued to the
Attic, and empties into the Ventilator V.
e, e, Ventiduct of Third Story, also emptying
into V.
These Ventiducts are made of thoroughly sea-
soned pine boards, smooth on the inside, and put
together with two-inch screws. Each, as will be
seen, is placed in the centre of the room to which
it belongs. They are kept entirely separate from
each other, through their whole length, from their
bases to the point where they are discharged into
the Ventilators on the Roof. Each is sixteen inches
square inside, through its whole length to the Attic,
where, as will be seen by the diagram, each is made
narrower as it approaches its termination, till it is
only eight inches in width, on the front, the three
together measuring twenty-five inches, the diame-
ter of the base of the Ventilator on the roof. As
they are contracted, however, in this direction, they
are gradually enlarged from back to front, so that
each is increased from sixteen to twenty-four inches,
the three together then forming a square of twenty-
five inches, and fitting the base of the Ventilator
into which they are discharged. The increase in
this direction will be better seen in the Elevation
on p. 184, where V V represents one Ventiduct,
continued from the lower floor to the Ventilator.
V, Ventilator, on the Roof, into which the three
Ventiducts from the schoolrooms are discharged.
This is twenty-five inches in diameter.*
v, v, Registers, to regulate the draught of air
through the Ventiducts. There are two of these
in each Ventiduct, one at the bottom, to carry off
the lower and heavier stratum of foul air, which
always settles near the floor ; and the other near
the ceiling of the room, for the escape of the lighter
impure air, which ascends with the heat to the top
of the room. Each of these Registers has a swivel-
blind, fitted with a stay-rod, and may be easily
opened or closed by the Teacher.
o, o, Closets. The Ventiduct of each Story being
in the centre of the projecting pier, affords room
for Closets, on each side in the First Story, and on
one side in the Second Story, as shown at o o. There
are four in the First Story, two above and two be-
low the wainscot. In the Second Story, there are
two only, one above and the other below the wain-
scot ; the other side of the pier being occupied by
the Ventiduct of the First Story. In the Third
Story there are of course none.
Scale 10 feet to the inch.
* A description, and larger plans, of this Ventilator, are given on page 144.
184
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
1,2,3,4, Floor-
ings of the First
Second,andThird,
Stories, and the
Attic.
C, The Cellar.
C A, Cold-air
Boxes, opening
under the btoves.
S, Smoke Flue.
P, Teachers'
Platforms.
V, Ventiduct,
emptying into the
Ventilator on the
Roof.
v, v, Ventiduct
Registers.
V, Ventilator.
Scale 10 feet to the Inch.
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 185
This plan of arranging the Heating and Ventilating apparatus has been
adopted by the Committee on Ventilation of the Grammar School Board ;*
but as their plans and diagrams were taken from Mr. Ingraham's first draughts,
before his final arrangement was decided upon, they are not so complete as
these.
The preceding diagram gives a transverse-sectional elevation of the building.
It has already been stated, that the children are seated with their backs to
the light, and their faces towards the Teacher's Table and the wall above and
on either side of it. On this wall, and also on the two end walls, (as shown
in the transverse-section,) are suspended Maps, Charts, and Pictures, not
only for ornament, but for the communication of instruction. Vases of Flow-
ers and Native Grasses ornament the window-stools and the Teachers' Tables ;
and Statuettes and other useful ornaments and decorations are placed in vari-
ous parts of the rooms : so that whatever meets the eyes of the children is
intended to convey useful and pleasing impressions, encouraging and gratify-
ing the love of the beautiful, and combining the useful with the agreeable.
The Cabinets of Minerals, Shells, and other objects of Natural History and
Curiosity, add much to the interest and beauty of , the rooms.
On the back wall, on either side of the Teacher's Platform, at S S S S, are
four large Slates, in cherry-wood frames, each two and a half by four feet,
used instead of Blackboards. These Slates are far preferable to the best
Blackboards, and cost about the same as common ones. The Teachers
greatly prefer them to Blackboards. In using them, slate pencils are of course
employed, instead of chalk or crayons, and thus the dust and dirt of the chalk
or crayons, which is not only disagreeable to the senses, but deleterious
to health, by being drawn into the lungs, are avoided. These Slates may
be procured in Boston, of A. Wilbur.
Each School has convenient Recitation-rooms ; though, in consequence of
the space occupied by the stairs to the Second and Third Stories, the lower
Story is not so conveniently accommodated, in this respect, as could be de-
sired. It has, however, two good Entries, which are used for this purpose.
In the Second and Third' Stories, there are three of these rooms, of which
much use is made. Their location is shown in the Floor Plans.
In these ante-rooms, are Closets for Brooms, Brushes, and other necessary
articles of that description, and also Press-closets, furnished with shelves
and brass clothes-hooks, for the Teachers' private use. In these, also, are
Sinks, furnished with drawers and cupboards, pails, basins and ewers, mugs,
&c. Pipes leading from the Sinks, convey the waste water into the Vaults ;
and in a short time, the waters of Lake Cochituate will be led into each Story.
Each School has its own separate entrance ; so that they will not interfere
with each other. And each is provided with sufficient conveniences in its
entry, for hanging the clothing of the pupils, thus avoiding the necessity of
its ever being brought into the Schoolroom. Each has also two Umbrella-
stands in its entry.
In the Cellar, are placed the Furnace, and necessary conveniences attached
to it, with Bins for coal and wood. Also two Rain-water Butts, one at each
end, which receive all the water from the Roofs. Being connected with
each other, by leaden pipes, under ground, the water in both stands at the
same level ; and a pipe, leading from the top of one of them into the Vault,
prevents their ever running over.
The Cellar is paved with brick, and is convenient for a play-room, when
the weather is too stormy for the children to go out of doors at recess-time.
Instead of having the usual out-door conveniences in the yard, they are
here connected with the entries of the respective schoolrooms, so that no
child has to go into the open air, except for play in recess-time, or to go
* See a notice of their plans on page 153.
186 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
home. This is considered a very great convenience, and a matter of the
highest importance.
o, a, Surface of
tne wator in. the
Sesspool.
6, Outlet to the
common sewer.
c, c, Surface of
the ground outside
the building.
d, d, Floors of
First Story, of
stone.
e, e, Floors of
Second Story.
f, f, Floors of
Third Story.
g, g, Attic.
1,2,3, Seats and
Wells of First,
Sccond,and Third,
Stories.
V, V, V, Venti-
duct, ten inches
square inside, ex-
tending from with-
in one foot of the
surface of the
water in the Sess-
pool, to the Ven-
tilator on the roof.
Its sides are repre-
sented by the dot-
ted lines
Scale 10 feet to the inch.
The preceding transverse-section will show the peculiar arrangement of the
Privies to the different stories, and the manner in which all unpleasant conse-
quences or inconveniences are, it is believed, effectually guarded against.
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOTJSE, BOSTON. 187
By the Plans of the different Stories, it will be seen, that the Privies are in
a Projection on the western end of the building, the wall of which is sepa^
rated from that of the main building, by the space i i, this space being four
inches between the walls, and extending from the floor of the First Story to
the Attic. The doors leading from the entries are kept closed, by strong
springs; and at B, in the southern wall, is a Blind, through which the air
constantly passes into this space, and up to the Attic, whence it is conveyed
in a tight box to the Ventilator on the Roof. Except in very cold or stormy
weather, the window in the northern side is kept open, (the outer blinds be-
ing closed,) and thus the whole of the Projection is cut off from the main
building by external air. The space between the Projection and the main
building is not, however, so great as it would have been made, had there
been more room.
It will be seen, that there is a distinct Well to each Privy, separated
from the others by a brick wall ending below the surface of the water in the
sesspool. Of course, the only odor that can possibly come into either of the
apartments, must come from the well of that apartment, there being no com-
munication with any other, except through the water. And as every time it
rains, or water is thrown in from the sinks, the water in the sesspool will be
changed, and washed into the common sewer, it would seem that no danger
of unpleasant odor need be feared. When the City water is carried to every
floor of the building, the conveniences for frequently washing out the sesspool
will be greatly increased.
There are two apartments on each floor ; one for the girls, at/, and anoth-
er for the boys, at g. In the latter, is a trough, (A,) with a sesspool, and
pipe leading into the well, under the seat. There is no window in the boys'
apartment, but merely the blind, B, which extends from the floor to the ceil-
ing. The girls' apartment, being in the front part of the Projection, is pro-
vided with a window similar to the others, and outside blinds.
Each apartment is fitted with pine risers, seats, and covers. The covers
are hung with stout duck or India-rubber cloth, instead of metal hinges,
which would be liable to corrode, and are so arranged that they will fall of
themselves, when left. The edges of the cloth are covered with narrow
slats. There is a box for paper in each apartment. The whole finish is
equal to that of any other part of the building.
The interior plastering of all the walls of the building is hard-finished,
suitably for being painted.
All the Rooms, Entries, Stairways, and Privies, are skirted up as high as
the window-stools, with narrow matched beaded lining, gauged to a width
not exceeding seven inches, and set perpendicularly.
The interior wood-work of the lower Schoolroom, as well as the interior of
all the Closets and Cabinets, is painted white. The skirting of the Secona
Story is of maple, unpainted, but varnished. All the rest of the inside
wood-work is painted and grained in imitation of maple, and varnished. The
outside doors are painted bronze. The blinds are painted with four coats of
Paris green, and varnished.
In some other schoolrooms in the City, the interior wood-work, even of
common white pine, has been left unpainted, but varnished, with a very good
effect ; and it is contemplated to have some of the new Schoolhouses soon to be
erected, finished in the same way. White pine, stained with asphaltum, and
varnished, presents a beautiful finish, and is cheaper than painting or graining.
In the angles formed by the meeting of the walls with the ceiling of each
room, and entirely around the room, are placed rods, fitted with moveable
rings, for convenience in suspending maps, charts, and pictures, and to avoid
the necessity of driving nails into the walls.
It has been stated, above, that the space between the Privies and the main
building, in the Sheafe street Schoolhouse, is not so great as is desirable, nor
188
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
as it would have been, had there been more room. In the Schoolhouse in
^Tremont street, erected at the same time with that in Sheafe street, there
being sufficient room for the purpose, the Projection containing the Privies
is nine and a half by twelve feet, and the wells of the Privies are seven feet
from the wall of the main building.
The following Plans were prepared for a new arrangement of the Sheafe
street Schoolhouse, when it was contemplated to occupy a space eighty feet
in depth, extending from Sheafe street to the Avenue in the rear. In these
Plans, the Projection for the Privies is about ten by sixteen feet ; and the
entrance to each of the Privies is six feet from the wall of the main building,
and separated from it by three doors. This gives them as much space, and
separates them as much from the main building, as is needed.
Plan of First Story. Scale 24 feet to the inch.
Playground in front.
It will be seen, from this Plan, that the building was to have an end front-
ing on Sheafe street, (from which it was to be set back nineteen feet,) and a
side looking into two of the Playgrounds, each of which was to be twenty-
seven by thirty feet. The nineteen feet between the building and the street.
and on a line with the building, the whole extent of the fifty-three feet on
Sheafe street, was to form a third Playground.
It has already been mentioned, that the ground at the rear of the building,
on the Avenue, is eight feet lower than at the front, on Sheafe street ; and
the scholars of the lower room were to enter, as they do now, from the Ave-
nue, by a door under the window A, and pass to their schoolroom up the
stairs A, through the door k. Their Playground was to have been at the
front end, on Sheafe street, to which they were to pass through the Recita-
tion-room R, and out by the door 1. The space between the Privies and the
nain building, which is a three-feet passage, is shown at i, as in the former
Plans, pp. 177, 179, 180.
The Entrance-doors for the second and third stories are shown at 2, 3.
Plan of Second Story.
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON.
Plan of Third Story.
In other respects, these Plans present some improvement over that of the
present building in SJieafe street, which is only forty-four feet in length,
while that proposed in these Plans is fifty feet. This, of course, allows
more space for the stairways, Recitation-rooms, &c.
These three Plans will be easily understood, by comparing them with
those on pp. 177, 179, 180, 181, which are there fully explained.
Some persons, perhaps, may think that ornaments and decorations, such as
have been here described, are not necessary in a Schoolhouse ; though none,
we presume, will think them out of place. Why should not the places,
where both Teachers and children spend so large a portion of their time, be
made as pleasant and attractive as possible 1 The Schoolroom is the Teach-
er's parlor and drawing-room ; and should always, not only be neat and tidy,
but exhibit evidences of good taste and useful ornament. Why should blank
and naked walls, presenting a cold and cheerless aspect, unrelieved by a sin-
gle pleasant spot or speck of verdure, be the only or principal objects to meet
the eyes of the young inmates of these establishments, who are here to re-
ceive those first impressions, which, as they are the most lasting, and indeed
almost indelible, should always be useful, and promotive of some useful pur-
pose? Everything which will give to young persons "a perception of tJie
Beautiful," is of great value ; and everything that can be done to render the
interior of our schoolrooms pleasant and attractive, is of importance. "Why,"
says Mrs. Sigourney, in a valuable Essay ' On the Perception of the Beau-
tiful,' " why should not the interior of our schoolhouses aim at somewhat
of the taste and elegance of a parlor? Might not the vase of flowers enrich
the mantelpiece, and the walls display, not only well-executed maps, but his-
torical engravings or pictures ? and the bookshelves be crowned with the bust
of Moralist or Sage, Orator or Father of his Country ? Is it alleged that the
expense, thus incurred, would be thrown away, the beautiful objects defaced,
and the fair scenery desecrated ? This is not a necessary result. I have
been informed, by Teachers who had made the greatest advances towards
the appropriate and elegant accommodation of their pupils, that it was not
so. They have said it was easier to enforce habits of neatness and order
among objects whose taste and value made them worthy of care, than amid
that parsimony of apparatus, whose pitiful meanness operates as a temptation
to waste and destroy." And it will always also be found that those schools
where the most attention has been paid to making the rooms pleasant and
attractive to the children, will be the most orderly, and well disciplined,
while in those held in ordinary rooms, where no attention seems to be given to
refinement in appearances, the pupils are also proportionably unrefined and
undisciplined.
190 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
" Let the communities," continues Mrs. Sigourney, in the Essay just
quoted, " let the communities, now so anxious to raise the standard of edu-
cation, venture the experiment of a more liberal adornment of the dwellings
devoted to it. Let them put more faith in that respect for the beautiful, which
really exists in the young heart, and requires only to be called forth and nur-
tured, to become an ally of virtue and a handmaid to religion. Knowledge
lias a more imposing effect on the young mind, when it stands, like the Apos-
tle with the gifts of healing, at the ' beautiful gate of the Temple.' Mem-
ory looks back to it, more joyously, from the distant or desolated tracks of
life, for the bright scenery of its early path." " But when the young chil-
dren of this Republic are transferred from the nursery to those buildings,
whose structure, imperfect ventilation, and contracted limits, furnish too
strong an idea of a prison, the little spirits, which are in love with freedom
and the fair face of Nature, learn to connect the rudiments of knowledge with
keen associations of task-work, discomfort, and thraldom." " I hope the time
is coming, when every isolated village schoolhouse shall be as an Attic temple,
on whose exterior the occupant may study the principles of symmetry and
of grace. Why need the structures, where the young are initiated into
those virtues which make life beautiful, be divorced from taste, or devoid of
comfort'?"
" Do any reply, that ' the perception of the Beautiful' is but a luxurious sen-
sation, and may be dispensed with in those systems of education which this
age of utility establishes? But is not its culture the more demanded, to
throw a healthful leaven into the mass of society, and to serve as some
counterpoise for that love of accumulation, which pervades every rank, in-
trudes into every recess, and spreads even in consecrated places the ' tables of
the money-changers, and the seats of such as sell doves?'
" In ancient times, the appreciation of whatever was beautiful in the frame
of Nature, was accounted salutary, by philosophers and sages. Galen says,
' He who has two cakes of bread, let him sell one, and buy some flowers ;
for bread is food for the body, but flowers are food for the soul.' "
" If the perception of the Beautiful may be made conducive to present im-
provement, and to future happiness ; if it have a tendency to refine and
sublimate the character ; ought it not to receive culture throughout the whole
process of education? It takes root, most naturally and deeply, in the sim-
ple and loving heart ; and is, therefore, peculiarly fitted to the early years of
life, when, to borrow the language of a German writer, ' every sweet sound
takes a sweet odor by the hand, and walks in through the open door of the
child's heart.' "
We insert Mr. Ingraham's communication, unabridged, although it was
drawn up by him as the material out of which we should prepare a descrip-
tion. We have also preserved his system of punctuation and capitalizing,
though it differs from that followed in other parts of this work.
We think very highly of the plan' of the Sheafe street School-house.
Any objections we might entertain to some of the details, could be easily
obviated in places where land is not so expensive as in Boston. We prefer,
however, to see the Primary School-house with but one story, and in no
case with more than two stories. In cities, the basement, under the school
room, should always be paved, and fitted up for a covered play-ground, as
is the case in Mr. Ingraham's plans.
Mr. Ingraham, in his letter, acknowledges his obligations to Mr. F. Em-
erson, and Dr. Henry G. Clark, for valuable aid in arranging his system of
ventilation, and also to Mr. Joseph E. Billings, the Architect, for aid m the
architectural arrangements, and for the manner in which the working clans
were drawn.
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 191
Having given so minute a description of this School-house, we shall confer
a favor upon such of our readers as may wish to erect buildings like it, if we
insert, entire, MR. INGRAHAM'S original Specification for the workmen, with
such modifications as he proposes to introduce into the new buildings, which
are to be erected during the present year, (1848.)
Of materials to be provided, and labor performed, in the erection of a Primary School-
house, to be built on a lot of land lying upon the southerly side of Sheafe street,
according to the plans of JOSEPH W. INGRAHAM, Chairman of the Primary School
Committee on Schoolhouses, as exhibited in the Drawings made by Joseph E.
Billings, Architect.
DESCRIPTION.
The building is to be three stories high ; each Story is to contain a Schoolroom,
Recitation -rooms, Entries, and Privies, and to finish twelve feet high, in the clear.
The first floor is to be set eighteen inches above the ground, at the front of the build-
ing. The Cellar, under the whole building, (except the entrance to the first-story
Schoolroom, which is to finish six feet and eight inches,) is to be finished seven and
one half feet high, in the clear. The main building is to measure twenty-six by forty-
four feet, upon the ground plan, above the underpinning ; the Projection on the east
end, three and one half by twenty and one half feet ; and the Projection containing the
Privies, four and one hall by sixteen and one half feet. The Roof is to have an inclina-
tion of thirty degrees.
The Front and Side Walls of the main building, and the Front Walls of the Projec-
tions, above the underpinning, and the Rear Wall of the main building and sides of
the Projections, from the level of the ground on the rear of the lot, are to be built of
brick
MASON'S WORK.
Excavating:
The Dirt and Rubbish is to be dug out, as required, for the Cellar, the Cellar- Walls,
the Vault, and the Drains ; and the remainder of the lot is to be graded up, on an
inclination of one inch to a foot, from Sheafe street to the front of the building.
All the rubbish, and the dirt that is not required for filling in, is to be removed from
the premises. All the Loam is to be carefully taken up, kept by itself, and spread
upon the surface of the Playground, as may be directed by the Committee.
Rough Stone.
The Footings to all the walls and piers, and the Cellar and Foundation-walls, are to
be built of square-split Sandy-Bay or Quincy cellar-stone. The Bottom or Footing-
course is to be puddled and rammed to a perfect bed, and those to the main walls and
the piers, are to be laid entirely below the level of the cellar floor. The Walls are to
l)e laid in lime mortar ; and those of the Cellar are to be faced and pointed on the
inside. The Footings are to be eighteen inches rise. Those to the main walls are to
be three feet in width ; those to the projections are to be two and one half feet in
width ; and those to the piers are to be three feet square. The Front Wall of the
Cellar is to be two feet thick, and the other Walls twenty inches. Good and sufficient
Foundations are to be laid for the Steps, Window Curbs, &c.
Hammered Stone.
The Underpinning to the front walls of the main building and projections, and the
Returns at the first-story Entrance-doors, the Steps to the Entrance-doors, the Thresh-
olds to the Entrance-doors and Gates, the Curbs, Sills, and Caps, to the cellar-windows,
the Curbs to the sesspool, the Fence-stone, and the Platform steps to the Entrance-
doors, are to be of Quincy granite, of e^en color, free from sap, rust, or flaws, fine-
hammered, with all the returns, rabbets, washes, &c., indicated by the Drawings.
The Floors to the Privies on the first-story, a Moveable Cover to the Vault, and
Hearth-stone in each Schoolroom, are to be of North- River Flagging-stone. About
192 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
three quarters of the Playground is also to be laid with North-River Flagging-stone,
as may be hereafter directed by the Committee. The rest of the Playground is to be
left unpaved, for flower beds, &c.
There is to be an Iron Strainer fitted to the Sesspopl-cover. The Hearth-stones are
each to be three feet square, with a circular hole in the centre, eighteen inches in
diameter, for the admission of the cold air under the stove.
Sand-stone.
There is to be a set of Caps and Sills to each of the windows in the brick walls, and
Caps to the entrance-doors. The Caps to the doors are to be four courses rise, and ten
inches thick, and those to the third-story front windows eight and one half inches
thick : the other Caps are to be four inches thick. The Sills to the windows are to be
eight inches wide. The Sills and Caps to the blind-openings, in the rear wall of the
privies, are to be of the full thickness of the wall, and finished on all sides. There is
to be a Moulded Belt on the front, and over the east and west entrance-doors ; and a
Base and Cap to the Chimney, of the forms shown by the Drawings. All the above is
to be of the first quality of Connecticut free-stone ; that in the faced-brick-work is to be
sand-rubbed, and the remainder fine-chiselled.
All the stone-work is to be set in lime-mortar, and Cramped, Headed, and Pointed,
as required.
Brick-work.
The Front Walls, above the underpinning, the Rear, Side, and Privy Walls, from
the rough stone, the Piers in the cellar, the Backing-up of the stone-work, the Lining
of the Vault, the Walls between the privies, the Sesspool, the Drains, and the Flues,
are to be built of hard-burnt Charlestown (not Fresh Pond) bricks, excepting the Facing
of the front and side walls of the main building and the front walls ofthe projections,
the Covings, and the Chimney, which are to be of the first quality of pressed-brick,
laid plumb-bond, tied into the other work with bond-irons in every seventh course.
The Front Wall, to the top of the belting, and above the top of the third-story win-
lows, with the corner Piers on each side, and the Rear Wall, from the bottom to the
lop of the first-story floorings, are to be sixteen inches thick. The remainder of the
Front and Rear Walls, the Side Walls of the main building, and the Front Walls of
the Projections, are to be one foot thick. The Rear and Side Walls to the Privies, the
Side Wall to the easterly Projection, and the Walls of the Sesspool, are to be eight
inches thick. The Lining of the Vault, and the Walls between the Privies, are to be
four inches thick. The Bottom of the Vault is to be laid three courses thick. The
Piers in the cellar are to be sixteen inches square, on the ground.
The Vault, (which is to be of the sesspool plan, and so arranged, that no solid matter
shall remain in the vault, but shall all pass off into the common sewer,) Sesspool,
Drains, Wall between the privies, and the Hollow Wall between the privies and
main building, are to be laid throughout with cement-mortar, and plastered inside,
throughout, with the same. The remainder of the brick-work is to he done with lime-
mortar. The Drain^ are to be barrel-form, the larger one to be of sixteen inches bore,
and the smaller ones, one foot. The Vaults are to be not less than six feet deep.
The Cellar, and tha Passage-way from the east end of the building, out to Margaret
Avenue, are to be paved with the best paving-brick, on perfect foundations of gravel
and sand.
_ The Cold-air Flues are to be twelve by eighteen inches, inside, and the Smoke Flues
eight inches square, inside, all smoothly plastered, inside and out, with a stout coat of
lime-mortar. The Flues are to "be arranged as shown in the diagram. [Seep. 182.]
The Cold-air Flue or Box, leading horizontally into the room to the aperture under
the Stove, is also to be thoroughly and smoothly plastered, and made perfectly secure
from danger by fire, in case of live coals or ashes dropping into it from the Stove. It
is to be fitted with a valve, having a handle in Jhe room, to regulate the admission of
Lathing and Plastering:
All the Walls, Ceilings, and Stairways, throughout the first, second, and third
stories of the mam building and the Projections, and the Ceiling of the Cellar, are to
be Lathed and Plastered with a stout coat of lime and hair, and hard-finished, smoothly,
with lime and sand ; for painting ; excepting the Ceiling of the Cellar, which is to be
finished on the hair-coat, and the Wall between the main building and the privies,
which is to be plastered upon the bricks. The Walls of the Cellar are to be white-
washed with three coats.
Care must be taken, that the beads on the corners ofthe walls and stairways an not
plastered. The quirks are to be neatly cut, and the beads kept clean.
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 193
*
Slates, Slating, <f-c.
Smoothly-polished Slates are to be set into the back wall of each Schoolroom, on
each side of the Ventilating Pier, and neatly finished around the edges. They are to
be two and a half feet wide, and ten feet in the whole length. They may be in slabs
of five feet each, in length.*
The Roof is to be Slated with the best of Ladies' Slates, put on with Composition-
nails, and properly secured with flashings of sheet lead, weighing three-and-oue-half-
pounds to me square foot, and warranted perfectly tight for two years.
Coppering.
There are to be moulded Copper Gutters, on the front and sides of the main building
and front and rear of the Projections, worth one dollar and twenty-five cents per foot.
They are to run back six inches under the slates.
There are to be two four-inch-square Trunks, from the gutters to the water-butts in
the cellar ; three-inch ones from the rear of the Projections to the Vault ; and a round
one from each butt to the vault. The Trunks are to be made of twenty-four-ounce
cold-rolled copper, put up, connected with the gutters, and led oflf in a proper manner,
with suitable lead pipes, of three inches in diameter.
Iron-icork.
There is to be in each Smoke Flue an Iron Casting, with a funnel-hole twenty-four
inches from the floor, and a hole below for clearing out the mouth of the flue ; each
hole to be fitted with a tight stopper.
There is to be an Iron Fence, on the line of Sheafe street, across the whole front,
with two Gates, and an Iron Gate at the entrance of the back passage, on Margaret
Avenue. All the Gates are to be fitted with Lever Locks, and Latches, of the best
quality, and small duplicate keys.
There is to be an Iron Grating to each of the cellar-window curbs, of inch-and-a-
quarter by one-quarter-inch bars, set one inch from centre to centre ; and wire netting
above it in front of the windows.
All the Iron- work is to be painted with three coats of lacker.
There are to be stout Iron Scrapers, placed at each door, where directed by tHfe Com-
mittee.
There are to be an Iron Strainer to the Sesspool Cover and Strong Iron Rings to
the Moveable Cover of the Vault.
There are to be Composition Rods, in all the angles formed by the meeting of the
ceilings and inner walls, in the Schoolrooms and Recitation-rooms, attached by neat
staples, and fitted with Moveable Brass Rings, at suitable distances, for hanging charts,
maps, &c.
CARPENTERS' WORK.
Framing.
The Floors and Roofs are to be Framed in the manner indicated by the Drawings,
with good sound spruce lumber, of the following dimensions :
Principal Flooring-Joists 3 by 14 inches.
kji..,..* i^l nn ..:.-. i.,;,.*,. o (11
Short Flooring-Joists, 3
Trimmers and Headers, 5
Partition Studs, 2
Privy-Floor Joists, 2
Attic-Floor Joists, 2
Ties to Roof Trusses, 7
Rafters to Trusses, 7
Collars, 7
Purlins, , 8
Wall Plates 3
Small Rafters, : 3
The Flooring-Joists are to be worked to a mould, crowning one inch. They are to
nave a fair bearing of four inches on the walls, at each end, and to be bridged with
two lines of Cross Bridging.
The Trusses in the Roof are to be fitted with Wrought-iron Bolts, one inch in
diameter, with Heads, perfect Screws, and large Washers and Nuts.
* These large Slates may be procured in Boston, and cost no more than good Blackboards.
When it is not convenient to obtain them, the walls, where Blackboards are needed, may be
adapted to the purpose, by mixing the Plastering or Hard-finish with Lampblack, rubbing it down
smoothly, and allowing it to become perfectly dry and hard before it is used. Or, Blackboard*
may be covered with the composition mentioned on p. 197.
13
194 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The Floor-Joists are to be framed into the Trimmers, and the Ceiling-Joists of the
third story into the Ties of the Roof-Trusses, with Tusk-Tenons, and properly secured
with hard-wood Pins.
All the Partitions in the main building are to be set with two-by-four-inch plank
Studs, so as to give five nailings to a lath, thoroughly bridged throughout, and trussed
over the openings.
There is to be a Lintel, four by eight inches, over each window, and other opening
in the walls that requires it, ana under the withs of the Privies, with a fair bearing
of eight inches at each end.
Enclosing.
The Under-Floors of the Rooms, Entries, Passages, Platforms, and Privies, in each
story, and the Floor of the Attic, are to be laid with No. 3 Pine boards, planed, jointed,
laid close, and thoroughly nailed. The Roofs are to be covered with Matched boards,
of the same quality, and thoroughly nailed.
Furring.
All the Walls, throughout, (excepting the cellar walls, the back walls of the several
privies, and the side walls of the privies next to the main building,) and all the Ceil-
ings, Entries, and Stairways, are to be Furred with three-inch Furrings of sound, sea-
soned, dry No. 3 Pine boards, spaced so as to give five nailings to a lath. They are
to be put on the walls with twelve-penny nails, and on the ceilings with ten-pennies.
Grounds, three-fourths of an inch thick, are to be put up for all the finish, and three-
quarter-inch Beads on all the angles and corners of the walls and stairways. The
Beads are to be kept clean. .
There are to be two Strips of Furring put up, (for convenience in driving"nails for
hanging charts, &c.,) extending entirely around tne Schoolrooms, at distances of three
and eight inches from the ceilings ; ana also similar Strips for the same purpose, set
perpendicularly, on the rear and sidewalls, as directed by the Committee. Also, Com-
position Rods, in the anglesof the ceiling, all round the rooms, with Moveable Rings at
suitable distances, for picture lines.
Cold-air Boxes, and Ventiducts.
The Cold Air is to be taken in at one of the cellar-window openings, which is to be
finished outside with a plank frame and coarse iron-wire netting.
The Air is to be conducted into the Brick Cold- air Flue of each Schoolroom, in
separate Boxes, each twelve by eighteen inches, inside, made of thoroughly-seasoned
Pine boards, smoothed on the inside, and put together with two-inch screws.
The Ventiducts, or Ventilating-Flues, are also to be made of thoroughly-seasoned Pine
boards, smoothed on the inside, and put together with two-inch screws. There is to
be a separate one for each Schoolroom, and the Privies, and each is to be fitted with
two Swivel-blind Openings, or Registers, one at the floor and the other at the ceil-
ing, with Stay-rods to regulate them, as may be directed by the Committee.
_ There are to be two Closets on each side of this Pier, in the first story, and on one
side, in the second story, as shown in the diagram, on p. 183.
The Ventiducts, or Ventilating-Flues, for the Schoolrooms, are each to be sixteen
inches square, inside ; that for the Privies is to be ten inches square, inside. The
Swivel-blind Openings in the Schoolrooms are to be sixteen by twenty-four inches ;
and those in the Privies are to be ten inches square.
The Ventiducts, or Ventilating-Flues, for the Schoolrooms, are to be brought together
in the attic, and connected with the Ventilator on the main Roof.
The Ventiduct, or Ventilating-Shaft, for the Privies, is to be ten inches square, and
carried down to within one foot of the surface of the water in the Vault or Sesspool ;
and the air from this Shaft, and also from the space between the privies and the main
building, is to be conducted in a tight box overtthe ceilings of the third-story privies.,
to the Ventilator on the ridge.
Windows and Blinds.
All the Windows, (excepting those in the cellar,) are to have Double Box Frames,
with two-inch pine plank Sills and Yokes, inch inside and outside Casings, one-and-
one-fourth-inch hard-pine Pulley-styles, five-eighths-of-an-inch Inside Beads, andfive-
sixteenths-of-an-inch Parting Beads.
The Sashes are to be made of pine, one-and-three-fourths-inch thick, moulded and
coped. They are all to be double hung with the best White Window Lines, Iron
Pulleys with steel axles, and Round Iron Counter-weights. All the Sashes are to be
fastened with strong Bronzed Sash-fastenings, of the best quality, to cost five dollars
aud fifty cents per dozen.
I'KIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 195
All the Windows in the first ami second stories are to be fitted with one-and-one-
fourth-inch Framed Blinds, two parts to each window, hung in light Box-frames, with
Weights, Lines, and Pulleys, in the same manner as the sashes, excepting that they
are to run up above the tops of the windows, in close boxes, and to have satisfac-
tory Knobs, Kings, or Handles, on the bottom rails, to draw them down.
The Windows in the third story are to have Inside Shutter-Blinds, one inch thick,
made in eight parts to each window, hung with Iron Butt-hinges, and fitted with
Bronzed Hooks and Staples, and Rosewood Knobs.
The Openings in the Rear Wall of the Privies are to have Stationary Blinds, four
inches thick, and reaching to the floors. The Windows in the Front Wall are to have
Outside Blinds, one-and-three-fourths-inch thick, hung and fastened in the usual
manner.
All the Windows, and the Openings in the Privy- Walls, are to be finished with one-
and-one-fourth-inch moulded Architraves, with turned Corner-blocks. [Care to be
taken to have no Architraves or Corner-blocks omitted on one side, or cut partly off".]
Those in the first story are to have panel Jambs, and Soifits and Stools. Those in the
second story, and all the Openings in the Privies, are to have Edge and Sill Casings.
Those in the third story are to hare Elbows to the Shutter-boxes, moulded panel Sof-
fits, and wide Stools.
The Cellar-Windows are to be made with plank Frames, rabbeted for the sashes ;
and are to have Single Sashes, hung with Iron Butt-hinges to the tops of the frames,
fastened with strong Iron Buttons, and fitted with Catches to bold them open when
desired.
There is to be A Single Stationary Sash over each Entrance-door, made in six lights.
There are to be two Skylights in the Roof, which are to be made and hung in a neat
and substantial manner, and properly fitted to rise and fasten.
There is to be a Scuttle, in the ceiling of the third story, made, cased, and hung, in
a neat and substantial manner.
Doors.
All the Doors, throughout, (excepting the Outsid_e ones, which are to be two-and-
one-fourth-inches thick, and the Closet doors, which are to be one-and-one-fourth-
inch thick,) are to be two inches thick, made in four moulded Panels each, hung with
three four-inch iron Butt-hinges, and fastened (excepting the outside ones) with Rob-
inson's best $2,50 Mortise Locks, with Catches and Bolts, Rosewood Knobs, Bronzed
Trimmings, and small duplicate Keys to each. The Outside Doors are to be fastened
with double-bolt Lever Locks of the best quality, having duplicate keys as small as
practicable. The Privy Doors are to have strong Door-springs, in addition to the other
trimmings.
All the Inside Doors, excepting those to the closets, are to be finished with hard-
pine Sills, two-inch rabbeted and beaded Frames, and Architraves as described for
the Windows, with Plinths. The doors, in every case, to be set so far from the walls,
as to give the full Architraves and Corner-blocks on both sides.
The Outside Doors are to be hung to three-inch plank Frames, properly dogged to
the thresholds and wall, and finished inside like the Inside Doors.
The Entrance and Cellar Doors are to be four feet by seven feet eight inches. The
Inside Doors are to be three feet by seven feet four inches. The Privy Doors are to be
two feet six inches, by seven feet four inches.
Stairs.
The Stairs are to be framed with deep plank Stringers and Winders, as shown by
the Drawings. They are to be finished with hard-pine Risers, one inch thick, Treads
one-and-one-fourth-inch thick, and Balusters one-and-one-eighth-inch diameter. The
String and Gallery finish is to be of white pine, and the Posts, Newels, and Rails, of
cherry. The bottom Posts are to be seven inches in diameter, turned, and the Rails
three inches wide. The Rails are to be not less than three feet high, measuring from
the nosing 1 of the Steps.
There are to be two Flights of Stairs to the Cellar, framed with plank Stringers and
Winders, and finished with planed pine Risers and Treads, and close Partitions one-
and-one-lxalf-inch thick, matched and planed.
There is to be a neat Flight of Portable Steps, to ascend from the third story to the
Attic, and others to ascend from the Attic to me Skylight in the Roof.
Skirting:
The Rooms, Entries, Stairways, and Privies, are to be Skirted up as high as the
window stools, in the respective stories, (except on the back sides of the Rooms,) with
narrow matched beaded Lining, not to exceed seven inches in width, Capped to cor-
respond with the nosing of the window stools. The Lining is to be gauged to a
196 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
width and set perpendicularly. That on the hack Wall is to be fitted to the Slates in
that wall, which are to rest on the Capping. That in the first story is to be of cherry-
wood, the second story of maple, and the third story of white-pine, wrought and fin.
ished smoothly, suitable for being stained and varnished without painting.
Floorings, (fa.
The Platforms are to be furred up, as shown by the Drawings, and the Stairways,
Platforms, and Hearths, are to be bordered, and the Floors to be laid, with narrow
hard-pine floorings, perfectly jointed and thoroughly nailed. The Strips are to be
eauged to a width respectively in the schoolroomsj and the joints are to be broken, at
least three feet, so that no two strips of different widths will but on to each other.
Cabinets, Closets, Clothes-Hooks, <fa.
There are to be two Cabinets, in each Schoolroom, between the windows, above the
skirting, and as high as the windows, with double cherry Sash-doors, each hung with
three Brass Hinges, fastened with Thumb-catches and Locks, and fitted with Rosewood
Knobs. There are to be twelve Shelves in each, and immediately below them are to
be small Closets, with four Shelves in each, and double Doors, hung and fastened in
the same manner as the sash doors. 'The shelves are to be placed as directed by the
Committee. Six of them are to be inclined, with two narrow ledge_s on each.
There are to be two Closets in each side of the Ventilating Pier, in the First Story,
and two in one side in the Second Story, as shown at o o, in the diagram on page 183.
Each Closet is to be fitted with three shelves, and the doors are to be hung ana fastened
in the same manner as the Closets under the Cabinets.
There is to be for each Schoolroom, where directed by the Committee, a Press-
closet, having three Shelves on one side, with six brass double Hat-and-Coat-Hooks,
on beaded cherry-wood cleats ; the Door to be neatly hung, fastened, and trimmed,
similar to the other doors.
There is to be in the entry of each Schoolroom, where directed by the Committee, a
Closet, for brushes, brooms, coal-hod, &c., two by three-and-one-half feet, made with
matched boards, and fitted with three Shelves on one side, and eight Hooks on the
other side and back. The Door is to be made, hung, and fastened, to correspond with
the other doors.
There is to be a Sink, attached to each Schoolroom, where directed by the Commit-
tee, made of two-inch pine plank, the top hung with stout hinges, and with. Drawers and
Cupboards below. It is to be fitted with a Composition Sesspool, lined with zinc, and
a lead Waste-pipe, leading to the vault. Suitable Pipes, to lead the City water into
the sink in each story, are to be provided.
There is to be a Dumb-waiter from the cellar to the third story, opening into each
story, for raising coals, wood, &c.
There are to be seventy extra-stout iron double Hat-and-Coat-Hooks, to each School-
room, put up on beaded cherry-wood Cleats, as directed by the Committee.
There are to be two Umbrella-stands, in each Entry, to hold six umbrellas each.
Coal-Bins, fyc.
There are to be three Coal-Bins in the Cellar, each capable of holding three tons of
Coal, having Covers hung with strong wrought-iron Hinges, and sliding Gates, with
boxings around them to keep the Coal from the floor. Also, three Closets for Kin-
dlings, the doors to be hung with iron Strap-hinges, and fastened with iron Buttons.
There are also to be in the Cellar, two large iron-bound Water-butts, with metal
Faucets.
Privy- Finish.
The Privies are to be fitted with pine Risers, Seats, and Covers. The Covers are
to be hune with stout Duck, or India-rubber cloth, instead of metal Hinges ; the
edges of the cloth to be covered with narrow slats. They are to be so arranged, that
they will fall of themselves when left. There is to be a Box for paper in each Privy,
and the Boys' Privies are to have Troughs, lined with zinc, with Sesspools. The
whole finish of the Privies is to be equal to that of the other parts of the building.
Painting.
All the Hard-wood Finish, (except the Skirting of the first and second stories, which
is to be varnished,) is to be oiled, with two coats of boiled Linseed-oil, well rubbed in
with cloth.
All the Outside wood-work, the Copper-trunks, and the inner walls throughout, are
to be prepared and painted with three coats of Oil-and-Lead paint, of such color as the
Committee may direct. The Outside-doors are to be painted Bronze.
PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON. 197
The Insides of the Closets and Cabinets are to be painted white, and the Teachers'
Platforms in imitation of Marble. The Blinds are to be painted with four coats of
Paris Green, and Varnished. The third-story skirting is to be stained with asphal-
tum, and varnished. The rest of the Inside Pine Finish is to be Putty -stopped, Primed,
and Painted and Grained, in imitation of Oak, Maple, or other color, as directed by
the Committee, and Varnished.
All the Painting and Varnishing is to be equal to that of first-class dwelling-houses.
Glazing.
All the Sashes, throughout, are to be glazed with Crystal Sheet Glass, of double
thickness, and of the best quality. Each light is to be properly Bedded, Sprigged,
and Back-Puttied.
The Windows are to have Lights of the following dimensions, as shown in the
Drawings :
First Story, Front Windows, eighteen Lights, each eleven by fourteen inches. First
Story, Rear Window, twelve Lights, each eleven by sixteen inches. That in the west
wall, eight Lights, each eleven by sixteen inches.
Second Story, Front Windows, eighteen Lights, each eleven by fourteen inches.
Second Story, Rear Windows, eight and twelve Lights, each eleven by sixteen inches.
Front Window in easterly Projection, twelve Lights, each eleven by fourteen inches.
Third Story, Front Windows, twelve Lights, each eleven by nineteen inches. Third
Story, Rear Windows, eight and twelve Lights, each eleven by fifteen inches. Front
Windows in easterly Projection, eight Lights, each eleven by nineteen inches.
The Cellar Windows, eight Lights, each eight by ten inches.
The Sashes over the Doors, each six Lights.
The Skylights are to be two feet six inches by three feet six inches.
Ventilators.
There are to be two of Emerson's Patent Ventilators, of galvanized iron ; one on
the Roof of the Main Building, twenty-five inches in diameter, and another on the
Roof of the Privies, twelve inches in diameter.
Furniture.
Each Schoolroom is to be furnished with sixty Small Arm-Chairs, of Mr. INGRA-
HAM'S pattern, such as are used in the other Primary Schools in the City.* Also, with
a Table, for the Teacher's Platform, four feet by two, (made of Mahogany, Black Wal-
nut, or Cherry-wood, as directed by the Committee,) furnished with two Drawers, and
fitted with Locks, Keys, and Rosewood Knobs, of the best quality.
Memorandum.
No bricks, stone, lumber, or other building-materials, of any description, are to be
placed on the garden-plat ; and the Trees and Garden are to have a rough box built
around them, for their preservation from injury. No lines are to be fastened to the
Trees, for any purpose whatever.
All the Lumber is to be well and thoroughly seasoned ; and all that is in sight is to
be free from Shakes, Sap, and Knots ; and that and every part of the vrork is to be equal
to any used in first-class dwelling-houses.
MR. INGRAHAM'S COMPOSITION FOR BLACKBOARDS.
Lampblack and Flour of Emery, mixed with Spirit- Varnish.
No more Lampblack and Flour of Emery should be used, than are sufficient to give
the required blactc and abrading surface ; and the Varnish should contain only sufficient
gum to hold the ingredients together, and confine the Composition to the Board. The
ihinner the mixture, the better.
The Lampblack should first be ground with a small quantity of Alcohol, or Spirit-
Varnish, to free it from lumps.
The Composition should be applied to the smoothly-planed surface of a Board, with
a common painter's brush. Let it become thoroughly dry and hard before it is used.
Rub it down with pumice-stone, or a piece of smooth wood covered with the Compo-
sition.
Boards prepared in this way are almost equal to Slates, and will last for years ; and
they can be used with slate-pencils, which are much better than crayons or chalk, on
account of their freedom from dust and dirt. Crayon or chalk dust is deleterious to
health, as well as to cleanliness.
This Composition may also be used on the walls.
* See pp. and 181,
198
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE
PLANS, &c., OF BRIMMER GRAMMAR SCHOOL, BOSTON.
This building was erected in 1843. It is situated on Common-street, near
Washington. It is 74 leet in length on fche street, by 52 feet deep, with
three stories. The entrance is in the center of the front into a hall 8 feet
wide, leading through into the yard in the rear, which is divided by a wall
into three portions. The passage to the second and third floors is by a double
flight of stairs near the front door.
The first floor is occupied by two Primary School-rooms, each 30 by 22
feet, and 1 1 feet high ; and the Ward-room, 30 by 50 feet.
The school-roorh on the second floor is 70 feet by 37 feet wide, and 14 feet
6 inches high between the bays. The ceiling is plastered up between the
bays, (cross timbers) by which eighteen inches are grained in height, dividing
the ceiling into equal compartments. There are two recitation rooms, one
9-9
.|e|.|.|.l.|.|.l.|
Iv
*
HtHtH
M1*MhM1M
IB4M*I
TI'MTMTM
I
t-tl
33
S
t
on each side the entrance, 17 feet 6 inches, by 11 feet 4 inches each, with
two windows in each room, and benches on all the sides for the pupils. The
school-room is lighted on three sides, and contains 1 18 desks, and 236 chairs,
two chairs to each desk, the desks and chairs being of four sizes. The tops
of the desks are cherry wood, and the chairs are Wales' patent. The desks
are separated by aisles one foot four inches in width, except the center aisle,
which is two feet wide.
The aisles on the side nearest the recitation-rooms, are three feet wide,
and those at each end, 2 feet 6 inches each. The platform on which are
the desks of the master and assistants, is eight inches high, and 6 feet 6
BRIMMER GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE, BOSTON.
199
inches wide, and the desks are so placed that the pupils sit with their backs
to the platform ; and the pupils are so arranged at the desks in classes and
sections, that when one class is reciting, the desk is only occupied by one
pupil. The windows are shaded by inside blinds painted green.
The school-room on the third floor is of the same size, having an arched
ceiling 13 feet high in the center, with recitation-rooms and other arrange-
ments similar to the school-room on the second floor.
The building is warmed by two furnaces, and ventilated by six flues, dis-.
charging into the attic, from which the impure air is carried off by copper
ventilators in the roof. The openings into the flues in the school-rooms are
controlled by Preston's ventilators.
Tlie frame of Preston's Ventilator is made of a flat bar of iron 2^ by 4-
inch, framed at the corners, the end at each corner running by in order kv .
receive a clamp to screw the frame to the brick work ; the door is of plate
iron, (y 6 w i re g a e ) with a rod passing down the center of the plate, on the
back side, each end of the rod running by the plate and entering the frame,
forming a pivot on which the plate or door of the ventilator turns. The
door shuts against a projection in the frame.
i=^ i i F ]
f==I 1^3 E===l
" 8 XJ1
i
L
i
Primary School .
30-G* 22
ii
O
r
o o o |
i
"Ward Boom
>()- <; x r.n
i
Pn'mary School.
1
30-6x22
.Basement
! Story
O O
i
: i
ft
-
ii r i
i
]
f=^ t=
. S r 1
^^ r=j
The Brimmer school has two masters, one in each room, and each with
an usher and female assistant.
[Since the above description was first published, (in 1843) the seats and
desks have been reversed, so that the pupils sit with their faces to the plat-
form. The former method was found by the teacher to be " very incon-
venient, and wholly impracticable. The scholar should see the face and
hear the voice of the Principal as much as possible."]
200 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF BOWDOIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE.
The new Bowdoin School-house, completed in 1848, is situated on Myrtle
street and with the yard occupies an area of about 75 feet by 68 feet, bounded
on each of the four sides by a street. It is built of brick with a basement story
of hammered granite, and measures 75 feet 9 inches extreme length by 54 feet 6
inches extreme breadth having three stories, the first and second being 13 feet,
and the third, 15 feet high in the clear. The ground descends rapidly from
Myrtle street, thereby securing a basement of 15 feet in the rear. One third of
which is finished into entries, or occupied by three furnaces, coal bins, pumps,
&c., and the remaining two thirds is open to the yard, thereby affording a cov-
ered play-ground for the pupils.
The third story is finished into one hall 72 feet long by 38 feet wide, with seats
and desks for 180 pupils. On the south side of this hall there are two recita-
tion rooms, each 16 feet by 12 feet, and a room for a library, &c. There are
three rooms of the same size on the two floors below.
The second story is divided into two rooms by a partition wall, each of which
is 35 feet by 38, arid accommodates 90 pupils, and so connected by sliding doors
that all the pupils of both schools can be brought under the eye and voice of the
teacher.
The first story corresponds to the second, except there are no sliding doors in
the partition, and no connection between the room except through the front
entry. The two rooms on this floor have each seats and desks for 100 pupils.
Each story is thoroughly ventilated, and warmed by one of Chilson's Fur-
naces. In each furnace the air chambers, the apertures for conducting the cold
air into them, and the flues for constructing the heated air into the rooms in
each story, being all large, a great quantity of warm air is constantly rushing
into the rooms, and the ventilating flues or ventiducts being so constructed and
arranged that the air of the rooms will be frequently changed, and that a pure
and healthy atmosphere will at all times be found in each of these rooms, pro-
vided the furnaces are properly and judiciously managed. On the top of the
building there are two of Emerson's large ventilators, connected with the attic
and ventilating flues, through which the impure air passes out into the atmos-
phere above.
To accommodate pupils who come to school with wet feet or clothes, there
is an open fire in a grate in one of the recitation rooms.
Each room is furnished with Wales' American School Chair, and Ross's Desk,
and both desk and chair are in material, form and style, as described on page
202 and 205.
This is a school for girls only, and consists of two departments, one of which
is called the Grammar department, and the other the Writing department ; the
master of each department being independent of the other.
The number of assistant female teachers in each department of this school,
when full, will be four, the teachers in each department being independent of
the master and teacher in the other.
The master of the Grammar department and two of his assistants will occupy
the large hall in the third story, and his other two assistants will occupy one of
the rooms in the first story. .
The master of the writing department and two of his assistants will occupy
the rooms in the second story, and his other two assistants will occupy the
other room in the first story, each master being the superintendence of his own
department.
The school, when full, will be divided into five classes, and each class into
two divisions, nearly equal in numbers. The first week after the vacation in
August, the first division of each class will attend in the grammar department
in the morning, and the second division of each class will attend in the writing
department ; and in the afternoon, the second division of each class will attend
in the grammar department, and the first, in the writing department. The next
week, this order of attendance is to be reversed, and this alteration is to con-
tinue through the year, the weeks of vacation not being counted.
This house and the Cluincy Grammar School-house are built after designs by
Mr. Bryant.
BOWDOIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE.
PLAN OF FIRST AND SECOND FLOOR.
201
A, A, Entrance for Pupils.
B, Ditto lor Teacher.
C, C, Study halls, each 35 by 38 feet;
with seats and desks for 100 pupils.
D, Sliding door, by which the two
rooms on the second floor are thrown
into one.
E, Study hall, 72 feet by 38.
F, F, Two recitation rooms on each
floor, 16 feet by 12.
G, Room 10 feet by 12, for library, ap-
paratus, &c.
H, Ross' desk, and Wales' chair.
P, Teacher's platform with desk for
teacher and assistants.
S, S, Staircase leading to second anc
third floors.
a, Case with glass doors for appara-
tus.
c, Closet for Teacher:
q, Grate.
r, Hot air register.
v, Flues for ventilation.
PLAN OF THIRD FLOOR.
202 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF QUINCY GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE,
BOSTON.
This building, which was commenced in 1847, and dedicated on the 26th of
June, 1848, is situated on a lot 90 feet by 130 feet, extending from Tyler street
to Hudson street.
The ground plan is in the form of a cross, the exterior dimensions of the body
being 80 feet by 58 feet, the end fronting on Tyler street. The wings are 12
feet in front by 36 feet deep. It is four stories high, with a basement 8 feet in
the clear, for the furnaces and fuel, and an attic for gymnastic exercises.
Each wing contains a front and back entrance, a flight of stairs from the
basement to the attic, and a room on each floor 10 feet by 11 feet, connected
with a school-room.
The fourth story of the body is finished in one spacious hall, 16 feet high in
the clear, with centre-pieces and a cornice, and a platform at each end 22 feet
by 11 feet, and 22 inches high. It is furnished with settees arranged in 4 rows,
sufficient to accommodate 700 children.
The third floor is divided by a corridor 8 feet wide, extending across the main
body from one wing to the other, having 2 school-rooms on each side.
These four school-rooms are of nearly the same size, averaging about
31 i feet by 26i feet, and 13 feet high. Each room is lighted by 2 windows at
the side, and 2 at the end, and has a platform for the teacher 24 feet by about 5j,
with one end towards the entrance from the corridor, and on the other end is
placed a book-case of cherry, 3i feet by 8 feet, with glazed doors, facing the
entrance.
The scholars' desks front the platform and the windows on the side of the
building, and are separated by aisles 1 foot and 4 inches wide. They are 2 feet
in length, made of cherry-wood, and varnished and supported by cast iron
stands. J. L. Ross, maker. Each scholar has a desk by himself.
The chair is made by Mr. Wales, of Boston. It has a scroll back and cast
iron support.
Each room accommodates 56 pupils, one desk and chair being placed on a
small movable platform for a monitor.
The rooms are lined with composition blackboards 3 feet wide, 2 feet from
the floor.
The school-rooms which have not small rooms attached, are provided with
closets for the children's clothes. There are 2 sinks in the corridor, with con-
veniences for introducing Cochituate water. The description of this story will
answer for the two below it, as the first three are essentially the same.
The windows are furnished with inside blinds, having revolving slats, so that
the light may be regulated with great ease.
The building is warmed by 4 furnaces placed in the basement, 2 being placed
at the middle of each end, each being intended to warm the three rooms imme-
diately over it, the cast iron chimnies being relied upon for heating the hall.
Emerson's system of ventilation has been introduced since the building was
finished, each room having a separate air-dur t to the roof, 14 inches by 14 inches.
The apparatus consists of the Boston Philosophical set, by J. M. Wightman,
Eayrs and Fairbanks' globe, 2 sets of Pelton's Outline Maps, and one ol
Mitchell's.
A library costing $200 has been furnished by the donation of Mayor duincy.
To protect the desks from injury, the slate-lrames are all required to be cov-
ered with cloth, and each scholar is to provide himself with a convenient box to
contain his pen, pen-wiper, pei.cils, rubber, &c. Each desk has an inkstand
sunk into the right-hand corner, with a revolving metalic cover.
The building is calculated for but one school, and is at present occupied by
but one, the organization of which is adapted to the arrangement and construc-
Uon of the house. When the organization is complete, the school will be
divided into 4 classes, each class containing 168 scholars, and each class into 3
divisions. At present the 3 lower classes contain two divisions each, and the
first class 3.
On the 3rd floor are the first division of the first class under the instruction of
QU1NCY SCHOOL HOUSE.
203
the Principal, and the several divisions of theSd class instructed by assistants ;
On the 2d floor is the 2d division of the 1st class instructed by the sub-mas-
ter, with the several divisions of the 3d class under assistants ; and the usher
takes the 3rd division of the 1st class, with the several divisions of the 4th class
on the 1st floor. By this arrangement the government is rendered compara-
tively easy. The whole school is brought together in the hall for devotional
services, and other general exercises.
I ....
rl v
4 < f
Plan of First Floor.
A, A, Front Door.
B, B, Entries.
C, Corridor or Hall.
T, T, T, T, Teachers' Platform 24 feet by5|.
r, r, r, r, Hot-air flues.
v, v, v, v, Preston's Ventilators for controlling the flues in the partition wall,
which communicate with the iron smoke pipes near the top of the building.
This plan is adopted in the first story only.
e, e, e, e, Indicates the location of the flues of Emerson's Ventilators in the
.second, third and fourth stories.
s, Sink.
c, c. c, c, Closets.
d, d, Closets 10 feet by 11 feet,
2Q4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
It is to be feared there are not many communities, even in New Eng-
lana, where the Chief Magistrate, elected annually by the people, would
have the courage to utter the following noble sentiments, spoketa by
Mayor Q,uincy, at the dedication of the Quincy Grammar School-house,
June 26, 1848.
As Chairman of the " City Fathers," he did not hesitate to stand there and
tell the tax-paying community that they had, in this manner, just expended
$200,000 of their money ; and he was confident the question would not be
asked, Why spend so much! Why spend more for popular education in the
city of Boston, than is expended in the whole of Great-Britain 1
He said, if but once in a century, a little being should be sent into this world,
of most delicate and beautiful structure, and we were told that a wonderful
principle pervaded every part of it, capable of unlimited expansion and hap-
piness, capable of being fitted to associate with angels and becoming the friend
of God: or if it should receive a wrong bias, of growing up in enmity against
him, and incurring everlasting misery, could any expense of education which
would contribute to save from such misery and elevate to such happiness, be
too much! But, instead of one such little being, 24,000 were now entrusted to
the care of the " City Fathers," and their education, in this world, will deter-
mine their future destiny, of companionship with angels, or with the degraded
wretched, enemies of God.
If the community had no responsibility in the matter, how, he asked, could
it spend money better than in educating these children ? But they would soon
control the affairs of Boston, and, to a great extent, of the Commonwealth.
Nor would their influence stop here. "No man liveth for himself" Each ot
these children would form a centre of widening influence, whose circumference
might yet embrace millions of minds, and extend through unnumbered centu-
ries.
Here, unlike other countries, every restraint to individual elevation is thrown
off. All have the most perfect liberty that can be enjoyed, without infringing
upon the rights of others. How important then, that each child should be ed-
ucated to understand his rights, and the principles and habits of self- Govern-
ment.
We are all, said he, in a partnership, and if one of these little partners suf-
fers in his character, the whole community suffer in consequence.
He believed that nearly half of the 400 boys in that school were not Ameri-
cans. Many of their parents were not fitted for the duties of a Republic. But
these children, educated side by side with our own, would learn self-govern-
ment, and be trained to become worthy citizens of this free country.
It seemed, he said, the design of Providence to mix races; and this influx
of foreigners might constitute the very elements necessary to give to American
character its highest excellence. Standing on such a moral elevation, as Bos-
ton did, they felt it a duty to provide for the education of all, and thus present
to the whole country, iiwdels of popular education.
These schools are justly the pride and boast of the city ; and the senti-
ment with which they are universally regarded is beautifully embodied
in the following extract from an address by George S. Hillanl, Esq.
The schools of Boston are the best jewels in her crown. If I were asked by
an intelligent stranger to point out to him our most valued possessions, I would
show to him not our railroads, our warehouses, filled with the wealth of all
the earth, our ships, our busy wharves and marts, where the car of commerce
is ever " thundering loud with her ten thousand wheels," but I would carry him
to one of our public schools, would show him its happy and intelligent chil-
dren, hushed into .reverent silence at their teacher's word, or humming over
their tasks with a sound like that of bees in June. I would tell him that here
was the foundation on which our material prosperity was reared, that here
were the elements from which we constructed the State.
Here are the fountains from which flow those streams which make glad our
land. The schools oj Boston are dear to my heart. Though I can have no
personal and immediate interest in them; though no child on earth calls me
lather; yet most gladly do I contribute to their support, according to my sub-
stance; and when I see a father's eyes filled with pleasant tears as he hears
SYSTEM OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN BOSTON. 205
the music of his child's voice linked to some strain of poetry or burst of elo-
quence, I can sympathize in the feeling in which I cannot share. May the
blessing of Heaven rest upon our schools. They are an object worthy of all
efforts and sacrifices. We should leave nothing undone which may tend to
make them more excellent and more useful. For this, we should gather into
our own stores all the harvest of experience which have been reaped from
other soils. The present is an age of progress. The claims of humanity are
now beginning to be heard as they never were before. The movements in
favor of Peace, of Anti-Slavery, of Temperance, of Education, of Prison Dis-
cipline, all spring from the same root a sense of sympathy and brotherhood.
Is it too much to say that the dawn of a new day is reddening the tops of the
mountains 1 Higher yet may that light ascend, till its golden shafts have
pierced the deepest valleys 01 ignorance and sin ! Let us not stand idly on
the brink, while the tide of improvement sweeps by us, but boldly launch our
bark upon the stream.
We live in a community, ready to discern and to do that which is right. It
should be a source of gratitude to us that our lot is cast on a spot, where every
good and worthy faculty may find appropriate work to do. When I behold
this city that we love, seated upon her triple throne of hills with her mural
crown of spires and domes glittering in the smokeless air, when I remember
how much of that which embellishes and dignifies life is gathered under those
roofs, I feel that he has not lived in vain who has contributed, even in the
smallest measure, to the happiness and prosperity of Boston. And how can
we do this more effectually than by watching over her schools, by making
them as nearly perfect as human institutions can bel For this object let
neither wealth nor toil be spared. Here are fountains of life ; as they are, so
will its issues be. The child is father to the man. Make our schools all that
they can be, and all that they should be, and we shall give to the prosperity of
our beloved city a permanence like that of moral truth. It will become an
inevitable necessity, like that which compels the heart of man to love what is
lovely, and venerate what is venerable.
The following statistics are taken from the " Third Annual Report of
the Superintendent of Public Schools, (Nathan Bishop, Esq.,) of the
City of Boston," submitted Dec. 29, 1853.
Estimated cost of all the Public School Estates to May 1st, 1853.
1. Cost of the Latin and English High School Estate, and of the
improvements on the same, $82,151.51
2. Cost of all the Grammar School Estates, and of the improve-
ments on the same, 797,848.49
3. Cost of all the Primary School Estates, and of the improve-
ments on the same, 448,500.00
Total cost of all the Public School Estates, $1,358,500.00
Means and Cost of supporting Public Schools.
The City receives annually, from the State School Fund, about, $5,500.00
The remainder of the means for supporting the Public Schools
is drawn from the City Treasury, which is replenished by the an-
nual tax and by other sources of income. During the last twelve
years, 21 per cent, of the ordinary city expenditures has been ap-
propriated to the Public Schools.
In the year 1853, the expenses of the School Department
amounted to, 329,800.20
Viz., for Grammar Schools salaries of teachers, 130,531.18
" incidental expenses, 35,849.82
" " new buildings and alterations,. ... 42,991.00
Primary Schools salaries of teachers, 62,508.33
" " incidental expenses, 22,231.46
buildings, ..!..... 35,823.09
206
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
After a variety of experiments in school architecture, the School
Committee of Boston have adopted the internal arrangements of the
duincy Grammar School, as the best adapted to that organization
which affords the greatest facilities of instruction and government in
this class of schools. Although we are not prepared to adopt without
qualification the views taken of the subject, we give below extracts irom
the First Semi-Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Schools,
(Nathan Bishop, Esq.) in which the grounds of this preference are set
forth.
The proper size of a school-house in a large city, where the population is dense,
must be determined by the number of pupils required in one building in order to
make the best classification. By classification is meant, the putting together of
as many scholars as one teacher can instruct well into one division or group.
Experience has shown that between fifty and sixty, all being about equally ad-
vanced in their several studies, can be well taught by one teacher. The best
classification of pupils in schools is nothing more than a wise application of the
principle of the division of labor, which has done so much to advance and to per-
fect the various branches of industry. A division of labor, made on the right
principle, always increases the facilities of performing the process, or improves the
quality of the article made, and not unfrequently accomplishes both these objects
at the same time. It must constantly be borne in mind, that it is not simply a di-
vision of labor which has effected such wonderful improvements in every depart-
ment of business carried on in the civilized world ; but it is a division of a particu-
lar kind of labor, on such a principle as will enable the persons engaged in it to
perform more of it in a given time without additional effort, and to do it as well
as they could before, or even better.
Actual experience has shown, in many instances, that a school containing eight
hundred pupils can be classified to better advantage than one containing any
smaller number. A school of this size can be managed with but little more labor
on the part of the principal than is required for one only half as large. If the
difference in the attainments of the children in each division be so small that they
can with advantage study the same lessons, then the teacher may instruct them
altogether in some recitations and exercises, and, for the others, he may separate
them into two sections ; and, while he is hearing one recite a lesson, the other
may be preparing for the next recitation ; and so on, for every school-day in the
year, the teacher can give one half of his time to one section, and one half to the
other ; and in this way each pupil will receive a greater amount of personal in-
struction and assistance from his teacher than on any other plan of dividing the
labor of teaching a large school.
The teacher, having but few branches pursued in his division, has ample time
to make thorough preparation to explain and illustrate all difficult points in every
lesson. Having sufficient time, also, for hearing the recitations of his pupils, a
good teacher can awaken in his class a degree of mental activity in the pursuit of
knowledge, which will lend to their intellects the best discipline, while it enlarges
the fields of their vision on the different branches of study. He will also have
time to throw around the more important facts and principles in the text-books
such remarks and illustrations as will attract and secure the attention of his
scholars, and impress upon their minds a well-defined idea of each leading fact or
principle by itself ; and then he may group them together into one larger view,
showing their connection with the general subject, and making them throw some
light on what has gone before, or prepare the way for what comes after, in the
study under examination.
The following " SPECIFICATION of materials to be provided, and labor
performed, in the erection of a Grammar School-house," drawn up by
Joseph R. Richards, architect, embodies the latest improvements adopted
by the School Committee of Boston.
BOSTON GRAMMAR SCHOOL. 207
SPECIFICATIONS FOR A GRAMMAR SCHOOL.
Description.
The building is to be of brick, it is to measure sixty feet by eighty feet above the un-
derpinning, and to contain three finished stories ; the first and second each twelve feet
high, and the third story fourteen feet high, in the clear. The roof is to have an incli-
nation of twenty-nine degrees from each side of the building, intersecting in a ridge ;
there is to be an observatory or belfry immediately upon the center of the ridge 9i by 9J
feet octagonal form, and thirteen feet in height to top of roof; the cellar will be eight
feet deep in the clear. The lot of land is to be inclosed with a brick wall on two sides,
and with an iron fence on the front end ; the space in the rear is to be divided into yards
by board fences, and to contain a block of privies against the rear line of the estate.
The first floor of the huiding is to set four feet above thelevel of the street sidewalk.
The building is to set back from the front line of the lot of land ten feet.
Excavating.
The dirt and rubbish is to be dug out for the cellar and cellar walls, and all trenches
and footings for the vaults and the drains and cesspools, as required ; and all that is not
required for grading up the lot, is to be removed from the premises. The yards are all
to be filled and graded up to the level of the cellar flooring, with good gravel, where
below the same.
Granite Foundations.
Each of the walls are to have a bottom course, three feet long, eighteen inches deep,
and two feet wide, laid crosswise of the trenches ; upon the same is to be laid a stone
wall, eighteen inches thick, built with square split granite blocks, laid in cement mortar,
faced on the inside, and thoroughly whitewashed. Good and sufficient foundations are
to be laid for the steps, coal hoals, walls of the privies, and furnaces.
The underpinning of the four walls of the building, the steps, platforms and thresholds,
gate thresholds, and fence stones, caps and sills to cellar windows, privy thresholds,
curbs to vaults, covers to yard cesspools, are all to be of even colored granite, free from
rust, sap, or flaws ; fine hammered where directed ; and set in lime mortar, cramped,
leaded, and pointed, as required and directed. Iron strainers are to be fitted to the cess-
pool covers, with a movable cover, and three stone movable covers are to be fitted to the
vaults, having strong iron rings fitted thereto. Properly fit a cold air box to the outside
wall, with a grating on the outside thereof.
Sandstone.
There are to be caps and sills to all the windows of the building, and caps to the
privy doors, of freestone, rubbed on the three fronts, and tooled on the rear front ; the
first and second story caps are to be moulded according to the full size drawing.
Brickwork.
Back up the underpinning of the four walls, so as to make a total thickness of twenty
inches to the same. The four exterior walls, are to be in two thicknesses, of eight inches
each, with an air space of four inches between them, built up the whole height of the
building to the roof boarding; and a neat facia fitted to the cornice. The outside fac-
ing of three side walls are to be laid with the first quality of pressed bricks, properly
tied to the walls every seventh course by " angular brick ties." The interior walls are
each to be twelve inches thick, laid from the bottom course to the under side of the attic
flooring. The outside walls of the privies, are to be laid eight inches thick each,
and seven and a half feet high, and the partition walls four inches thick. The yard
walls are each to be twelve inches thick, and eight feet high above the sidewalk level,
commenced on solid stone foundations below ground. The above are all to be laid in
the best lime mortar. The vaults to be laid in cesspool form, and the drains, cesspools
are to be laid in cement mortar of the best quality. The cellars are to be paved with
uniform hard bricks all over their surfaces. The exterior walls are to be tied together
at suitable distances ; the ventilators are to be laid partly in the wall, fourteen by eigh-
teen inches each, smoothly plastered ; the iron chimneys are to be recessed in the entry
walls and connected therewith ; the vaults are to be six feet deep ; the yard walls are
to be capped with stone, set in cement. All the brickwork is to be built with the best
hard burnt brick.
Lathing and Plastering.
The ceilings of the three stories are to be lathed and plastered ; the several walls are
to be plastered on the walls without lathings, with a stout coat of lime and hair mortar,
and finished smoothly with lime putty; the whole work to be done neat and true ; a
coat of lime and hair mortar is to finish on the walls of the privies and, the ceilings also.
Slating.
The roof of the building is to be slated with the best of wide ladies slates, laid not
exceeding 6iJ inches to the weather, put on with composition nails, and properly secured
208
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
with flashings of lead, 3J Ibs. to the square foot ; fit heavy zinc, strapped with irons, to
the ridges, and warrant the whole perfectly tight.
Iron works and Incidentals.
There is to be an upright, twisted, diamond formed, wrought iron grating to each of
the cellar windows, with a heavy frame attached. There are to be two stout iron scrapers
at each door. There is to be a stout iron snow fender running around the building on
the roof, costing 50 cents per foot. An iron fence, to cost $3 per lineal foot, is to be
made and set up complete, with two gates hung and fastened across the front end of
the lot with four iron posts, securely set, leaded, and fastened ; the gates are each to
have a lock. The ends of the fence are to be fastened to a stone post, placed at the
ends of the side walls.
The building committee will provide for the furnaces, iron smoke pipes, ventilators,
and furnace registers, and hot air pipes complete ; set the same as directed. Set and
introduce such water pipes in the building as may be required, the building committee
furnishing such, and all the furnaces. The committee will also provide such drains
and cause such cesspools to be laid as may be required.
An iron cornice with modillions is to be set entirely around the building, costing
$2.50 per lineal foot ; the gutter of the building is to be made therein ; the whole to be
braced and properly fastened to the wall. There are to be four conductors to the building,
each four inches in diameter, of 18 oz. cold rolled copper, put up, connected with the gut-
ters, and led off in a proper manner with heavy goose necks, and 34 inch pipes at the
bottom to lead water into the drain. To be two copper conductors and a copper gutter to
the block of privies. The roof of the privies and observatory are to be covered with sheet
X X tin, lapped, soldered and finished in the best possible manner and warranted tight.
Carpentry and Framing.
The roofs and floors are to be framed in the manner indicated by the drawings, with
good sound lumber, and timber of the following dimensions. Principal floor joists, of
spruce, 3X15 inches ; trimmers and headers, of spruce, 6X15 inches ; privy floor joists,
of spruce, 3X6 inches; attic ceiling joists, of spruce, between tresses, 2X6 inches ; tie
beams of roof, of pine, 9X12 inches; truss rafters of pine, 9X12 inches; purlines of
spruce, 8x8 inches ; small rafters of spruce, 20 inches apart, 3X5 inches ; wall plates,
of spruce, 3X9 inches ; ridge plank, 2X10. The floor joists are to be worked to a mould
crowning 1 inch, they are to have a fair bearing of 4 inches on the walls, at each end, and
to be placed not exceeding 15 inches apart, from center to center of each, and bridged
with two rows of cross bridging. The roof tresses are to be fitted with wrought iron
bolts, 1 inch in diameter, with heads, screws, washer and nuts, and footings, bolts also
of same size. There is to be a lintal 4X8 inches over every opening in the walls that
require it, and under the " withs "of the privies, having a fair bearing of eight inches at
the end.
Boarding and Furring.
The under floors of the rooms, entries, and platforms, and privies and the roofs, are
to be laid with No. 3 pine boards, machine planed, matched, and well nailed.
The ceilings and stairways of the three stories are to be furred with three inch fur-
rings, of sound seasoned, dry pine boards, spaced for five nailings to a lathe. Nail
them with tenpennies. Put on three-fourth inch grounds for finish, and irons for cor-
ners and angles. There are to be two strips of furring for hanging charts thereto, ex-
tending entirely round each of the school-rooms, as directed.
Cold Air Boxes and Ventilating Flues.
There is to be a separate flue for each furnace, 12X20 inches clear, made of
thoroughly seasoned pine boards, smoothed on the inside and put together with two inch
screws ; there is to be a valve and handle to each. The ventilating flues are to have a
valve and a handle ; they are to be made of thoroughly seasoned pine boards, smoothed
inside and outside and put together with screws. There is to be a separate one for
each school-room, and each block often privies; fitted with blind openings or registers
at the floor and ceiling, arranged as shown upon plans, and as now completed in most
of the school-houses recently erected by the City of Boston. The ventilating flues are
to be connected with two roof ventilators, largest size, arranged as directed. There are
to be two roof ventilators over the privies.
Windows and Blinds.
All the windows of the three stories are to have double box frames, hard pine pulley
stiles, &c. The sashes are to be made of pine 1J inches thick, moulded, coped, and
lipped. They are all to be double hung with the best of white window lines, iron pul-
leys, steel pintels and round iron weights of accurate balance. All the sashes are to
be fastened with strong bronzed sash fastenings to cost $4.50 per dozen. All the win-
dows of the three stories are to be fitted with 11 inch framed blinds, eight parts to each
window, hung and fastened complete with iron butt hinges and bronze hooks, staples,
BOSTON GRAMMAR SCHOOL. 209
and rosewood knobs, and to fold into flat boxings. They are all to finish with 1| inch
moulded architraves, 8 inches wide, plain jambs, sofits, and stools. The cellar windows
are to be made with plank frames rebated for the sashes, and to have double sashes
hung to the tops of the frames, fastened with strong iron buttons and fitted with catches
to hold them open when desired. Each privy is to have a movable window in its
door. The observatory windows are to be double hung and fastened.
fastened with mortice locks and knobs, to cost ifz.oU each, and with catches, Dolts, min-
eral knobs, bronze trimmings, and small duplicate keys. The outside doors are to be
fastened with lever locks of the best quality, with mineral knobs and small duplicate
keys. The privy doors are to be two feet by six feet one and one half inches thick,
four paneled, hung with iron butt hinges, fastened with good knob locks, having dupli-
cate small keys ; they are to have two inch rebated and beaded frames, hard pine
thresholds, and architraves, as described for the windows, with plinths. Properly hang
the outside doors to three inch Southern pine plank frames, properly dogged to the
threshold and wall.
Stairs.
The several flights of stairs are to be square frames, with four deep plank stringers ;
they are to be finished with hard pine risers one inch thick, and treads one and one-
fourth inches thick, with moulded nosings. The cellar stairs are to be finished with
plain pine risers and treads, and close partitions one and one-half inches thick, matched
and planed. There is to be a neat flight of portable steps to ascend to the attic and
observatory, and to the roof scuttle, which is to be made and hung complete. All the
flights are to have cherry wood hand rail, moulded, three by two and three-fourth
inches ; turned cherry wood posts, five inches in diameter, at the head and foot and each
landing of the flights, and hard pine balusters, one and one-fourth inches diameter,
three to each stair tread ; the top of the rail is to be three feet above the nosing-of the
stair tread ; the whole to be made and finished in a perfectmanner. All the well rooms
are to be properly cased and finished.
Skirting
The rooms, closets, entries, and stairways, are to be skirted up as high as the win-
dow stools, in the respective stories, with narrow, beaded, matched lining, guaged to a
width not exceeding seven inches, and the joints to butt even in every case; cap the
same to correspond with the window stools ; the lining is to be of clear white pine.
One side of the wall of each room is to be fitted for the slates with frames, as directed.
Floorings.
The platforms are to be furred up, as shown by the drawing, and the stairways, plat-
forms, and privies are to be boarded, and the several floorings to be laid with narrow hard
pine clear boards^ perfectly jointed and thoroughly nailed. The strips are to be guaged
to a width respectively, and the joints broken at least three feet, and in no case are
strips of a different width to butt on to each other. The entry and privy floors are all
to be of hard pine.
Cabinets, <fc.
There is to be a cabinet at the wall end of each platform, with shelves and small
closets below, and a sash door. There are to be sixty-five clothes hooks hung on strips
of pine, as directed, to each room. There are to be two umbrella stands in each entry.
To be six sinks placed where directed. To be four coal bins, and two closets for kind-
lings, in the cellar* Finish the privy seats as directed, complete in every particular.
Put up three bells where directed, with " pulls" and tubes complete.
Painting and Glazing.
Oil all the hard wood finish, except floorings. All the outside wood work is to be pre-
pared and painted in imitation of free stone. The outside doors are to be painted
bronze. The blinds are to be painted, four coats of Paris green, and varnished. The
rest of the inside finish is to be primed, painted, and grained, in imitation of oak, maple,
or other color, as directed by the committee, and varnished twice. Paint all the iron
work, three coats best black and one coat varnish. All the sashes are to be glazed with
the very best quality of German glass, of double thickness, and finish the same com-
plete in every particular, with the sizes of glass as marked upon plans.
Memorandum.
All the timber and lumber is to well seasoned, and all that is in sight is to be entirely
free from sap, shakes, and large knots ; the finish stock of every kind must be perfectly
kiln dried ; the labor is to be done in the most faithful manner.
14
PUTNAM FREE SCHOOL-HOUSE. 211
PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OP THE PCTNAM FREE SCHOOL-HOUSE.
NEWBURYPORT, MASS.
We are indebted to W. H. Wells, Esq., the gentleman who has
been selected as Principal of the Putnam Free School, and to whom
the work of organizing this important institution has been committed,
for the following plans and description.
The Putnam Free School was founded by Mr. Oliver Putnam, a
native of Newbury. It has a permanent fund of fifty thousand dol-
s, besides the amount invested in the school-house and its appur-
tenances.
The number of pupils to be admitted at the opening of the school
(April, 1848,) is limited by the Trustees to 80. No pupil can be
received under twelve years of age, nor for less time than one year.
The object of the Institution is to lead pupils through an extended
course of English studv. It is open to students from any portion of
the country, who are prepared to meet the requirements for admis-
sion. No charge is made for tuition.
This building is situated on High street, directly opposite the Common or
Mall. It is constructed of brick, with corners, door-sills, underpinning, steps,
etc., of freestone. It is two stories in height, exclusive of a basement story,
85* feet in length, and 52| in breadth.
The upper story is divided into two principal school-rooms, each 49i feet by
40i. There is also a small room in this story for the use of the Principal.
The lower story contains a hall for lectures and other general exercises, and
four recitation rooms. The hall is 44 feet by 48|. Two of the recitation
rooms are 14 feet by 17, and two are 11 by 20.
Each of the principal school-rooms is furnished with 64 single seats and
desks, besides recitation chairs, settees, etc. The desks are made of cherry;
and both the desks and the chairs are supported by iron castings, screwed
firmly to the floor. In form and construction, they are similar to Kimball's
" Improved School Chairs and Desks."
The central aisles are two feet and eight inches in width; the side aisles,
four feet and four inches; and the remaining aisles, two feet.
The building is warmed by two furnaces. It is ventilated by six flues from
the hall on the lower floor, six from each of the school-rooms on the second
floor, and one from each of the recitation rooms. Each of these flues has two
registers ; one near the floor, and the other near the ceiling. The two princi-
pal school-rooms are furnished with double windows.
The institution is provided with ample play-grounds and garden plots, back
of the building and at the ends. It has also a bell weighing 340 Ibs.
The first appropriation of the Trustees for the purchase of apparatus, is one
thousand dollars. Other appropriations will probably be made, as the wants
of the school may require. In addition to the apparatus procured by the Trus-
tees, the institution is to have the use of an achromatic telescope, which will
cost between three and four hundred dollars.
The cost of the building and ground, with the various appurtenances, exclu-
sive of apparatus, has amounted to twenty-six thousand dollars.
The accompanying plans give a correct representation of the arrangements
on the two principal floors.
The building was erected after designs and specifications by Mr. Bryant,
Architect, Boston,
212
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PUTNAM FREE SCHOOD-HOUSE.-LOWER STORY
H Hall for lectures and other general exercises, 44 feet by 48. A Raised
platform for desk. D Front door. (The portico in front does not appear in the
plate.) B, B Recitation rooms, 11 feet by 20. R, R Recitation rooms, 14 feet
by 17. E, E, E, E Entries. C, C Wash closets, under the stairs, a, a Doors
leading to the basement story, d, d, d, d, d, d, d, d, d, d Doors, v, v, v, v, T,
r, T, v, v, v. Ventilating fluea.
PtTNAM FREE SCHOOL HOUSE, NEWBURYPORT.
PUTNAM FREE SCHOOL-HOUSE. UPPER STORY.
213
M, D Room for Male Department. F, D Room for Female Department.
A, A Raised platforms for teachers' desks. L Principal's room. C, C
Closets, p, p Raised platforms under the black-boards, s, s, s, s, s, s Setteei
d, d, d, d, d, d Doors, v, v, v, v, v, v, v, v, v, v, v, v Ventilating flues
n-,1 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE
!; .
PLAN, &c., OF EAST SCHOOL, SALEM, MASS.
The lot on which the house stands extends from Essex street to Bath
3treet There is a sufficient passage-way on each side of the house, and
access from each street. The north end faces the common, which affords
the most ample play-ground, always open.
The exterior dimensions of the building are 136 by 50 ft. 1 he school-
rooms are 65 by 36 ft. and 15 ft. high, each : the space in front of the desks,
65 by 4 ft. 6 inches ; the space occupied by the desks, 59 by 25 ft. ; the
space in rear of the desks, 65 by 6 ft. 6 inches ; the floor of which is raised
8 inches above the floor of the rooms ; the side aisles are 3 ft., and all the
other aisles 18 inches in width.
The desks are so placed that the scholars sit with their faces towards the
partition which separates the school-room from the recitation rooms, the
fight being thus admitted in their rear and on one side.
The desks are 4 ft in length, and of four sizes in width, the two front
ranges being 16 inches, the two next 15, the two next 14, and the two next
13. The desks are also of four sizes in height ; the two front ranges being,
on the lower side, 27 inches, the two next 26, the two next 25, the two
next 24.
The desks in each school-room are placed in ranges, each range contain-
ing eleven desks, and each desk being fitted for two scholars ; so that 176
scholars may be received in each department, or 352 in the whole school.
The desks are constructed like tables, with turned legs, narrow rails, in-
clined top and a shelf beneath. The legs and rails are of birch, stained and
varnished, and the tops of cherry, oiled and varnished. The legs are se-
cured in the floor by tenons. The tables of the teachers are constructed
and finished like the desks of the scholars.
The chairs are also of four sizes ; those in the two front ranges being 12
by 12? inches in the seat, (i. e. extreme width, the sides being of the usual
shape of chairs,) and 16 inches in height, and those in the succeeding ranges
being reduced in height in proportion to the desks, and also varying propor-
tionally in the dimensions of the seats.
The chairs are constructed with seats of bass wood, and cherry backs ;
the seats and backs hollowed, and the seats resting on wooden pedestals.
secured to the floor by tenons and screws.
Upon the front edge of the raised platform, in the rear of the desks, set-
tees are placed, which are of the same length as the desks, and are placed
in corresponding positions, with intervening spaces in continuation of the
aisles. The settees are placed with the back towards the desks, and are
designed exclusively for the use of classes attending reviews before the
principals. The settees in width and height correspond to the largest size
of chairs, and are constructed of the same materials, and finished in the same
style.
In the center and at the extremities of the range of settees, are placed
tables, (of 4 by 2 ft. 6 inches, oval shape,) which are occupied by the assist-
ants, during general exercises, when the station of the principal is in front
of the desks, the middle one being used by the principal when attending
reviews.
Each recitation room (18 by 10 ft.) is appropriated to a single course of
study, as marked upon the plan, and is therefore used exclusively by one
assistant. Three sides of the room are appropriated to seats, being lined
with cherry wood, (oiled and varnished) to a height reaching above the
heads of the scholars. The lining is projected at the bottom, so as to fur-
nish inclined backs to the seats, which are constructed of cherry wood, 13
inches in width, 2 inches thick, with hollowed top and rounded edge, sup-
ported on turned legs, the height being 15J- inches from the top of the seat
to the floor. 1 he fourth side of the room, opposite the window, is occupied
by a blackboard of 3 ft. in width, which extends across the space upon
each side of the door. :
All the spaces between the doors and windows upon the four sides of the
EAST GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE, SALEM.
215
school-rooms are occupied by blackboards. In the spaces between the
windows upon the rear, recesses have been constructed, which are fitted
with book-shelves, and are closed by means of covers in front, which are
raised and lowered by weights and pulleys. These covers are blackboards,
and are so finished as to represent sunken panels. Drawers are construct-
ed beneath the blackboards to receive the sponges, chalk, &c.
Circular ventilators are placed in the ceiling of each school-room and
recitation room ; three in each school-room of 3 ft. in diameter, and one in
each recitation room of 2 ft. in diameter. These ventilators are solid cov-
ers of wood, hung with hinges, over apertures of corresponding size, and
raised or lowered by means of cords passing over pulleys, through the ceil-
ing into the room below, the cords terminating in loops, which are fastened
to hooks in the side of the room. When the ventilators are raised, the im-
pure air escapes into the garret, the ventilation of which is also provided
for by means of the circular windows in the gable ends, which turn on
pivots in the center, and are opened or shut by cords passing over pulleys
iu the same manner as the ventilators.
Each school -room is warmed by a furnace, placed directly under the cen-
ter of the space in front of the desks, the hot air ascending through a circu-
lar aperture of 2 ft. in diameter, which is represented upon the plan. The
smoke-pipe, (of galvanized iron) is conducted upward through the center of
this aperture, and thence, after passing a considerable distance into the
school-room, through one of the recitation rooms into the chimney, which
is built in the center of the front wall. The recitation rooms are warmed
by means of apertures at the top and bottom respectively of the partitions
which separate them from the school-rooms, which being open together,
secure a rapid equalization of temperature in all the rooms. These aper-
tures are fitted to be closed, with revolving shutters above, and shutters
hung on hinges below.
In the partition wall between the school-rooms, is a clock having two
faces, and thus indicating the hour to the occupants in each room. The
clock strikes at the end of each half hour. In the ante-rooms, (marked F,
F, on the plan Fig. 1) are hooks for caps, overcoats, &c. In each of these
rooms, also, there is a pump and sink. '
In the lower story, there are two primary school-rooms 36| ft. by 24|
ft., each seating 60 children. Each child has a chair firmly fixed to the
floor, but no desk. In the rear there is an appropriate shelf for books,
for each pupil, numbered to correspond with the number on the chair. In
front of the school, there is a blackboard occupying the distance between the
doors, and a desk, at which the several classes stand in succession, and
copy appropriate exercises on the slate from the blackboard.
For this school-house, with all its completeness of arrangements and
regulations, the city of Salem is indebted mainly to the indefatigable exer-
tions of the late Mayor, the Hon. Stephen C. Phillips. During the three
years of his administration, every school-house was repaired or rebuilt,
and all the schools brought under an admirable system. On leaving his of-
fice, in 1842, he gave to the city for
school purposes, his salary for
three years, amounting to $2,400,
which has been applied to repair-
ing and refurnishing the High
School building, which is now a
monument of his taste and mu-
nificence.
The High School, and one of
the new primary schools, are fur-
nished with " Kimball's Improved
School Chair," which for strength, g^ia
comfort, and style of finish, is su- -
perior to any other now before the Primary School Chair
public.
Hifih School Chair.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
-
?!
5 S S
?a & I
3*3 B5 M
p H B
n> -a n> (KJ
?. B" J?. "*
o ^1 o S
^ v* - n>
2 ~
,rr
2. W GO
S P B 'A
If I
~ g
" - S
Saw
S & g . O
i -i cn
1 ^
3 S. g w
3530
or 0ft e*
J? - cr S 5
3 g 3 ns
* 3 f
S o S- o
O B, B"
_, 2> oo M
T"' y (P5 *^ fD O^ O
7' triw -"* ? o. 9
3^2
T) ro
& g. <x |
S TO ' S"
1 I
218 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF LATIN AND ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOLS, SALEM.
The interior of this building is fitted up in a style of ornamental and useful
elegance which has no parrallel in this country.
The Latin School is believed to be the first FREE SCHOOL established in the
United States, and probably in the world, where every person within certain
geographical limits, and possessing certain reqdisites of study, has an equal
right of admission, free of cost. It was founded in 1537, and has continued
without interruption, giving a thorough preparation to students for college, to
the present day. The English High School was established in 1827.
The walls of the Latin Grammar School are enriched and adorned with
inscriptions in the Greek and Latin language and character. These are not
merely apothegms of wisdom, but mementoes of duty ; they are fitted to
inspire the pupils with noble sentiments, and are the appropriate " Genius oj
the Place.' 1 ' 1
The interior of the English High School is adorned in a manner no less
appropriate and useful.
In the center of the ceiling is the circle of the zodiac, 29 feet in diameter.
The ventilator, 3^ feet in diameter, represents the sun, the spots being desig-
nated upon the nucleus in conformity to the latest telescopic observation.
The divergence of the solar rays is also fully exhibited. The earth is re-
presented in four different positions, indicating the four seasons. The moon
also is described in its orbit, and its position so varied as to exhibit its four
principal changes. The globular figure of the earth is clearly shown, and
lines are inscribed upon it representing the equator, tropics, and polar circles.
The hour lines are also marked and numbered. The border of the circle re-
presents upon its outer edge the signs of the zodiac, with their names, and
within, the names of the months. The signs are divided into degrees, and
the months into days, both of which are numbered. The thirty-two points of
the compass are marked upon the inner edge, the true north and magnetic
north both correctly indicated, the variation of the needle having been as-
certained by a recent series of observations.
The circle of the zodiac, as thus described, being enclosed within a square
panel, the exterior spaces in the four angles are filled up as follows :
The western angle exhibits the planet Saturn, with his rings and belts, as
seen through a telescope, and his true size in proportion to the sun, supposing
the circle of the zodiac to represent the size of the sun. The eastern angle
exhibits Jupiter, with his belts, of a size similarly proportionate. The other
primary planets and the moon are described according to their relative sizes,
in the southern angle. In the northern angle is a succession of figures, de-
signed to represent the varying apparent size of the sun, as seen from the
different planets. In the ceiling there are also two oblong panels, one towards
the western, the other towards the eastern extremity. The western panel
contains a diagram, which illustrates, by their relative position, the distance
of the several planets, primary and secondary, from the sun, which is placed
at one end of the panel. The several planets are designated by their signs,
and the figures, placed opposite to each, show how many millions of miles it
is distant from the sun. The satellites of the Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, and
Herschel, are described as revolving in their orbits around their respective
primaries. The eastern panel contains a diagram, which illustrates the theo-
ry of the solar and lunar eclipses. The moon is represented in different
parts of the earth's shadow, and also directly between the earth and the sun.
Upon the four sides of the room, in the space above the windows and
doors, eight panels are described, containing as many diagrams, which illus-
trate successively the following subjects :
1. The different phases of the moon. 2. The apparent, direct, and retro
grade motions of Mercury and Venus. 3. The moon's parallax. 4. The
commencement, progress, and termination of a solar eclipse. 5. The di-
minution of the intensity of light, and the force of attraction in proportion to
themcreaseot the squares of distance. 6. The transit of Venus over the
sun s disc. 7. I he refraction of the rays of light by the atmosphere, caus-
ing the sun, or other celestial bodies, to appear above the horizon when actu-
PUBLIC HIGH SCIIOOI^HOUSE, SALEM. 219
ally below it. 8. The theory of the tides, giving distinct views of the full
and neap tide, as caused by the change of position and the relative attraction
of the sun and moon.
The two small panels over the entrance doors represent, respectively, the
remarkable comets of 1680 and 181 1, and the theory of cometary motion as
described in the plates attached to Blunt's " Beauty of the Heavens."
The diagram in the large panel upon the north side of the recitation plat-
form represents the relative height of the principal mountains and the rela-
tive length of the principal rivers on the globe. The mountains and rivers
are all numbered, and scales of distance are attached, by which the Heights
and lengths can be readily ascertained. The relative elevation of particular
countries, cities and other prominent places, the limits of perpetual snow, of
various kinds of vegetation, &c., are distinctly exhibited. This diagram is a
copy of that contained in Tanner's Atlas.
The diagram in the corresponding panel on the south side of the recitation
platform represents a geological section, the various strata being systematic-
ally arranged and explained by an index.
The space between the windows upon the north and south sides of the
room are occupied by inscriptions in which the diameter, hourly motion, side-
real period, and diurnal rotation of the several primary planets and the earth's
moon, are separately stated, according tc calculations furnished for the pur-
pose by Professor Peirce, of Cambridge. The hourly motion and sidereal
period of the four asteroids are also stated in corresponding inscriptions upon
the western side. The diameter and rotation of the sun are inscribed upon
the edge of the circular recess beneath the ventilator.
Over the frontispiece, which surmounts the recess upon the teacher's ros-
trum, is a beautifully executed scroll bearing the inscription,
" ORUER is HEAVEN'S FIRST LAW."
This motto may be regarded as equally appropriate, whether viewed as ex-
planatory of the celestial phenomena which are figured upon the walls, or as
suggesting the principle which should guide the operations of the school.
The clock is placed within the recess, upon the wall of which the course of
studies prescribed for the school, and arranged into two divisions, is con-
spicuously inscribed.
Many of the charity schools of Holland contain paintings of no incon-
siderable excellence and value. In Germany, where every thing, (excepting
war and military affairs,) is conducted on an inexpensive scale, the walls of
the school-rooms were often adorned with cheap engravings and lithographs.,
of distinguished men, of birds, beasts, and fishes ; and, in many of them, a
cabinet of natural history had been commenced. And throughout all Prus-
sia and Saxony, a most delightful impression was left upon my mind by the
character of the persons whose portraits were thus displayed. Almost with-
out exception, they were likenesses of good men rather than of great ones,
frequently of distinguished 'educationists and benefactors of the young,
whose countenances were radiant with the light of benevolence, and the
very sight of which was a moral lesson to the susceptible hearts of children.
In the new building for the " poor school" at Leipsic, there is a large hall
in which the children all assemble in the morning for devotional purposes.
Over the teacher's desk, or pulpit, is a painting of Christ in the act of blessing
little children. The design is appropriate and beautiful. Several most for-
lorn-looking, half-naked children stand before him. He stretches out his
arms over them, and blesses them. The mother stands by with an expres-
sion of rejoicing, such as only a mother can feel. The little children look
lovingly up into the face of the Saviour. Others stand around, awaiting his
benediction. In the back-ground are aged men, who gaze upon the spectacle
with mingled love for the children and reverence for their benefactor.
Hovering above is a group of angels, hallowing the scene with their pres-
ence. Mr Mann's Seventh Annual Report.
220 PUBLIC SCHOOL SOCIETY.
PUBLIC SCHOOL SOCIETY OF I$EW YORK.
Prior to 1805. the only schools in the city of New York which partook
at all of the character of public schools, were one established by the
" Female Association for the Relief of the Poor," in 1802, and those sus-
tained by different religious denominations for the gratuitous education ot
the children of their own members. These were few, feebly sustained,
and the course of instruction altogether inadequate.
In April, 1805, on the petition of De Witt Clinton and other individu-
uals, a " free school" was incorporated by the legislature for the education
of children who did not belong to, and were not provided for by any reli-
gious society. This school was organized in May, 1806, and taught on
the plan then recently originated by Joseph Lancaster.
In 1808, the institution was enlarged by the legislature under the name
of the " Free School Society of the City of New- York," and the city
corporation presented a site for a school-house, and entrusted to its keep-
ing the education of the children of the alms-house.
In 1809, the first edifice was completed and dedicated to its future pur-
poses in an address by De Witt Clinton, the president of the society. ,
In 1815, the society received its quota ($3,708) of the first apportion-
ment of the State Fund for the support of Common Schools.
In 1821, a committee of the society were instructed to correspond with
distinguished educators, in Europe and the United States, for information
on the subject of schools, and especially the education of the poor. This
step resulted in some modifications of the plans of the society, and the
methods of instruction in the schools.
In 1828, the first primary school was opened in the Duane street build-
ing, on the plan of the infant schools, which had been introduced into the
large cities of the United States, under voluntary efforts. The result was
favorable. It drew off the younger scholars from the other schools in the
same building, and facilitated the instruction and government in both
classes of schools. This school was for a time under the joint manage-
ment of the society and a committee of ladies from the infant school
society. At this time, Mr. Samuel S. Seton was employed by the society
as an agent to visit the families of the poor, to make known the benefits
of the schools and secure the punctual attendance of delinquent scholars.
This step led to a knowledge of various abuses, and the introduction of
several improvements. Mr. Seton has since acted as the Agent of the
Society, and in this capacity has given unity to all of Ihe operations of
the several committees of the Board.
In 1828-29, the schools of the public school society were placed more
on the basis of " Common Schools" open to all, not as a matter of
charity, but of right, and supported in part like other great public inter-
ests, by a general tax. This tax was one eightieth of one percent., and
was the first tax raised by the city of New York, for the support of Com-
mon Schools; the memorial by which the attention of the Common
Council was called to the subject was signed principally by the wealthiest
citizens.
In the winter of 1832 a large committee on the part of the society, was
appointed to examine into the condition of the schools, and propose such
modification and improvement, as might be considered judicious. To aid
the committee with the experience of other cities, two of their number
were deputed to visit Boston and examine the school system and schools
ot that city. This committee reported certain modifications, which were
concurred in by the board. These modifications were the establishment
of primary schools, under female teachers, for the elementary classes,
with some simple apparatus for visible illustration ; an extension of the
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 221
studies in the upper public schools, So as to embrace astronomy, algebra,
geometry, trigonometry, and book-keeping ; an increase of the salaries 01
teachers, the substitution of assistant teachers for certain class recitations
and reviews, and the opening of recitation rooms for this purpose; the
more extended use of blackboard, maps, globes, and other apparatus ; and
the establishment of evening schools for apprentices, and such as leave
school at an early age.
In 1834, owing to the increase of the primary schools, a school was
opened for the benefit of those who were employed as monitors in that
class of schools. This plan has been extended so as to embrace such
pupils of the older class of the upper schools, as from their peculiar taste,
industry and proficiency, could be recommended. as monitors or teachers.
While in these normal schools, they are denominated " cadets," and such
as are properly qualified are promoted to the station of monitors, under
pay, and so on, to " passed monitors," from which class the assistant
teachers are to be selected. These schools now embrace two hundred
pupils, under the charge of nine teachers, and have already furnished the
schools with a number of teachers.
In 1836, owino- to a want of one or more high schools in the system, a
number of 'scholarships in Columbia College and the University, with
their preparatory schools, were opened by those having the management
of these institutions, for such scholars of the public schools as were ad-
vanced to the limit of the instruction there provided. In 1841-2, simi-
lar privileges were opened in the Rutgers Female Institute, for a certain
number of girls.
In 1842. an act passed the legislature which altered very essentially
the system of public schools in the city of New York, by providing for the
appointment of School Commissioners in the several wards, who together
constitute a Board of Education.
In 1844, Mr. Josiah Holbrook's system of scientific exchanges and
a plan of oral instruction in the natural sciences, were introduced
into the schools of the Society. The teachers were authorized to
allow the pupils to occupy a limited portion of time weekly in pre-
paring specimens of writing, mapping and drawing, wrth a view to
the exchanging of such specimens for those of other schools in this and
other states. These exchanges of the results of mental and artistical
labors on the part of the pupils, have excited a most healthful rivalry,
greatly favorable to the development of their mental faculties, while its
moral influences have been decidedly good. Not the least among ita
benefits has been the cultivating of a taste for the art of drawing, so ne-
cessary and useful a part of common school education, particularly in
those pupils designed for mechanical pursuits. Connected with the oper-
aiions here alluded to, was a plan of instruction by short oral lectures on
the natural sciences, from objects collected and placed in the school cabi-
nets by the pupils themselves, formed into associations or " school lyce-
ums."
In 1347, the Free Academy was established by the Board, after an ex-
pression in its favor by a direct popular vote. Admission into the
Academy is confined to those who have been pupils in the public schools.
The range of instruction is equal, if not superior, to that of the best
academies in the Stale.
In 1848, evening schools were established for such pupils as could
not attend the public or ward schools by day.
In 1853, the schools and property of the Public School Society were
transferred to the Board of Education, and the Society, after years of
faithful, disinterested, and useful service, in building up an improved
system of public instruction, was abolished.
222 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURK.
PLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF Frame SCHOOL, No. 17, NEW YORK.
v*>
The following plans and explanation of a " Public School" and a " Primary
School " are copied from the " Thirty-ninth Annual Report of the Trustees
of the Public School Society of New York." The plans after which the
school-houses of this Society were originally constructed, as well as the
methods of instruction pursued in their schools, were adopted from those
recommended by Joseph Lancaster, and the British and Foreign School
Society. These plans and methods have been from time to time essentially
modified, until they can no longer be characterized as Lancasterian or Moni-
'torial, but the plans and methods of the Public School Society of New
York. There are two grades of schools, the higher called the Public
Schools, and the lower, called the Public Primary Schools. Those schools
of the primary grade, which are in the buildings appropriated to the higher
schools, are designated Primary Departments, to distinguish them from the
'Primaries taught in separate buildings. The system of instruction pursued
in the Primary Departments was originally the Infant School system, and
still retains many of the methods of that system. The school-rooms were,
therefore, constructed and furnished in reference to simultaneous exercises
of the whole school, to oral instruction with visible illustrations, and to
physical movements of various kinds.
Public School, No. 17, is in 13th Street, between the 7th and 8th Avenues,
on the centre of a lot of ground 100 feet front and rear, by 103^ feet deep.
The main building is 42 feet front, and 80 feet deep ; the stair building (in
the rear,) is 21 by 14 feet. The main building is 49 feet high, from the
pavement to the eaves. The first story of the front of the main building
is of brown stone, polished, as is also the bases and caps of the pilasters.
The walls are all of brick (including the front fences) ; the front being of
(what are called) Philadelphia pressed bricks ; the front cornice is of wood,
and painted white.
The windows of the lower story, contain each 30, and the two upper
stories -each 40 panes of glass, 12 by 10 inches: the sashes are all hung
with weights and cords, so that they may be raised or lowered at pleasure.
The rooms are all wainscoted, as high as the window sills : the wain-
scoting, doors, and desks are all grained in imitation of oak : the doors,
window casing?, and sashes are painted white. The rooms are ventilated
by means of six blinds, 2 by 3 feet, being placed in the ceiling between the
timbers, and two or three bricks being left out opposite the blinds, in the out-
side walls.
The first story is 11 feet 6 inches high in the clear, and is occupied as a
Primary Department, for both boys and girls, and contains seats for 150
children in the Front Room, (marked A on Fig. 1,) and 200 on the Gallery,
(marked M on Fig. 1) ; making in all 350 seats in this department.
The second story is occupied as the Girls' department; the room is 15|
feet high in the clear, and contains seats for 252 scholars.
The third story is occupied as the Boys' department; the room is 16?
feet high in the clear, and contains seats for 252 scholars ; mak'ng in all
854^ seats in the building, exclusive of the seats in the recitation rooms.
The steps in the stair building, by which the scholars enter and retire
from school, are of blue stone, 3 inches thick by 12 inches wide, and are
expected to last as long as any part of the building. This method was
adopted to avoid the necessity of putting in new steps every few years,
(which has heretofore been necessary where wooden steps have been used,)
and also to lessen the noise consequent on a great number of children going
either up or down wooden steps, at the same time ; thus far the experiment
has succeeded admirably, and is now adopted for both Public and Priman
bchools.
NEW YORK PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSE.
Fig 1. Ground plan of Primary Department, yards, &c.
223
A Primary School room 39 by 38 feet.
B Infant do do 39 by 30 feet.
Room for brooms, pails, &c.
J Boys' ward-robe, 16 \ by 8 feet.
K Girls' do 12^ by 8 feet.
M Gallery, 32 by 1 1 feet Seats for
200 children.
N, N Desks, each 16^ feet long.
() Teachers' table.
L Main entrance.
R R Entrance to the yard.
TJ, U do to Primary department.
V Stairs to Girls' and Boys' do.
S Scholars' entrance Boys' do.
T do do Girls' do.
Q Sliding doors 28 by 9i feet.
P, P Stoves.
Z, Z Flues for stove pipes.
I, I Play ground, 102 by 26 feet;
paved .vith brick. F, F Privies,
12 by 8 feet. G, G Boxes for
sand 3 by 2^ feet.
D ? D Wood-houses 83 by 2| feet, and
6^ feet high ; the front of which is made
of hemlock strips, 4 by 2 inches, set
perpendicularly 2 inches apart, to al
low a free circulation of air.
E, E Roof of wood-houses project-
ing 3| feet beyond the front of the
houses; forming a shelter for the
scholars in stormy weather.
H, H Gutters of blue stone to con-
duct the waste water from the wood
houses and yards to the street.
X Court Yard 8 wide ; blue stone
flagging. Y, Y Stone foundation
blocks, to which the iron railing in
front is secured.
224
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
z>
B
O .Q
o o
o o
e
o
9
O
09
O
on
1
1
!>
_nOO
00
o o
o
9
9
9
9 9
99
Q
oTll
1
1
DO
_n
oo
o
9
9
9
9 9
9
9
Hi
1
1
f>
nnr fiLA
O
00
9 O
9
flo
Ul
_n e
00
O
o
L
,-o
9
99
9 9
9
ofll
1
|
n>
_n
00
00
9
9
9
9
9 O
9 9
n
1
|
lO
_n
O
00
o
9
9
9
9
9 9
9 *
O
on
1
|
!l 1
_n op
O
oo
o
9
9
9
9
9 9
o o
e
ojlr
1
|
if>
O 9
o o
o
o
oHl
1
1
Q>
nnr"-
9 9
99
9
9
*nr*--
9
op
o
1
9,
1
. O
9
9
o o
9 9
9
?
olr
1
|
i IB
_n,o
99
O
o
o
9,
9
9 9
9 9
9
s
1
|
l_)o
00
o
*-,
9 9
9
Tf-1,
O
O
o
o
9
9
9
9 9
O O
O
ll I**
ofir
1
1
QOJ
a
.1
li
a
I
T3
<a
M
o
g'bccS
o "-S
o
^3
<2S
M
J2-XS""
C
^ C QO
"
*
o i> o>
i g*s
C3 *
'o
^
1*2
^
J3 -*-_,
O ~- -G
X <D O
fcs
5_S rt
-r.-
-3
S
*o -c r~2
X
C "-* _S ^ 03
o
**- **^j -d c
-o
^"* ^ w -2
s
T3 u_rr*i '^
rt
?||-8"tJ
o
T3
o gO 53 "
'5
_B 3 -a
, *4 ^^ "^ ni
ra
rt cu J^
"S 2 c 'o
s !j5 s
si*!- 8 .
S 2
NEW YORK PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSE.
225
PLAN &c., OP PRIMARY SCHOOL, NEW YORK.
The main building is 25 feet front, by 62|- feet deep : the stair building ia
27 feet by 1 1 feet 8 inches. The main building is placed 6 or 8 feet from
the line of the street, according to the depth of the lot. The walls above
the ground are built entirely of brick. The roof is of tin ; and the gutters
of copper. The lower doors and windows have iron bars inserted, for
safety, and to admit a free circulation of air in the summer, but are closed
with sashes in the winter.
Fig. 1. Ground plan of first story, or play-ground.
This story is 1\ feet in the clear, with a partition wall through the middle
to give separate play-grounds for the boys' and girls' schools. This wall is 8
inches thick ; and about 2j- feet of the upper part is open work for ventilation.
C, C Stairways. L, F Places for pine (kindling) wood under
stairs. E. Sand box for both departments, h, h Piles of wood about
4| feet high. I, I Lines on which the scholars are marshaled, previous
to entering school. 1, 1, 1 Doors.
Fig. 2 and 3. Ground plan of boys' and girls' department, each 60 by 32.
D Teachers' platform and table, (movable rollers.) d, d Desks for
scholars the black dots are iron chairs, a Cast iron lesson stands on
which two lesson boards are hung, to accommodate classes standing on the
line b, b. H Class Room, g, g, g Flues, or chimnies, for stove pipes,
f, f, f, &c. Air flues, or recesses for ventilation, extending from the 2d story
to the garret. C Stove the pipes extend from the stove to the front into
the flue, and also to the rear.
iii
226 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
*
PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF WARD SCHOOL-HOUSE No. 30, IN THE
CITY OF NEW YORK.
Fig. 1. FRONT ELEVATION.
Ward School, No. 30, is located in the Sixteenth Ward of the City of New
York, on the north side of Twenty-fourth Street, between the Seventh and Eighth
Avenues. The school-house, represented in Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and completed
in 1852, has a front of 54 feet on the street, and is 95 feet deep, with side
wings, each 18 by 25 feet. It was built after plans and specifications drawn by
T. B. Jackson, Architect.
The basement of the main building in front is built of Connecticut brown stone,
as are also the windows and door trimmings, finely cut and polished. The
front and side of the main building, as well as the front of the wings, are built
with smooth brick, painted and sanded brown-stone color. - +
The basement story is 8 feet high in the clear, and except such portions as are
used for class-rooms, stairs, water-closets, &c., is flagged so as to afford a shelter
for the pupils in inclement weather, and is divided by a wall to separate the
sexes.
The building is thoroughly warmed by six of Culver's patent furnaces, and
ventilated with flues in the walls, with openings at the floor and ceiling in each
room.
The second and third stories are occupied respectively by the female and 'male
departments of the upper school. The large rooms are used to assemble the
whote school at the opening in the morning, and are so arranged that, by closing
the sliding doors they can be used as separate rooms, which, together with the
other class-rooms, afford ample accommodations for the several classes pursuing
their different studies.
The croton water is brought into the basement and each story of the main
building, and every convenience is provided for comfort and cleanliness.
The stair-cases afford ample egress, and are so constructed as to provide against
all accidents, and the doors are hung so as to swing outwards.
The windows have inside folding blinds.
WARD SCHOOL-HOUSE, No. 30, N. V.
Fig. 2. PLAN OF BASEMENT.
227
A 1 Entrance for teachers and vis-
itors.
A 2 Entrance for girls.
A 3 Entrance for boys.
A 4 Entrance to rooms C.
B Principal stair-case, constructed
with one wide center flight, and two
side flights leading to the top story.
C Rooms which were intended as
vestibules, but have been made into
class-rooms, and fitted up with seats.
D Boys' stairs.
E Girls' stairs.
F Culver's furnaces for heating tho
building.
G Stairs to primary department for
children in the gallery.
II Children's water-closets.
I Teacher's water-closets.
K Boys' play-ground.
L Girls' play-ground.
228
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The first floor, divided by folding doors into two large rooms and four class-
roomSj are occupied by the primary department.
Fig. 3. PLAN or FIRST STORY.
po o o
CD en
OO OO OO
oo uo
oo oo
ED a
O O OO O O OO
i ii i r~i n
o o
r~i
so
A Principal's desk.
B Class-rooms, fitted up with a
platform 2 feet 6 inches wide, running
round three sides of the room, and two
rows of benches.
C Galleries for small children.
D Desks in principal school-room.
E Teacher's tables in class-rooms.
F Furnace registers for warm air.
No. 5. Ross' PRIMARY DOUBLE DESK AND CHAIRS.
WARD SCHOOL-HOUSE, No. 30, N. T.
Fig. 4. PLAN or SECOND AND THIRD STORY.
229
A Principal's desk. B Class-rooms, fitted up in the same manner as de-
Bcribed in the primary department. C Stairs to yards. D Desks in principal
school-rooms. E Teacher's tables in class-rooms. F Furnace registers, where
the warm air is admitted in the rooms.
No. 6. Ross' PIUMARY DOUBLE DESK AND CHAIR.
230
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
NEW YORK WARD SCHOOL, No. 29.
231
PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF WARD SCHOOL, No. 29, IN THE CITY OP
NEW YORK.
Ward School, No. 29, is situated on the southeast corner of North Moore and
Varick Streets, in the Fifth Ward of the City of New York. The school-house,
represented in Figures 1, 2, 3, was erected in 1852, after designs and specifica-
tions by T. B. Jackson, Esq., Architect, New York, to accommodate a primary
department of 500 pupils, between the ages of four and eight years ; and two
departments, one for 500 girls, between the ages of eight and fourteen, and one
for the same number of boys, of the same age. The girls enter on North Moore
Street, and the boys on Varick Street.
The new building has a front on North Moore Street of 75 feet, and on Varick
Street of 87 feet. The basement, ante-bases, and window trimmings are of Con-
necticut free-stone, cut in the finest manner ; and the brickwork is painted and
sanded brown-stone color.
The basement, the floor of which is one foot above the level of the side walk, is
ten feet high in the clear, and, except such portions as are used for furnaces, com-
mittee room, library, &c., is appropriated to a play-ground, for the pupils, and is
divided by a wall to separate the sexes, affording a shelter in unclouded weather.
The first floor is 14 feet high in the clear, and is fitted up into a large school-
room, 70 feet by 76, with infant class-rooms, for the primary department, and
will accommodate over 500 pupils.
The second and third stories, each 14 feet high, are divided in a similar man-
ner, the former to accommodate 300 girls, and the latter 300 boys. One of the
class-rooins on each floor is fitted up with seats and desks, to accommodate an
advanced class of pupils.
The building is warmed by three of Culver's Furnaces, placed in the basement ;
and each school-room and class-room is ventilated by one or more flues, carried
up in the walls, with openings at the floor and ceilings, controlled by registers,
into which the vitiated air escapes. These flues discharge into two larger flues
in the attic, which are carried above the roof, and are surmounted by Emerson's
Ejectors.
The furniture throughout all the rooms, was manufactured by Joseph L. Ross,
of Boston. The desks and seats in the primary department are of four different
sizes, and are made after the pattern represented in Figs. 6 and 7, on page 267.
The desks and chairs in the two upper rooms, (the wood-work of cherry, and the
standards of cast-iron,) are of six different sizes, and are similar to those represented
in Fig. 6, on page 237.
Each desk has a cast-iron box, with a lid to receive a glass ink-well.
The Croton water is brought into each story ; and in the basement every con-
venience for cleanly habits are provided, such as scrapers, mats, washbasins, towels,
brooms, &c.
There are three stair-cases, and each is so constructed as to afford ample egress,
and to provide against all accidents ; and the doors are hung so as to swing
outwards.
The windows are furnished with inside blinds, having revolving slats, so that
the amount of light can be easily regulated.
232
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 2. BASEMENT.
A, 1 Teachers and visitors' en-
trance.
A, 2 Girls' entrance.
A, 3 Boys' entrance.
B Committee room.
C Library.
D Furnace rooms.
E Girls' vestibule and play-ground.
F Culver's furnaces.
G Boys' play-ground.
H, 1 Teachers' and visitors' stair-
H, 2 Girls' stair-case.
H, 3 Boys' stair-case.
a, a, a Book-cases.
b, b- Water-closets.
C, C Teachers' closets.
d, d Croton water, with conven-
iences for drinking, and cleanliness.
The three stories of the building
above the basement are each divided
into one large school-room, and five re-
citation rooms.
WARD SCHOOL-HOUSE, NO. 28, N. Y.
233
Fig. 3. PEIMART DEPARTMENT.
cm cm
o o o
cm cm
o o o o o
cm cm cm
o o oo o o
cm cm cm
O O O O O i O
cm cm cm cm
O O 00 00,0
o o o
cm cm
o o o
i ' cm cm
o o o o o
cm cm cm cm
o o o o o o o
i i i i
o p o o o o
A Large school-room, with Ross'
desks.
B Recitation or class-rooms, fitted
up with platforms, and two rows of
benches running round three sides of
each room.
a Principal's desk in the alcove, the
floor of which is raised 16 inches above
the floor of the school-room.
The Female and Male Departments,
exception of the N. W. class-rooms,
advanced class.
b, b Teachers' tables in class-rooms.
c, c Book-cases.
n, n Niches for globes, busts, or
statues.
f, f Registers, supplying warm air
from furnaces.
v, v Ventilation flues.
fitted up in the same manner, with the
which have desks to accommodate an
234 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The Free Academy of the city of New York was established by
the Board of Education, in 1847, in pursuance of authority granted
by the Legislature on the memorial of the Board, and on condition
that the question of its establishment should be submitted to the
people of the city, and a majority of the votes given should be in
r avor of the proposition. The question was so submitted on the first
Monday of June, 1847, and 19,904 votes were given in favor of the
same to 3,409 against. The act of the Legislature authorized the
Board' to erect a building at an expense of $50,000, and to raise by
tax annually for its support, the sum of $20,000, exclusive of a pro-
portion of the State Literature Fund, and any other means from other
sources than those of taxation. Admission into the Academy is con-
fined to those who have been pupils in the public schools of the city.
The character and design of this institution may be gathered from
the following extracts from the Memorial of the Board :
" It cannot be denied that the unavoidable expense of a regular course of ed-
ucation at this time, is greater than can be borne by the heads of families in
this city pursuing the various trades and occupations, whose business occupies
the great mass of the people.
" If the number of highly educated men can, with a trivial addition to tiie
public expense, be greatly multiplied ; if these benefits can be rendered acces-
sible to the great mass of young men who cannot now indulge the hope of en-
joying them at all, if pecuniary inability to defray the present expenses of a
collegiate education can cease to be a barrier to the acquisition 01 it, it is but
reasonable to expect that in a brief period the number liberally educated in this
city will be increased at least four-fold.
"One of the important objects designed to be secured by establishing a Free
Academy, is to bring the advantages of the best education that any school in
our country can give, within the reach of all the children of the city whose ge-
nius, capacity, and desire of attainment are such as to render it reasonably cer-
tain that they may be made, and by such means would become, eminently use-
ful to society.
" The permanency of our free institutions, the future state of society, the ex-
tent to which the laws of the country will be regarded, and social quiet and or-
der preserved, depend essentially upon the virtue and intelligence of the people.
" It is believed that a liberal education of the largest practicable number of
the young men who may propose to seek the means of subsistence in agricul-
ture, mechanical, or other productive occupations, would exercise a genial in-
fluence upon all the varied relations of social and political life : and that such
an education would not tend to dissatisfy them with such pursuits.
" One object of the proposed Free Institution is, to create an additional inter-
est in, and more completely popularize the Common Schools. It is believed
that they will be regarded with additional favor, and attended with increased
satisfaction, when the pupils and their parents feel that the children who have
received their primary education in these schools, can be admitted to all the
benefits and advantages furnished by the best endowed college in the state,
without any expense whatever. It is believed that such an institution as the
proposed Free Academy is designed to be, in addition to the great benefits it
will confer by annually graduating a large number of highly educated young
men, destined to pursue some of all the various pursuits of life, would stimu-
late tens of thousands, who might never enter this academy, to additional indus-
try and greater advances while in the common schools. The certainty to a
young man of good abilities, and desirous of making large acquisitions in
knowledge, of having the opportunity ^of gaining as extensive an education as
can be acquired in any institution in the State, ifhis parents can only furnish
him the means to subsist at home, is in the highest degree cheering, while the
certainty that the limited earnings of his parents will preclude him, in the ex-
isting state of things, from having anv such advantages, tends to repress all
such generous' aspirations, paralyze effort, and prevent the full development of
his ability to become extensively useful to the class in which his lot may be
cast, or to society at large."
FREE ACADEMY, NEW YORK. 235
PLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF THE FREE ACADEMY IN THE CITY OF
NEW YORK.
The Free Academy is situated on the S. E. corner of Twenty-third street and
Lexington avenue, in the upper part of the city, being convenient of access
from all the great thoroughfares. The style of architecture, in which the build-
ing is erected, is the same as that of the town halls and colleges of the 14th cen-
tury, in Europe. This style attained its greatest perfection in the Low Coun-
tries, and especially in Belgium, which at that period was the great seat of
learning, science and the arts, as well as the great centre of the commercial
enterprise of Europe. It was the opinion of the architect, therefore, arart from
the economy in construction, of the Gothic style, when properly managed, that
this style would be peculiarly appropriate for the High School of the city of
New York, and was also well adapted to the materials of which it was pro-
posed to construct the building, many of the old halls and colleges being built
of brick. The architect, Mr. Renwick, of New York, in a letter to the Presi-
dent of the Board of Education, remarks,
" I am confident that the style I have adopted is, at the same time the strong-
est, the cheapest, and the one best adapted to the purposes of heat and ven-
tilation, being the only one, except the Norman, in which chimneys and flues
become ornamental, and a roof of high pitch, necessary for external beauty,
and capable of being intersected by dormer windows, which latter will add to
the beauty of the building and to the convenience of lighting and ventilating
the great hall, in the roof.
"As you (the Board) have proposed, with perfect correctness, to make the
great hall in the Gothic style, for it can be in no other order, placed in such a
position immediately beneath the roof, and is capable of being made highly or-
namental in such a place, I was of opinion that the exterior of the whole build-
ing should accord with it, as, if it were planned in any other style, it would ap-
pear inharmonious, and therefore produce an unpleasant effect on the mind by
its incongruity. The height of the building, too, the great pitch of thereof, and
the numerous chimneys and ventilating flues necessary to render the arrange-
ment perfect, would entirely preclude the adoption of the Grecian, Roman, or
modern Italian styles, with any good effect, apart from their being much more
expensive, and less beautiful.
" 1 have entered at length into the reasons which guided me in the adoption
of a style for the building, because it might at first sight appear expensive, and
therefore improper for such an institution. You will at once perceive the great
strength which the buttresses impart to the building, and the consequent reduc-
tion in the thickness of the walls. These buttresses will also serve for ventila-
ting flues, which in such a building should be of large size, in order to prevent,
as far as possible, any friction from interfering with the passage of the currents
of air, an end which can only be attained by large and smooth flues."
The dimensions of the building are as follows : The length of the building,
exclusive of all projections, is 125 feet, and the breadth 80 feet. The height, to
the eaves, Go feet, and to the top of the gable, 100 feet. The height of the tow-
ers, 110 feet
The building is divided into a basement, three stories, and a great hall under
the roof. The basement is nine feet in height, and is arched to afford ground
for exercise in bad weather. In it, also, are the janitors' lodgings, the chemical
laboratory, and the closets for the hats and clothes of the students. The first,
second and third stories are divided into four great rooms by two wide, spacious
halls, which are carried through the centre of the building longitudinally and
transversely. Two of these rooms, on each floor, are again divided, affording
smaller rooms for recitation, &c. Above these stories is the great hall, 125
feet long by CO.feet in breadth, divided by the king and queen posts of the roof,
which aremade ornamental, into three aisles, the centre-one of which is 40 feet
in height, and the two side aisles each 20 feet in height. The ceiling of this
room is of wood immediately under the roof, of which it forms part, and it is
ornamented with carved ribs of wood, in the manner of the old college halls at
Oxford and Cambridge. It is lighted by windows at the ends and by dormers
in the roof, and when finished, will probably be the largest and finest collegiate
hal. in this country.
236
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE
A. Iron or brick ash-pit.
B. Ash-pit door.
C. Pot, or coal Burner,
with or without soap-
stone lining:.
D. Fire chamber.
E. Lower half of tubular
drum.
F. Elliptical tubes.
G. Upper half of tubular
drum.
H. Top of tubular drum.
I. Cap and smoke-pipe.
K. Flat radiator. .
L. Water basin or evapo-
rator.
M. Smoke pipe to chimney.
N. Conductors of hot air.
N. Cold air conductor and
chamber.
P. Feed door.
d. Hot air chamber.
R. Damper In globe with
rod attached.
S. Pendulum 'valve for
cleaning.
-1 Shows the direc-
tion of the currents of
hot or cold air.
Fig. 3. CULVER'S FURNACE.
FREE ACADEMY, NEW YORK.
237
The mode of warming and ventilating the several apartments of the Free
Academy can be easily understood by consulting Figures 2, 3 and 4. Four of
Culver's furnaces are set in the basement, as shown in Fig. 3. A large quantity
of fresh air from out of doors, after being warmed by these furnaces, is carried
up to the several stories by pipes in the division walls, (Fig. 2.) and is admitted
into the rooms at a convenient point, as indicated in Figures 5 and 6. The air
of each room, as it becomes vitiated by respiration, is discharged. by openings
near the ceiling into the buttresses, which are constructed hollow and finished
smooth, so as to constitute large ventilating flues. Each opening is fitted with
one of Culver's Ventilators or Registers, with cords attached, by which the ca-
pacity of the opening for the discharge of vitiated air can be enlarged and di-
minished at the pleasure of the teacher. The practical working of the t^naces
and flues for ventilation, secures the object aimed at a genial and pure atmos-
phere at all times.
Fig. 3. BASEMENT FLOOR.
The above cut gives an incorrect view of the exterior of the building, but a
good idea of the internal arrangement of the basement story.
238
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 5. PLAN OF FIRST STORY.
Nos. 1. Office of Principal..
2. Library.
3. Depository of Text-Books.
4. Class Room in Mathematics.
6. Professor in French.
7 and 9. Lecture Room.
8. Class Room in Mathematics.
10. Professor of History and Belles Letters.
FREE ACADEMY.
230
Fig. 6. PLAN or SECOND STORY.
Nos. 13 and 15. Professor of Civil Engineering.
12 and 14. Study Hall.
1 6. Class Room for Tutor in Mathematics.
17. Study Hall.
18. Class Room for Tutor in Moral Philosophy.
19 and 21. Drawing Hall.
20. Professor of Ancient Languages.
240
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 7. PLAN OF THIRD STORY.
Nos. 24. Study Hall.
25. Professor of Mathematics.
26. Class Room for Tutor of Moral Philosophy.
27. Study Hall.
28. Class Room for Tutor of Rhetoric.
29 and 31. Study Hall. .
30. Class Room for ^tor of Rhetoric.
32. Professor of English Literature.
PLAN No. 12. FRONT ELEVATION,
PLAN No. 13. FKONT ELEVATION.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
243
PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE ACADEMY BUILDING, ROME. N. Y.
We are indebted to Edward Huntington, Esq.. for the following plans
and description of the new Academy building recently erected in Rome,
N. Y., under his supervision. The building is 70 feet by 44 feet on the
ground,
FIG. 2. BASEMENT.
A Lecture-room and Chapel. B Laboratory. C,C Furnaces
D, D, D Janitor's rooms. E Entry. F Hall.
244
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The building was erected in 1848, on a lot 198 by 170 feet, on the corner of
Court and James streets, fronting the public square, and is of brick, 70 by 44
feet on the ground. The basement wall, up to the water table, is of stone, laid
in hydraulic cement. The roof is covered with tin, laid in white lead.
The basement, 10 feet high in the clear, contains a lecture-room (which
serves also as a chapel,) 26^ by 40 feet, with comfortable seats to accommodate
conveniently 200 pupils. The floor descends 2 feet from the rear of the room
to the platform, giving 12 feel height immediately in front of it. A laboratory,
12 by I5i feet, adjoins the lecture-room, with which it communicates by a door
at the end of a platform. The remainder of the basement floor is occupied by
the furnaces for warming the building, and by the rooms of the Janitor.
The FIRST FLOOR is occupied by the male department, and consists of a
school-room about 30 by 54 fset, and nearly 15 feet in clear height, with two
recitation-rooms, entries, &c. There are 62 desks, each four feet long and ac-
commodating two pupils.
On the SECOND FLOOR are the girls' school-room, about 28 by 40 feet, with
seats for 76 pupils, 2 recitation-rooms, library, hall, and room occupied by
Primary department. There is a large skylight in the centre of the girls'
school-room, and another in the library. The rooms are 15 feet in height.
The building is thoroughly and uniformly warmed by two furnaces in the
basement, and a change of air is secured by ventilators at the top of the rooms,
and also near the floor, opening into flues which are carried up in the chim-
neys. The warmth imparted by the smoke which passes up in the adjoining
flues secures a good draft. In the upper story additional means of ventilation
are furnished by the skylights, which can be partially opened.
The desks are of varnished cherry, similar in form to Ross's school desk.
Fio. 5.
The supports are of wood, however, instead of cast-iron, and the seats are
easy Windsor chairs. Both seats and desks are firmly secured to the floor by
small iron knees and screws.
The school and recitation rooms are all furnished with large slates set in
the wall, in the room of blackboards.
The teachers' desks in the school-rooms are similar to Fig. 6.
Fio. 6.
The whole cost of the building, including furnaces, scholars' desks and
chairs, slates and inkstands, was about 6,000 dollars.
ACADEMY AT ROME, N. Y.
245
Fio. 3. PLAN OP FIRST FLOOR.
O O O O O Q O O O O O O O O
i i i i i i rn i 1 1 i i i
O Q O Q Q O Q Q O Q Q Q Q Q
i i r~j r~j i i r~~i i n r~~i
O O O O O O O O O O O O O
_g o o o o o o o o o o o o o
I II II I f~1 1 II II I
GO OO OO O O OO OO OO
A Boys' School-room, with 124 seats.
Bf B Recitation-rooms.
C Dressing-room.
D Closet for Apparatus.
E Entrance for Boys.
F Entrance for Girls.
Fio. 4. PLAN OP SECOND FLOOR.
A Girls' School-room, with 76 seats.
B, B Recitation-rooms.
C Dressing-room.
D Primary Department.
E Library, lighted by skylight.
F Skylight in ceiling.
246
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
SYSTEM OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN PHILADELPHIA.
The system of public schools in Philadelphia has grown up, from very
small beginnings, into its present gigantic yet harmonious proportions, in
a comparatively brief period of time, and is a monument of the disinter-
ested zeal, intelligence, and fidelity of the men who have been intrusted
with its administration, and of the liberality of the citizens generally, in
providing the means for its support and expansion.
Prior to 1818, a system of charity schools was maintained by a society
of benevolent individuals, which had been aided by a small appropria-
tion from the city, from 1808. In these schools 2.600 poor children were
educated in 1817. at the cost of $11 per scholar.
In 1818, against violent and interested opposition from various quar-
ters, the present system was commenced, and the first school opened in
a hired room under the Lancastarian method of instruction.
In 1819, there were six schools established, one school-house built, ten
teachers employed, and 2,845 children instructed in reading, writing,
and arithmetic, at an aggregate expense of $23,049 45, of which near
$19,000 was invested in land, and building, and furniture.
In 1823, the first school for colored children was established.
In 1826, there were 4,144 children 'in nine schools, at an aggregate
expense of $22,444.
In 1833, an infant model school was organized. There were at this
date 5,768 children in thirteen schools, under twenty-three teachars, in-
structed at an aggregate expense of $53.042, of which $23,000 was for
school buildings and fixtures.
In 1836, twenty-six primary schools were established. A committee
of the board of Controllers, visited the public schools of Boston and New
York, and at their suggestion the system of instruction Avas modified,
and additional teachers, at a higher compensation, were employed, and
the services of juvenile monitors dispensed with. At this date, 11.127
children were instructed, in forty-eight schools of different grades, at the
aggregate expense of $75,017, of which $23,000 was for land and build-
ings. Thirteen school-houses had been erected up to this date.
In 1837. sixty primary schools were in operation, with nearly six thou-
sand scholars. These schools were eminently successful in gathering
up the young children who would otherwise not be at school, and in re-
lieving the higher schools of a class of pupils, who only embarrassed the
teachers and retarded the more advanced learners. During this year, the
corner stone of the Central High School building was laid, with an as-
tronomical observatory attached. The monitorial system was still fur-
ther dispensed with or modified. At this date, 17,000 children were in
all the schools, and the expenditure amounted to $191.830, of which
$112,000 was for land, buildings, and furniture. Of this last amount,
$89,000 was received from an appropriation by the State of $500,000
for school-houses.
In 1830, the Central High School was opened, with professors in vari-
ous branches of Classical, English, Belles Letters, Mathematical, As-
tronomical, and Physical sciences, and before the close of the year, re-
organized on a plan submitted by President Bache, of the Girard College
of orphans. More than 18.000 children were in regular attendance at
school, and the expenditure'for the year amounted to $188,741, of which
$82.000 was for land, buidings, and furniture. The ordinary expense
of the system was about $6 for each pupil.
In 1848, a Normal School was opened under the charge of A. T. W.
Wright, "for the thorough training of female teachers in such practical
exercises as will discipline and develope the mind, adorn and elevate the
character, insure the best modes of imparting knowledge, and prevent
fruitless experiments, manifold mistakes, and inseparable loss of time."
PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN PHILADELPHIA. 247
In 1850, evening or night schools were opened by the Controllers in
different parts of the city, to accomodate those to whom circumstances
may have denied the advantages of education in early life, as well as
to enable thqe whose necessities will not permit to attend the day
school, to share the benefits of that mental training so necessary to fit
them to become useful citizens. The attendance in these schools, dur-
ing the winter of 1852-53, was 7,772 ; of which number, 5,776 were
males, and 1.995 females. The average age of the males was 17 years
4 months, and of the females 16 years 9 months. Of the whole number.
3.235 were born in Philadelphia; 1,452 in other parts of the United
States; and 3.085 were of foreign birth. Of the 7,772. when admitted.
943 could not read, 1.581 could not write, and 1,943 were entirely igno-
rant of the use of figures. The cost of supporting the night schools, in
the winter of 1852-53, was $16.907 or S2.17.J- for each pupil.
The system of public instruction embraced, in 1853 :
I. Classified schools, viz. : 152 primary schools ; 35 secondary schools ;
55 grammar schools; and 1 high school for boys each grade having
its appointed course of study and requisites of admission.
II. Unclassified schools, viz. : 42 day schools and 30 night schools,
scattered through the less populous portions of the district, or where the
habits or circumstances of the population are not favorable to regularity
of attendance. The pupils of these schools are classified, but not accord-
ing to the rules applicable to the schools in the first division.
III. Normal school, for training female teachers for the different grades
of schools.
The attendance in all the schools was as follows : in the 286 day
schools. 50.085, of which number 25.836 were males, and 24.249 females ;
in the 20 night schools 7,772. of which number 5,776 were males, and
1.990 females making an aggregate attendance of 57.857 seholars.
The entire expense of supporting the system, for the year ending June
30, 1853, including text-books and stationary, was $386.122.32, exclusive
of the sum of $25,181, paid for rent of ground and houses, and of the
estimated interest on $932,290.02. the cost of grounds and buildings now
belonging to the Controllers. Of the entire expense, the sum of $31,307
was derived from the State appropriation, and the balance from a tax
on the property of the city.
Exclusive of rent and interest on cost of school-houses, the cost of
educating 57.857 pupils, in the day and night schools, was $6.67 for each
pupil ; arid including rent and interest. $7.06.
The cost of supporting the unclassified, primary, secondary, Grammar.
High, and Normal Schools, with an attendance of 50,085 pupils, was
8358.714.70, including the cost of books and stationary furnished by the
Controllers, and exclusive of the rent of school-room and the interest
on the cost of grounds and buildings or $7.16 to each pupil.
The cost of the night schools, with an attendance of 7,772 pupils, was
$16.907.02, or $2.171 to each pupil.
The cost of the High School with an attendance of 519 pupils, was
$17,449.53. or $32.97 for each pupil.
The cost of Normal School, and School of Practice, with 519 pupils,
(including pupil-teachers and children,) was $6,796.72, or $10.98 to each
pupil.
The cost of the grammar, secondary, primary, and unclassified schools,
with an attendance of 49,052 pupils, was $335,468.45, or $6.84 to each
pupil.
The cost of furnishing books and stationary, included in the foregoing
calculations, was 75| cents for each pupil for the year.
The progress and influence of the Central High School, is thus set
forth by Dr. Hart, its present accomplished principal. [<See page 258.]
24
SCHOOL-HOUSES IN PHILADELPHIA. 249
FLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF JEFFERSON GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE IN
PHILADELPHIA.
Jefferson Grammar School is located in Fifth-street above Poplar, and was
erected in 1836. The lot is 100 feet on the street, and 120 feet deep, and the
space not occupied by the building and the walks, is planted with the choicest
shrubs and flowers, which are kept in beautiful condition by the teacher and
pupil. For these, the fountain, and other embellishments, the children and the
public owe a large debt of gratitude to Daniel S. Beideman Esq., who has thus
introduced a new element of physical, moral, esthetical education into the public
schools of this section of the city.
The children of the school exhibit a commendable pride in taking care of the
grounds, and in protecting the shrubbery, flowers, and other embellishments from
the depredations of the " outside barbarians." The influence, direct and indirect,
of these decorations, and of the daily care and interest in their preservation by
the pupils, was soon manifest in their irnproved manners and tastes, and in the
improved habits of the whole neighborhood. And why can not every city school-
house, even when located in the most crowded neighborhood, have its plat of
flowers, and its attractions of verdure and foliage, if it must be on a small scale,
and if no other place can be afforded, on the walls of the inclosures ? Why may
not a vase of flowers always adorn the table of the teacher, and bust of orator, poet,
patriot, and philanthropist, fill, each its appropriate nich around the school-room ?
As has been justly remarked by Mrs. Sigourney, in a valuable " Essay on the
Cultivation of the Beautiful in Common Schools" the expense of such decora-
tions will not be thrown away, the beautiful objects will not be defaced, and the
fair scenery svill not be desecrated. It will be easier to enforce habits of neatness
and order among objects whose taste and value make them worthy of care, than
arnid that parsimony of apparatus and adornment, whose pitiful meanness operates
as a temptation to waste .and destroy.
The building is 100 feet by 50, and three stories high. Each story is divided
into one large school-room, with four class rooms in connection. The first story is
occupied by a Primary School ; the second, by the girls department of the Gram-
mar School, and the third, by the boys' department.
Fig. 2. SECOND FLOOR.
250
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF NORTH-EAST GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE,
PHILADELPHIA.
Fig 1. PERSPECTIVE.
The Grammar School-house on New street, between Second and First-streets,
in Philadelphia, was erected after plans and specifications made by Samuel Sloan,
Architect, in 1852. It is 81 feet 6 inches front, by 65 feet 6 inches deep, and
three stories high, each story being fifteen feet in the clear. The basement, win-
dows, and door trimmings are of the best blue marble, finely cut and polished, and
the walls are of the best pressed brick. All the outside walls are laid with a hol-
low space of four inches the inner and the outside walls being tied together with
alternate bricks in the heading courses.
The building is warmed by three of Chtlson's furnaces, of the largest size, and
ventilated by a shaft, extending from the cellar to the top of the roof, with lateral
flues and openings from each story, with a stove at the base in the cellar, to warm
the shaft, to quicken the discharge of the foul air, both in winter and summer.
The peculiarity of this, and the more recently constructed school-houses in
Philadelphia, is in the plan of the school-rooms. Instead of one large room, with
two or more class rooms in connection on each floor, each story is divided into
four apartments, of suitable size to accommodate the number of pupils assigned to
one teacher, with movable glass partitions. By this arrangement, the Principal
can have a full view of all the pupils and assistants on the same floor, while
each division is protected from annoyance or interruption from the exercises of
the other. By removing the glazed partitions, one half of which is admitted into
the wainscotting below, and the other, into the wainscotting above, and are so
hung as to balance each other, the several apartments are thrown into one, and
the wh6le school is then within the hearing and voice of the principal.
SCHOOL-HOUSES IN PHILADELPHIA.
251
The following cut, Fig. 2, represents the first floor of the North-east Grammar
School, and gives a good idea of the new plan of arranging the school-rooms.
Fig. 2. FIRST FLOOR OK NORTH-EAST GRAMMAR SCHOOL.
a, a, a, a Entrance lobby to the rooms on the ground plafi.
J> Entrance and stairway leading to the second story.
C Entrance and stairway leading to the third story.
D, D, D, D, D Class rooms to accommodate 60 pupils each.
E, E Vestibules, which afford a communication from one room to the other,
having glazed doors on its four sides.
F A shaft, which contains all the hot-air pipes, from which they branch to the
various rooms on each story and dischnrge through register in the floor.
The vestibules E, E, on the second and third stories, are also the entrances to
the class rooms from the outer gallery or landing of the stairs.
II, II, II, II, II, II The ventilating flues, which are placed in the angles of
the rooms opposite to that of the hot-air registers.
I. I, I, I, I The teachers desk, with a small platform 6 feet broad by 8 feet long.
Fig. 2. SECOND FLOOR OF THE WARREN GRAMMAR SCHOOL.
The Warren Grammar School-house is situated on Robertson-street, was built
in 1852, on the same general plan as the North-east Grammar School, the de-
scription of which is applicable to this.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLAN OF WARREN GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE.
Fig. 1. PERSPECTIVE OF WARREN GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE.
The Warren Grammar School-house is situated on Robertson-street, was built
in 1852, on the same general plan as the North-east Grammar School, the de-
scription of which is applicable to this.
Fig. 2. PLAN OF THE INTERIOR.
SCHOOL-HOUSES IN PHILADELPHIA. 253
PLAN OF GI.ENWOOD SCHOOL-HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA.
Fig. 1. PERSPECTIVE OF GLENWOOD SCHOOL-HOUSE.
Glenwood School-house is situated on Ridge-road, and is intended for an Un-
classified school. The building is 66 by 46 feet, besides the projection, and is
two stories high. Each story is divided into two apartments, separated by a
glazed partition.
Fig. 2. PLAN or FIRST FLOOR.
254
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL,
PHILADELPHIA.
In 1853, a new building was erected for the accommodation of the Central High
School, in Spring Garden, on the east side of Broad street. The lot is one hun-
dred and fifty feet on Broad street, by ninety-five feet deep, having Green street
for a boundary on the north, and Brandywine street on the south.
The building is constructed throughout in a substantial manner, with good ma-
terials, and with a main reference to utilit)' rather than ornament, although the
latter has not been altogether lost sight of. The walls throughout are built hollow, to
prevent dampness ; the outside walls and those on each side of the transverse hall
have an average thickness of eighteen inches, while those separating the various
class rooms have a thickness of thirteen inches. The exterior is built of the best
quality of pressed brick. The plainness of the extended faade is relieved by
projections and recesses in the line of the outer wall, by a horizontal line of mar-
ble work separating the first story from those above, by a large main entrance in
he middle, by the cornice, and by the dome of the observatory above. Though
simple in design, and constructed in an economical manner, the building presents
externally quite an ornamented appearance.
The observatory is built upon two piers of solid masonry. These piers stand
isolated from all the rest of the structure, being inclosed within the walls on each
side of the front entrance. They are sixteen feet wide by two and a half feet thick,
and extend upwards, without material change, from below the foundation to the
top of the third story. There they are connected by iron girders, and on these
girders the instruments rest. The dome of the observatory rests upon the other
walls of the building, and has no connection with the piers that are used to sup-
port the instruments. The height of the dome above the level of the pavement, is
one hundred and twelve feet.
Throughout the building v careful provision has been made for light. The win-
CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA.
255
dows are all large, and are as closely placed as a due regard to the strength of the
walls would permit. Four out of six of the class rooms on each floor, are cor-
ner rooms, admitting light from two sides. The large lecture room on the first
floor, is lighted on three sides.
There are two main stairways, one at each end of the large hall. That in
front runs in a well, from the first floor to the arch of the observatory. That
in the rear connects only the first and second stories. The building has also
a double flight of stairs in the rear, connecting the main hall with the basement,
a double flight of outside stairs into the basement from each end of the building,
and a small stairway connecting the chemical laboratory with the class room above.
The main stairsvays are all six feet wide, each stair having a rise of seven, and a
tread of twelve inches. The door into the main entrance in front, is a folding^
door, opening outwards, eight feet wide and eighteen feet high. That in the rear
is also folding, opening outwards, eight feet wide and fourteen feet high. The
main entrance into the lecture room is likewise a double door, seven feet wide,
opening freely both ways. The class rooms are all severally connected by doors,
with each other, as well as with the main hall. These doors are all three and a
half feet wide. The building thus has admirable facilities for the movements of
the classes, as well as for being instantly cleared in case of panic.
The general plan of the building is exceeding simple. It is in shape an ob-
long parallelogram, fronting lengthwise on Broad street, being one hundred feet
long by seventy-two deep. There are three stories besides the basement. The
plan in each story is nearly the same. A hall, sixteen feet wide, runs east and
west, dividing the building on each floor into two equal parts ; these parts are
again severally subdivided by walls running north and south, into three rooms,
averaging thirty-eight feet by twenty-two. This gives six rooms on a floor, except
on the first floor, where the whole of the north side is reserved for a lecture-room.
There is also an additional small room in the third story, occupying the space in the
hall over the rear stairway. The lecture room on the first floor is sixty-eight feet
long by thirty-eight feet wide, and twenty feet high, and is capable of seating eight
hundred persons.
The height of the several stories, in the clear both of the floor and the ceiling,
is as follows : the basement story ten feet ; the first story twenty feet three inches ;
the second story sixteen feet six inches ; the third story sixteen feet. The base-
ment in front is five feet three inches above the level of the curbstone ; and, as
the lot descends considerably in the rear, the basement is, on an average, more
than one-half above ground. It is divided into six rooms, with a transverse hall,
on the same plan as the stories above, the rooms being intended for a chemical
laboratory, clothes room, wash room, storage, &c.
Fig. 2. IU: F.MKNT.
256
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
In regard to the important matted of heating and ventilation, two methods en-
gaged the attention of the controllers. The first was, to generate all the heat in
one large chamber in the center, and send it thence, north and south, to the ends
of the building. The objection to this plan was the difficulty of producing, in con-
nection with it, a proper ventilation. To secure good ventilation in an apartment,
it is necessary to establish a current through it. The air must be brought in at
one end and carried out at the other end. The ventiducts for carrying off the air,
after it has been used, must be, as nearly as possible, opposite to the warm flues
by which the pure air is introduced ; consequently, if the ht air chamber were
placed in ths centre of the building, the ventiducts \v<>uiji 'nave to be in the ex-
treme etods. But the end walls, in a building standing apart from others, and en-
Fig. 3. FIRST FLOOR.
Fig. 4. SKCOND AND THIRD FLOOR.
CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA. 257
tirely exposed to the external atmosphere, are naturally colder than those in the
center ; they would consequently chill the ventiducts, and thereby greatly impair
their efficiency in carrying off the foul air.
Besides this, in order that the ventiducts may be perfectly reliable in all
weathers, it is necessary that some artificial means should be used for increasing
the current by rarefying the air within them. This is ordinarily done by introduc-
ing, within the ventiduct, a jet of burning gas, or a small stove. The trouble and
expense of such an apparatus is greatly increased by multiplying the number of
places where it must be applied. It was, therefore, very desirable, that the venti-
ducts should be all brought together into one general tube before going out of the
roof. One good fire maintained within it would then suffice for the whole build-
ing. But this arrangement would be impracticable if the warm-air flues were to
radiate from the center, and the ventiducts be placed at the extremities.
It was, therefore, determined to take the other method, namely, to centralize the
ventilating apparatus, and generate the heat at the extremities. This is done by
four of the largest size furnaces, two being placed at each end of the building, and
the heat sent inwards towards the center. This is indicated by the position of the
hot air flues, which are all placed in the north and south walls of the several apart-
ments. The ventiducts being at the opposite ends of these apartments, all occur
in the walls that line the central hall, and are all brought together into one large
tube or duct in the loft. This tube, which is about seven feet in diameter, is equal
in capacity to that of all the separate ducts combined. It passes out ten feet
beyond the roof, and is surmounted by one of Emerson's ventilating caps, with a
disc of about ten feet diameter. Into this large tube or chamber, just below the
roof, a coal stove is introduced, by which a large amount of hot air may be gener-
ated, and an impetus may be given to the ascending current to any extent that is
desired.
This part of the arrangement is deemed especially important. In clear, cold
weather, when the furnaces are in action, and a current of warm air is constantly
setting into one extremity of an apartment, it is not difficult to establish and main-
tain an ascending exit current from the other end. The air is forced into the
ventiduct by the constant pressure from the other end. Moreover, it enters the
ventiduct already warmer than the external air. The ventiduct itself becomes
warmed; and so the current, once established, perpetuates itself. But when the
furnaces are not in operation, nothing of this sort takes place. And yet, this occurs
precisely in those parts of the year, when ventilation in a school-room is most
needed, viz. : in moderate weather, when it is not warm enough to open the doors
and windows, and yet not cold enough to maintain a fire. At such times, the stove
in the loft, acting directly and powerfully upon the ventiduct, will at all times create
an ascending current, sucking the foul air up, as it were, from the several apart-
ments, and thereby causing fresh air to enter from the other extremities. The
position of the windows, directly opposite the ventiducts, gives a special facility for
this purpose, when the furnaces are not in action. The windows, at such times,
take the place of the warm air flues in supplying a stream of fresh air.
The following additional particulars' may be mentioned in regard to the apparatus
for heating and ventilation. The flues are all made large, both those for the ad-
mission, and those for the exit of the air. The dimensions of the several ducts are
given in the engravings. In the large lecture room, the two warm air flues have
together a capacity of about six square feet ; and the two ventiducts for the same
have, together, a capacity of twelve square feet. In the class-rooms, which are
thirty-eight feet by twenty-two, the warm air flues average one and one-sixth
square feet, and the ventiducts two and one-third square feet. In all the rooms,
the warm air is introduced at the bottom of the apartment, as near as possible to
the level of the floor ; and the ordinary opening for the escape of the foul air is
also on the level with the floor, at the opposite extremity, so as to sweep constantly
the lower stratum of air, in which the pupil is immersed. The ventiducts are also
supplied with openings at the ceiling, to be used, not in ordinary, but whenever
needed, to get rid of excessive heat. In reckoning the advantages of the buiding,
in respect to pure air, especial emphasis should be given to the commendible height
of the ceilings. Each apartment has a large volume of air at its disposal, in pro-
portion to the area of its floor ; and it is obvious, that the air of a room eight or ten
feet high, is much more rapidly vitiated than that of one fifteen or twenty feet high.
17
258
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Commencing from small beginnings, in 1838, with only sixty-three students and
four professors, and with a character not much beyond that now attained by our
best Grammar Schools, the High School has gradually enlarged its corps of pro-
fessors, its number of students, and its course of studies, until it has assumed, in
public estimation, the rank, as from the Legislature of the Commonwealth, it has
received the distinctive attributes of a college. The minimum age for admission
was originally twelve, and few students were then admitted much beyond that age.
The minimum age for admission is now thirteen, while the actual age of those ad-
mitted, averages nearly fifteen. The preparatory studies at the same time have
been nearly doubled, raising thereby, in a corresponding degree, the character and
studies of the Grammar Schools, and of the whole connected series of schools
below them.
The number of students in attendance on the High School, during the last six
years, has been constantly a little over .500, and it is at this time 516. During the
fifteen years that the High School has existed, 2,805 students have been admitted
to its privileges, of whom 2,289 have entered upon the active duties of life, and are
to be found in almost every walk of professional, commercial, and mechanical busi-
ness. These young men, it is true, did not all complete the full course of study.
Some of them were not more than a year, a few not more than six months, in the
school. Yet, of the great majority of them, it is evident that they were long
enough in the institution to have received from it an abiding moral and intellectual
influence. The average time of their continuance in the school, was over two
years, while many of them completed the full course of four years. The institu-
tion, therefore, young as it is, may justly claim to have conducted through a liberal
course of study, more young men, even in this infancy of its career, than some of
our most honored colleges, which have already celebrated their hundredth anni-
versary. The graduates of the High School are admitted, without further prepa-
ration, to the study of law, medicine and divinity. As teachers, they are rapidly
placing themselves in the front ranks of the profession. Our own public schools
have felt the benefit of their influence, and applications are constantly received for
their services, in organizing and conducting important educational establishments
in other states. The alumni of the High School have furnished the most success-
ful reporters for the United States Senate and House of Representatives. Large
numbers of them are engaged in civil engineering, and not a few of them are con-
nected with that important scientific undertaking, the United States Coast Survey.
They are engineers in the Japan Expedition, surgeons in the navy of the United
States, miners and merchants in California, and engaged, it is believed, in some
capacity, in every State in the Union.
All these young men are bound together by a tie of affection for the public
schools, and particularly for the High School, the strength of which is even more
than proportionate to the benefit they have received. I have been often surprised
at the liveliness and fervor of the interest which they have shown towards their
Alma Mater. A large part of them, all who were in the school as long as two
years, are united in a general society, known as the " Alumni Association," num-
bering now 760. Besides this, there are numerous smaller associations, meeting
weekly as literary or debating societies, for the purposes of following up the intel-
lectual culture which they commenced at school. These associations differ from
the ordinary literary societies in colleges, inasmuch as they do not consist of the
undergraduates, but are made up entirely of those who have left school. They
discuss literary and scientific subjects, prepare essays and lectures, appoint commit-
tees to report on questions of science or art, submitted by the members, and re-
ceive communications on these subjects from such of their members as have re-
moved to other parts of the country.
When it is recollected that the vast majority of this number settle in our midst,
that they are to be found in every walk of honorable enterprise, professional, mer-
cantile and mechanical, and that from the character of the education which they
have received, they will naturally acquire positions of greater influence than others
who have had less favorable advantages, it is difficult to overestimate their growing
importance as a body. There are certainly not less than eighteen hundred of these
young men now engaged in active life in the city of Philadelphia, at ages varying
from fifteen to thirty. Such is the character which they have acquired among the
citizens for successful attention to whatever they undertake, that not a week passes
CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA. 259
without applications being received at the school for some of its alumni. Eligible
situations in the very best stores and counting houses in the city are offered to them
without solicitation. They are constantly advertised for, hoc nomine, in the pub-
lic papers. These facts would seem to indicate that the course of instruction and
discipline provided by the controllers has been such as to fit the students of the
High School for the actual wants of life. It is gratifying to observe, also, that the
habits and the moral training, even more than the intellectual instruction, are
constantly mentioned as among the qualities that have brought our alumni into
request.
OCCUPATIONS of the 2,107 pupils who graduated or left during thv eleven years ending
July 22d, 1853. Architects 5, Bakers 5, Blacksmiths 48, Blind Makers 2, Bookbinders
19, Brewer 1, Bricklayers 47, Brickmakers 5, Brushmaker 1. Cabinetmakers 14, Ca-
dets 3, Carpenters 166, Carvers and Gilders 2, Chairmakers 3, Chemists 12, Clergy-
men 9, Clerks 199, Coachmaker 1, Coachtrimmers 2, Conveyancers 76, Coopers 10,
Copper-plate printers 2, Copper-smiths 2, Cordwainers 62, Curriers, 14, Cutlers 2. Den-
tists 10, Druggists 69, Dyers 2. Engineers 51, Engravers 55. Farmers'95. Gas fitters 7,
Gilders 4, Glasscutters3, Goldbeater 1, Grocers 27. Hatters 13. Ironfounders 2, Iron
railing maker 1. Jewellers 21. Lawyers 29, Locksmiths 3. Machinists 91, Manufactur-
ers 13, Mariners 48, Masons 4, Miller 1, Millwrights 3, Morocco dresser 1, Moulders 2.
Painters 13, Paper hanger 1, Patternmakers 2, Physicians 34, Plasterers 2, Plough-
maker 1, Plumbers 3, Potter 1, Printers 76. Saddlers 19, Sailmakers2, Ship Carpen-
ters 9, Shipjoiners 2, Shipwrights 40, Silversmiths 2, Stereotypists 2, Stone cutters 9,
Storekeepers 439, Surveyors 3. Tailors 15, Tanner 1, Teachers 72, Tinsmiths 8, To-
bacconists 5, Turners 6, Type founders 4. Umbrellamakers 4. Upholsterer 1. Watch-
makers 6, Weavers 5, Wheelwrights 8. Not ascertained 29. Deceased while pupils
10. Total, 2,107.
OCCUPATIONS of the Parents or Guardiansof the pupils admitted, from the opening, Oc-
tober 22d, 1838, to July \Sth, 1853. Agents 6, Aldermen 2, Artists 3, Auctioneers 2. Ba-
kers 24, Barbers 2, Blacksmiths 37, Blindmakers 2, Boarding-house keepers 13, Boiler-
maker 1, Bonnet pressersS, Bookbinders 12, Booksellers 5, Bottlers 3, Brassfounders 6,
Brewers 11, Bricklayers 29, Brickmakers 14, Bridlebit makers 2, Brokers 28, Brush-
makers 12, Button-maker 1, Butcher 1. Cabinetmakers 35, Cap-maker 1, Carder 1,
Car-builder 1, Carpenters 245, Carrier 1, Carters 24, Carvers and Gilders 3, Caulker 1,
Chairmakers 6, Chaise-driver 1, Chemists 4, Clergymen 41, Clerks and Accountants
159, Coachmakers 6, Coachtrimmer 1, Coal dealers 8, Coal viewer 1, Coffee roaster 1,
Coiners 2, Collectors 6, Combmakers 13, Comedians 2, Commission Merchants 1],
Conductors 3, Confectioners 10, Contractor 1, Conveyancers 9, Coopers 16, Copper-
plate printer 1, Copper-smiths 1, Corders 3, Cordwainers 128, County Commissioner 1,
Curriers 18, Custom-house officers 3, Cutlers 2. Daguerreotypists 2, Dealers 22, Den-
tists 14, Distillers 10, Draymen 4, Drovers 3, Druggists 29, Dry goods Merchants 12,
Dyers 10, Dye-sinkers 1. Editors 2, Engineers 11, Engravers21. Farmers 42, Fisher-
men 7, Flour Inspector 1, Frame maker 1, Furriers 3. Gardeners 4, Gentlemen 4, Gen-
tlewomen,' (widows) 134, Gilders 4, Glass-blowers 5, Glove-maker 1, Goldbeaters 2,
Grocers 100, Guager 1, Gunsmith 1. Hardware Merchants 12, Hair-dresser 1, Hatters
34, Hay Merchants 2, Horse dealers 2, Hose-makers 2, Hucksters 2. Ice-dealers 3, Im-
porters 3, Inn-keepers 54, Iron-founders 8. Jewellers 16, Judges 6. Laborers 59, Lamp-
maker 1, Lapidary 1, Lastmakers 3, Lawyers 35, Lirne burner 1, Livery Stable keep-
ers 3, Locksmiths 4, Lumber Merchants 9. Machinists 47, Mantuamakers 35, Manufac-
turers 73. Marble Mason 1, Mariners 36, Mast-Makers 2, Mathematical Instrument
makers 6, Measurer and Surveyor 1, Merchants 145, Military Cap maker 1, Millers 12,
Milliners 10. Millwrights 3, Miners 2, Morocco-dressers 4, Musical Instrument maker
1, Moulder 1. Organ builder 1, Oystermen 2. Painters 13, Paper Box makers 4, Paper-
hangers 2, Paper manufacturer 1, Pattern-makers 3, Paviors 2, Pawnbrokers 4, Pedlars
2. Physicians 62, Piano forte makers 3, Plane makers 2, Plasterers 20, Plumbers 6,
Porters 2, Portrait Painters 2, Potters 2, Printers 42, Prison-keeper 1, Publisher 1,
Pumpmakers 4. Reedmaker 1, Refiner 1, Reporter 1, Rigger 1. Saddlers 31, Sailma-
kers 4, Sailing Masters 2, Salesmen 4, Sashmaker 1, Saw-makers 2, Sawyers 2, Scale
maker 1, Seamstresses 28, Shipchandler 1, Shipjoiners 5, Shipsmiths 3, Shipwrights
29, Shuttle-maker 1, Silver-platers 3, Silver-smiths 4, Skin dresser 1, Slater 1, Soap
boilers 2, Spar makers 2, Spectacle makers 2, Spinner 1, Spooler 1, Spring makers 2,
Stage drivers 3, Starch manufacturer 1, Stereotype-founders 2, Stockmakers 2, Stone
cutters 17, Stone Masons 5, Storekeepers 139, Stove finisher 1, Stove maker 1, Su-
perintendent of Gas Works 1, Surgical Instrument makers 10, Surveyors 2, Suspender
maker 1. Tailoresses 7, Tailors 86, Tallow Chandlers 4, Tanners 5, Teachers 49, Tin-
smiths 16, Tobacconists 16, Traders 4. Tube maker 1, Turners 9, Type-founders 4.
Umbrella makers 8, Undertakers 2, Upholsters 4. Varnisher 1 , Victuallers 22. Warpers
2, Watchmakers 12, Watchmen 13, Weavers 39, Weigh Master 1, Wheelwrights 14,
Whipmaker 1, Worker in Metal 1. Total, 2,805.
260
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
HUGHES' CITY HIGH SCHOOL CINCINNATI.
Fig. 1. PERSPECTIVE.
PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF CINCINNATI. 261
PLANS OF HUGHES' CITY HIGH SCHOOL OF* CINCINNATI.
The Hughes City High School is one of two Public High Schools,
sustained partly out of two trust estates, known as the " Woodward"
and ' Hughes" Funds, by the City of Cincinnati, as part of ils system
of public instruction. This system has grown up to its present extent
arid usefulness since 1828-9. when Col. Andrew Mack carried through
the Legislature of Ohio, a bill for a special act. imposing a tax of $7,000
upon the city, for the erection of suitable buildings in the several wards,
and an annual tax of $7.000 in each subsequent year, which, together
with the State appropriation, was to be applied to the support of com-
mon schools. Under this act, the system was commenced, and in 1834.
it was better grounded and greatly extended by an act authorizing the
City Council to build substantial school-houses, and to provide for the
support of common schools therein at the expense of the city. Accord-
ingly, the city was divided into districts, and in the course of four years
nine buildings were erected, at an expense of $96,000 which, in loca-
tion, size, and arrangement, were greatly in advance of the then gen-
erally received notices of school architecture. From year to year the
number of houses has been increased, to meet the demands of the grow-
ing population, and the style and fixtures greatly improved. The care
of the schools is committed to a Board of Trustees and Visitors, one
for each ward, elected by the legal voters thereof. V
In 1845, the board were authorized to establish schools of different
grades, and in 1847, a Central High School was organized under the
charge of Prof. H. H. Barney, who has just (1853.) been elected State
Superintendent of Common Schools.
In 1850. the Legislature authorized the appointment of a Superinten-
dent of Common Schools, ''whose duty it should be to visit and super-
intend all the common schools of the city, and, under the direction of the
board of trustees and visitors of common schools, to establish such course
of studies, rules, and regulations as may be deemed best calculated to
promote the progress and well being of said schools."
In 1852. the Woodward and Hughes Funds, amounting to $300,000,
and yielding an annual income of over $6000, were united for the pur-
pose of sustaining two High Schools, in different sections of the city
with the same requisites for admission and course of study, and open to
both sexes.
For the Hughes City High School a lot on Fifth-street was pur-
chased for $18.000, and a building, of which the following diagrams
present the size, and internal accommodations, was completed in 1853,
at an expense of $20.000.
The system of Public Instruction in Cincinnati, embraces :
I. District schools one for each of the twelve districts, into which the
city is divided for school purposes. Each school is classified into four
sections or grades, and the pupils pass from the lowest to the next high-
est on examination, which is held twice a year. In 1850, there were
6,740 pupils, under 148 teachers, of whom 124 were females.
II. German English Schools three in number, are intended for the
special accommodations of children born of German parents and who
are taught both the German and English language. In 1850, there were
three schools, twenty-four teachers, and twenty-three hundred pupils.
III. Evening Schools. Cincinnati was one of the first cities to pro-
vide this class of schools for children who could not attend the day schools,
and for adults whose early education had been neglected. In 1850,
there were six schools, open five evenings in the week from October to
February, with about six hundred pupils.
IV. High Schools of which there are now (1853) two.
262
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 2. BASEMNT.
Fig. 3. FIRST FLOOR.
HUGHES' CITY HIGH SCHOOL.
263
Fig. 4. SECOND FLOOR.
Fig. 5. THIRD FLOOR.
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 265
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL.
In the preceding pages we have presented a variety of plans for
the construction and internal arrangements of buildings designed and
erected for Public High Schools. Whenever and wherever the
interest of the community can be sufficiently awakened to call for a
public school of the grade generally understood by the term High
School, there will be no difficulty in raising the funds necessary to
erect and furnish a suitable edifice for the accommodation of the
school. It may not, then, be amiss in this place to present a few
considerations and facts bearing upon the establishment of a school
of this grade in every large village and city in our country.
By a Public or Common High School, is intended a public or
common school for the older and more advanced scholars of the
community in which the same is located, in a course of instruction
adapted to their age, and intellectual and moral wants, and, to some
extent, to their future pursuits in life. It is common or public in the
same sense in which the district school, or any lower grade of school
established and supported under a general law and for the public
benefit, is common or public. It is open to all the children of the
community to which the school belongs, under such regulations as
to age, attainments, &c., as the good of the institution may require,
or the community may adopt. A Public High School is not neces-
sarily a free school. It may be supported by a fund, a public tax,
or an assessment or rate of tuition per scholar, or by a combination
of all, or any two of these modes. Much less is it a public or com-
mon school in the sense of being cheap, inferior, ordinary. To be
truly a public school, a High School must embrace in its course of
instruction studies which can be more profitably pursued there than
in public schools of a lower grade, or which gather their pupils from
a more circumscribed territory, and as profitably as in any private
school of the same pretensions. It must make a good education
common in the highest and best sense of the word common common
because it is good enough for the best, and cheap enough for the
poorest family in the community. It would be a mockery of the idea
of such a school, to call it a Public High School, if the course of
instruction pursued in it is not higher and better than can be got in
public schools of a lower grade, or if it does not meet the wants of
the wealthiest and best educated families, or, if the course of instruc-
tion is liberal and thorough, and at the same time the worthy and
talented child of a poor family is shut out from its privileges by a
high rate of tuition. The school, to be common practically, must be
both cheap and good. To be cheap, its support must be provided for
wholly or mainly out of a fund, or by public tax. And to justify the
imposition of a public tax, the advantages of such a scnooi must
accrue to the whole community. It must be shown to be a common
benefit, a common interest, which cannot be secured so well, or at
206 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
all, except through the medium of taxation. What, then, are the
advantages which may reasonably be anticipated from the establish-
ment of a Public High School, properly organized, instructed, and
supervised ?
First. Every thing which is now done in the several district
schools, and schools of lower grade, can be better done, and in a
shorter lime, because the teachers will be relieved from the neces-
sity of devoting the time and attention now required by few of the
older and more advanced pupils, and can bestow all their time and
attention upon the preparatory studies and younger children. These
studies will be taught in methods suited to the age and attainments
of the pupils. A right beginning can thus be made in the lower
schools, in giving a thorough practical knowledge of elementary
principles, and in the formation of correct mental and moral habits,
which are indispensable to all sound education. All this will be
done under the additional stimulus of being early and thoroughly
fitted for the High School.
Second. A High School will give completeness to the system of
public instruction which may be in operation. It will make suitable
provision for the older and more advanced pupils of both sexes, and
will admit of the methods of instruction and discipline which cannot
be profitably introduced into the schools below. The lower grade
of schools those which are established for young children, require
a large use of oral and simultaneous methods, and a frequent change
of place and position on the part of the pupils. The higher branches,
especially all mathematical subjects, require patient application and
habits of abstraction on the part of the older pupils, which can with
difficulty, if at all, be attained by many pupils amid a multiplicity of
distracting exercises, movements, and sounds. The recitations of
this class of pupils, to be profitable and satisfactory, must be con-
ducted in a manner which requires time, discussion, and explanation,
and the undivided attention both of pupils and teacher. The course
of instruction provided in the High School will be equal in extent
and value to that which may be given in any private school, academy,
or female seminary in the place, and which is now virtually denied
to the great mass of the children by the burdensome charge of
tuition.
As has been already implied, the advantages of a High School
should not be confined to the male sex. The great influence of the
female sex, as daughters, sisters, wives, mothers, companions, and
teachers, in determining the manners, morals, and intelligence of the
whole community, leaves no room to question the necessity of pro-
viding for the girls the best means of intellectual and moral culture.
The course of instruction should embrace the first principles of
natural and mechanical philosophy, by which inventive genius and
practical skill in the useful arts can be fostered ; such studies as
navigation, book-keeping, surveying, botany, chemistry, and kindred
studies, which are directly connected with success in the varied
departments of domestic and inland trade, with foreign commerce,
with gardening, agriculture, the manufacturing and domestic arts ;
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 057
such studies as astronomy, physiology, the history of our own state
and nation, the principles of our state and national constitutions,
political economy, and moral science ; in fine, such a course of study
as is now given in more than fifty towns and cities in New England,
and which shall prepare every young man, whose parents may desire
it, for business, or for college, and give to every young woman a well
disciplined mind, high moral aims, refined tastes, gentle and graceful
manners, practical views of her own duties, and those resources of
health, thought, conversation, and occupation, which bless alike the
highest and lowest station in life. When such a course is provided
and carried out, the true idea of the High School will be realized.
Third. It will equalize the opportunities of a good education, and
exert a happy, social influence throughout the whole community from
which it gathers its scholars. From the want of a public school of
this character, the children of such families as rely exclusively on
the district school are isolated, and are condemned to an inferior
education, both in quality and quantity ; they are cut off from the
stimulus and sympathy which the mingling of children of the same
age from different parts of the same community would impart. The,
benefits, direct and indirect, which will result to the country dis-
tricts, or poor families who live in the outskirts of the city, from the
establishment of a school of this class, cannot easily be overesti-
mated. The number of young men and young women who will
receive a thorough education, qualifying them for business, and to be
teachers, will increase from year to year ; and the number who will
press up to the front ranks of scholarship in the school, bearing away
the palm of excellence by the vigor of sound minds in sound bodies,
of minds and bodies made vigorous by long walks and muscular labor
in the open air, will be greater in proportion to their number than
from the city districts. It will do both classes good, the children of
the city, and the children of the country districts, to measure them-
selves intellectually in the same fields of study, and to subject the
peculiarities of their respective manners, the roughness and awk-
wardness sometimes characteristic of the one, and the artificiality
and flippancy of the other, to the harmonizing influence of reciprocal
action and reaction. The isolation and estrangement which now
divide and subdivide the community into country and city clans,
which, if not hostile, are strangers to each other, will give place to
the frequent intercourse and esteem of individual and family friend-
ship, commenced in the school-room, and on the play-ground of the
school. The school will thus become a bond of union, a channel of
sympathy, a spring-head of healthy influence, and stimulus to the
whole commnnity.
Fourth. The privileges of a good school will be brought within
the reach of all classes of the community, and will actually be en-
joyed by children of the same age from families of the most diverse
circumstances as to wealth, education, and occupation. Side by side
in the same recitations, heart and hand in the same sports, pressing
up together to the same high attainments in knowledge and charac-
ter, will be found the children of the rich and poor, the more and the
268
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
less favored in outward circumstances, without knowing or caring to
know how far their families are separated by the arbitrary distinc-
tions which divide and distract society. With nearly equal oppor-
tunities of education in childhood and youth, the prizes of life, its
best fields of usefulness, and sources of happiness will be open to
all, whatever may have been their accidents of birth and fortune.
From many obscure and humble homes in the city and in the country,
will be called forth and trained inventive talent, productive skill, in-
tellectual taste, and God-like benevolence, which will add to the
general wealth, multiply workshops, increase the value of farms, and
carry forward every moral and religious enterprise which aims to
bless, purify, and elevate society.
Fifth. The influence which the annual or semi-annual examina-
tion of candidates for admission into the High School, will operate
as a powerful and abiding stimulus to exertion throughout all the
lower schools. The privileges of the High School will be held
forth as the reward of exertion in the lower grade of schools ; and
promotion to it, based on the result of an impartial examination, will
form an unobjectional standard by which the relative standing of the
different schools can be ascertained, and will also indicate the studies
and departments of education to which the teachers in particular
schools should devote special attention. This influence upon the
lower schools, upon scholars and teachers, upon those who reach,
and those who do not reach the High School, will be worth more
than all it costs, independent of the advantages received by its pupils.
Sixth. While the expenses of public or common schools will
necessarily be increased by the establishment of a school of this class,
in addition to those already supported, the aggregate expenditures
for education, including public and private schools, will be diminished.
Private schools of the same relative standing will be discontinued
for want of patronage, while those of a higher grade, if really called
for by the educational wants of the community, will be improved. A
healthy competition will necessarily exist between the public and
private schools of the highest grade, and the school or schools which
do not come up to the highest mark, must go down in public estima-
tion. Other things being equal, viz., school-houses, teachers, clas-
sification, and the means and appliances of instruction, the public
school is always better than the private. From the uniform experi-
ence of those places where a High School has been established, it
may be safely stated, that there will be an annual saving in the
expenses of education to any community, equal to one half the amount
paid for tuition in private schools, and, with this saving of expense,
there will be a better state of education.
Seventh. The successful establishment of a High School, by im-
proving the whole system of common schools, and interesting a larger
number of families in the prosperity of the schools, will create a
better public sentiment on the subject than has heretofore existed,
and the schools will be regarded as the common property, the com-
mon glory, the common security of the whole community. The
wealthy will feel that the small additional tax required to establish
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 269
and sustain this school, if not saved to them in the diminished tuition
for the education of their own children in private schools, at home
and abroad, is returned to them a hundred fold in the enterprise
which it will quicken, in the increased value given to property, and
in the number of families which will resort to the place where it is
located, as a desirable residence, because of the facilities enjoyed
for a good education. The poor will feel that, whatever may betide
them, their children are born to an inheritance more valuable than
lands or shops, in the free access to institutions where as good an
education can be had as money can buy at home or abroad. The
stranger will be invited to visit not only the institutions which public
or individual benevolence has provided for the poor, the orphan, the
deaf mute, and the criminal, but schools where the children and
youth of the community are trained to inventive and creative habits
of mind, to a practical knowledge of the fundamental principles of
business, to sound moral habits, refined tastes, and respectful man-
ners. And in what balance, it has well been asked in reference to
the cost of good public schools, as compared with these advantages,
shall we weigh the value of cultivated, intelligent, energetic, polished,
and virtuous citizens ? How much would a community be justified
in paying for a physician who should discover or practice some mode
of treatment through which many lives should be preserved ? How
much for a judge, who, in the able administration of the laws, should
secure many fortunes, or rights more precious than fortunes, that
might else be lost ? How much for a minister of religion who should
be the instrument of saving hundreds from vice and crime, and per-
suading them to the exertion of their best powers for the common
good ? How much for the ingenious inventor, who, proceeding from
the first principles of science onward, should produce some improve-
ment that should enlarge all the comforts of society, not to say a
steam-engine or a magnetic telegraph ? How much for the patriotic
statesman, who, in difficult times, becomes the savior of his country ?
How much for the well-instructed and enterprising merchant who
should suggest and commence the branches of business that should
bring in a vast accession of wealth and strength ? One such person
as any of these might repay what a High School would cost for
centuries. Whether, in the course of centuries, every High School
would produce one such person, it would be useless to prophesy.
But it is certain that it would produce many intelligent citizens,
intelligent men of business, intelligent servants of the state, intelli-
gent teachers, intelligent wives and daughters, who, in their several
spheres, would repay to any community much more than they and
all their associates had received. The very taxes of a town, in
twenty years, will be lessened by the existence of a school which
will continually have sent forth those who were so educated as to
become not burdens but benefactors.
These results have been realized wherever a Public High School
has been opened under circumstances favorable to the success of a
private school of the same grade, wherever a good school-house,
good regulations, (for admission, attendance, studies, ar/1 books,)
good teachers, and good supervision have been provided.
270 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The Principal of the Latin High School of Boston, in a letter
written 1846, says,
" There is no institution so truly republican as such a school as this. While we,
the present teachers, were undergraduates of the school, the rich sent their sons
to the school because it was the best that could be found. They ascertained that
it was not a source of contamination, but that their boys learned here to compare
themselves with others, and to feel the necessity of something more that mere
wealth, to gain consideration. At that time, poor men sent their sons hither be-
cause they knew that they here would get that education which they could afford
to give them in no other way. They gained too by intercourse with their wealthiei
mates a polish of exterior manners, and an intellectual turn of mind which
their friends could appreciate and perceive, although they could not tell what it
was that had been acquired. Oftentimes also the poor boy would take the lead
of his more pampered classmate, and take the honors of the school.
In a class lately belonging to the school were two boys, one the son of a man
of extreme wealth, whose property cannot be less than $500,000; anc i the other
the son of an Irish laborer employed by the city at a dollar a day to sweep the
streets. The latter boy was the better scholar.
The Principal of the English High School in a letter writes,
"The school under' my charge is pricipally composed of what are called the
middling classes of our city. At present, about one third of my pupils are sons
of merchants ; the remaining two thirds are sons of professional men, mechan-
ics and others. Some of our best scholars are sons of coopers, lamplighters,
and day laborers. A few years ago, he who ranked, the last year of his course,
as our third scholar, was the son of a lamplighter, and worked three nights per
week, during his whole course, to save his father the expense of books, fee.,
while at school. This year my second (if not the first,) scholar, is a cooper's
son. We have several sons o'f clergymen of distinction and lawyers of emi-
nence. Indeed, the school is a perfect example of the poor and the rich, meet-
ing on common ground and on terms quite democratic.
The Principal of the High School for girls in Newburyport, writes,
" The Female High School was established by the town of Newburyport
nearly three years since, under great opposition. It was the desire of its princi-
pal advocates to make it such a school, in respect to the course of instruction,
and facilities for acquiring knowledge, and laying the foundation for usefulness,
as should so successfully compete with our best private schools, as to supersede
their necessity."
"A few days after we were organized, a gentleman came into the school-
room to make some inquiries respecting the classes of society most fully rep-
resented amongst us. I was totally unable to give him the desired information,
and judging from the appearance of the individuals of my charge, I could form
no idea as to who were the children of poor parents, or of those in better cir-
cumstances. I mentioned the names of the parents of several, which I had
just taken, and, amongst others, of two young ladies of seventeen or eighteen
years of age, who, at that moment, it being recess, were walking down the
room, with their arms closely entwined about each other's necks. ' The first
of the two,' said the gentleman, ' is a daughter of one of our first merchants,
the other has a father worse than none, who obtains a livelihood from one of the
lowest and most questionable occupations, and is himself most degraded '
These two young ladies were classmates for more than two years, and very
nearly equal in scholarship. The friendship they have formed, I am confident
no circumstances of station in life can ever impair.
"We have had in our number many from the best families, in all respects, in
the place. They sit side by side, they recite, and they associate most freely
with those of the humblest parentage, whose widowed mothers, perhaps, toil
day atter day, at a wash-tub, without fear of contamination, or, as I honestly
believe, a thought of the differences which exist. I have, at present, both ex-
tremes under my charge the child of affluence and the child of low parentage
and deep poverty. As my arrangements of pupils in divisions, &c. are, most of
hem, alphabetical, n often happens that the two extremes are brought together.
Ihis never causes a murmur, or look of dislike.
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. 271
A member of the School Committee of Worcester, Mass., writes .
" Our High School is exceedingly popular with all classes, and in the school-
rooms and on the play-grounds, the children of the richest and poorest mingle
with perfect equality. No assumption, no jealousy are seen among them. I
have been charmed with this republican and Christian character of the school.
I have seen the children of parents whose wealth was estimated by hundreds of
thousands, in the same school-room with children (and those last among the
best scholars of their class) whose parents have been assisted year after year
by individual charity. The manners, habits, and moral sentiments of this
school are as pure and high as in any academy, or female seminary of the
same grade in the commonwealth.
" To the improvements of our public schools, which has been going steadily
forward since 1825, does this town owe more of its prosperity, its large acces-
sion of families from abroad, especially of industrious and skillful mechanics,
than to all other causes combined. As a mere investment of capital, men of
wealth everywhere cannot do better with a portion of their property than
to build elegant and attractive school-houses, and open in them free schools
of -the highest order of instruction. They will then see gathering around
them men, it may be, of small means, but of practical skill, and moral and
industrious habits ; that class of families who feel that one of the great ends
of life is to educate their children well."
A correspondent from Brattloboro', Vt., writes :
" In the same school-room, seated side by side, according to age and attain-
ments, are eighty children, representing all classes and conditions in society.
The lad or miss, whose father pays a school tax of thirty-five dollars, by the
side of another whose expense of instruction is five cents per annum. They
play cordially and happily on the same grounds, and pursue the same studies
the former frequently incited by the native superiority and practical good sense
of the latter. While the contact corrects the factitious gentility and false ideas
of superiority in the one, it encourages cleanliness and good breeding in the
other."
The history of the High School in Providence is the history of
almost every similar institution.
"The High School was the only feature of our system which encountered
much opposition. When first proposed, its bearings on the schools below, and
in various ways on the cause of education in the city, was not clearly seen. It
was opposed because it was " aristocratic," " because it was unconstitutional
to tax property for a city college," " because it would educate children above
working for their support," " because a poor boy or girl would never be seen in
it" and for all such contradictory reasons. Before it became a part of the
system, the question of its adoption, or rejection, was submitted directly to the
people, who passed in its favor by a vote of two thirds of all the legal voters of
the city. Even after this expression of popular vote in its favor, and after the
building for its accommodation was erected, there was a considerable minority
who circulated a petition to the City Council against its going into operation.
But the school was opened, and now it would be as easy to strike out the whole
or any other feature of the system as this. Its influence in giving stimulus and
steadiness to the workings of the lower grade of schools, in giving thorough-
ness and expansion to the whole course of instruction, in assisting to train
teachers for our city and country schools, and in bringing together the older
and more advanced pupils, of either sex, from families of every profession, oc-
cupation and location in the city, many of whom, but for the opportunities of
this school, would enter on the business and duties of life with an imperfect
education has demonstrated its own usefulness as a part of the system, and
has converted its opponents into friends."
Testimony of the same character might be adduced from Phila-
delphia, Lowell, New Orleans, and every place where a school of
this grade has been established.
The growth and influence of a Public High School, when liberally
sustained, is admirably illustrated in the history of the Central High
School of Philadelphia.
272
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
NORMAL SCHOOLS, OR TEACHERS' SEMINARIES.
By a Normal t School, or Teachers' Seminary, is meant an insti-
tution for the training of young men and young women who aim to
be teachers, to a thorough and practical knowledge of the duties of the
school-room, and to the best modes of reaching the heart and intel-
lect, and of developing and building up the whole character of a
child. It aims to do for the young and inexperienced teacher, all
that the direction and example of the master- workman, and all that
the experience of the workshop do for the young mechanic all that
the naval and military schools do for those who lead in any capacity
in the army or navy all that the law school, or the medical school,
or the theological seminary do for the professions of law, medicine,
or theology. In every department of mechanical, artistic, or profes-
sional labor, the highest skill is attained only after long and appro-
priate training under wise superintendence ; and the Normal School
aims to impart this previous training by providing a thorough course
of instruction, under competent teachers, with reference to teaching
the same things to others. This course of instruction involves the
whole art of teaching a knowledge of human nature, and of a
child's nature in particular of the human mind, and especially of a
child's mind, and of the order in which its several faculties should
be called into exercise ; of the best motives by which good habits
of study can be cultivated in the young ; of the arrangement and
classification of scholars, and of the best means and appliances for
securing obedience and order, and keeping alive an' interest in the
daily exercises of the school. And this art of teaching must be
illustrated and exemplified by those who are to apply it. in a model
school. The idea of such a school is not a mere speculation o!
ardent benevolence it is an existing reality in this country as well
as in Europe.
The first school specially destined for educating and training
teachers in the principles and practice of their profession, was in-
stituted by the Abbe de La Salle, while Canon of the Cathedral at
Rheims, in 1681, and was perfected into the Institute of the Brothers
of the Christian Schools, in 1684.
In 1697, Augustus Herman Franke founded, in connection with
his orphan school at Halle, a teacher's class composed of poor stu-
dents, who assisted him certain hours in the day in his schools, in
return for their board and instruction. Out of these, he selected,
about the year ] 704, twelve, who exhibited the right basis of piety,
knowledge, and aptness to teach, and constituted them his " Semi-
narium Prsecepiorum" or Teachers Seminary. These pupils re-
ceived separate instruction for two years, and acquired a due
degree of practical skill, in the classes of the same general estab-
lishment. Teachers thus trained, and hundreds of others, who re-
sorted to Halle, to profit by the organization and spirit of the
schools of Franke, disseminated a knowledge of better methods of
school organization and instruction throughout Europe, in the
course of the next half century.
In 1735, the first regular seminary for teachers in Prussia was
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 2*73
established in Pomerania, and the second at Berlin, in 1748, by
Hecker, a pupil of Franke. By a royal ordinance in 1752, Frederic
2d enjoined that all vacancies in the country schools on the crown
lands, in certain sections of his kingdom, should be supplied by pu-
pils from Hecker's Seminary. The King at the same time allowed
an annual stipend for the support of twelve alumni of this establish-
ment, a number which in 1788 was raised to sixty. In 1773, the
chools established at Rekahn, in Brandenburg, became the model
schools to which young men resorted from every part of Germany
to be trained in the principles and practice of primary instruction.
Prior to 1800, there were but six of these institutions in Prussia.
But it is the pride and glory of this monarchy, that in periods of the
greatest national distress and disaster, when the armies of France
were desolating her fields, occupying her citadels, and diverting her
revenues, the great work of improving her schools was never lost
sight of. The establishment of teachers' seminaries still went for-
ward ; that at Konigsburg in 1809, at Branersburg in 1810, and at
Breslau in 1812. But not content with establishing these semina-
ries at home, the most promising young teachers were sent into
other countries to acquire a knowledge of all improvements in the
science and art of education.
Normal Schools were introduced into Hanover in 1757 ; into Aus-
tria in 1767; into Switzerland in 1805; into France in 1808; into
Holland in 1816 ; into Belgium in 1843, and into England in 1842.
In Prussia and most of the German States, there are now enough
of these institutions to supply the demand for teachers in the public
schools. Saxony, with a population less than that of the State of
New York, supports five Normal Schools, and Saxe-Weimar, with a
population less than that of Connecticut, supports two. Prussia, with
a population of fourteen millions, has at this time forty-nine* semina-
ries, in which there are nearly three thousand teachers. At the end
of three years after leaving the seminary, the young teachers return
for a re-examination.
In Great Britain, after years of strenuous effort on the part of the
friends of popular education, the importance of Normal Schools as
the chief means for improving the qualifications of teachers, has
been recognized by the Government. The Training School at
Chelsea, (called St. Mark's College,) tinder the management of the
National Society, the Normal and Model School of the British and
Foreign School Society, the Battersea Training School, and the
Model School of the Infant School Society in England, the Model
School of the National Board for Ireland, the Normal Schools at
Edinburgh and Glasgow in Scotland, are all aided out of the annual
parliamentary grant for education.
In this country, the claims of these institutions were first distinctly
presented by Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, of Hartford, Conn., in
1825, and by James G. Carter, of Lancaster, Mass., in a series of
essays on the subject, and by William Russell, of Boston, in the
Journal of Education for 1826. One fact is certain, the improve-
ment of schools in every country has followed hand in hand with the
establishment, multiplication, and improvement of Normal Schools.
18
274 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MASSACHUSETTS NORMAL
SCHOOL-HOUSES.
THE following plans and descriptions are copied from the " Tenth Annual
Report of the feecrelary of the Massachusetts Board of Education," with the
permission of the Hon. Horace Mann, by whose indefatigable' labors these
institudons were founded, seconded as his eflbrts were by the munificent
donation of the sum of ten thousand dollars, from the Hon. Edmund Dwight,
of Boston.
These buildings were erected partly out of the contribution of $5000, sub-
scribed originally by the friends of Mr. Mann, as a testimony of their esteem
for his public services, and, at his suggestion, invested in this way thus con-
r;ring these edifices into the monuments of their generosity, and of his seif-
BRIDGEWATER STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE.
Fig. 1. FRONT ELEVATION.
This edifice is constructed of wood, and is sixty-four feet by forty-two, and
two stories in height. The upper story is d'vileJ into a principal school
room, forty-one feet by forty, and two rec ; tatio:>-r->on9 e^ch t-vot~ fr^t b*
twelve, and is designed for the N, nrai School. The bwer sfMY is'ntte^ u
for a Model School. '
MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSES 2Y5
BRIDGEWATER STATE NORMAL SCHOGL-HOUBE.
Fig. 2. LOWER STORY.
D, D Doors, one for males, the other for females. E, E Hall-entries,
into which the doors D, D open, 19 feet by 15. A, A Stairways, leading
from the entries to the Normal School-room. M, S, R Model School-room,
40 feet by 24, with single seats and desks. H Entry-way, 6 feet 8 inches
wide, for Model School scholars. At each end of this entry is an outside
door, for the entrance of the Model School scholars a separate entrance for
each sex. G, F Laboratory and chemical room, or lecture-room, connected
by folding doors. The two rooms 40 feet by 16. B, C Back stairways.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
BlUDGEWATER STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE.
Fig. 3. UPPER STORT.
A, A Separate stairways, for the different sexes, leading from the lower
entries, or halls, to the Normal School-room. N, S, R Normal School-room
41 feet by 40. c, c, c Single seats, d, d Double desks. P, P, P Teachers
platform, e, e, e, e, e Behind the platform are recesses in the partition foi
a library, e, e Between R, R, are closets for apparatus. R. R Recitation-
rooms, 22 feet by 12. B, C Back stairways.
MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSES. 277
WESTFIF> STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE.
Fig. 4. FRONT ELEVATIOX.
This edifice is of brick, of the size of sixty-two feet by forty feet, with a
portico of eight feet at each end of the building, and is two stories in height.
The Normal School-room is about forty feet square, and is provided with two
recitation-rooms. The first story is fitted up with a room large enough to
accommodate a Model School, which is composed of the children of one ol
the districts in the town of Westfield, the district having paid the sum ol
$1500 towards the erection of the building, and being obligated to pay an
agreed proportion of the expenses of fuel, instruction, &c
278
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
WESTPIELD STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE.
Fig. 5. LOWER STORY.
leading to Nor-
R Recitation-
o
Q
JL
o
u
A
Q
n
o
n
8 I?
ss
MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL HOUSES.
279
WESTFIELD STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOCSE.
Fig. 6. UPPKH STORY.
S, S Stairways, leading from entry to Normal School-room. N, S, R
Normal School-room, 38 feet by 37. e, e Single seats, cl, d Double desks.
P, P Platform, with recesses in the partition behind for a library, c, c
Closets for apparatus. R. R Recitation-rooms, one 22 feet by 11, the other
22 feet by 10J.
280
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
FRAMINGHAM STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE.
The State Normal School at Framingham is designed for female teachers, and
was originally established at Lexington, in July, 1838, and removed to West
Newton in 1846, and to Framingham in 1853. In each instance, as larger and
better accommodations were demanded, the location was determined mainly by
the liberality of the citizens, in offering greater facilities than other towns for the
improvement of the pupils.
In 1852, the legislature appropriated six thousand dollars, to defray the ex-
penses of providing a more commodious site and building, and the necessary
appurtenances and apparatus for the accommodation of the Normal School,
established at West Newton, to be expended for that purpose by the Board of
Education, which was directed to receive propositions from towns or individuals
in aid of the object, and to make such selection as would best subserve the inter-
ests and accommodate the wants of the school. The Board selected a site in the
town of Framingham, offered to them by several of its citizens, the town itself
having voted the sum of two thousand five hundred dollars toward the erection
of the building, and the Boston and Worcester Railroad Company having also
contributed the further sum of two thousand dollars for the same object.
The lot contains four and three-quarters acres of land, situated a few rods south
of the central village of the town, on the south-western slope of a hill of gentle
declivity, protected on the north by a grove of forest trees, and commanding a
view of the surrounding country of wide extent and great beauty. The neighbor-
ing village is retired and quiet, containing three churches of different denominations,
and a sufficient number of inhabitants to afford homes for the pupils, while the
character of the people, owing to the absence of large manufacturing establishments,
to the predominance of agricultural pursuits, and the residence in the neighbor-
hood of many gentlemen who have either retired from business, or pursue it in
the city at a distance from their dwellings, is calculated to exercise a favorable in-
fluence upon the young ladies who will compose the school.
The building is in the Norman style of architecture, sixty feet square, two stories
high, with an entrance arcade, of the same height, thirty-two feet in length and
fourteen in width.
The first story is finished, ten feet six inches in height, containing entrance halls
and stair-cases, a commodious lecture room, which can also be used as a recitation
room, an apparatus room adjoining the latter, a large recitation room, a dressing-
room, with rooms adjoining, containing water-closets and other conveniences.
The second or principal story is finished, seventeen feet high, and is reached by
two wide stair-cases, with tw'o entrances to the school-room, which measures fifty-
seven feet by thirty-six feet six inches, and has accommodations for one hundred
and twenty pupils, which may be extended to one hundred and fifty, with a recita-
tion room, a library, and the principal's room adjoining. The three last-mentioned
rooms are finished, eight feet six inches in height, and over them is a large recita-
tion room, and a room for the water cistern and storage.
The entire interior of the two stories is heated by furnaces in the cellar, and
ventilated in a manner to insure a circulation of pure air at all times.
The house, (with furniture, fence, and appurtenances,) cost $15,750.00, and was
dedicated by an appropriate address, by George B. Emerson, which is published
in the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of Education, of which he is one
of the most efficient members.
It may be mentioned here, to the credit of the legislature of Massachusetts in
1853, that, besides making an appropriation for the Normal School building above
described, and for the erection of a fourth Normal School-house at Salem, and to
aid pupils to prolong their attendance at these schools, forty-eight State scholar-
ships in the colleges of Massachusetts were established, to provide for the educa-
tion and training of young men for the office of principal teacher in the High
Schools of the State. To each scholarship the sum of $100 per annum, for four
years, is guarantied. The appointments are made by the Board of Education.
To George B. Emerson, Esq., belongs the credit of bringing this subject before
the committee of the legislature in a manner to command their unanimous
approval. Mr. Emerson was the author of the memorial to the legislature, in
behalf of Normal Schools, in 1835.
FRAMINGHAM STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
Fig. 2. FIRST FLOOR.
281
V. T Ventilating Ducts. S. F Smoke Flue. R Registers for Hot Air.
Fig. 3. SECOND FLOOR.
282
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT ALBANY,
NEW YORK.
Fig. 1. PERSPECTIVE.
The Normal School for the State of New York was established by an act of
the Legislature, in 1844, "for the instruction and practice of Teachers of Com-
mon Schools, in the science of Education and the art of Teaching," such an
institution, having been first recommended to the Legislature by Governor De
Wit Clinton, in his message to the Legislature in 1825, and again, in 1826, "as
,the best plan of obtaining able teachers that could be derived," and because it was
well calculated to have " most benign influence on individual happiness and social
prosperity." After an experiment of seventeen years, in trying to train teachers
in departments connected with certain academies aided for this purpose out
of the Literature Fund on the recommendation of Samuel Young, Superintendent
of Common Schools, and through the efforts of Calvin T. Hulburd, Chairman of
the Committee on Colleges, Academies, and Common Schools, in the House of
Representatives, Samuel S. Randall, Deputy Superintendent, Francis Dwight,
Editor of the District School Journal, Prof, (now Bishop) Potter, the sum of
$10,000 annually, for six years, was appropriated in 1844, for the support of a Nor-
mal School. It went into operation on the 18th of December, 1844, in a build-
ing provided gratuitously by the city of Albany, and temporarily fitted up for that
purpose.
In 1848, an act was passed by the Legislature "for the permanent establishment
of a State Normal School," appropriating $15,000 toward the erection of a suita-
ble building. The following year an additional appropriation of $10,000 was made
for its completion. A large and commodious edifice, (see Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,)
containing a dwelling-house for the Principal, has accordingly been erected on the
corner of Lodge and Howard-streets, adjoining the State Geological and Agricul-
tural Rooms. To this building the school was removed on the 31st of July, 1849.
YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
283
Fio. 2. PLAN OF BASEMKNT.
The Basement extends un-
der the entire building, and
is used for fuel, furnaces,
water-closets, (which are so
constructed and cleansed as
to be perfectly inoffensive,)
<fec. for the Normal School ;
and for kitchen, store-room,
laundry, pantry, and other
purposes of the family of the
Principal.
284
NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
Fio. 3. PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR.
A. Entrance for males.
B. B. B. B. B. Janitor's
rooms.
C. Laboratory.
D. Apparatus-room.
E. Entrance for females.
F. Play-room and calisthe-
nic exercise for females.
G. Reception-room and
office of school.
H. Entrance into private
library of Principal.
I. Dining-room of residence
of Principal.
J. Parlors of Principal.
K. Entrance to residence of
Principal,
r. Registers for hot air.
NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
285
Fio. 4. PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR.
A. Clothes-room for males, N. S.
B. Philosophical apparatus.
C. Recitation-room for N. S.
D. D. D. Recitation -room for Ex-
perimental School.
E. S. Experimental School.
F. Clothes-room for boys of E. S.
G. Clothes-room for girls of E. S.
H. Clothes-room for females of
N. S.
1. 1. 1. 1. Chambers in residence of
Principal.
nn a
D a o a
anna
& Dm.fi fififia
nann Dififlci
286
NEW STORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
FIG. 5. PLAN or THIRD FLOOR.
A. Text book library.
B. Study-room of Normal School.
C. Desk and chairs for two pupils.
D. D. D.D. Recitation-rooms for N. S.
cm cmi
QD an
cm cm
o a nn
NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
287
Fio. 6. PLAN OF FOURTH FLOOR.
A. Miscellaneous library.
B. Map-room.
C. Lecture-room.
D. Recitation-room.
STATE NORMAL SCHOOL OF CONNECTICUT. 289
PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT NEW
BRITAIN, CONNECTICUT.
THE Normal School at New Britain, was incorporated in 1849, by an " Act for
the establishment of a State Normal School," " for the training of teachers in
the art of instructing and governing the Common Schools of the State." It was
located at New Britain, by the Board of Trustees charged with its management, on
account of the central position of the town, and its accessibility from every section
by railroad ; and also in consideration of the liberal offer, on the part of its citizens,
to provide a suitable building, apparatus, and library, to the value of $16,000, for
the use of the institution, and to place all the schools of the village under the man-
agement of the Principal of the Normal School, as Schools of Practice.
The building provided for the accommodation of the Normal School and
Schools of Practice was erected by an association of citizens of New Britain, who
were incorporated under the general law relating to " Joint Stock Corporations,"
with the name of the " NEW BRITAIN EDUCATIONAL FUND ASSOCIATION."
The Normal School building consists of a structure, 70 feet long by 42 feet
broad, commenced for a town hall before the location of the Normal School in
New Britain, (and since purchased,) and an additional structure, 76 feet by 48.
The original building is three stories in height ', the new part, four.
The basement embraces two passages, one for males and one for females, to the
yard ; two large and convenient dressing-rooms ; four entrance halls, furnished
with hooks for clothes, &c. There are also in the basement story a room for the
accommodation of the Intermediate School ; a room for one of the Primary
Schools ; a chemical laboratory ; a spacious wood and coal room ; three furnace
rooms, with furnaces and their fixtures complete, and so arranged that the heat
from all the furnaces can be thrown into either one of the large apartments, while,
in mild weather, the heat of either one of the furnaces can be diffused through the
whole building. Connected with this story is a yard, two hundred feet long by one
hundred wide ; three-fifths of it for the use of males, the remainder for females.
The yard is surrounded and divided by a substantial, painted fence, six feet high.
It is also provided with out-buildings of the most approved and convenient struc-
ture, and a well, from which water may be drawn in either yard.
The second story, besides the continuation of the above-named entries, contains
a room for the Trustees, which, when not occupied by them, is used as a reception
room ; five recitation rooms and a hall, divided into two apartments, for the accom-
modation of the upper and lower divisions of the High School of the village.
The third story is occupied by the normal school-room, 50 feet by 40, with two
large class-rooms, each 40 feet long by 3.") broad, and a library and cabinet, 35 feet
long by 13 feet broad, and an office for the principal. The fourth story, besides a
hall, 72 feet by 20, which can be used for declamation, reading, <tc., and a passage
to the observatory, which is directly above it, contains four large recitation rooms.
The whole of the third and fourth stories are designed for the Normal School
proper.
The building was completed and opened, for the accommodation of the State
Normal School and the schools of the village, as Model Schools and Schools of
Practice, on the 4th of June, 1851, in the presence of the Governor, and other
State officers, and both branches of the Legislature, with an address from the Su-
perintendent of Common Schools, and a " Speech for Connecticut" by Rev. Horace
Bushnell, D. D.
The building and grounds cost about $25,000, toward which the State has appro-
priated a bank bonus of $4,500, the balance (save $4,000) having been contributed
by citizens of New Britain, of whom Seth J. North subscribed $6,000.
To those who should consult the plans of this building, with a view of adopting
any features of the same in the construction of other buildings, it may be well to
remark, that the mode of warming and ventilation has not proved satisfactory,
owing to the position of the furnaces, and the position and smallness of the venti-
lating flues. It has been found necessary to place one of Chilson's portable fur-
naces in both the Primary and Intermediate school-rooms, (S, S, Fig 2,) to warm
the school-room, recitation room, and library, on the first and second floors imme-
diately above.
The State appropriates $4,000 a year toward the current expenses of the
institution. 19
290
PLAN OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE.
FIGURE 2. PLAN OF BASEMENT STORY.
A. Primary School-room.
B. Intermediate School-room.
C. Hall leading to yard for females.
D. Hall leading to yard for males.
E. Entrances to Normal School, one for males and the other for females.
F. Entrance to High School, for girls.
H. Entrance to High School, for boys.
1. 1. I. Furnaces.
J. Stove to dry wet feet, accessible on each side.
O. O Clothes rooms, one for boys and the other for girls.
P. Laboratory.
L. Coal, &c.
PLAN OP STATE NORMAL SCHOOL- HOUSE.
FIGURE 3. PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR.
291
A. High School-room, with seats and desks for 120 pupils.
B. Office of Principal of Normal School, and Class-room.
C. Reception room.
E. Grammar School-room, with seats and desks for 120 pupils.
D. D. D. D. Recitation rooms.
F. Front stairs to Hall.
G. Side stairs to Normal School-room.
II. Stairs for girls from basement to High School-room.
I. Stairs for boys from basement to High School-room.
292
PLAN OP STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE.
FIGURE 4. PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR.
A. Normal School-room, with seats and desks for 120 pupils, and capable of
seating with corridor, 220 pupils.
B- Corridor ; connecting with Normal School-room by folding doors.
C. Office for Trustees of Normal School, and occupied by Associate Principal
as an office.
D Recitation and Lecture room, 34 feet by 29, for Junior Class of Normal
School.
E. Recitation and Lecture room, 34 feet by 29, for Middle Class of Normal
School.
F. Library. 34 by 13.
G. Stairs to Normal School, for Females.
H. Stairs to Normal School for Males.
PLAN OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL HOUSE.
293
FIGURE 5. PLAN OF THIRD FLOOR.
A. A. A. A. Recitation study rooms for Normal pupils.
B. Library of Text-books.
C. Attic.
D. Hall for Calisthenics.
294
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PLANS OF CITY NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE IN PHILADELPHIA.
The Normal School of Philadelphia was instituted in 1848, " for the thorough
training of female teachers of the public schools, in those branches of a good Eng-
lish education, and in such practical exercises as will discipline and develop the
mind, adorn and elevate the character, insure the best mode of imparting knowl-
edge, establish uniformity in teaching, prevent fruitless experiments, manifold
mistakes, and irreparable loss of time, with all their consequences to teachers and
pupils." The building will accommodate 150 Normal pupils, and a School of
Practice of 350 pupils, distributed in eight classes.
Fig. 1. PERSPECTIVE.
Fig. 2. PLAN or CELLAR.
PHILADELPHIA NORMAL SCHOOL.
295
Fig. 3. FIRST FLOOR.
pp ffl
Fig. 4. SECOND FLOOR.
Fig. 5. THIRD FLOOR.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
297
PLAN AND DESCRIPTION OF THE NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOL-BUILDING AT
TORONTO, UPPER' CANADA.
The Normal and Model Schools for Upper Canada, are situated upon the cen-
ter of an open square, bounded on the north by Gerrard Street, on the east by
Church Street, on the south by Goold Street, and on the west by Victoria Street,
in the city of Toronto. The distance from the bay is about three quarters of a
mile. The situation is very beautiful, being considerably elevated above the busi-
ness parts of the city, and commanding a fine view of the bay, island, and lake.
The square, which contains seven acres and a-half of ground, was purchased in
August, 1850. The amount of the legislative grant for the purchase of the site
and the erection of the buildings, was 15,000.
The principal normal school building, as seen in the perspective, Fig. 1, is 184
feet 4 inches frontage, by a depth on the flanks, east and west, of 85 feet 4 inches.
The front is in the Roman Doric order of Palladian character, having for its
center, four pilasters of the full height of the building, with pediment, surrounded
by an open doric cupola, of the extreme height of 95 feet. The principal entrance
(to the officers of the educational department, &c.,) is in this front ; those for the
male and female students being placed on the east and west sides respectively,
C and D. In the center of the building is a large central hall, (open to the roof,
and lighted by a lantern) with a gallery around it, at the level of the upper floor,
at B, in Fig. 3, approached on each floor by three corridors south, east, and
west and opening on the north to the Theatre or Examination Hall.
On the east side, the accommodation on the ground floor is as follows
School of Art and Design, No. 1, 36'
School of Art and Design, No. 2, 36
Male Students' Retiring Room, 36
Council Room, 39
Male Students' Staircase A, 17
On the west side :
Waiting Room, 22'
Ante-Room, 22
Chief-Superintendent's Room, 28
Depository for Books, Maps, &c., 28
Depository for Apparatus, &c., 22
Female Students' Retiring Room, 36
Recording Clerk's Office, with fire proof vault, . 37
Second Clerk's Office, .22
Female Students' Staircase A, "17
North of the Central Hall is the Theatre, with Lecturer's entrance in the cen-
ter, and side entrances east and west, d, d, for male and female students respec-
tively. Here the aisles are marked a, 6, and c, with seats arranged between
them : the Lecturer's platform being placed between B and e. This portion of
the Theatre will accommodate 470 persons, and including the galleries, 620.
Around the Theatre, and beneath its gallery, are east and west corridors, by
which the students reach the Model School.
By this arrangement, except when actually in the presence of the masters, the
male and female students are entirely separated.
Passing (by the corridors last named) to the Model School, which is 175 feet 6
inches frontage, by 59 feet 6 inches, the students enter the boys and girls' schools
by doors to the east and west, each of which has a large school-room at its center,
56 feet 6 inches by 33 feet, capable of accommodating 300 children, with four
smaller class-rooms adjoining it, about 17 feet by 15 feet 6 inches each. The
boys and girls' entrances (like those for the students of the normal school already
described) are at the east and west ends of the building such entrances having
each a hat and cloak room and master's (or mistress') room on either side.
These schools accommodate 600 children.
Returning to the Normal School, and passing to the upper floor: on the land-
ing of the staircases A, A, are entrances to the gallery of the Theatre, which is
designed to accommodate 150 persons.
On the upper floor is the Central Hall, with its gallery B, connecting the east
and west corridors, communicating with the following rooms :
Room, No. 1, 56' : 0" by 36' : 0"
r is a
0"
i 10
by
lows
28'
0"
5
u
28
u
30
u
22
6
11
11
8"
by
14'
8"
!
14
3
(
21
((
21
8
a
14
8
26
10
11
(C
22
u
14
3
6
11
298
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS AT TORONTO.
299
NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS AT TORONTO.
301
Class Room, No. 2, 56
Class Room, No. 3, 45
Class Room, No. 4, 32
1st. Master's Room, 22
2nd. Master's Room, <.'_'
Museum, 42
Library, 39
Laboratory, 21
In addition to the accommodation thus enumerated, there are, in the basement,
rooms for the residence of the Janitor, together with furnace rooms, from whence
warm air is conducted to the whole building.
b
y 36
2
28
8
28
19
5
19
5
22
5
"22
6
12
VENTILATION
EVERY apartment of a school-house should be provided with a cheap,
simple, and efficient mode of ventilation, by which the air, which is con-
stantly becoming vitiated by respiration, combustion, or other causes,
may he constantly flowing out of the room, and its place filled by an
adequate supply of fresh air drawn from a pure source, and admitted into
the room at the right temperature, of the requisite degree of moisture,
and without any perceptible current. These objects may be attained
by attention to the following particulars :
1. The location of the school-house must be healthy, and all causes
such as defective drains, stagnant water, decaying animal or vegetable
substances, and manufactures, whose operations evolve offensive and
deleterious gases calculated to vitiate the external atmosphere, from
which the air of the school- room is supplied, must be removed or obviated.
2. The means provided for ventilation must be sufficient to secure the
object, independent of doors and windows, and other lateral openings,
which are intended primarily for the admission of light, passage to and
from the apartment, and similar purposes. Any dependence on the
opening of doors and windows, except in summer, will subject the occu-
pants of the room near such points to currents of cold air when the pores
of the skin are open, and when such extreme and rapid changes of tem-
perature are particularly disagreeable and dangerous.
3. Any openings in the ceiling for the discharge of vitiated air into
the attic, and hence to the exterior of the building, or by flues carried up
in the wall, no matter how constructed or where placed, can not be de-
pended on for purposes of ventilation, unless systematic arrangements
are adopted to effect, in concert with such openings, the introdnctionand
diffusion of a constant and abundant supply of pure air, in the right con-
dition as to temperature and moisture.
4. All stoves, or other heating apparatus, standing in the apartment
to be warmed, and heating only the atmosphere of that apartment, which
is constantly becoming more and more vitiated by respiration and other
causes, are radically defective, and should be altogether, without delay,
and forever discarded.
5. Any apparatus for warming pure air, before it is introduced into
the school-room, in which the heating surface becomes red-hot, or the
air is warmed above the temperature of boiling water, is inconsistent
with good ventilation.
6. To effect the combined objects of warming and ventilation, a large
quantity of moderately heated air should be introduced in such a man-
ner as to reach every portion of the room, and be passed off by appro-
304 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
priate openings and flues, as fast as its oxygen is exhausted, and it be-
comes vitiated by carbonic acid gas. and other noxious qualities.
7. The size and number of the admission flues or openings will de-
pend on the size of the school-room, and the number of persons occupy-
ing the same ; but they should ha've a capacity to supply every person
in the room with at least five cubic feet of air per minute. Warm air
can be introduced at a high as well as a low point from the floor, pro-
vided there is an exhaustive power in the discharging flues sufficient to
secure a powerful ascending current of vitiated air from openings near
the floor.
8. Openings into flues for the discharge of vitiated air, should be
made at such points in the room, and at such distances from the open-
ings for the admission of pure warm air, that a portion of the warm air
will traverse every part of the room, and impart as much warmth as
possible, before it becomes vitiated and escapes from the apartment.
These openings can be made near the floor, at points most distant
from the admission flues, provided there is a fire-draught, or other power
operating in the discharging flues, sufficient to overcome the natural
tendency of the warm air in the room to ascend to the ceiling ; other-
wise they should be inserted in or near the ceiling.
Openings at the floor are recommended, not because carbonic acid
gas, being heavier than the other elements of atmospheric air, settles to
the floor, (because, owing to the law of the diffusion of gases among
each other, carbonic acid gas will be found equally diffused through the
room.) but because, when it can be drawn off at the floor, it will carry
along with it the cold air which is admitted by open doors, and at
cracks and crevices, and also the offensive gases sometimes found in
school-rooms.
9. All openings, both for the admission and discharge of air, should
be fitted with valves and registers, to regulate the quantity of air to
pass through them. The quantity of air to be admitted should be reg-
ulated before it passes over the heating surface; otherwise, being con-
fined in the air chamber and tubes, the excessive heat will cause much
injury to the pipes and the woodwork adjoining.
10. All flues for ventilation, not intended to act in concert with some
motive power, such as a fan, a pump, the mechanism of a clock, a fire-
draught, a jet of steam. &c., but depending solely on the spontaneous
upward movement of the column of warm air within them, should be
made large, (of a capacity equal to at least 18 inches in diameter,) tight,
(except the openings at the top and bottom of the room,) smooth, (if
made of boards, the boards should be seasoned, matched, and planed;
if made of bricks, the flue should be round, and finished smooth,) and
carried up on the inside of the room, or in the inner wall, with as few
angles and deviations from a direct ascent as possible, above the highest
point of the roof
11. All flues for the discharge of vitiated air, even when properly
constructed and placed, and even when acting in concert with a current
VENTILATION. 305
of warm air flowing into the room, should be supplied with some simple,
reliable exhaustive power, which can be applied at all seasons of the
year, and with a force varying with the demands of the season, and the
condition of the air in the apartment.
12. The most simple, economical, and reliable motive power available
in most school-houses is heat, or the same process by which the natural
upward movements of air are induced and sustained. Heat can be ap-
plied to the column of air in a ventilating flue
1. By carrying up the ventilating flue close beside, or ev*i within the
smoke flue, which is used in connection with the heating apparatus.
2. By carrying up the smoke-pipe within the ventilating flue, either
the whole length, or in the upper portion only- In a small school-room,
the heat from the smoke-pipe carried up for a few feet only in the ven-
tilating flue before it projects above the roof, is a motive power sufficient
to sustain a constant draught of cool and vitiated air, into a opening near
the floor.
3. By kindling a fire at the bottom, or other convenient point in the
ventilating flue
If the same flue is used for smoke from the fire, and vitiated air from
the apartment, some simple self-acting valve or damper should be ap-
plied to the opening for the escape of the vitiated air, which shall close
at the slightest pressure from the inside of the flue, and thus prevent
any reverse current, or down draught, carrying smoke and soot into the
apartment.
4. By discharging a jet of steam, or a portion of warm air from the
furnace, or other warming apparatus, directly into the ventilating flue.
Any application of heat by which the temperature of the air in the
ventilating flue can be raised above the temperature of the apartment
to be ventilated, will cause a flow of air from the apartment to sustain
the combustion, (if there is a' fire in the flue.) and to supply the partial
vacuum in the flue, which is caused by the rarefaction of the air in the
same.
In all school buildings, when several apartments are to be ventilated,
the most effectual, and. all things considered, the most economical mode
of securing a motive power, is to construct an upright brick shaft or flue,
and in that to build a fire, or carry up the smoke-pipe of the stove, fur-
nace, or other warming apparatus; and then to discharge the ventila-
ting flues from the top or bottom of each apartment, into this upright
shaft. The fire-draught will create a partial vacuum in this shaft, to fill
which, a draught will be established upon every room with which it is
connected by lateral flues. Whenever a shaft of this kind is resorted
to, the flues for ventilation may be lateral, and the openings into them
may be inserted near the floor.
13. With a flue properly constructed, so as to facilitate the spontane-
ous upward movement of the warm air within it, and so placed that the
air is not exposed to the chilling influence of external cold, a lurncap,
constructed after the plan of Emerson's Ejector, or Mott's Exhausting
20
306
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Cowl, will assist the ventilation, and especially when there are any cur-
rents in the atmosphere. But such caps are not sufficient to overcome
any considerable defects in the construction of the ventilating flues, even
when there is much wind.
14. The warming and ventilation of a school-room will be facilitated
by applying a double sash to all windows having a northern and eastern
exposure, or on the sides of the prevailing winds in winter.
15. In every furnace and on every stove, a capacious vessel, well sup-
plied with f|esh water and protected from the dust, should be placed.
16. Every school-room should be furnished with two thermometers,
placed on opposite sides in the room, and the temperature in the winter
should not be allowed to attain beyond 68 Fahrenheit at a level of four
feet from the floor, or 70 at the height of six feet.
17. The necessity for ventilation in an occupied apartment is not ob-
viated by merely reducing the atmosphere to a low temperature.
18. No apparatus, however skillfully constructed or judiciously lo-
cated, can dispense with the careful oversight of a thoughtful teacher.
Although much has been said and printed on the principles and modes
of ventilation, there is much to be done by educators, committees, and
teachers, to enlighten and liberalize the public mind and action on this
important subject not only in reference to school-rooms, but to halls of
justice and legislation, to churches, lecture rooms, and workshops, to all
places where human beings congregate in large numbers, for business
or pleasure.
Mr. D. Leach, one of the agents employed by the Board of Education
in Massachusetts, to visit schools and confer with committees in regard
to the construction of school-houses, remarks in 1853 :
In a large majority of school-houses, there are no means of ventilating but by
opening the windows and doors. And where attempts have been made, it has
been but imperfectly accomplished. The ventilating tubes have almost invariably
been too small. As the result of my investigations, I would make the following
suggestions. To ventilate a room properly containing fifty persons, the ventilat-
ing tube should not be less than fifteen square inches inside. The tube should be
made of very thin bqards, well seasoned, with a smooth inside surface, and it
should be perfectly tight. It should be wholly within the room, and opposite to
the register or stove. There should be an opening at the top and bottom. The
ventilating tubes should be connected in the attic, and conducted through the
roof, and furnished with a suitable cap. Another method, which is far prefera-
ble, is as follows : The smoke pipes may be conducted into a cast iron pipe rest-
ing on soap-stone in the attic floor, instead of a chimney built from the bottom of
the cellar. This cast iron pipe may be surrounded by a brick chimney, into which
the ventilating tubes should lead. The space in the chimney should be equal to
the spaces in the tubes, after making suitable allowance for the pipe, and the in-
crease of friction. By this arrangement, the air in the tubes will be rarefied, and
a rapid current of air produced. All attempts to ventilate rooms with tubes in
the wall, or of less size than fourteen or fifteen square inches for fifty persons, have,
so far as I have examined, failed. No artificial means will secure good ventilation
when the temperature of the room and that of the outer air are nearly the same,
without the application of heat to the air in the tubes. Unless the air is heated
before being admitted into the room, it should be let in at the top, and not at the
bottom, and always through a large number of small apertures. The quantity of
pure air admitted must always be equal to that which is to be forced out.
BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION.
METHODS OF VENTILATION AND WARMING, RECENTLY INTRODUCED
INTO THE SCHOOL-HOUSES OF BOSTON.
In February, 1846, the School Committee of Boston appointed
Dr. Henry G. Clark, E. G. Loring, Esq., and Rev. Charles Brooks,
a Committee "to consider the subject of ventilation of the school-
houses under the care of this Board, and to report at a future meeting
some method of remedying the very defective manner in which it
is now accomplished." The Committee were further " authorized
to ventilate any three school-houses, in such manner as they may
deem expedient." Under these instructions, the Committee visited,
and carefully examined all the school-houses under the care of the
Board, and instituted a variety of experiments, for the purpose of
determining on the best method of ventilation, to be generally intro-
duced. In December, 1846, this Committee made a Report, for a
copy of which we are indebted to the author, Dr. Clark, by whose
agency and ingenuity mainly, these great improvements, both in ven-
tilation and warming, hereafter detailed, have been introduced into
the Public Schools of Boston. We are also indebted to Dr. Clark
for the use of the cuts by which this Report, and a subsequent Re-
port, are illustrated. We shall extract largely from these valuable
documents, with the permission of the author. It will be seen that
the views here recommended are substantially the same with those
presented under the head of Ventilation, in this Treatise.
"Your Committee desire to call the attention of this Board, chiefly to the con-
sideration of such general and well established Physiological and Philosophical
principles, as have a distinct and intimate relation to the subject of this Re-
port, and may be useful in its elucidation.
In doing this, there are two things of which they hope to satisfy the Board.
First. The necessity of a system of ventilation, which shall furnish, for all
the pupils in the Public Schools of Boston, at all times, an abundant supply
of an atmosphere entirely adapted, in its purity and temperature, to the pur-
poses of respiration.
Secondly. The entire failure of the measures heretofore adopted to accom-
plish this desirable end.
The function of Respiration, is that process, by whose agency and constant
operation, atmospheric air is admitted to the internal surface of the lungs, and
there brought into close contact with the blood, for the purpose of effecting
certain changes in it, which are essential to the continuance of life, and to
maintain the integrity of the bodily organs. During this process, the atmos-
phere is constantly losing its oxygen, which is carried into the circulation,
while, at the same time, it is becoming overcharged with the carbonic acid
gas, which is continually thrown off from the lungs by respiration. This effete
and deadly poison spreads itself rapidly into all parts of the room.
' M. Lassaigne has shown, by a series of investigations, that, contrary to a
common opinion, the air in a room which has served for respiration without
being renewed, contains carbonic acid alike in every part, above as well as be-
low; the difference in proportion is but slight; and, where appreciable, there
is some reason to believe that the carbonic acid is in greater quantity in the
upper parts of a room. These experiments establish the very important fact, that
all the air of a room must be changed, in order to restore its purity.'*
Dr. Wyman makes the following remarks on this point: 'Although carbonic
acid is a much heavier gas than atmospheric air, it does not, from this cause.
fall to the floor, but is equally diffused through the room. If the gas is formed
OD the floor without change of temperature, this diffusion may not take place
*Silliman's Journal for September, 1846.
308 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
rapidly. In the celebrated Grotto del Cane, carbonic acid escapes from the floor,
and rises to a certain height, which is pretty well denned to the sight on the
walls ; below this line, a dog is destroyed, as if in water ; above it, he is not
affected. An analysis of the air above and below a brazier has been made,
and it was found equally contaminated, the former containing 4.6J} per cent.,
and the latter 4.5 per cent, of carbonic acid.
' From the experiments of M. Devergie, who has devoted much attention
to the poisonous effects of these gasses, it appears, that the heat disengaged
from the combustion of charcoal, produces an equable mixture at all eleva-
tions in the apartment ; and this state of things continues as long as tlie rocrm
remains warm ; but after twelve hours or more, the carbonic acid sinks, and
while that near the ceiling contains only a seventy-eighth, that near the floor
contains nearly four times as much, or a nineteenth.' (See Prac. Trea. p. 77.)
If further proof be needed, to establish this position, we have other testimony.
During respiration, a considerable quantity of vapor is discharged from the
lungs. With regard to this, Mr. Tredgold says : ' if the air did not contain
this mixture of vapor, it would not rise when expelled ; and we have to ad-
mire one of those simple and beautiful arrangements, by which our all-wise
Creator has provided against the repeated inhalation of the same air; for a
mixture of azote, carbonic acid gas, and vapor, at the temperature it is eject-
ed, is much lighter than common air even at the same temperature. Hence, it
rises with such velocity, that it is entirely removed from us before it becomes
diffused in the atmosphere. But as all gaseous bodies and vapors intimately
mix when suffered to remain in contact, we see how important it is that venti-
lation should be continual ; that the noxious gasses should be expelled as soon
as generated ; and that the ventilation should be from the upper part of a
room.' (S?e Tredgold on Warming, <f-c.,p. 70.
If, to the foul effluvia ejected from the lungs, and accumulating in an apart-
ment as badly ventilated as one of our school-rooms, be added the fouler
matter thrown into the air from the insensible perspiration of so many individuals,
many of whom are of uncleanly habits in person and apparel, it is apparent, that,
in a very limited period of time, the air, in a perfectly close room, would become
so entirely unfit for respiration, that, to all who were exposed to its influence,
submersion in water could not be more certainly fatal.
The terrible effects of continued exposure to carbonic acid gas in a concen-
trated form, have been graphically described by Howard, in his account of the
Black Hole of Calcutta. Of one hundred and forty-six persons, shut up in
this place for only ten hours, without any other means of ventilation than one
small opening, but twenty-six were found alive, when it came to be opened;
and most of these suffered afterward from malignant fevers.
The fainting of feeble persons in crowded assemblies, and the asphyxia, so
often produced in those who descend into deep wells without suitable precau-
tion, are familiar examples of the same noxious effects of this poison.
In has been usually estimated, that every individual, by respiration, and the
various exhalations from the body, consumes or renders unfit for use, at least
from four to five cubic feet of air per minute. This is probably a low esti-
mate ; but authors of good repute differ considerably on this point. Mr. Tred-
gold's remarks, in this connection, are interesting and pertinent. ' The Phys-
iological Chemists,' says he, ' have placed in our hands a more accurate
means of measuring the deterioration of air in dwelling rooms, than by the
best eudiometer; for they have shown, by repeated experiments on respira-
tion, that a man consumes about thirty-two cubic inches of oxygen in a minute,
which is replaced by an equal bulk of carbonic acid from the lungs. Now,
the quantity of oxygen in atmospheric air is about one fifth ; hence it will be
found, that the quantity rendered unfit for supporting either combustion or ani-
mal life, by one man, in one minute, is nearly one hundred and sixty cubic
inches, by respiration only. But a man makes twenty respirations in a minute,
and draws in and expels forty inches of air at each respiration; consequently,
the total quantity contaminated in one minute, by passing through the lungs, is
eight hundred cubic inches.'* The other sources of impurity, which should
be considered, will increase the estimate to the amount above stated. The
amount of vapor discharged from the lungs, and thus added to the impurities
of the air, is said to exceed six grains per minute. It has also been shown
'Tredgold on Warming, &c., p. 69
BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. 309
that air, which has been some time in contact with the skin, becomes almosl
entirely converted into carbonic acid.
In estimating the amount of fresh air to be supplied, we ought not merely to
look at what the system will tolerate, but that amount which will sustain the
highest state of health for the longest time. Dr. Reid recommends at least ten
cubic feet per minute, as a suitable average supply for each individual ; and
states that his estimate is the result of an 'extreme variety of experiments,
made on hundreds of different constitutions, supplied one by one with given
amounts of air, and also in numerous assemblies and meetings, where there
were means for estimating the quantity of air with which they were pro-
vided.' (Illustrations of Ventilation, p. 170.)
These calculations refer to adults ; buT; the greater delicacy of the organiza-
tion of children, and their feebler ability to resist the action of deleterious
agents, together with their greater rapidity of respiration, demand for them at
least an equal supply. Proceeding upon this basis, and multiplying the amount
required per minute, by the minutes of a school session of three hours, we
have eighteen hundred cubic feet for each pupil, and for two hundred and fifty
pupils the average maximum attendance in one of our large school-rooms,
450,000 cubic feet, as the requisite quantity for each half-day. The rooms
contain about 22,500 cubic feet only : so that a volume of air, equal to the
whole cubic contents of each room, should be supplied and removed, in some
way, ten times every three hours, in order to sustain the atmosphere in them at
a point which is perfectly wholesome and salubrious. For such a purpose,
the present means are so entirely inadequate, that it was found that the air of a
room became tainted in ten or fifteen minutes. In ordinary cases, four per
cent, of the air expelled from the lungs is carbonic acid. The presence of five
or six per cent, will extinguish a lamp, and with difficulty support life. It is
therefore certain, that the air would become deprived of all its best properties
in one school session.
Le Blanc, who examined many public and private buildings, in France
and elsewhere, speaking of the Chamber of Deputies, where sixty-four cubic
feet of fresh air per minut.?, were allowed to each individual, states, that ot
10,000 parts escaping by the ventilator, twenty-five were carbonic acid ; while
ihe quantity of this gas ordinarily present in the atmosphere, is but y^ffr*
Dr. Reid states, that he never gave less than thirty cubic feet of air a minute,
to each member of the House of Commons, when the room was crowded; and
once he introduced, for weeks successively, sixty cubic feet a minute, to each
member.
The very earliest impressions received by your Committee, in their visits to
the school-houses, satisfied them of their lamentable condition in regard to
ventilation. In some of them, they found the air so bad, that it could be per-
ceived before reaching the school-rooms, and in the open entries; and the chil-
dren, as they passed up and down the stairs, had their clothes and hair percep-
tibly impregnated with the fostid poison. And these circumstances existed in
houses, where the open windows testified, upon our entrance, that the Masters
had endeavored to improve the atmosphere by all the means placed at their
disposal. To this custom, that of opening windows in school hours, the In-
structors are compelled to resort, for relief; and this expedient, certainly, is the
lesser of two very great evils. Your Committee found in their visits to the
school-houses, during the severest days of last winter, that no school-room
had less than three, and that more than half of them had at least seven windows
open for the admission of pure air. Yet this dangerous and injurious practice
only mitigates the evils of bad air, by creating others. It produces colds and
inflammatory complaints, and the air still remains impure, offensive, and
highly deleterious ; sufficiently so, to affect the delicate organization of child-
hood, to blight its elasticity, and destroy that healthful physical action, on
which depends the vigor of maturer years.
We have already referred to some of the more violent and sudden effects of ex-
posure to air highly charged with these noxious gasses. There are others, which
are more remote, and, to a superficial observer, less noticeable. But they am
not, therefore, of less importance. The grave consequences of a long-contin.
ued exposure to an atmosphere but a little below the standard of natural
purity, although not immediately incompatible with life, can hardly be over-
310
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
stated. These effects are often so insidious in their approach, as hardly to at-
tract notice ; they are therefore the more necessary to be provided against in
advance.
Children, confined in the atmosphere of these schools, soon lose the ruddy
and cheerful complexions of perfect health which belong to youth, and acquire
the sallow and depressed countenances which might reasonably be expected in
over-worked factory operatives, or the tenants of apartments 'unvisited by the
sun or air. We noticed in many faces, also, particularly towards the close of
a school session, a feverish flush, so bright that it might easily deceive an in-
experienced eye, and be mistaken for a healthy bloom. Alas ! it was only a
transient and ineffectual effort of nature to produce, by overaction, those salu-
tary changes which she really wanted the power to accomplish.
The condition of the pupils, depressed as they are by these influences, is
constantly demanding increased exertions from their Instructors, while the re-
quirements of the age place the standard of education a an elevation sufii-
ciently difficult of access under the most favorable circumstances.
Your committee are satisfied, therefore, that the present state of the school-
houses daily impairs the health of the pupils and Instructors, and the efficiency
of the schools for the purposes of instruction. That its continuance will pro-
duce, not only immediate discomfort and disease, but, by its effect on the con-
stitutions of the children, who must pass in them a large portion of those
years most susceptible to physical injury, will directly and certainly reduce
the amount of constitutional vigor hereafter to be 'possessed by that large mass
of our population, which now and hereafter is to receive its education in these
schools.
Although the atmosphere in the different school-houses varied very much in
particular cases, either owing to the time of the visits, o-r from the amount of
attention and intelligence of the Masters, yet in none of them was it at all sat-
isfactory ; not one of them was furnished with any useful or systematic means
of ventilation. Every one, in order to be kept in a tolerably comfortable con-
dition in this respect, required the frequent and laborious attention of the In-
structors, and often to a degree which must have seriously interfered with their
legitimate duties.
All of the rooms are provided with registers, in or near the ceiling, ostensi-
bly ibr the purpose of discharging the foul air, but which your Committee be-
lieve to be almost entirely useless. The openings through the roof into the
open air, where they exist, are so small, as to be quite inadequate to relieve the
attics ; so that the bad air must accumulate there, and, after becoming condensed
be gradually forced back again, to be breathed over by the same Jungs
which have already rejected it. The condition of the apartments, after under-
going a repetition of such a process, ibr any length of time, can easily be
imagined." < .
A reference to the subjoined diagram will explain at once the present state
of the Ventilation of the School-Houses.
a. Heated air from furnace.
b. Hot air escaping through
open window.
c. Cold air entering through
open window.
BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. 311
It may be a matter of surprise, to some, perhaps, that the subject of ventila-
ting our school-rooms has not long ago received the consideration necessary
to remedy, or even to have prevented altogether, the evils of which we at pres-
ent complain. But these evils have not always existed. It should be recol-
lected, that the stoves and furnaces now in common use, are of comparatively
modern date; and moreover, that the ample fireplaces, which they have dis-
placed, always proved perfectly efficient ventilators, although, it is true, some-
what at the expense of comfort and fuel. But in closing the fireplaces, and sub-
stituting more economical methods of warming, evils of far greater magnitude
have been entailed upon us.
It is evident, that, in order to carry into operation any complete system of
ventilation, there must be connected with it some apparatus to regulate the
temperature o*" the air to be admitted, as well as to ensure its ample supply.
Your coro/nittee have accordingly examined, with much care, this part of the
subject. A majority of the buildings are furnished with ' hot-air furnaces,'
situated in the cellars ; the remainder with stoves, placed in the school-rooms
themselves. Most of the furnaces possess great heating powers, indeed much
greater than is necessary, if the heat generated by them were properly econo-
mized, or could be made available ; but, as now constructed, they are almost
worse than useless, consuming large quantities of fuel, and, at the same time, so
overheating the air which passes through them, as to deprive it of some of its
best qualities, and render it unsuitable for respiration. It is difficult to define,
with precision, and by analysis, the changes which take place in air subjected
to the action of metallic surfaces, at a high temperature. The unpleasant
dryness of the air can be detected, very readily, by the senses ; and the head-
ache, and other unpleasant sensations, experienced by those who breathe such
an atmosphere, would seem to prove a deficiency of oxygen and electricity.
The rapid oxydation and destruction of the ironwork of the furnaces them-
selves, also tends to confirm, this supposition.
It has been ascertained, by repeated examinations, that the temperature of
the air, when it arrives at the rooms, is often as high as 500 and G(XP Fahren-
heit. Of course, it is entirely impossible to diffuse air, thus heated, in the
parts of the room occupied by the pupils. Much of it passes rapidly out of the
windows, which may be open ; the rest to the ceiling, where it remains until
partially cooled, gradually finding its way down by the walls and closed win-
dows, to the lower parts of the room. The consequences are, that, while
much more caloric is sent into the apartment than is requisite, many of the
pupils are compelled to remain in an atmosphere which is at once cold and
stagnant.
The source of the cold air for supplying the furnaces, is not always free
from objection ; some being drawn from the neighborhood of drains, cesspools,
&c. This is a radical detect, as it must inevitably affect the whole air of the
building. The boxes, which admit the cold air to the furnaces, are much too
contracted ; some of them being only a few inches square, when their capacity
ought to be nearly as many feet. The air enters the ' cold-air ' chamber of
the furnace, at its top, whence it is intended to be carried down between thin
brick walls, (which should be coll, but which are often heated to 300 Fahren-
heit,) to the lower part of the furnace, and thence into the ' hot-air ' chambers,
and so on to the rooms above. It is obvious that the 'hot-air' chamber
must be heated to a temperature far beyond that of the ' cold-air' chamber, in
order to compel the air, against its own natural tendencies, to pass into it with
any velocity or volume, and the very attempt to accomplish this, almost de-
feats itself; as, by driving the fire for this purpose, the ' cold-air ' chamber be-
comes still hotter, so that at last the contest is decided only by the greater cal-
orific capabilities which the iron plates possess over the brick wall. At any
rate, the temperature of the iron is frequently raised to a red and even a
white heat, by running the furnaces in the ordinary way. This soon destroys
them, and they require consequently to be frequently renewed. In addition to
all this waste of fuel and material, the folly of attempting, in any way, to
warm school-rooms whose windows are freely opened to the admission of an
atmosphere, at the low temperature of our winter climate, may well claim a
nassing notice.
312
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The following diagrams will exhibit the mode in which the two houses al-
ready referred to, are now ventilated.
PLAN OP THE VENTILATION OF THE ELIOT SCHOOL-HOUSE.
a. a. Cold air channels to
furnaces.
b. b. Heated air.
The arrows show the cur-
rents of air from the furnaces
to the outlet at the roof.
c. Gas burner.
This house was entirely without any external opening through the roof.
The other arrangements in it presented nothing peculiar. The ' exits and the
entrances ' were all as deficient in capacity as usual. The first care was to
perforate the roof. This was accordingly done, and an opening of sufficient
size made to carry a turn-cap of two and a half feet in diameter in its smallest
part. The cold-air shaft, with an area of only one hundred and forty square
inches, was enlarged so as to measure six hundred, or about four times its for-
mer size. The necessary repairing of one furnace, gave us an opportunity to
enlarge its air-chamber very considerably. Water, for evaporation, was placed
within a chamber of the furnace. The registers in the rooms opening into the
attic, being below the ceiling, were raised to the highest point, and increased
in size.
Although we think the want of connection of the cowl at the roof with the
registers from the rooms by closed tubes, a decided disadvantage, we were sat-
isfied, on the whole, with the results ; as the alterations gave great relief.
These changes were made during the month of February, 1846, and the only
inconvenience suffered during the winter, was the occasional rise of the
temperature to five or ten degrees beyond the desired point. The atmosphere
has lost its bad odor almost entirely," and is of course much more agreeable.
A gas burner has lately been placed in the throat of the ventilator, for use
when extra power is needed.
PLAN OP THE VENTILATION OP THE ENDICOTT SCHOOL-HOUSE.
This house, as well as the preceding, was heated by furnaces in the cellar,
one for each room. Its ventilating flues were arranged'in a better manner than
usual, opening into little separate chimneys which pierced the roof near the
copings. But they had proved to be insufficient, both on account of their size
and situation. They were also affected sensibly by down-gusts, which com-
pletely reversed their action in certain states of the atmosphere and wind.
BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION.
313
a. a. Currents of heated air
passing to the ventilating flues.
b. b. Cold air channels.
c. c. Cold air valves opening
upon the hot-air currents.
F. F. Furnaces.
& Stove in ventilator in the
attic.
After enlarging the cold-air shaft to a proper size, it was thought best, (as the
hot-air pipe passed through the brick wall, so that it could not easily be altered,)
to make an opening through the outer wall directly behind the register which
delivered the hot-air into the room. An aperture of sixteen inches square,
commanded by a revolving damper, was therefore cut. It has been found to
answer exceedingly well;, as we now get a much larger volume, of more tem-
perate and purer air.
For the delivery of the bad air, the following arrangements were "adopted.
Large wooden boxes, or air-shafts, were carried from the floor of each story
into the attic, where they communicate, by closed metal pipes of the same size,
with a tin cylinder, three feet in diameter, which is continued to the roof, ter-
minating there in a large cowl. There are openings, at the top and bottom of
each room, into the ventilating shafts, which can be used separately, or
together, as the state of the atmosphere requires.
An air-tight coal stove, placed within the drum, in the attic, completes the
apparatus. This has been only recently constructed ; but from results already
produced, there is no doubt of its entire ability to accomplish all that is
desirable.
The same general statements which have been made with regard to the
Grammar School-houses, will apply to the Primary School-houses. They are
undoubtedly in as bad a condition, to say the least; and from their smaller ca-
pacities in proportion to the number of pupils which they contain, require
particular attention.
For ventilation of these, and the Recitation rooms, which resemble them in
structure and size, your Committee recommend the use of the double fireplace*
or the Ventilating Stove, which will be hereafter described. If the latter be
used, ventilating flues, opening at the ceiling, must be carried out of the roof.
It only remains for your Committee to describe, more particularly, the system
of ventilation which they consider to be, in its general features, best adapted
for the school-houses under the care of the Board. Much of it has al-
ready been anticipated in other parts of this Report; and the following
plan Avill show, at a glance, better than any description can do, its particular
features.
* See page 38 of this Essay for a diagram and description.
314
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE BEST GENERAL PLAN FOR WARMING AND VENTILATING
THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSES.
a. a. Cold-air channel, three feet in diameter, opening underneath me
Furnace.
F. Furnace, three feet in diameter in a brick chamber ten feet square.
The walls twelve inches thick.
d. Smoke flue, surmounted with Mr. Tredgold's chimney top.
b. b. b. b. Currents of warmed air, passing from the furnace, through a main
flue of four feet in diameter, which supplies two branch flues. From these the
air is diffused into all parts of the room, by means of the tablets which are
placed over the mouths of the registers.
e. The ventilating shaft, two and a half feet in diameter, into which the
foul gasses are collected, and from which they are finally discharged into the
open air.
c. An Argand Lamp, to be lighted from the attic.
r. r. r. Registers, by means of which the whole circulation is controlled.
The Committee recommend attention to the following general rules for Ven-
tilation and Warming.
1. The air must be taken from a pure source. The higher parts of the
building are the best, as thereby all impurities, which often contaminate air
taken from near the surface of the ground, are avoided.
2. In order to ensure a constant and abundant supply, the air shaft must be
surmounted with a cowl or hood of some kind, with its mouth turned towards
the wind.
3. The fresh air should in all cases be carried entirely beneath the furnace.
BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. 315
If the cellar is wet and the situation low, the underground culvert or channel
should be of brick, laid in cement.
4. The furnace chamber should be so large that it can be entered at any
time, without the necessity of taking down walls, for the purpose of repairs, or
to observe the temperature. A large earthen pan for the evaporation of water
should never be omitted. This should be kept always perfectly clean, and the
water required to be frequently changed.
5. A thermometer should be constantly at hand, and the temperature in the
warm-air chamber should never be allowed to exceed that of boiling water. A still
lower temperature is often desirable. If this point is secured, the hot air can
be conducted with perfect safety under floors, or into any part of the building,
for its better diffusion.
6. The openings for the admission of the warm air into the rooms, should bs
as numerous as possible. The long platform occupied by the teachers, by being
perforated in front for its whole length, would be an excellent diffusing surface.
7. Openings of ample size must be made in the highest points of the ceiling,
to be connected at the top of the roof with a turn-cap or louvre, the former
being always surmounted with a vane. It is better that the ceiling should be
perforated at its centre, and there is no objection to running the ventilating
shaft, at first, horizontally, if the perpendicular and terminal portion of it is ot
considerable length.
8. It is highly important to have a power of some sort, within the apparatus at its
top, for the purpose of compelling constant action, and of increasing the force of
the apparatus, whenever the state of the weather, or the crowding of the room,
render it necessary.* For this purpose, the most convenient and economical
means are furnished by a gas bnrner, an Argand lamp, or a stove; and one of
these should be in constant readiness for use, when neither the velocity of the
wind, or the low temperature of the external aimosphere are sufficient to pro-
duce the desired effect.
9. All the openings and flues for the admission of pure air, and the discharge
of the foul air, should be of the maximum size ; that is, they should be calculated
for the largest numbers which the apartment is ever intended to accommodate.
10. Valves must be placed in all the flues, and so arranged as to be easily
regulated without leaving the rooms into which they open.
11. The best average temperature tor school-rooms, is from 64 to (58
Fahrenheit; this range including that of the healthiest climates in their best
seasons.
For the purpose of summer ventilation, and for occasional use in moderate
weather, fireplaces of good size should be constructed in all the new houses, at
least. They should always be double, and furnished with large air chambers,
which communicate with the open air. When not in use, they must be closed
with tight boards or shutters, as they would otherwise interfere with the regular
ventilation.
With these arrangements, intelligently controlled by the Teachers, your
Committee believe that an atmosphere will be secured which will be perfectly
agreeable and salubrious; which will lighten the labors of the Teachers, and
promote the comfort, health, and happiness, of the thousands of children who
are daily congregated in our Public Schools. "
This Report was received, and tho same Committee were " directed
to adapt to each school-room such apparatus, if any, as may be re-
quired to secure to them proper ventilation in winter and summer,
and to make such alterations and arrangements of the furnaces as
may be required." To be able to execute this order, the Committee
applied to the City Authorities for an appropriation of $4,000, which
was readily granted, after an examination by a Joint Committee ot
the Board of Aldermen and Common Council, of the school-houses
in which the improved ventilating apparatus had been introduced.
The following is an extract from the Report of the Joint Committee:
* This in practice has not been found necessary, although it may be sometimes.
316 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
"In order to be fully satisfied, the Committee visited 'the Endicott School,
where the apparatus was in operation. The day was exceedingly wet and dis-
agreeable, and yet the air of the rooms was found in an unobjectionable condi-
tion. The masters fully sustained the representations of the petitioners ; and
from their statements, as well as from their own observations, the Committee
were satisfied of the beneficial effects of said apparatus.
In order, however, to have a more full investigation of the matter, the Com-
Tiittee, on a subsequent day, visited the Johnson School and the Boylston
School. The day was dry and cold, and they found the air in the Johnson
School in a tolerably good condition. This is a girls' school; and it is well
Known that the pupils in such schools are neater, and attend in cleaner and
more tidy apparel, tnan the pupils in the boys' schools.
In the Boylston School, however, the Committee found the air very disagree-
able and oppressive ; and they could not but feel the importance of executing
some plan of relief."
If the Committee of Ways and Means, or whatever the money-
compelling power may be called in every city, and town, and dis-
trict, would satisfy themselves by actual examination, of the necessity
of a more perfect system of ventilation in all school-rooms, or in all
public halls where a large number of human beings are congregated
for a considerable length of time, and where fires or lamps are
burning, a reform would be speedily introduced in this respect.
With the means thus placed at their disposal, the Committee
applied themselves diligently to the duty of ventilating the school-
houses and at the close of the year, they had the satisfaction of
announcing in their Final Report, " that the Grammar School-houses
of Boston are now in a better condition in respect to their ventilation,
than any other Public Schools in the world." The Committee thus
sum up the results of their labors.
"The diversity of arrangement and the modifications in our plans which we
have been compelled by circumstances to adopt, have had iheir advantages, and
enabled us to arrive at the best results, and to satisfy ourselves entirely in re-
gard to the particular set of apparatus which we can recommend with confi-
dence for future use as decidedly the most effective and convenient. We have
therefore furnished drawings and specifications of the set of apparatus which
we recommend.
C/iilson's furnace.
Your Committee have made themselves acquainted not only with all the
Furnaces which have been manufactured in this place, and its neighborhood,
but with all those which have been exhibited here recently. Most of them
show much ingenuity of contrivance and excellence of workmanship ; but are
all, so far as we can judge, inferior in many respects, to the one invented by
Mr. Chilson, a model and plans of which we now exhibit, and recommend as
superior to all others.
It is simple in its structure, easily managed, will consume the fuel perfectly,
and with a moderate fire. It is fitted for wood or coal. The fire place is broad
and shallow, and is lined with soapstone or fire-brick, which not only makes it
perfectly safe and durable, but modifies very materially the usual effect of the
fire upon the iron pot.
The principal radiating surfaces are wrought iron, of a suitable thickness
for service, while at the same time the heat of the smallest fire is communi-
cated immediately to the air chamber. The mode of setting this Furnace we
consider essential ; more especially the plan of admitting the air to the furnace
at its lowest point, as it then rises naturally into the apartments above. This
IJOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION.
317
process commences as soon as the temperature is raised even a single degree.
The outer walls remain cold; the floor above is not endangered, and the whole
building is rapidly filled with an atmosphere which is at once salubrious and
delightful.
Section of Chilson's Furnace.
Section.
VENTILATING STOVE.
For the houses which we found without the Hot Air Furnaces, as also for
the Recitation and other single rooms, the invention of a Stove which shoul
gig sr [IOOL ARCHITE CTURE.
answer the same purpose became essential. One was therefore contrived ; ana
having been found in its earlier and ruder forms to be of great utility, it has
since been improved in its appearance, as well as in the convenience of its
management.
These Stoves are composed of two cylinders, the inner containing a fire
chamber, which is lined with soap-stone or fire brick, while the outer consti-
tutes a chamber for warming the air, which is introduced into it beneath the
inner cylinder, from an air box directly connected with the external atmos-
phere.
They possess the following advantages:
1. They are in fact furnaces, having distinct and capacious air chambers.
2. They insure, when properly set, that supply of fresh air which is indis-
pensable to the proper ventilation of any apartment.
3. The Regulating Distributor, which is movable or fixed, as may be de-
sired, determines with great accuracy the amount and temperature of the
admitted air.
4. The outer cylinder is never hot enough to burn the person or clothing, or
to be uncomfortable to those who are situated in its immediate vicinity.
5. They are constructed with the utmost regard to efficiency, durability,
compactness, and neatness of appearance.
These Stoves have been furnished to the Schools whenever your Committee
have required their use, and at manufacturers' prices, without any profit what-
ever to the inventor and patentee.
They may be used with advantage in the largest rooms, when the cellars are
unfit for Furnaces, or when it is preferred to have the fire in the room itself.
The Johnson, Wells, Hawes, and Winthrop School-houses are warmed entirely
by them.
The discharging ventiducts have been made in various ways; some of wood,
some of metal, and others of 'lath and plaster.' Some have opened at the
ceiling only, and in but one part of the room, while others have been equally
divided at opposite sides of the apartment. Our rule is this: If the Heating
Apparatus is at one end of an oblong room, the ventiduct is placed at the op-
posite. If the stove or furnace flue is at the middle of the longest side, the
ventiducts are placed at each end, and are of course reduced to one half the
size of the single one.
The best manner of constructing them is shown by the drawing, Fig. 1, and
described on the following page.
There is great economy in carrying the boxes to the floor in all cases. In
this way the room can be kept warm and the air pure in the coldest and most
windy days.
The registers at the top and bottom can be used separately or together, as
may be desired.
It is necessary and advantageous to apply some kind of cap or other covering
upon the ventiducts where they terminate above the roof. It is necessary as a
protection from the rain and the down blasts of wind, and it is also very advan-
tageous to be enabled in this way to avail our-
selves of the power of the wind to create an active
upward current. We used at first the tnrncap
or cowl invented by Mr. Espy, and with satisfac-
tory results. It is undoubtedly the best movable
lop known; but is noisy, and somewhat liable to
get out of working order. These objections to
the movable tops have long been known, and va-
rious stationary tops have been invented, and have
been partially successful. An improved Stationary
Top, or Ejecting Ventilator, as it is called, has
been invented during the past year by Mr. Em-
erson. It is shown in the drawing, and consists
of the frustrum of a cone attached to the top of a
tube, open in its whole extent, and surmounted Ejecting Ventilator.
by a fender which is supported upon rods, and
answers the double purpose of keeping out the rain
and of so directing or turning a blast of wind upon the structure, as that in what-
BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION.
319
ever direction it fallj, the effect, that of causing a strong upward draft, will be
very uniform and constant.
Being satisfied that this Stationary Ejector possessed all the advantages of
the best tops hitherto known, without the disadvantages of either of them, we
bave adopted it for several of the houses last ventilated, and find it in all re-
spects satisfactory. We therefore recommend it for general use.
The Injector may generally be dispensed with,
but in situations unfavorable for introducing air,
it may be sometimes found convenient, or even
necessary. [Mr. Emerson recommends the use
of the Inject&i, whenever a ventilating stove or
furnace is used, so as to secure the admission of
a quantity of pure air, warmed by the heating
surfaces of the stove or furnace, equal to the
quantity of air rendered impure by respiration
withdrawn by the Ejector. He refuses to allow
his ventilators to be placed upon any school-house
which is not supplied with fresh warm air.]
Injecting Ventilators.
Vcntithicts.
The discharging ventiducts should be situated at the part of the rooms most
distant from the stove or register of the furnace, and should always, if possi-
ble, be constructed in or upon an interior wall or partition, and an outer brick
wall must, if possible, be avoided. They should be made of thoroughly sea-
soned sound pine boards, smoothed on the inner sides, and put together with
two-inch iron screws. The outside finish may be of lath and plaster, or they
may be projected backwards into a closet or entry, as shown in Figure 3.
They must be carried entirely to the floor, and should be fitted at the top and
bottom with a swivel blind, whose capacity is equal to that of the ventiduct into
which it opens. This blind may be governed by stay rods or pulleys. The
elevation gives a view of the ventiducts for a building of three stories,
and shows the best mode of packing them, so as to avoid injuring the ap-
pearance of the rooms.
These ventiducts must be kept entirely separate to the main discharger at the
roof, as any other arrangement would impair or destroy their utility.
The size of the ventilators and ventiducts must correspond to the capacity
of the room, and the number it is intended to accommodate.
A room containing sixty scholars is found to require a discharging duct of
fourteen inches in diameter. A room for one hundred scholars requires the
tube to be eighteen inches ; and a room for two hundred scholars requires it to
be twenty-four inches.
The fresh air ventiducts should exceed in capacity those for carrying oft" the
impure 'air by about fifty percent.; so that there will then always be a sur-
plus or plenum supply, and the little currents of cold which press in at the
crevices of the doors and windows will be entirely prevented.
The section shown in Fig. 3 exhibits a very convenient mode of bringing the
cold air to the ventilating stoves in a three story building in connection with
the smoke flues.
320 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
FIGURE 1. FIGURE 2.
frr
*
Elevation of Ventiducts.
a. Cold air ducts,
d. Smoke flues
BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION.
321
The following section, (Fig. 3,) and plans (Fig's. 4 and 5,) exhibit at one
view an example of a building of two stories warmed and ventilated by the
apparatus and in the manner recommended.
FIGURE 3.
A. Chilson's Furnace.
B. The Boston School Stove.
C. Emerson's Ejector.
a. Cold or fresh air ducts.
b. Warmed air ducts.
c. Impure air ducts.
d. Smoke flues.
The letters on the plans correspond to those in the section.
322
SCHOOL-HOUSE ARCHITECTURE.
Plans of First and Second floors.
FIGURE 4.
Second Floor.
A. Furnace, a. a. a. Fresh air ducts, b. b. b. Warm air registers
c. c. c. Impure air ducts.
The modes of ventilation and heating above described and illus
trated, were unanimously approved by the school committee, and
recommended to the city government, for introduction into the
school-houses which may be hereafter erected.
BOSTON MODE OP VENTILATION. g 2 3
The Committee append to their Report directions for the manage-
ment of the Stoves, Furnaces and Ventiducts, to which they request
the attention of the masters of the Public Schools, in conformity to
the rule of the Board, which requires their attention to the Ventilation
of the School-houses under their care.
Rules relative to the use of the Stoves, Furnaces and Ventilators.
1. To kindle the fire. Close the upper, and open the lower registers of the
ventiducts ; close the upper door of the stove or furnace and open the lower
door; place the cover of the stove one or two inches up.
2. After the room becomes warm Raise the cover of the stove three or five
inches ; close the lower door of the stove and open the upper door ; open the
registers of the ventiducts about half their width.
3. If the room beco-me t-oo warm Open the registers full width, and raise the
cover of the stove high up, keeping the upper door of the stove or furnace open,
and the lower door closed.
4> If the room, become too cool Close the upper registers, (for a short time
only;) close the upper door of the stove and open the lower door; drop the
cover down within two inches of the sides.
5. Never close the top of the stove entirely down, while there is any fire
therein.
6. At night, on leaving the room, let the cover of the stove down within one
inch of the sides ; close the lower door, and open the upper one ; place all the
registers open about half their width.
7. Fill the water basins every morning, and wash them twice a week.
The fires should be kept, if possible, through the night, by covering the coal.
The coal to be white ash.
Construction of Ventiducts.
Since the first edition of this work was published, the following note
has been received from Dr. Clark, in relation to the structure of the dis-
charging ventiducts.
BOSTON, Feb. 12th, 1849.
HENRY BARNARD, ESQ.:
My Dear Sir, Will you allow me to ask your attention to a single matter relating
to ventilation? I refer to the construction, situation, and proper' materials of the venti-
ducts which are intended to carry off the foul air. In almost all instances within my
knowledge, excepting in the buildings in this place, which have been ventilated within
two or three years past, these discharging ducts are made of brick or stone, being often,
therefore, also built in the outer wall. If there is any peculiar advantage in our school-
house ventilation, its success is very much owing to the manner of locating and con-
structing these same ejecting ventiducts.
The brick ducts always operate doumwards ; that is to say, the air has a constant ten-
dency to fall in them, and they will never " draw" in the proper or upward direction, with
the best turncap or top known, unless there is a high wind, or unless artificial power,
such as afire, or a fan wheel be put in requisition. Now the contrary is the fact with the
thin wooden, or lath-and-plaster, interior ventiduct. The current is always in the right or
upward direction. They are warmed to the temperature of the room, and when provided
with a proper top will operate in all seasons. Although the currents will vary in power
and rapidity, yet, while almost all our ventiducts are provided, and should be, with
means of heating by lamps or otherwise, I believe they have scarcely had occasion to
light them. So that any impressions formed in relation to this part of the subject from
the English, and particularly the French methods of ventilating school-houses, when the
brick flues are always used, must be entirely erroneous. The days in which the fires in
the French flues would be forgotten and omitted, or be permitted to go out, would far exceed
the number of those in which our ventiducts would not act in the most perfect manner
without any power at all.
I would not have troubled you, but that I know this point, from much practical experi-
ence, to be worthy of especial attention, and in case you should publish a new edition of
your work on school-houses, I hope it may be considered.
I am, dear sir,
Yours very truly,
HENRY G. CLARK
324
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
APPARATUS FOR WARMING.
THE thorough ventilation, the constant and regular change of the at-
mosphere of a school-room cannot be secured by simply providing flues or
openings, however judiciously constructed and placed, for the escape of
the air which has become impure from the process of breathing or other
causes. These flues will network satisfactorily, unless a mode of warm-
ing the room is adopted by which a large supply of pure fresh air, properly
heated, is flowing in to supply the place of that which is escaping by means
of the flues. Among the various modes of warming school-rooms and public
halls, which we have seen in full and successful operation, we select a few,
in addition to those described in other parts of the work, as worthy of the par-
ticular attention of committees and others, who are looking round for a
heating apparatus. We shall use the cuts and description by which the
patentees and venders have chosen to make their several modes of warm-
ing known to the public, without intending to decide on the relative
merits of any one mode.
CULVER'S HOT- Am FURNACE.
PATENTED AND MANUFACTURED BY CULVER & Co., 52 CLIFF-STREET, NEW YORK.
Culver's Hot-Air Furnace, as described in the following diagram and
explanations, is intended for hard coal, to be set in double walls of brick
masonry in cellar or basement, below the rooms to be warmed.
Figure 1.
A. Iron or Brick Ash Pit.
B. Ash Pit door.
C. Pot, or coal Burner,
with or without soap-
stmie lining 1 .
D. Fire Chamber.
E. Lower half of Tubular
drum.
F. Elliptical tubes.
G. -Upper half of Tubular
drum.
H. Top of Tubular dram.
I. Cap and smoke pipe.
K. Flat Radiator.
L. Water bason or evapo-
rator.
M. Smoke pipe to chimney.
N. Conductors of Hot Air.
O. Cold air conductor and
chamber.
P. Feed door.
d. Hot- Air chamber.
R. Damper in globe with
rod attached.
S. Pendulum valve for
cleaning.
f- Shows the direc-
tion of the currents of
hot or cold air.
CULVER'S FURNACE.
325
Culver & Co. also make, and put up, various sizes of Portable Furnaces, with
metallic coverings, suitable for counting rooms, stores, school- rooms and small
houses, warming tha rooms in which they stand, as well as others in the same
building, and they can be removed in summer as conveniently as stoves.
Figure 3.
Figure 2 represents a section of large size Portable Furnace or double cas-
ings of sheet iron or zinc. The same letters for reference are used as in Fig. 1.
Figure 3 represents a smaller size Portable Furnace, with two metal cover-
ings and an evaporating dish standing upon the top of the drum.
The peculiarities and advantages of the Furnace are thus set forth :
1. Its compact, convenient and beautiful form.
2. Its great durability ; being in all its parts of cast iron, set within walls of
brick masonry. The pot or burner being whole, is found by experience to be
more durable than those made of rings or segments, and entirely prevents the
admission of gas into the hot-air chamber.
3. The great radiating surfaces of this Furnace exceed those of any other,
and being nearly all perpendicular, and so arranged as to afford no chance for
the soot, light coal ashes or dust to collect on the plates and prevent the trans-
mission of heat through them, for it must be obvious to every thinking mind,
that if a radiating surface is of a zig-zag, or any other form that prevent the
descent of dust or soot in a perpendicular line, it will certainly collect dust upon
it, and just so much surface thus covered s destroyed for radiating purposes,
and in the same proportion will a greatei consumption of fuel be required to
produce a given result.
These furnaces are so constructed that heat acts actively upon those surfaces
within, and produces the immediate and powerful heating ot the cold air that
is admitted to the outer surface from the atmosphere, through the lubes for that
purpose.
4. The great economy in 'he use of fuel, making and controlling more heat
than by any other process of using it.
5. The joints of this Furnace are so constructed that the expansion and con-
traction of the metal cannot open them to admit gas into the hot-air chamber,
and it can be cleaned of soot and ashes easily, without the necessity of taking
down or breaking a joint; its action is simple, as easily understood and
managed as a cylinder stove, and as readily repaired and kept in order, and the
manner of " rehioving the deposits" is entirely novel and most efficient.
G. The constant current ot the pure atmosphere into the air chamber, witk
326
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
the evaporation for tempering it to any degree of humidity, gives a fine health-
ful ventilation, and a soft summer temperature, suited to the most delicate con-
stitution, and without injury to the building or furniture.
The above described Air Heaters are manufactured and sold, wholesale and
retail, by Culver & Co., who, when required, set them in double walls of brick
masonry, with cast iron smoke pipe to chimneys, and conductors of hot air, of
double cross tin, terminating with registers in the rooms, and secured safely
from fire by tin or soap-stone linings.
Figure 4.
Figure 4 represents patterns of scroll work Registers manufactured by Culver
& Co., and put in with their furnaces if desired. The registers have valves
under the surface, which are easily controlled by means of the star centers.
They can be used for ventilating purposes as well as for admitting warm air.
The following directions are given in Culver & Co.'s Circular for the
use of their Furnace.
DIRECTIONS FOK USE. In kindling the fire, the valve should be opened by
drawing out the Damper Rod R, so as to let the smoke pass directly through
smoke pipe M to chimney.
Shavings, pine wood, or charcoal, should be thrown into the pot or coal burner
C, and when well ignited, put in about half a hod of coal, and as soon as it also
becomes ignited, fill the pot two thirds full of coal, and push the damper R partly
in, so as to regulate the draught and heat as may be necessary. The. valve may
be entirely closed, if need be, so as to retain the heat, making it to pass through
the Flat Radiator K.
In moderate weather, when little heat is wanted, put two shovels lull of ashes
on the centre of the fire, and by regulating the draught, you can make one fire'
last 24 hours without any alteration ; and when you wish to renew the fire,
poke out a portion of the ashes, and put on fresh coal, without turning the grate.
In cold weather, however, to secure a brisk fire, the crank should be turned
so as to empty the pot entirely of ashes, and commence a new fire at least once
in 24 hours.
When there is too much heat generated, the ash-pit door, B, should be closed
entirely, and the damper rod partly drawn out, and if this is not sufficient, the
Register in feed-door P may be opened ; the heat in the different rooms may be
regulated by opening or closing the Registers; all the Registers however should
never be closed it the same time, unless the water door is opened to let out the
hot air.
The cold-air :onductor, 0, should always be open when the Furnace is ia
operation.
SAND-BATH AND DISTILLING APPARATUS.
327
Mr. Culver manufactures a Sand-Bath, with "Water-Bath and Distilling Appa-
ratus attached, which possesses the recommendations of efficiency, compactness,
and economy of fuel. The following description applies to one erected by him in
the Yale Analytical Laboratory, New Haven, as described by Prof. John P. Nor-
ton, in Sillimau's Journal for July, 1851.
Fig. 1. FURNACE.
In fig. 1, a is the furnace, the position of which is also seen at a in fig. 2.
The heat of the fire passes through the bed plate, 6, 6, fig. 2, heating the sand
which lies upon its upper surface. All noxious fumes are conveyed away by the
ventilator c, fig. 2, which opens into a chimney flue, and may be closed or opened
at pleasure by the chain d. To this sand-bath, the water-baths and distilling ap-
paratus are attached.
The furnace a is an iron pot, lined inside with firebrick as usual, e, e, fig. 1,
where is inserted a water-back of large size. This communicates by the pipe /,
with the water-bath g. There are two of these pipes, one above, and one below,
as shown at /, /, in fig. 2, through the open door. The front elevation of the
water-bath, which is of copper in all its parts, is shown at g, in fig. 2. Each of
the doors seen on the front, opens into a separate compartment. The depth of
these compartments is shown by the sections A, h, h, in fig. 1. At t, fig. 2, is a
larger compartment, for receiving articles of considerable size.
At j, is a glass tube to show the height of water in the water-bath, and at &, a
cock placed so low that all of the water contained may be drawn off", thus remov-
ing any small quantity of sediment which occasionally accumulates. These two
parts are seen more clearly atj, and k, in fig. 3.
The furnace is fed through a door at /. A moderate fire is sufficient to estab-
lish a brisk circulation through the pipes/,/, and causes the water to boil violently
in the water-bath, keeping it always full, up to 212 F. The steam formed
escapes through the pipe m, fig. 1 , also shown at m, m, figs. 2 and 3. At n, figs.
2 and 3, is a coupling, connecting the copper m with a blocktin pipe o, figs. 2 and
3, and worm /, fig. 1. This worm is contained in the condenser g, figs. 2 and 3.
The distilled water thus produced, escapes at r, figs. 2 and 3, and runs into the
receiver , beneath. The condenser stands on a shelf over a sink <, figs. 1 , 2, and
3, at the farther end of which is a force pump M, figs. 1 and 3. A pipe v, figs. 1
328 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
and 3, runs from the top of this pump into the condenser. The pump delivers
cold water into the sink in the common way, but by closing the cock at u>, fig. 3,
will throw its stream into the condenser. This water, when warm, is drawn off at.
the cock x, figs. 1, 2, and 3. The pipe from this cock, seen at y, fig. 1, rises to
within an inch or two of the top of the condenser, so that the warm water is drawn
off first. By this arrangement, the very great convenience is obtained of a con-
stant supply of hot water, delivered into the sink for washing.
As the well water at New Haven contains a considerable amount of solid mat-
ter, which soon incrusts the interior of vessels in which it is steadily boiled, rain
water only is used in the water-bath. The supply is kept up through the pipe z, as
shown in figs. 1 , 2 and 3, running under the floor. Its whole course may be traced
by these three figures. It rises into the box A, figs. 1, and 3, in which the water
stands on a level with the upper part of the glass guage tube, shown atj, in fig. 3.
Upon the surface floats a large, hollow, copper ball, B, fig. 1. As soon as the for-
mation of steam, and its consequent passing off into the condenser, commences in
the water-bath, the surface of course lowers, and a corresponding lowering occurs
in the box A. The copper ball B sinks with the water, and gradually opens a
valve at C, fig. 1. This admits a stream of water from an elevated cistern, which
flows in just fast enough to supply that which passes off from the water-bath as
steam.
This arrangement is only novel in its present application, being, I believe, quite
common in some of our cities for regulating the flow of water into cisterns. It
works admirably in the present case, and seldom if ever requires any attention.
If the fire is very hot, so much steam is occasionally generated, that it is not con-
densed with sufficient rapidity ; a partial flow of hot water back into the box A,
has several times occurred under these circumstances, but has never been suffi-
cient to overflow. This difficulty might be avoided by enlarging the conducting
pipe m, and the worm p, or by reducing the size of the water-back e, c, fig. 1.
The space D, fig. 1 , is a large, dry, hot oven, where quite a high heat is obtained.
This is also shown at D, the door being taken off. In this oven a shelf is placed,
perforated with holes for the insertion of funnels, tubes, &c. It is in constant use
for drying, and is found to be of very great service in all cases where rapid dry-
ing is desirable, and a precise temperature is not required. The small door at E,
fig. 2, is another means of access to this oven.
The water-bath is set in the brickwork, but may be taken out and reset without
disturbing the rest of the apparatus ; in fact, every part is accessible. The coup-
lings to the pipes/, /, may be reached through the door F ; those to the supply
pipe z, at G, fig. 3, those to the escape pipe ra, by taking out a brick at H, fig. 3.
In order to obtain ready access to the interior of the furnace pot a, there is a
large movable circular plate immediately above ; its circumference is shown by
the dotted line at I, I, in fig. 1.
The supply of water from the cistern to the box A, is cut off by a stop-cock at
the cistern, and the water may be entirely drawn off from the box by a small
cock at J, under the floor.
It will be seen that this arrangement is compact and simple. There is no part
liable to get out of order, or that, once out of order, can not be easily reached for
the purpose of repairs.
By means of one fire, and that not large, we heat the sand-bath sufficiently,
maintain a large water-bath constantly at 212 F., make from ten to fifteen gal-
lons of perfectly pure water per day, heat a large drying oven, and keep a con-
stant supply of hot water over the sink for washing. Every thing takes care of
itself, excepting the fire, and the occasional pumping of cold Water into the con-
denser. I am unable, after two months of experience, to suggest any important
improvement in these arrangements, and feel confident that any one who should
put up a similar apparatus would not be disappointed.
The iron work is all japanned. The glass should be set with a putty made
of boiled linseed oil, as that will harden under the heat to which it is exposed ;
the common putty made with fish oil remains soft, and the glass is constantly lia-
ble to get out of place.
Prof. Norton expresses his obligations to Mr. Culver, for the practical skill by
which the difficulties in adjusting the different parts of this apparatus were over-
come, and for the substantial and satisfactory manner in which the work was done.
SAND-BATH AND DISTILLING APPARATUS.
329
Fig. 2. FRONT ELEVATION.
Fig. 3. SIDE ELEVATION.
330 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
MOTT'S VENTILATING SCHOOL-STOVE, FOR BURNING WOOD OR COAL.
Patented and Manufactured by J. L. MOTT, 264 Water-street, N. Y.
By this stove the room is warmed by conducting a supply of moderate/y
heated pure air from without, as well as by direct radiation from the upper por-
tion of the stove.
A. Air Chamber, lor coal or
wood.
B. A revolving grate with a
cam process, by which the
ashes are easily detached
and made to drop into the
ash-pit below.
C. Ash-Pit, by which also the
draft can be regulated, and
the stove made an air-tight.
D. Duct, or flue under the floor,
by which fresh air from
without is admitted under
and around the stove, and
circulates in the direction
indicated by the arrows.
This, and all stoves designed to promote ventilation by introducing fresh air
from without, will work satisfactorily only where a flue properly constructed
is provided to carry off the air which has become impure fiom respiration.
CHILSON'S VENTILATING STOVES.
331
CHILSON'B COAL VENTILATING SCHOOL STOVES.
The Boston Ventilating Stove, Fig. 1, designed and patented by Dr. Clark, and
Chilson's Patent Trio Portable Furnace, Fig. 2, are composed of a cylinder of sheet-
iron, inclosing a fire-chamber which is lined with soapstone, or fire-brick, and is
so made as to present a large amount of radiating surface. The air to be warmed,
is introduced beneath the fire-chamber by a flue from out of doors, and passing up,
and around the heated surface, flows directly into the room, or into pipes to be
communicated into other departments, as indicated by the arrows in the above
drawings. These stoves and furnaces are intended to burn coal.
FIG. l.
Fia. 2.
CHILSON'S WOOD VENTILATING STOVE.
Mr. Chilson has also patented a plan of stove for burning wood, Fig. 3, by which
the air is introduced by a flue beneath the stove, and is warmed by circulating
through cast-iron tubes, which constitute the sides and ends of the stove.
Fio. 3.
HIL S ON^VEtfTItAT IN GWO OD STOVE
332
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
CHILSON'S AIR-WARMING AND VENTILATING FURNACE,
Patented and Manufactured by Gardner Chilson, Boston.
The construction of the Air- Warming and Ventilating Furnace was projected
by the inventor, to obviate the serious, if not fatal, objections, so generally
made, to the use of furnaces for warming apartments, where a fresh, healthful
atmospheric air is required. From long experience in putting up furnaces, in
which coal was consumed in deep iron pots, and the air which they warmed was
made to pass over a large extent of iron surface, made and kept red-hot, he
found that the occupants of the rooms thus warmed, complained that the air
was not unfrequently filled with the gases of the burning coal, and was at all
times dry and stagnant, causing, especially to persons of a nervous tempera-
ment, disagreeable sensations to the whole system, such as dizziness of the
head, headache, inflammation of the eyes and lungs, dryness of the lips and
skin, &c. He found, too, by his own experience and observation in the manu-
facture and use of furnaces of this kind, that there was an unnecessary con-
sumption of coal, when burnt in deep, straight and narrow pots, causing the
coal to melt and run to cinders, and at the same time burning out the pots, and
loosening the joints of the furnace, by which the deadly gases escaped into the
air-chambers, and hence into the apartments above. These objections, both on
the score of health and expense, the inventor claims that he has thoroughly ob-
viated in his Air-Warming and Ventilating Furnace, and at the same time pre-
served all the advantages heretofore realized from this mode of warming build-
ings. The advantages of the Furnace are
1. The fire-pot is constructed on the most economical and philosophical
principles. It is broad and shallow, at least twice as broad and one third as
deep as the common fire-pot ; is one third smaller at the bottom than at the
top, and is lined with fire-brick or soap-stone. Thus the fire-bed is deep enough
to keep the coal well ignited with a slow but perfect combustion, while the en-
tire heat from the fuel is given out to act upon the radiating surface alone and
the fire-pot can never become red-hot, and does not require renewal. This
plan for burning coal is original with the inventor, and has met with universal
approbation.
'2. The radiating surface is large, and so placed that it receives the immedi-
ate and natural action of the heat, and at the same time imparts its heat in the
CHILSON'S FURNACE. 333
most direct and uniform manner to the fresh air from without, without suffering
waste by absorption from the outer walls of the air-chamber.
3. The air-chamber is large, and the fresh air is admitted and discharged
so readily and uniformly that no portion of the radiating surface can ever be-
come overheated ; and a delightful summer temperature is maintained in the
rooms.
4. The joints of the furnace are so constructed, that, even if the iron-work
was liable, like other furnaces, to crack from extreme expansion, by being over-
heated, (which it is not,) the gas from the burning coal cannot escape into the
air-chamber.
5. There are no horizontal inner surfaces on which dust and soot can gather,
which do not, at the same time, clean themselves, or admit of being easily
cleaned.
(>. The grate in the fire-pot is so constructed, that the ashes can be easily de-
tached, and the combustion facilitated.
7. It has stood all the test which sharp rivalry and the most severe philosophi-
cal practical science could apply to it, and has thus far accomplished all that
its inventor promised, and when tried in the same building with other fur-
naces, has uniformly received the preference. .
Dr. Bell, Superintendent of the McLean Asylum for the Insane, who has
given this whole subject his particular attention, in his Essay on the Practical
Methods of Ventilating Buildings, published in the proceedings of the Massa-
chusetts Medical Society for 1848, remarks as follows :
" The character of any variety of the hot-air furnace is measured, in my
judgment, by the simplicity of its construction, its non-liability to be brought
to an undue degree of heat in any part, and its ready receipt and emission of
air. That made by Mr. Gardner Chilson, of Boston, with an air-chamber of
brick, and an interspace of two or three feet in width, appears to me to combine
all the essentials attainable of this mode of heating air, more fully than any
other which has fallen under my observation."
In 1847, the School Committee of Boston sanctioned, by a unanimous vote,
the introduction of this furnace into the new school-houses to be erected in
that city, gn the recommendation of a sub-committee, to which the whole sub-
ject of warming and ventilating the school-rooms had been referred. The fol-
lowing is the recommendation referred to.
' : Your Committee have made themselves acquainted not only with all the
Furnaces which have been manufactured in this place, and its neighborhood,
but with all those which have been exhibited here recently. Most of them
show much ingenuity of contrivance and excellence of workmanship ; but are
all, so far as we can judge, inferior, in many respects, to the one invented by
Mr. Chilson, a model and plans of which we now exhibit, and recommend as
superior to all others.
It is simple in its structure, easily managed, will consume the fuel perfectly,
and with a moderate fire. It is fitted for wood or coal. The fire-place is broad
and shallow, and is lined with soapstone or fire-brick, which not only makes it
perfectly safe and durable, but modifies very materially the usual effect of the
fire upon the iron pot.
The principal radiating surfaces are wrought iron, of a suitable thickness
for service, while at the same time the heat of the smallest fire is communi-
cated immediately to the air-chamber. The mode of setting this Furnace we
consider essential ; more especially the plan of admitting the air to the furnace
at its lowest point, as it then rises naturally into the apartments above. This
process commences as soon as the temperature is raised even a single degree.
The outer walls remain cold ; the floor above is not endangered, and the whole
building is rapidly filled with an atmosphere which is at once salubrious and
delightful."
This Ventilating Furnace may be seen in the Mayhew, Dwight, Hancock,
Boylston, Bowdoin, and Ingraham school-houses, in Boston; also in several
new school-houses in Cambridge, Roxbury, Dorchester, Springfield, in the
Blind Asylum and House of Industry, South Boston, and in hundreds of pri-
vate houses in Boston and its vicinity.
334
SCOOOL ARCHITECTURE.
DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING CHILSON'S PATENT FURNACE.
In locating the furnace, choose a situation as equidistant from the registers as
possible, so that the pipes may be of nearly equal length, and branch from two or
more sides of the furnace.
Secure a proper foundation, by leveling the ground on which the furnace is to
rest ; and dig down a few inches preparatory to a foundation of brick work, which
should cover two inches larger than the outer walls. Should the ground be soft
or spongy, fill it with gravel or hard coal ashes ; if it prove necessary from the
lowness of the cellar to sink the base of the ash-pit below its surface, excavate a
trench of corresponding depth, the width of which shall be that of the recess in
the walls, and project out about three feet. Commence the walls as shown in the
ground plan, figure 1.
Figure 1 Ground Plan.
A A A Outer Walls.
B B B B Space, between outer and inner Walls, two inches at nearest point.
C C C C Inner Wall.
]) Brick covering over Cold Air Channel.
E Brick covering or floor from large Entrance Door.
F F F F F Iron Trench Plates.
G G G Three four-inch Brick Piers, support under Trench Plates.
H H Space between Trench Plates and base of Fire Pot, for ingress of Cold Air. Four and
a half inches for Nos. 3 and 4 : five inches for No. 5 ; six inches for No. 6.
I Cast iron Ash-Pit, or Base to Furnace
J Cold Air Channel.
K-8et back, or recess in front Wall ; for Nos. 3 and 4, thirty-three inches wide inside, and
eight inches deep. For Nos. 5 and 6, thirty-seven inches wide, and twelve inches deep.
CHILSON'S FURNACE.
335
The outer wall should be four inches in thickness ; that of the inner, eight
inches from the base to the trench plates, and four inches above made in the
form of a circle, of such diameter as shall leave a space of two inches between it
and the outer wall at the nearest point. Make the recess in the walls front of the
door as shown by ground plan, No. 1, and of the dimensions described under
same plan. Apertures must be made in the base of the inner wall, as shown in
plan No. 1 , to give the cold air free ingress into the space between the walls,
and carry off the heat radiated from the inside wall into the perforated hot air
pipe, and also to prevent the outer wall becoming hot and heating the cellar, caus-
ing a waste of heat, damage to vegetables, etc.
After the foundation has reached the height of the furnace base, the cold
air channel, which is constructed to conduct the air directly to the space be-
tween the inner wall and the cast iron ash-pit, should be covered by means of
iron bars overlaid with brick.
Figure 2 Sectional View.
SIZE or BRICK WORK.
No. 35-8 by 5-8, outside. I No. 56-6 by 6-6, outside.
" 46 feet by 6 feet, outside. ' " 67 feet by 7 feet, outside.
Outside Walls, four incnes thick, for all sizes.
Inside Walls, eight inches thick, all sizes, to Trench Plates, and four inches above.
Eight apertures, eight inches high and two wide, in base of inner wall, for the passage of
air between walls.
SIZE OF COLD AIR CHANNELS.
No. 3, Equivalent to 200 square inches, inside
" 4, 240 " " "
" 5, " 325 " " "
6, '< 400 " " "
336 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The entrance or man-hole door, should be built in the outer wall, as shown
by ground plan, letter E, and a corresponding opening in the inner wall, for
the purpose of entrance. On a level with the base, a covering, similar to that of
the cold air channel, should be placed between them and the open space between
walls, closed with brick, that the heat from the chamber may not escape through
the openings.
Construct the inner wall, as shown in the sectional view, No. 2, allowing its line to
follow outward, somewhat in the shape of the pot, for four or five courses, grad-
ually receding until within two inches of the outside wall ; from this point carry it
uprightly to the level of the dome plate ; then commence to draw in or decrease
its size in the form of an arched cone, of such sweep, that when opposite the
annular chamber, or ring of the furnace, it shall have a space of four inches
between ; carry this arched-shaped wall from eight to twelve inches above the
furnace, according to its size, then place iron bars across covered with brick ; finish
by thoroughly and smoothly plastering the walls inside.
The outer walls are to be carried up as represented in the drawing, partially
arched, and covered like the others ; after the mason work has reached the height
from which it is desired to carry the hot air pipes through the walls, place the ends
even with the inner wall, and build them into it.
Also build in casings of sheet iron or tin in front of the clearing-out pipe
and funnel, through both walls two inches larger than the pipe, running through
them ; the ends outside are of course to be stopped with caps, in one of which a
hole is made to admit the funnel.
The hot air pipes should be conducted from the highest point of the inner
wall, as in sectional view, through the arch of the brick work ; from which
point they should gradually rise to the registers in the floor, always keeping in
view the fact that the nearer the pipes can be carried to a perpendicular line from
the wall of the furnace to the apartment above, the more readily and economically
is heat obtained.
The size of the pipes and registers, and their general disposition, is a matter re-
quiring the best judgment of the mechanic under whose supervision they come,
and are determined by the size, position, and distance of the apartment from the
furnace, and can not be subject to any fixed rule; as in two rooms of the same
dimensions, we often use pipes and registers of different size, owing to their near-
ness or distance from the furnace in a horizontal line their height above the
basement the relative position of other pipes, the purposes for which the rooms
are to be used, and the amount of heat required, &c., &c. As a general rule,
however, in rooms upon the first floor, whose dimensions are equal to fifteen feet
square, and of ordinary height, use an eight-inch pipe, and registers eight by
twelve inches ; twenty feet square, ten-inch pipe, registers nine by fourteen inches ;
twenty-five feet square, twelve-inch pipe, registers ten by sixteen, or twelve by
nineteen inches. For halls of ordinary size, use register nine by fourteen ; ten-
inch pipe. Adopt the same scale in rooms of different capacity.
If pipes or hot air tubes are carried into apartments above those of the first
floor, they should be two inches smaller in size, than those used in rooms of the
same capacity below ; so that, should a lower room require a pipe of ten inches in
diameter, that above would be eight inches, and still higher, six inches ; supposing
each room to be of the same size, and directly above the first.
In all hot air pipes that go above the first floor, a damper should be placed near
the exit from the furnace, and kept closed when not in use, in order to economize
the heat that would otherwise fill the pipes when the registers are closed.
It is often expedient to heat two adjoining rooms separated by a partition ; in
which case, it is our custom to use but one pipe for both ; bringing it up to the
partition, and placing a T or horizontal pipe across the top, projecting each side,
into which registers are to be inserted, of a size corresponding with the rooms.
In double parlors, or rooms connected by sliding or folding doors, we usually
place but one register, near their common opening, in case it is intended to use
both apartments at once.
In many instances, it is required to heat rooms not in a direct line of communi-
cation from the furnace, and in which it seems difficult to introduce pipe without
marring the building, or exposing them to view in their passage through other
CHILSON'S FURNACE. 33 j
rooms. In such cases an ingenious mechanic will generally surmount the appar-
ent difficulty by taking advantage of closets, spaces between partitions, chimney
pieces, &c., or, if. either are impracticable, by carrying the pipes upright through
the corner of the room and hiding its unsightly appearance by finishing in front
with wood, painting it in representation of a column, or in such a manner as will
best suit the style of the apartment. As a rule, however, we do not carry pipes
above the first floor, except it is designed to heat an apartment for use during the
day, as the heat from the hall register will keep the chambers comfortably warmed
by leaving the doors opened.
The smoke pipe should be carried directly to the nearest flue, and should it be
necessary to carry it horizontally to a considerable distance, surround it by a
easing, or pipe of tin, three inches larger in diameter than the smoke pipe itself,
and the waste heat that radiates from the smoke pipe, may be used to warm any
adjoining apartment, by continuing a hot air pipe into the room and inserting a
funnel register which we manufacture for that purpose.
The cold air box should be constructed of wood, smooth-planed inside and out.
Its opening should be from the north or west side of the building ; carry it along
the ceiling to the furnace, then drop it perpendicularly down to the base of the
cold air channel. This box should contain a damper or slide, which in very cold
weather, or when the fire is first kindling, can be partially closed ; but so ar-
ranged that it shall never entirely shut out the air.
In speaking of a wooden cold air box, we do not by any means consider it im-
perative that this material should be used in its construction, as we often conduct
the air in a brick trench, covered with flat stones, smoothly plastered and thor-
oughly cemented, below the level of the ground. This method, when the cellar
is dry, has the advantage of permanence, and occupies no room ; but it is an ad-
ditional expense which all are not willing to incur, and is not reckoned in making
furnace estimates.
Perforate one or two of the hot air pipes with holes, two inches in diameter, in
the part which goes between the walls, for the purpose of carrying off the heat
that is collected in the space between.
If the cellar is wet, carry out the base on which the walls are to stand one
foot larger than the walls themselves ; use hydraulic or Roman cement in its con-
struction ; lay the brick two courses, and place a liberal supply of cement between ;
then, after the furnace walls are erected, carry up a barrier or guard wall from
the edge of the brick base, a few inches above the level of the ground, and fill the
intervening space between the barriers and the outer furnace wall with cement or
clay ; adopt also the same precaution around the trench ; in fact, form a complete
casing of brick, thoroughly cemented, all round the base of the furnace, which
will prove a sufficient guaranty from water.
In public halls, or buildings where but a single register is required, carry up
the inside wall to a perfect arch and lead the hot air pipe directly from the top,
and use a hot air grate without valves, of the following sizes :
No. 3 Furnaces Grates 22 inches in diameter, and Hot Air Pipes IS inches in diameter.
u 4 u >< 04 u u it tt 21 '
" 5 " 28 " " " " " 24 " "
it 6 it 32 .< 07
It is frequently desirable to have square or parallelogram shaped grates instead
of round ; when this is the case, use those sizes where capacity in square inches
will be equivalent to those given above.
In speaking of grates without valves, we wish it especially understood, that in
no instance where but a single pipe is taken from the furnace, should registers
with valves be used, or dampers placed in the hot air pipes ; but the amount of
heat required, should be regulated by the fire itself; or, if an outlet be deemed
expedient, carry it off by means of another pipe, into an adjoining apartment.
DIRECTIONS FOR USING CHILSON's PATENT WARMING AND VENTILATING APPARATUS.
1st. In building a fire in the furnace, open the damper in the smoke-pipe.
2d. Clean out the old coal and ashes from the ash-pit, and also from the lever-
grate ; sift the old coal, ashes, &c., and preserve the coal siftings for covering over
the fresh fire.
338
SCOOOL ARCHITECTURE.
3d. Always keep the ash-pit, under the grate, clear of ashes ; this done, there
18 no possibility of burning out the grate.
4th. Kindle the fire with a small quantity of either wood, bark, or charcoal.
Dry hard wood preferable.
5th. When the kindlings are well charred, put on a small quantity of white ash
coal, and when well ignited, (but before burning up clear,) add fresh coal, not ex-
ceeding six inches in depth.
6th. Close both the feed and ash-pit doors, also the small register in the ash-pit
door, then close the damper, in the smoke pipe, as far as practicable to cause the
fuel to be consumed slowly or on the air-tight principle ; this always to be done
before the coal burns up clear.
7th. Cover over the fresh coal fire in moderate weather, with fine coal and the
old coal siftings, keeping the draft in the smoke pipe well shut off ; in this way, a
fire may be kept for a great length of time without replenishing ; thus greatly
economizing in the consumption of fuel ; but in extremely cold weather, do not
cover over the fire with fine coal, but keep it bright, always checking the draft to
keep the fire clear of clinker.
8th. Always have a large supply of cold air passing into the furnace. At no
time have the damper, in the cold air-box, fully closed ; even in very cold weather
it should be at least one-half open. The milder the weather, the more fresh air
to be admitted for ventilation.
9th. Never allow all the registers to be closed at the same time ; and if the
rooms become too warm, regulate and lessen the fire, and let there be constantly
a free circulation of warm air from some, or all the registers ; this is essential for
the ventilation as well as warming of the rooms.
10th. Do not suffer the fire during the day, to get so low, before replenishing,
as to require kindlings to bring it up.
llth. Where there is provision made for ventilation in the rooms, and venti-
ducts extending down to the floor, with apertures at the top and bottom, close the
apertures at the top, and open those at the bottom, until the rooms become well
warmed and ventilated, and when there is too much warmth in the rooms open
the upper apertures, permitting the heat to run off, until the room becomes com-
fortable, then close the upper apertures ; never open the windows or doors in
cold weather to cool or to attempt to ventilate the rooms ; if done, it will prevent
the action or draft in the foul air ventiducts ; there is also a liability to those sit-
ting near the windows or doors to take cold, in consequence of the cold air falling
upon their heads. The above directions are simple and easily followed, and if
strictly adhered to, will be found very perfect in operation, and economical in the
consumption of fuel, keeping the fire ignited a long time without replenishing, and
fiving out a large quantity of fresh, healthful, warm air, perfectly free from red-
ot iron heat.
These ventilating flues or ventiducts, should always be located in an opposite cor-
ner of the room, from that at which the heated air enters, and should be carried
up separately to the roof of the building. They should be fitted at the top and
bottom with a door or valve, whose capacity should be equal to that of the venti-
duct into which it opens.
The best material for their construction is. thoroughly seasoned, sound pine
boards, planed smooth on the inner surface, and put together with iron screws.
It is indispensible to attach an ejecting ventilator to the ventiducts at their ter-
minus. In this way, down blasts are obviated, the rain excluded, and, whenever
there is a wind, no matter what its direction, it produces, in a properly construct-
ed ejector, an active upward current.
The arear of the flues for admitting fresh air, should exceed those of its exit
by about twenty-five per cent.
BUSHNELL'S FURNACE.
BUSHNELL'S PATENT HOT-AIR FURNACE.
Manufactured by Ezra Clark, Jr., 61 Front street, Hartford, Conn.
339
BUSHNELL'S FURNACE is the only one constructed on strictly scientific
principles, and bears any test either of theory or practice. Scientific gentle-
men have endorsed its excellence, and successful practice approves and con-
firms their recommendation.
The radiating part of this furnace, being that portion which diffuses the
heat, is distinguished from all others from the fact that the cold air is passed
into the furnace chamber between horizontal cast iron pipes or tubes, inside
of which the hot gas of the fire is circulating, and communicating its heat, as
it passes off to the chimney ; so that the cold air is brought in direct contact
with the heated iron, and is actually heated before it reaches the inner cham-
ber of the furnace. While the cold air is passing one way to be heated (be-
tween the heated iron pipes) the hot gas of the fire is passing the other way
to be cooled, and thus the mean difference of temperature is kept the greatest
possible at every point. The greatest amount of heat will be communicated
in this way, by the least amount of iron surface ; and as the radiator has a
very large surface, it follows that more heat is extracted (from a given amount
of fuel) than by any other invention yet offered to the public.
This furnace is so constructed that it clears itself of ashes and soot, never
requiring to be disturbed, and consequently requires not as much care as an
ordinary fire. A child can take care of it when in use, and it can stand from
season to season, untouched, without trouble or expense, and be at any mo-
ment ready for immediate use.
Two kinds of pots are offered by the manufacturer, for use with this fur-
nace ; one similar to the most approved forms now in use, the other entirely
different, and the invention of DR. BUSHNELL. It differs from all others in
allowing the fire to be stirred above the grate, and through the opening by
which the coal is entered. This throws up the dead coals and cinders, which
are then easily removed, and, as the grate need never be dropped, the dirty
process of riddling is avoided. No ashes escape, and the cloud of dust which
usually envelopes the tender in all other furnaces, is no where seen in this,
and no uncleanliness results from renewing the fire. The fire may be stirred
and cleaned when it is in full action, as well as at any other time ; the coals
will never rattle down to choke the fire, but will of necessity, by this method
of stirring, always be thrown up into a light open cinder, giving free passage
to the draft and facilitating combustion.
This furnace is offered in the entire confidence that it is the best ever
manufactured, and this bold assertion is warranted and proved by the favora-
ble testimony of those who have used it. A TRIAL is ALL THE PROOF RE-
QUIRED.
Three sizes of furnaces are made, viz. : No. 1 with 17 inch pot ; No. 2
with 20 inch pot ; No. 3 with 24 inch pot ; which are now for sale in most
of the larger cities and towns in the northern states.
Orders for Bushnell's Furnaces will be promptly attended to, on application
by mail or otherwise, to EZRA CLARK, Jr., Hartford, Conn.
340
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
DOUBLE FIRE-PLACE FOR WARMING AND VENTILATION.
The following plan of warming and ventilating a school-room is re-
commended by Mr. George B. Emerson in (he School and Schoolmaster.
The position of the proposed fire-place may be seen in the Plans of
School-rooms by the same eminent teacher, published on page 50 of this
work.
Warming: In a suitable position,
pointed out in the plates, near the door,
let a common brick fireplace be built. Let
this be inclosed, on the back and on each
side, by a casing of brick, leaving, be-
tween the fireplace and the casing, a space
of four or five inches, which will be heat-
ed through the back and jambs. Into this
space let the air be admitted from beneath
by a box 24 inches wide and 6 or 8 deep,
leading from the external atmosphere by
an opening beneath the front door, or at
some other convenient place. The brick
casing should be continued up as high as
six or eight inches above the top of the
fireplace, where it may open into the room
by lateral orifices, to be commanded by
iron doors, through which the heated air
will enter the room. If these are lower,
part of the warm air will find its way into
the fireplace. The brick chimney should
Fireplace.
A. Horizontal section. B. Perpendicular section, c. Brick walls, 4 inches thick.
d. Air space between the walls, e. Solid fronts of masonry. /. Air box for supply of fresh
air, extending beneath the floor to the front door. g-. Openings on the sides of the fire-
place, for the heated air to pass into the room. h. Front of the fireplace and mantelpiece.
'. Iron smoke flue, 8 inches diameter, j. Space between the fireplace and wall, k Par-
tition wall. I. Floor.
rise at least two or three feet above the hollow back, and may be surmounted
by a flat iron, soap-stone, or brick top, with an opening for a smoke-pipe,
which may be thence conducted to any part of the room. The smoke-pipe
should rise a foot, then pass to one side, and then over a passage, to the oppo-
site extremity of the room, where it should ascend perpendicularly, and issue
above the roof. The fireplace should be provided with iron doors, by which
it may be completely closed.
The advantages of this double fireplace are, 1. the fire, being made against
brick, imparts to the air of the apartment none of the deleterious qualities
which are produced by a common iron stove, but gives the pleasant heat of an
open fireplace ; 2. none of the heat of the fuel will be lost, as the smoke-pipe
may be extended far enough to communicate nearly all the heat contained in
the smoke ; 3. the current of air heated within the hollow back, and constant-
ly pouring into the room, will diffuse an equable heat throughout every part :
4. the pressure of the air of the room will be constantly outward, little cold
will enter by cracks and windows, and the fireplace will have no tendency to
smoke ; 5. by means of the iron doors, the fire may be completely controlled,
increased op diminished at pleasure, with *he advantages of an air-tight stove.
For that purpose, there must be a valve or slide near the bottom of one of the
doors.
If, instead of this fireplace, a common stove be adopted, it should be placed
above the air-passage, which may be commanded by a valve or register in the
floor, so as to admit or exclude air.
SCHOOL FURNITURE.
IN the construction and arrangement of the furniture of a school,
both for pupils and teachers, regard must be had to the following
particulars :
1. The varying size of the occupant; so that not one shall be sub-
jected to any awkward, inconvenient, or unhealthy position of the limbs,
chest, or spine.
2. The grade of the school, the occupations of the pupils, and the
methods of instruction, so that the objects aimed at may be secured in
the best manner. A school composed of very young children, another
in which drawing and sewing receive special attention, a third con-
ducted on the monitorial plan, a fourth embracing a large number of
pupils in a hall for study and lectures, under one principal teacher, with
class-rooms, for recitations by assistants, and a fifth in which the pupils
are classified under permanent teachers in separate rooms, will require
different, furniture and arrangements.
3. Facility of access, so that each pupil may go to and from his seat,
with the least possible noise, inconvenience, and waste of time to him-
self and others.
4. The supervision of the whole school by the teacher, with a free
passage for him to every pupil, as well as every facility for the ac-
commodation of his books of reference, and the use of apparatus and
diagrams, and his collective and class teaching.
5. Facility for sweeping and keeping the room neat.
The following diagrams and suggestions as to the details of con-
struction and arrangements, will enable committees to furnish their
school and class-rooms with appropriate furniture, which will answer
the above conditions.
The wood portion of all school furniture should be made of clear,
hard, well-seasoned material, like cherry, mahogany, or birch ; the sur-
faces worked smooth, the edges and corners nicely rounded, and all the
joints, as far as practicable, firmly morticed.
Each pupil should be allowed a desk with a top surface at least two
feet long and eighteen inches wide, with a shelf, box, or drawer to
receive books, &c.
The top surface of the desk should incline one inch in a foot toward
the front edge, except three inches of the most distant portion, which
should be level. Along the front edge of the level portion should run
a groove, a quarter of an inch deep, to prevent pencils from rolling off;
and on the opposite side an opening to receive a slate, and another for
an inkstand, or a permanently fixed cast-iron box with a lid, in which a
342 SCHOOL FURNITURE.
movable ink-well may be inserted. There should be no raised ledge on
the front edge.
The shelf should be about two thirds as wide as the desk, and decline
a little from the front. The opening to receive the books should be
about four inches. A box, of which the top of the desk forms the lid, is
a greater protection from dust, but the opening and shutting of the lid
is a frequent source of noise. A portfolio case be attached to the inside
of the lid. to receive drawings and manuscripts.
The standards to support the desk can be made of wood or cast-iron.
The latter are to be preferred, because, without adding much to the
cost, they have more strength and durability, and while presenting a
variety of elegant forms they can be so curved as to admit of easy
access to the seat, and facilitate the use of the broom in sweeping. A
variety of patterns are presented in the following pages.
When made of wood the standards should be firmly fastened by a
strong tenon into the sleepers of the floor or into a shoe, which can be
made of cast-iron. The shoe can be made fast to the floor by numerous
screws.
To secure the greatest firmness, the standards should not be more
than four feet apart, and should be strengthened by bars extending
between every two, or braces from the center of the standard to an
equal distance on the shelf, or back of the desk above. For these pur-
poses a socket for the bar or brace, should be cut in the middle of the
standard.
The several parts of the standard must be adapted to their intended
use. The top requires to be cast with a flange or stays crossing each
other at right angles, to screw to the wood-work of the desk or seat for
which it is intended. When it is practicable, the standard should re-
ceive the wood-work into a socket, arm, or lip, so as not to admit of being
displaced by any rough usage, which will not at the same time shatter
the iron. Several extra holes should be drilled in the standard to re-
ceive additional screws, as the old ones from time to time get loose.
The height of the standards, whether for desk or seat, will depend on
the size of the pupils who are to occupy them.
Every pupil, young or old, should be provided with a chair (or bench
having the seat hollowed like an ordinary chair) just high enough
to allow, when properly occupied, the feet to rest on the floor without
the muscles of the thigh being pressed hard upon the front edge of the
eeat.
In all cases, except in class-rooms fitted up specially for writing or
drawing lessons, or when their occupancy will not exceed fifteen or
twenty minutes without a change from a sitting to a standing posture,
the seats should be provided with a support for the muscles of the back,
and, as a general rule, especially for the majority of pupils, this support
should rise above the shoulder blades, and should in all cases incline
back as it rises, one inch in every foot.
The height of the seat from the floor, and the width, will depend on
SCHOOL FURNITURE.
343
the age, or rather the size of the pupils ; and, in providing seats for
them, regard must be had to the grade of the school, and the varying
size of the children. For a primary school, composed of children from
four, and even three, years of age to eight or ten, the height should
vary from eight to twelve inches, and the width from six to ten
inches; and for a school for pupils ranging from ten to sixteen years
of age, the height of the seats should vary from ten to seventeen
inches, and the width from eight to thirteen inches.
To provide against the evil of seats too high for the smallest children,
planks or suitable platforms should be furnished, to enable the teacher
to seat that class of children properly, so that the feet can rest on
the floor. If the children vary in age, and consequent size, in different
seasons of the year an extra number of seats, both high and low, should
be provided to meet the varying demand. Let the seats which are not
required for immediate use be carefully stored away in the attic, and
their places supplied by those which are.
Great difference of opinion and practice prevails as to the dimensions
of the seats and desks for pupils of different ages. The following scale
has generally been followed, in plans drawn or approved by the author
of this treatise. For schools composed of children of all ages, from four
years and under to seventeen years, eight different sizes have been
adopted and the number of each size has varied with the number of
pupils. The aim has been to secure for each pupil an average space
on the floor, of two feet long by twenty-six inches wide, besides the
space occupied by teachers' desks, an open area of two or three feet around
the room, and an aisle 16 inches wide between each range of desks.
NUMBBK.
SEAT OB CHAIR.
DESK.
Height from floor to
Front edge.
Width
to the
Support.
Height from floor to
Front edge.
Width
of top.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
inches.
9i to 10
104 to 11
12
13
14
15
16j
17 to 17J
inches.
9
$
104
Hi
124
12
inches.
194 to 20
204 to 21
22
23
24
25
264
274 to 28
inches
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
The scale of dimensions adopted in Wales' Improved School Furniture, will be
found on page 364, and in Ross' American School Furniture, on page 368. The
following table is taken from " Ricksons' School Builders Guide. 11
FORM
HEIGHT.
3.
BR'DTH.
DBSI
HEIGHT.
CB,
BREADTH.
DESK
TOPS.
Upper
Class.
Lower
Class.
Upr.
Clm.
Lwr
Clss.
SSL
Lower
Classes.
Flap.
Ink
Brd.
Slope.
ft. in.
ft. in.
in.
in.
ft. in.
ft. in.
ft. in.
in.
Minutes of Committee of)
Council. 1839-40 pp. 54, 55. \
1 4
9
2 6
1
I
l.'.in. in
foot.
Battersea Villaee School, from )
3in. in
a sketch by Mr. Griffiths". . \
1ft. 5 in.
National Society's Monthly Pa- >
per. No. XVIII, p. 11 \
1 6
1 2
6*
2 6
2
9
3
British and Foreign School So- )
ciety, Plain Directions, p. 14. \
Manchester National Schools. .
1 4J
1 24
9
9
2 6
2 44
1 1
3 i
foot.
344
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
GALLERY AND FURNITURE FOR INFANT AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS.
The gallery, or a succession of seats rising one above the other, on which the
children can be gathered at suitable times for simultaneous exercises, such as
singing, lessons on real objects, pictures, simple operations of mental arithmetic,
&c., has been found an economical arrangement, in respect to space and expense,
in schools for a large number of very young children, variously modified ; it is used
in Great Britain, not only in infant and primary schools, but in national schools
of the highest grade as to the age and proficiency of the pupils, for assembling the
whole school for lectures, or for the collective teaching of large classes in
writing, drawing, singing, and dictation.
The common mode, of constructing benches without backs, and without regard
to the size of the pupils, for six or eight young children, or even a larger number,
has nothing to recommend it but economy, and not even that, when the waste of
the teacher's time, in discipline caused by the children's discomfort, is considered.
But the opposite extreme, of separate chairs for each child, especially if the
chairs are set far apart for the purpose of preventing all communication and
to secure quiet, is not therefore the best mode of seating a primary school. The
social disposition of young children should be regarded, and their seats, whether
the old fashioned form with the " new fangled back," or the neat chair with back
and arms, should be contiguous, so that two can be seated near each other.
Even the youngest pupils should be provided with a desk, or with some
facility for using the slate in drawing and printing. In the absence of a desk
for each child, a leaf with slates inserted, or painted black, should be hung
low against the wall for the use of primary classes.
PRIMARY SCHOOL BENCH.
A movable bench for more than two pupils is an objectionable article of
school furniture ; but if introduced at all,
the above cut represents a style of this article which combines economy and
convenience. The back is inclined slightly from a perpendicular, and the
seat is hollowed. The scholars are separated by a compartment, or box, A,
which serves as a rest for the arm, and a place of deposit for books.
GALLERY AND SAND DESK FOR PRIMARY AND INFANT SCHOOLS.
For very small children a Gallery consist-
ing of a succession of seats rising above
each other, varying in height from seven to
nine inches, and provided with a support for
the back. This arrangement, in large
schools, affords great facility for instruction
in music and all simultaneous exercises.
The Sand Desk having a trench (b) paint-
ed black, to contain a thin layer of sand, in
which to trace letters and rude attempts at
imitating forms, was originally much resorted to with the
young classes, in schools educated on the Lancasterian or
Mutual system. This style of desk is still used in the
primary schools of the New York Public School Society,
but very much improved by Mott's Cast Iron Scroll
Stanchions and Revolving Pivot Chair. Every scholar
is furnished with a slate, which is deposited in the opening
(a) in the top of the desk.
PRIMARY SCHOOL FURNITURE.
345
The following cut, Fig. 4, represents a section of a gallery recommended in a
memorandum of the Committee of Council on Education.
Fio. 4.
tig. 5 represents a large gallery in the lecture-room of Borough Road School of
the British and Foreign School Society 5 and Fig. 6, a small gallery hi the cor-
ner of a class-room in the same school.
Fio. 6.
Figure 7 represents a Closing Gallery, designed for small rooms. Two steps,
ft 6, are fixed, and two, a o, are made on rollers, and when out of use are
1 ushed under b b. When used, they are kept in their place by a bolt to the floor.
Fio. 7.
346
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
DESKS AND SEATS OP WOOD.
The following cuts exhibit the cheapest mode of constructing a desk and seat
of wood, for one or two pupils, the front part of the desk, constituting the back or
support of the next seat. The height of the desk may vary from 28 to 29 inob.es
Fig. 8.
from the floor to the front edge of the top, for the oldest pupils, to 20 to 21 inches
for the youngest. The corresponding seat may vary from 17 to 18 inches, to 9-j
to 10 inches from the floor. The top of the desk and seat should be two feet long
Fig. 9.
for each pupil. The upper surface (a,) except about three
inches (b) of the desk, should slope one inch in a foot, and
may vary in width, from 18 to 12 inches. The level portion
of the desk has a grove (a) running along the line of the slope,
to prevent pencils and pens from rolling off, and an opening b
to receive a slate, and an opening c, (at the end, if the desk is
for one pupil, and in the center, if for two pupils,) to receive
an ink well, or box for an ink well, with a cover or lid. The
seat slopes a little from the edge. The standard, of the desk
and seat are curved, so as to facilitate sweeping and getting in
and out. The standards may be set in a shoe, as shown on
page 369, or made firm to the floor by cleats. Each desk is
furnished with a shelf, for books, maps, &c.
Fig. 10 is a section of a desk for two, with a chair for one pupil, on a standard
of wood.
Fig. 10.
The following cut (Fig. 1 0) represents a range of seven desks and seats, divided
by a partition (a) of matched boards, extending from the floor to three inches above
Fig. 11.
the surface of the desk. The partition gives great firmness to each desk, and sep-
arates each scholar more effectually than an aisle. The lowest seat is nine inches,
and the chair, to the leaf desk (e,) is l?i inches from the floor. The front edge of
the lowest desk (d) is 19^, and that of the highest (c) is 281 inches from the floor.
IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
347
HARTFORD SCHOOL DESK AND SEAT.
The following cut (Fig. 1,) represents a style of school desk, with a seat
attached, which has been extensively introduced into village and country
districts in Rhode Island, and the neighborhood of Hartford, and is recom-
mended wherever a rigid economy must be observed.
Fig. 1.
The end piece, or supports, both of the seat and desk, are cast iron, and the
wood work is attached by screws. They are made for one or two scholars,
and of eight sizes, giving a seat from ten inches to seventeen, and a desk at the
edge next to the scholar, from seventeen to twenty-six inches from the floor.
Fig. 2.
Each desk is fitted up
with a glass ink-well
(Fig. 2.) set firmly into
the desk, and covered
with a lid. The ink-well
may be set into a cast
iron box (Fig. 3,) having
a cover ; the box being
let in and screwed to
the desk, and the ink-well being removable for
convenience in filling, cleaning, and emptying
in cold weather.
The desk can be used, by de-
taching the support for the seat,
with a convenient school-chair,
made in the style represented in
cut (Fig. 4,) or in any other style.
The cost of a desk and seat for two scholars, perfectly fitted up, varies from
$1 37Ho$l 50 per scholar.
Manufactured by Messrs. Mien <$- Reed, JVos. 37 and 38 Ptarl street, Hartford.
348
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
MOTT'S SCHOOL CHAIR AND DESK.
The following minute description of Mott's Patent Revolving Pivot
Chair, and cast iron Scroll Stanchions for School Desks, is gathered
from a circular of the patentee :
The seat of the chair is of wood : all the other parts, of cast iron. The desk
stanchions are adjusted to the height of the chair in the following scale, viz:
No. of the
Chair.
Height of
Chair Seat.
Height of front
edge of Desk.
Width of Dek.
Length of Desk
scholar; (not
less.)
Distance
between the
rows of Decks.
1
2
3
4
10 Inches.
12 "
14 "
16 "
17 Inches.
19 "
22 "
24 "
12 Inches.
12 "
14 "
15 "
17 Inches.
18 "
20 "
22
20 Inches.
22 "
24 "
25 "
The first column denotes the number of the chair, as also the number of the
desk stanchions.
Second column, the height of the seat from the floor.
ITiird column, the height of the front edge of the desk from the floor.
Fourth column, the width of the top of the desk. The slope of the desk should
rise 1 i inch to the foot ; the larger desks having 2j to 3 inches level on top to
accommodate inkstands.
Fifth column, the length of desk room required for each scholar. It should
not be less than here given.
Sixth column, the distance that should be allowed between the desks, from
the back of one to the front edge of the other. This space will allow a passage
between the chair and the next rear desk. The number of scholars at a desk
need not be limited.
The position of each chair, when screwed to the floor, should have two-thirds
of the allotted desk room to the right of its centre, and be so near that the back
of the chair, in its revolution, will barely clear the desk. By placing the chair
as described, the body of the child is brought in close proximity to the desk,
causing the back of the person to rest, at all times, and under all circumstances,
against the back of the chair.
The chief peculiarity in the desk is, that in the place of straight wooden
legs, there are substituted curved cast iron stanchions ; the obvious advantages
of which are, that they occasion no interference with the movements of the
scholar seated opposite or near to them.
Two stanchions are necessary for a single desk. Two, also, will support a
desk of sufficient length to accommodate three scholars ; three, to accommo-
date six scholars; four, nine scholars ; and so on for a greater number.
The expense of fitting up a room with this chair and desk, in the city of New
York, varies from ftl 50 to $2 00 a scholar, aside from the putting up of the
desks.
BOSTON SCHOOL FURNITURK.
349
Since the foregoing style of chair and desk was introduced, much atten-
tion has been paid to the improvement of school furniture, with a view
of securing convenience, durability, and economy, in the construction both
of chairs and desks.
THE BOSTON LATIN HIGH SCHOOL DESK.
The above cut represents an end view of a new style of desk used
in the Latin High School, in Bedford street, with a section of Wales'
Patent School Chair. The standards of the desks are made of cast
iron, and are braced in such a manner, that when properly secured to the
floor, there is not the least motion. The curve in the standard facilitates
the use of the broom in sweeping.
THE BO&TON PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR.
These Chairs were got up for the special benefit of the Boston Primary
Schools, by JOSEPH W. INGRAHAM, Esq., Chairman of the Primary School
Standing Committee; and have already been introduced, by order of the
Primary School Board, into the greater portion of their Schools.
The first pattern, is a Chair with a Shelf (s) under the seat, for the purpose
of holding the Books, Slates, fee. of the scholars.
The second pattern Sifters from the first, in having, instead of the S/iclf, a
Rack (A) on the back of the chair, for the same use as the Shelf in the pre-
ceding pattern. The third pattern is similar to the second, except that the
Rack :'(A) is placed at tkesi/fe, instead of the back, of the chair. The latter pat-
tern (with the Rack on the side) is that now adopted in the Boston Schools.
These chairs are manufactured by William G. Shattuck, No. 80 Commercial
Street, Boston. The price is fifty cents, each, for those with the Shelf, and
tixty-Jlve cents for those with the Rack.
350
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
THE following cuts represent a large variety of improved school chairs,
desks, and other furniture manufactured by Samuel Wales, Jr., at No. 14
Bromfield Street, Boston, Mass., from patterns of his own getting up, and
with such facilities of experienced workmen, and ingenious machinery, as
enables him to supply all orders for first-class work, with economy, precision,
and promptness.
Wales' improved school chairs and desks embrace the following variety,
and each variety is constructed on the following scale of height, so as to
meet the varying proportions of scholars ranging from four years to twenty
years of age:
No. 1. Chairs, 10 inches high ; Desks, side next the scholar, 20 inches high.
2.
' 11
< i
4 (
(
(I t
21
3.
4.
12
13
i i
(
(< (
22
23
6.
7.
14
15
16
< i
c <
.
(
(
(
(( I
(1 (
24
25i
27
8.
17
28J
WALES' AMERICAN SCHOOL CHAIRS.
No. 1.
These chairs are plain and substantial. Each chair is based upon a single
iron pedestal, which is secured to the seat of the chair at the top, and to the
floor of the school-room at the foot. The center-piece of the chair-back de-
scends directly into the foot of the iron pedestal, intersecting the back of the
seat as it passes, in such a manner as to form a back stay, thereby producing
in the chair, as a whole, the greatest possible degree of firmness and strength.
No. 2.
No. 2 represents an improved school desk for two scholars.
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
No. 3.
351
No. 3 represents an improved single desk for one scholar, on iron supports,
with American school chairs to correspond. Each desk is furnished with an
ink-well, and a metal cover of the best kind. The top is grooved, to ac-
commodate pens, pencils, and other small articles, with a safe resting-place.
WALES' NEW ENGLAND SCHOOL CHAIRS.
No. 4.
Each chair is based upon a pedestal of iron, of great beauty and strength,
which is firmly secured to the seat of the chair at the top, and to the floor of
the school-room at the foot. An ornamental center-piece passes down into
the base of the pedestal, forming the center of the chair-back and the back stay.
No. 5.
352
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
No. 6.
Cuts No. 5 and No. 6, represent an improved double school desk, the
latter for one, and the former for two scholars, with the New England
school chair to correspond.
WALKS' BOWDOIN SCHOOL CHAIRS.
No. 7
These chairs are constructed substantially like those already described,
with a tasteful scroll top. The following diagrams, Nos. 8 and 9, represent
the chair in connection with a desk, both for one and two scholars.
No. 8.
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
353
No. 9.
WALES' WASHINGTON SCHOOL CHAIRS.
No. 10.
Nos. 10, 11, and 12, represent the eight sizes of another variefy of the
chair, with the corresponding desk, both single and double.
No. 11.
23
354
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
No. 12.
WALES' NORMAL SCHOOL DESKS AND CHAIRS.
No. 13.
No. 14.
The engraving represents a Normal School Double Desk, on iron supports,
having two covers, with Washington School Chairs to correspond. Each
cover opens a separate apartment in the desk, designed for the exclusive use
of one scholar.
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE. 355
WALES' IMPROVED WRITING STOOLS.
No. 15.
For most educational purposes, chairs are highly preferable, and this seems
to be the general opinion ; but, in cases where writing is taught in a separate
department, the writing-stool is preferred, as being less expensive, and occu-
pying less room.
WALES' PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR.
No. 16.
The engravings No. 16 and No. 17, represent a series of three sizes, suita-
ble for scholars from four years of age and upward, comprehending all the
sizes needed in primary and intermediate schools, to wit :
No. 1, . . 10 inches high.
" 2, . . 11 " "
" 3, . . 12 " "
Each chair is based on an iron pedestal, securely fastened to the seat at
the top, and to the floor of the school-room at the foot ; thus becoming a per-
manent article of furniture, and completely avoiding the confusion, irregular-
ity and noise, which are the unavoidable accompaniments of movable chairs
in a school-room.
WALES' BASKET PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR.
No. 17.
The Basket Chair has a tastefully ornamented book basket of iron, into
which the children can place their books, slates, and other utensils of study.
As a whole, in view of their strength, comfort, beauty and adaptation to their
object, these are regarded as the best Primary School Chairs extant.
356
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
WALES' IMPROVED SETTEES.
No. 18.
The engravings No. 18 and No. 19, represent an Improved Settee, eight
feet in length, based upon iron supports, designed for that purpose. Such
settees are well adapted for recitation-rooms, the walls of school-rooms, for
the accommodation of visitors, or for any position where permanent settees
are wanted. They are made of any required height, size, or length ; often
from forty to sixty feet in length, when placed on the walls of school-rooms ;
and, being without arms or other divisions, the whole length, in fact, forming
a single settee, have been found to be very convenient, and of good appear-
ance.
WALES' IMPROVED LYCEUM SETTEE.
No. ]9.
The Improved Lyceum Settee is divided into five parts or seats, with fancy
iron arms, made for that purpose.
WALES' TEACHERS' ARM-CHAIRS.
No. 20.
The engravings, Nos. 20 and 21, represent two substantial, well-made, and
comfortable arm-chairs, having no other claim to novelty than may be due to
the fact that they are constructed entirely of hard wood, and are finished
without paint of any kind ; they will therefore wear well, and retain their
good appearance without soiling or defacement, for a long period.
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
WALES' TEACHER'S ARM-CHAIRS, wrrn CUSHIONS.
No. 21.
357
WALES' TEACHER'S TABLE, WITHOUT DRAWERS.
No. 22.
WALES' TEACHER'S TABLE, ONE DRAWER.
No. 23.
WALES' TEACHER'S TABLE, TWO DRAWERS.
No. 24.
358 WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
MOVABLE SKELETON DESK. PORTABLE DESK.
No. 25. No. 26.
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK.
No. 27.
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, THREE DRAWERS AND TABLE TOP.
No. 28.
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, THREE DRAWERS AND Top DESK.
No. 29.
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, TWO DRAWERS AND TABLE TOP.
No. 30.
359
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, TWO DRAWERS AND Top DESK.
No. 31.
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, FOOR DRAWERS AND TABLE TOP.
No. 32.
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, FOUR DRAWERS AND TOP DESK.
No. 33.
360
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, six DRAWERS AND TABLE TOP.
No. 34.
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK, six DRAWERS AND Top DESK.
No. 35.
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK AND LIBRARY, FOUR DRAWERS, TABLE Top AND
BOOK-CASE
A.
A. The side occupied by the Teacher.
WALES' IMPROVED SCHOOL FURNITURE.
No. 37.
361
B.
B. The side facing the school, with a large drawer for maps, drawings, &c.,
and two doors which open a book-case, suitable for a school library.
WALES' TEACHER'S DESK AND LIBRARY, six DRAWERS, TABLE TOP AND
LARGE BOOK-CASE.
No. 38.
A.
A. The side occupied by the Teacher.
No. 39.
B. .
B. The side facing the school, with a large drawer for maps, drawings,
&c., a small drawer for utensils of study, and three doors which open a large
book-case, suitable for a school library.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
As drawing is a regular study in our best conducted schools, suitable provision
should be made, in the construction and arrangement of school furniture, for its
convenient prosecution. If this branch is to be attended to at the desks usually
occupied by the pupil, a light frame can be attached to the desk to support the
model, or lesson copy, and a movable ledge provided, on which the upper part of
the drawing board may rest.
A LEAP AND DRAWING DESK.
A drawing desk may be made, in connection with a fall or leaf desk, after the
following plan, from Richson's School Builder's Guide.
In the fall or leaf desk, the leaf is attached to the level, fixed portion i, by
hinges, and when turned up leans on an iron rod, or support a, and when turned
down rests on a bracket (Fig. 1.) The bracket moves on iron pins, let into the
under side of the desk above, and the strengthening bar g, below. The end of
the arm of the bracket is made with a swivel joint, composed of two projecting
points or pins, at right angles to each other, both of which fit into a hole d, on
the under side of the desk, to prevent any movement of the bracket. When one
of these points /, (Fig. 2,) is up, the leaf resting upon it forms an inclined desk,
and when the other point A, is turned up, an extra height is gained and the leaf
forms a level table.
This form of study or writing desk is easily converted into a drawing desk,
(Fig. 3,) by fitting to the under side c, of the leaf near the hinge, a wedge-
shaped ledge d, on which the upper end of the movable drawing board may rest,
while the other end is placed on the pupils knees. The bracket e, is formed with
a curve, in order to admit the ledge when the leaf is let down. The model or
SCHOOL FURNITURE.
363
copy can rest on the ledge and against the leaf c. The bracket can be turned in
when the leaf is thus used.
The annexed cut, Fig. 4, exhibits another method of forming the bracket in a
cast iron standard. The upper portion of the standard is, in this specimen, pro-
vided with stays, into which the wood work is attached by screws.
We give below the plan of a movable drawing desk, designed and manufac-
tured by Joseph L. Ross, Boston.
Ross' MOVABLE DRAWING DESK.
The standard consists of a hollow iron pillar, with a neat tripod base, on which
it rests firmly on the floor. In this pillar is inserted a shaft, controlled by a screw,
to raise or lower the desk at the pleasure of the pupil. The desk or drawing
table is attached to the top of the shaft by hinges, on which it can be turned, and,
by means of a circle, which passes through the shaft, and a screw, fixed at any
angle required. Attached to the under side of the table is a drawer to receive
the implements, &c.
364
DRAWING DESK AND BOARD.
The following cuts represent a front view (Fig. 1,) and end section (Fig. 2,) of
the desk, and a front view and section of a drawing board (Fig. 3,). recommended
for the use of the drawing schools in connection with the Department of Practical
Art in the Board of Trade, England.
.A
G-
Cr
E
Fig. 1. FRONT VIEW OF DRAWING DESK.
n
. I i il , ,\J.FOOT
Fig. 2. SECTION or DRAWING DESK.
Fig. 3. DRAWING BOARD.
A, A, Fig. 1, A, Fig. 2 A wooden rail, screwed to iron uprights C, C, to hold
the' examples or copy.
B, B, | inch rod, passing through eyes in f inch iron uprights, C, C, C, to sup-
port the examples.
C, C, C, | inch iron uprights, screwed to the desk at I, and punched at the up-
per end to receive the iron rod B.
D, D, hollow space to hold the students' pencils, knives, &c.
E, E, wooden rail to stiffen uprights, F, F, F, which are screwed to the floor.
G, G, (Fig. 1,) short fillets, as shown at G, (Fig. 2,) placed opposite each stu-
dent, to retain the board, or example more upright if necessary.
H, (Fig. 2,) a fillet running along the desk, to prevent pencils, &c., rolling off.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
KIMBALL'S IMPROVED SCHOOL CHAIRS AND DESK.
"These Chairs combine strength, comfort, and style of finish. They ar 1
made of different heights, varying from eight to sixteen inches, and for Primary
as well as for Grammar and "District Schools.
The School Desks are made of Pine, Cherry, or Black Walnut, and ot
heights to correspond with the chairs. The iron supporters are firmly screwed
to the floor, and are braced in such a manner that there is not the least motion. 1 '
The above extracts are taken from the Circular of JAMES KIMBALL. 109 or
T27 Essex Street, Salem, Mass.
The cuts below represent a view of the desk and seat, and of the frame
for the same, used
in the high school
for girls in New-
buryport, Mass.
The frame is cast
iron, to which the
seat and desk
is attached by
screws. The
frame is strength-
ened by a brace
extending from
each side below
the seat.
366
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Ross' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE.
Although we have already published a variety of designs for desks
and chairs for pupils and teachers, we gladly extend the liberty of choice
by inserting a series of " practical illustrations of American School Fur-
niture," manufactured by Joseph L. Ross, corner of Hawkins and Ivers
streets, Boston, Mass. Mr. Ross was one of the earliest to embark in
the enterprise of furnishing schools of every grade with graceful, com-
fortable, and durable furniture, and his chairs and desks may now be
seen in public and private schools in every part of the country.
The chair are of seven different heights, the lowest being 10 inches,
and the highest 17 inches. The seat is of hard wood, and is attached to
a pedestal of iron which is attached to the floor by screws. The pecu-
liarity of each style is sufficiently indicated by the diagrams.
The desks are also of different heights, and both chairs and desks can
be ordered according to the following scale :
No. 1 . extra Chairs, 1 7 inches high ; Desks, side next to the scholar, 29 inches high.
1. Chairs, 16 inches high; Desks, side next to the scholar, 27^
15
14
13
12
11
10
26
241
23
22
21$
201
No. 1. NEW ENGLAND PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR.
No. 2. NEW YORK PRIMARY SCHOOL CHAIR.
No. 3. NEW ENGLAND PRIMARY SCHOOL BASKET CHAIR.
ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE.
367
No. 4. NEW ENGLAND SINGLE PRIMARY
SCHOOL DESK AND CHAIR.
No. 6. NEW ENGLAND DOUBLE PRIMARY SCHOOL ~DBSB
AND CHAIRS.
368 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
No. 8. NEW YORK PRIMARY DOUBLE DESK AND CHAIRS
No. 9. VILLAGE SCHOOL DESK.
Nos. 1, 2, 3, represents different styles of chairs for primary schools, each of
four different heights, viz., 10, 11, 12, and 13 inches. The basket for books,
slates, &c., in No. 3, is made of cast-iron, and is free from any sharp corners.
Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, represents the foregoing styles of chairs in connection with a
desk for one or two pupils. The ends, or standards of the desks are wood, and
are inserted and bolted in a shoe of iron, which is attached to the floor by screws.
The chairs vary in height from 10 to 13 inches, and the desks to the scale on the
foregoing page.
No. 8 represents a variety in the style of desks, the standard of the latter
being cast-iron, of a neat pattern. These have been introduced into several of the
primary and intermediate schools of New York..
No. 9 represents a school desk with seat for desk in advance, attached to the
same standard. The standard or frame are of cast-iron, and are made of seven
different sizes, varying from 10 to 17 inches.
Nos. 23 and 23 represents different styles of glass ink well, and metallic covers
for the same.
No. 24 represents a settee for class-rooms, &c., and for visitors ; made to order
of any required length.
ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE.
300
Xo. 10 represents a stool or seat without a back, for writing and drawing, of
eight different sizes, from 10 to 17 inches.
No. 1 1 represents a style of chair generally adopted in the grammar schools of
Boston. The pedestal is of cast-iron, to which the seat is firmly attached by
screws, and which is also attached to the floor in the same way. The center
piece of the chair is let into the foot of the pedestal. There are eight sizes from
10 to 17 inches.
No. 23. IMPROVED METALLIC INK WELL COVERS.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
No. 12. SINGLE GRAMMAR SCHOOL DESK AND CHAIR.
No. 13. DOUBLE GRAMMAR SCHOOL DESK AND TWO CHAIRS.
Nos. 12 and 13, represents a style of desk for one or two pupils, used in the gram-
mar schools of Boston. The desk is 16 inches wide and 24 inches long for one,
and 48 inches for two pupils. The desk is made firm by an iron brace, one end of
which is screwed to the bottom of the desk, and the other to the iron standard.
Along the back edge of the top of the desk is a hollow to receive pens, pencil,
&c. ; ink-pot or well is inserted with a lead or metallic cover.
ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE. 371
No. 14. SINGLE DESK WITH FALL TO LIFT AND CHAIR FOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADIMIM.
No. 15. DOUBLE DESK AND TWO CHAIRS FOR TWO SCHOLARS FOR HIGH SCHOOLS
AND ACADEMIES.
No. 24. SETTEES FOR RECITATION SCHOOL ROOMS, &c
o>7 2 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
No. 16. SINGLE L'ESK AND CHAIR FOR YOUNG LADIES' SEMINARIES
No. 17. SINGLE DESK AND CHAIR FOR Youxo LADIES' SEMINARIES
Nos. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, present some modifications in the size, style, and finish
of the desk. The top of the desk is covered with cloth, a portfolio with a clasp
to keep it together, for drawings; an improved hinge ; an improved metallic box
with cover to receive a glass ink well, (see Fig. 22,) and the level portion of the
top hollowed out to receive pens and pencil. Desks and chairs of this pattern
have been manufactured for the Sp'mgler Institute, Union Park, New York, ami
the City Normal School, Boston, and other schools of a higher character. The
wood work of these and the other patterns are made of cherry, black -walnut or
mahogany, according to order.
ROSS' AMERICAN' SCHOOL FURNITURE
No. 18. EOS-TON HIGH SCHOOL DESK AND CUATR.
373
No. 19. DOUBLE DESK AND TWO CHAIRS FOR YOUKQ LADIES' SEMINARIES.
No. 'Jl represents a style of Drawing Desk, designed and manufactured for
the Lowell Institute. The bottom of the desk is made of iron in a neat tripod
t'orm, with a hollow pillar inserted, in which is a shaft to raise and fall the desk at
pleasure, that supports the top of the Drawing Table, and is confined to the same
by hinges ; with a circle affixed to the under side of the top and passing through
the center of the shaft, which, by a set of screws, enables the person using the
Kime, to raise the desk to any height or angle required. Attached to the under-
side is a draw for the drawing instruments, made to draw out on either side.
374
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
No. 20. DOUBLE DESK AND TWO CHAIRS FOR YOUNG LADIES' SEMINARIES
No. 21. LOWELL INSTITUTE DRAWING DESK.
ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE.
No. 25. HARD WOOD TEACHER'S CHAIRS.
375
No. 25. A VERT NEAT AND COMFORTABLE TEACHER'S CHAIR
376
SCHOOL ARCHZTECTtTRB.
No. 28. RECITATION ROOM TABLE.
No. 29. PRIMARY SCHOOL TABLE.
No. 30. BOSTON PRIMARY SCHOOL DESK.
ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE.
377
No. 31. TEACHER'S TABLE, OF VARIOUS SIZES
No. 32. TEACHER'S DESK, WITH TWO DRAWERS.
No. 33. TEACHER'S DESK, WITH FOUR DRAWERS.
378
SCHOOL, ARCHITECTURE.
No. 34. TEACHER'S DESK, WITH A MOVABLE INCLINED PLANE ON TOP.
No. 35. TEACHER'S DESK, CLOTH Top, FOUR DRAWERS.
No. 36. TEACHER'S DESK, WITH FOUR DRAWERS AND TOP ESK-
ROSS' AMERICAN SCHOOL FURNITURE.
379
No. 37. BOSTON TEACHER'S DESK, WITH NINE DRAWERS.
No. 38. BOSTON TEACHER'S DESK, NINE DRAWERS.
' & J
| -" i
_, (So ' o!
' tt ' & .
I
: !! i''^
r
a o ]
LJ
IIT-S
I '' 1
S: *
.;"fi^-^
No 39. NEW YORK IMPROVED TEACHER'S DESK.
-380
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK MANUAL.
2. 3.
The pupil should stand erect, his heels near together, toes turn-
ed out, and his eyes directed to the face of the person speaking to
him.
FIGURE ONE represents th,e Book Monitor with a pile of books
across his left arm, with the backs from him, and with the top of the
page to the right hand.
FIGURE TWO represents the Book Monitor, with the right hand
hands the book to the Pupil, who receives it in his right hand, with
the back of the book to the left ; and then passes it into the left hand,
where it is held with the back upwards, and with the thumb ex-
tended at an angle of forty-five degrees with the edge of the book
(as in figure 2,) until a further order is given.
BOOK MANUAL. 3y]
FIGURE THREE When the page is given out, the book is turned
by the thumb on the side ; and, while held with both hands, is turned
with the back downwards, with the thumbs meeting across the leaves,
at a point judged to be nearest the place to be found. On opening
the book, the left hand slides down to the bottom, and thence to the
middle, where the thumb and little finger are made to press on the
two opposite pages. If the Pupil should have thus lit upon the page
sought for, he lets fall the right hand by the side, and his position is
that of Fig. 3.
FIGURE FOUR But, if he has opened short of the page required,
the thumb of the right hand is to be placed near the upper corner of
the page, as seen in Fig. 4 ; while the forefinger lifts tfye leaves to
bring into view the number of the page. If he finds that he has not
raised enough, the forefinger and thumb hold those already raised,
while the second finger lifts the leaves, and brings them within the
grasp of the thumb and finger. When the page required is found, all
the fingers are to be passed under the leaves, and the whole turned at
once. Should the Pupil, on the contrary, have opened too far, and
be obliged to turn back, he places the right thumb, in like manner,
on the left-hand page, and the leaves are lifted as before described.
FIGURE FIVE Should the book be old, or so large as to be weari-
some to hold, the right hand may sustain the left, as seen in Fig. 5.
FIGURE six and SEVEN -While reading, as the eye rises to the top
of the right-hand page, the right hand is brought to the position seen
in Fig. 4; -and, with the forefinger under the leaf, the hand is slid
down to the lower corner, and retained there during the reading of
this page, as seen in Fig. 6. This also is the position in which the
book is to be held when about to be closed ; in doing which, the left
hand, being carried up to the side, supports the book firmly and un-
moved, while the right hand turns the part it supports over on the left
thumb, as seen in Fig. 7. The thumb will then be drawn out from
between the leaves, and placed on the cover ; when the right hand
vi ill fall by the side, as seen in Fig. 2.
FIGURE EIGHT But, if the reading has ended, the right hand re-
tains the book, and the left hand falls by the side, as seen in Fig. 8.
The book will now be in a position to be handed to the Book Monitor ;
who receives it in his right hand, and places it on his left arm, with
the back towards his body. The books are now in the most suitable
situation for being passed to the shelves or drawers, where, without
being crowded, they should be placed with uniformity and care.
In conclusion, it may be proper to remark, that however trivial
these minute directions may appear to some minds, it will be found
on experience, that books thus treated, may be made to last double
the time that they will do, under the usual management in schools.
Nor is the attainment of a correct and graceful mode of handling a
book, the only benefit received by the pupil. The use of this man-
ual is calculated to beget a love of order and propriety, and disposes
him more readily to adopt the habit generally, of doing things in a
methodical and systematic manner.
382 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The following remarks are from the " Report of the Primary School
Committee to the Board of Trustees of the Public School Society of New
York, on the use of SEATS WITHOUT BACKS :
" On inquiry of the female teachers, several of the oldest and most expe-
rienced among them say, that instances of curved spine are often perceived
among their scholars. Individual members of this Board have noticed simi-
lar instances ; and it deserves to be mentioned, that a highly respectable and
intelligent foreign gentleman, who is deeply interested in the cause of educa-
tion, on a late visit to one of our schools, expressed his surprise on perceiving
how large a proportion of the girls were round-shouldered and stooping in
their figure."
**#***#
" 1st. It is a matter of notoriety to the medical profession, that, until
about thirty or forty years ago, spinal curvatures were very little known. It
is only since "the schoolmaster has got abroad," only since so great and
universal an impulse has been given to education, that these cases have
become sufficiently numerous to attract the particular attention of medical
men. There is now to be found a distinct class of practitioners, and of
machinists, who live and thrive by the treatment of spinal injuries.
2d. A large proportion of these cases can be distinctly traced to causes
connected with school education. Among the illiterate in all countries, these
injuries are scarcely known. They occur most frequently in schools where
females are much confined to a sitting posture, with but a scanty allowance
of those robust and active exercises which impart power to the muscular
' system, and invigorate the general health.
It should be here explained, that the trunk of the body is sustained in its
erect position, solely by the action of muscles. Young and growing females
who are but feebly endowed with muscular strength, experience such a sense
of weariness in sitting upright, as to be induced, from necessity, to drop the
body into a variety of curvatures ; and one particular curve becoming habit-
ual and long persisted in, finally ends in permanent deformity. The influence
of exercise in preventing the evil, is precisely that which it has on the arm
of a blacksmith ; it augments the bulk, and redoubles the power of the mus-
cles, and gives greater firmness and security to the joints.
3d. In all large cities there are many children, who, from infancy, are
strongly predisposed to these affections, owing to a constitutional feebleness
of muscle, or an unhealthy condition of the bones or joints. These require
every precaution, during the course of their education, to prevent deformity.
Supposing- the females attending our schools to be liable to spinal injuries,
are these injuries owing to the use of seats without backs ? The answer
must be, that they are instrumental in causing them, -just so far as they place
the scholar under the necessity of seeking relief in the crooked and unhealthy
attitudes into which she throws her body. Another question of similar im-
port, .5 this: Would seats with back-supports tend to prevent these injuries?
A similar answer must be given. Such seats would act as a preventive, just
in proportion as they removed the temptation and the necessity for indulging
in injurious flexures of the body. When we see, as we often may, a girl of
rapid growth, of yielding joints, and of feeble muscles, propping the weight
of her body on her elbows, or, by way of change, bringing her sides alter-
nately to rest on the desk before her, can we doubt for a moment, that, with
a back-support, she would run less risk of injury to her figure ] And in
regard to those children, before alluded to, as having a natural predisposition
to spinal distortions, seats of this kind would be indispensable to their
safety "
APPARATUS.
IN addition to che necessary furniture of a school, such as seats,
and other fixtures and articles required for the accommodation of pupils
and teacher, and the order and cleanliness of the premises, every school-
room should be furnished with such apparatus as shall enable the teacher
to employ the hand and eye of every pupil in illustration and experiment
so far as may be practicable and desirable in the course of instruction
pursued in the school. It is therefore important, in the internal arrange-
ment of a school-house, to have regard to the safe-keeping, display, and
use of such apparatus as the grade of the school, for which the house is
intended, may require. A few suggestions will therefore be made on
these points, and in aid of committees and trustees in selecting apparatus.
. 1. In a large school, and in schools of the highest grade, there will be
need of a separate apartment appropriated to the safe-keeping of the
apparatus, and in some departments of instruction, for the proper use of
the same. But in small schools, and as far as practicable in all schools,
maps, diagrams, and other apparatus, should be in view of the school at
all times.
This will not only add to the attractions of the school, and make the
school-room look like a workshop of education, but. will awaken a desire
in the pupils to know the uses of the various articles, and to become ac-
quainted with the facts and principles which can thus be seen, heard, or
handled.
2. Such articles as are liable to be injured by dust, or handling, must
be provided with an appropriate room, or a case of sufficient size, having
glazed and sliding doors, and convenient shelves.
The doors should not be glazed to the floor, on account of liability to
breakage, and also to admit of drawers for maps and diagrams, and a
closet for such articles as may be uninteresting or unseemly to the eye,
although useful in their place.
The shelves should be movable, so as to admit of additions of larger
or smaller specimens of apparatus, and also of such arrangement as the
varying tastes of different teachers may require.
3. There should be a table, with a level top, and capable of being mnde
perfectly firm, unless the teacher's desk can be so, for the teacher to place
his apparatus on, when in use.
4. The apparatus of every school-room should be selected with refer-
ence to the grade of schools to which it is appropriated, and in Primary
and District schools in particular, should be of simple construction and
convenient for use.
5. As far as practicable, the real object in nature and art, and not a
diagram, or model, should be secured.
384 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The following list of articles is necessarily very imperfect, but it may
help to guide committees in their search after apparatus.
ARTICLES INDISPENSABLE IN SCHOOLS OF EVERY GRADE.
A clock.
The cardinal points of the heavens painted on the ceiling, or on the
teacher's platform, or the floor of the recitation room.
As much blackboard, or black surface on the walls of the school-room,
and the recitation rooms, as can be secured. A portion of this black sur-
face should be in full view of the whole school, for passing explanations;
and another portion out of the way, within reach of the smallest pupils.
One or more movable blackboards, or large slate, with one or more mova-
ble stands or supporters.
All the appendages to a blackboard, such as chalk, crayons, and a rub-
ber of soft cloth, leather, or sheepskin, and a pointer.
An inkstand, fixed into the desk, with a lid, and with a pen-wiper at-
tached.
A slate, iron-bound at the corners, and covered with list, or India-rub-
ber cloth, for every desk, with a pencil-holder and sponge attached. A
few extra slates for the use of the youngest pupils, under the care and
at the discretion of the teacher.
A map of the district, town, county, and slate.
A terrestrial globe, properly mounted, or suspended by a wire.
The measure of an inch, foot, yard, and rod, marked off" on the edge of
the blackboard, or on the wall.
Real measures of all kinds, linear, superficial, solid, and liquid ; as a
foot-rule, a yard-stick, quarts, bushels, an ounce, pound, &c., for the ex-
ercise of the eye and hand.
Vases for flowers and natural grasses.
APPARATUS FOR A PRIMARY OR DISTRICT SCHOOL.
The apparatus for this class of schools cannot be specified with much
minuteness, because the ages of the pupils, and the modes of instruction
vary so much in different localities. The following list embraces the ar-
ticles purchased for Primary and District schools in Rhode Island :
Movable Lesson Posts. These are from three and a half to four feet
high, and are variously made of wood, and of cast-iron. It
consists, when made of wood, of an upright piece of plank
from two to three inches square at the bottom, and dimin-
ishing regularly to the top, where it is one inch, inserted
in a rounder cross base broad enough to support the lesson
board, or card, which is suspended by a ring on a hook at
or near the top of the post.
J. L. Mott, 264, Water street, New York, manufactures
for the Primary schools of the Public School Society of
New York, a very neat cast-iron lesson stand.
Reading Lessons. Colored Prints, and Diagrams of
various kinds, such as of animals, costumes, trades, &c.,
pasted on boards of wood or strong pasteboard ; some with,
and others without printed descriptions beneath; to be
suspended at appropriate times on the lesson stands, for
class exercises, and at other times, on the walls, or deposited
in their appropriate places.
In this list should be included the numeration table, ta
bles for reading arithmetical marks, easy lessons, geometri
cal figures, punctuation marks, outline maps, &c.
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
385
Allen's Education Table will be found very useful in teaching the Alphabet,
Spelling. Reading, and Arithmetic, to little children at home, and in Pri^
mary Schools.
Allen's EDUCATION TABLE consists of a board or table, along the centre of
which are horizontal grooves, or raised ledges forming grooves between them,
that connect with perpendicular grooves or compartments on the sides, in
which are inserted an assortment of movable blocks, on the face of which are
cut the letters of the alphabet, both capitals and small, the nine digits and
cipher, and all the usual pauses and signs used in composition and arithmetic.
The letters, figures and signs are large, so as to be readily recognized by all
the members of a large class, and from even the extremity of a large school-
room, and are so assorted and arranged as to be easily slid from the perpendic-
ular grooves or compartments into the horizontal grooves, and there combined
into syllables, words and sentences, or used in simple arithmetical operations.
When the lesson in the alphabet, spelling, reading, composition, or arithmetic,
is finished, the blocks can be returned to their appropriate places.
The experience of many teachers in schools of different grades, and of man v
mothers at home, (the God-appointed school for little children, next to which
should be ranked the well organized Primary School, with a bright, gentle,
affectionate and patient female teacher,) has demonstrated that by accustoming
the child, either individually, or in a class, to select letter by letter, and move
them from their appropriate case to the centre of the board, and there combin-
ing them into syllables and words, a knowledge of the alphabet, and of words,
is acquired in a much shorter time and in a much more impressive and agree-
able manner, than by any of even the best methods- now pursued.
All of the advantages derived from the method of dictation, and the use of the
slate and blackboard, in teaching children the alphabet, spelling, reading, and
the use of capital letters and pauses, as well as the elementary principles of
arithmetic, such as numeration, addition, subtraction, &c., can be secured by
the introduction of this Table into our Primary and District Schools.
Manufactured by EDWIN ALLEN only, Windham. Conn., who trill
promptly attend to all orders for them.
25
1386
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
A Movedbh Black-board, or prepared black surface of considerable extent, is
indispensable.
The upper portion of the standing blackboard should be inclined back a
little from the perpendicular, and along the lower edge there should be a pro-
jection or trough to catch the particles detached from the chalk or crayon
when in use, and a drawer to receive the sponge, cloth, lamb's-skin, or other
soft article used in cleaning the surface of the board.
Blackboards, even when made with great care, and of the best seasoned
materials, are liable to injury and defacement from warping, opening of seams,
or splitting when exposed to the overheated atmosphere of school-rooms,
unless they are set in a frame like a slate, or the panel of a door.
By the following ingenious, and cheap contrivance, a few feet of board can
be converted into a table, a sloping desk, one or two blackboards, and a form
or seat, and the whole folded up so as not to occupy a space more than five
inches wide, and be easily moved from one room to another. It is equally
well adapted to a school-room, class-room, library or nursery.
// Under side of the
swinging board, sus-
pended by rule-joint
hinges, when turned up,
painted black or dark
chocolate.
a d Folding brackets,
inclined at an angle of
75 degrees, and swung
out to support the board
when a sloping desk is
required.
b c Folding brackets
to support the swinging
board when a bench or
flat table is required.
eee e Uprights attached to the wall.
g g Form to be used when the swinging board is let down, and to be sup-
ported by folding legs. The under side can be used as a blackboard for small
children.
h A wooden button to retain the swinging board when turned up for use as
a blackboard.
n Opening to receive ,
inkstands, and deposit
for slate, pencil, chalk,
&c.
m Surface of swing-
ing board when let
down.
I Surface of form or
bench.
When not in use, or let down, the desk and form should hang flush with
each other.
A cheap movable blackboard can be made after the following cut (Fig. 3.
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
387
A movable stand to support a blackboard
may be made like a painter's easel, as repre-
sented in the accompanying cut.
, Pins for board to rest on. c, Hinge or
joint to the supporting legs, which are braced
by hook b, and may be folded up, and the stand
put away in a closet. A stand of this kind is
convenient to display outline and other maps,
reading lessons and other diagrams.
A large movable blackboard
may be made as represented in the
accompanying cut. An upright frame,
strongly braced by cross-pieces (a) is in-
serted into the feet(,) or horizontal sup-
ports having castors, on which the whole
may be rolled on the floor. Within
grooves on the inside of this upright
frame is a smaller frame (c) hung by a
cord which passes over a pulley (rf,) and
is so balanced by weights, concealed in
the upright parts, as to admit of being
raised or lowered conveniently. Within
this inner frame is hung the blackboard
on pivots, by which the surface of the
board can be inclined from a perpendic-
ular.
A cheaper movable frame, with a blackboard suspended on a pivct,
can be made as represented in the
lower diagram. The feet, if made
as represented in this cut, will be
liable to get broken.
Composition for Blackboards.
Lampblack and flour of emery
mixed with spirit-varnish,
No more lampblack and flour of
emery should be used than are suf-
ficient to give the required black
and abrading surface ; and the var-
nish should contain only sufficient
gum to hold the ingredients togeth-
er, and confine the composition to
the board. The thinner the mix-
ture, the better.
The lampblack should first be
ground with a small quantity of al-
cohol, or spirit-varnish, to nee it
from lumps.
The composition should be appli-
ed to the smoothly-planed surface
of the board, with a common painter's brush. Let it become thoroughly
dry and hard before it is used. Rub it down with pumice-stone, or a piece
of smooth wood covered with the composition.
This composition may also be used on the walls-
388 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Slate Blackboard.
In the class-rooms of the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, and
all similar institutions, where most of the instruction is given by writing, and
drawings on the blackboard, large slates from three feet wide, to four feet
long are substituted for the blackboard. These slates cost from $2 to $3,
and are superior to any other form of blackboard, and in a series of years
prove more economical.
Plaster Blackboard.
As a substitute for the painted board, it is common to paint black a portion
of the plastered wall when covered with hard finish, (i. e. plaster of Paris and
sand ;) or to color it by mixing with the hard finish a sufficient quantity of
lamp-black, wet with alcohol, at the time of putting it on. The hard finish,
colored in this way, can be put on to an old, as well as to a new surface.
Unless the lamp-black is wet with alcohol, or sour beer, it will not mix uni-
formly with the hard finish, and when dry, the surface, instead of being a
uniform black, will present a spotted appearance.
Canvas Blackboard.
Every teacher can provide himself with a portable blackboard made of
canvas cloth, 3 feet wide and 6 feet long, covered with three or four coats
of black paint, like Winchester's Writing Charts. One side might, like
this chart, present the elements of the written characters classified in the
order of their simplicity, and guide-marks to enable a child to determine with
ease the height, width, and inclination of every letter. Below, on the same
side, might be ruled the musical scale, leaving sufficient space to receive
such characters as may be required to illustrate lessons in music. The oppo-
site side can be used for the ordinary purposes of a blackboard. When rolled
up, the canvas would occupy a space three feet long, and not more than three
inches in diameter.
Directions for making Crayons.
A school, or the schools of a town, may be supplied with crayons very
cheaply, made after the following directions given by Professor Turner of
the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb.
Take 5 pounds of Paris White, 1 pound of Wheat Flour, wet with water,
and knead it well, make it so stiff that it will not stick to the table, but not so
stiff as to crumble and fall to pieces when it is rolled under the hand.
To roll out the crayons to the proper size, two boards are needed, one, to
roll them on ; the other to roll them with. The first should be a smooth pine
board, three feet long, and nine inches wide. The other should also be pine,
a foot long, and nine inches wide, having nailed on the under side, near each
edge, a slip of wood one third of an inch thick, in order to raise it so much
above the under board, as, that the crayon, when brought to its proper size,
may lie between them without being flattened.
The mass is rolled into a ball, and slices are cut from one side of it about
one third of an inch thick; these slices are again cut into strips about four
inches long and one third of an inch wTde,-and rolled separately between
these boards until smooth and round. '
Near at hand, should be another board 3 feet long and 4 inches wide, across
which each crayon, as it is made, should be laid so that the ends may pro-
ject on each side the crayons should be laid in close contact and straight.
When the board is filled, the ends should be trimmed off so as to make tjie
crayons as long as the width of the board. It is then laid in the sun, if in
hot weather, or if in winter, near a stove or fire-place, where the crayons
may dry gradually, which will require twelve hours. When thoroughly dry,
they are fit for use.
An experienced hand will make 150 in an hour.
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
389
We are indebted to Prof. Cook, of Rutgers College, New Jersey, for the follow-
ing direetions for making crayons which he finds, after long trial better for the
uses of the black-board, than those made after the direction of Prof. Turner, or
than those imported from Europe.
Take five pounds of whiting, four pounds of boiled plaster, and water enough to
make the whole into a moderately thin paste. Mix these thoroughly and quickly.
This compound will harden in a few minutes, when it may be dried and sawed
into crayons.
Bolted Paris white is the best whiting, but the common kind may be used if
eare is taken to dry and pulverize it. The plaster used by masons, is- sufficiently
good. It should be fresh boiled. As it is the hardening ingredient in the com-
pound, the crayons may be made more or less hard, by slightly increasing or di-
minishing the amount mentioned above.
The vessel in which the mixture is made, should be greased before using, to
prevent adhesion. Any convenient one may be used, but a square or oblong box
would be found most economical. The mixture is best dried at a common tem-
perature ; if artificial heat is used, it should not exceed that of boiling water.
Crayons made in this way are better than many of those found in market, and
the materials from which they are made are both cheap and common. The square
form, produced by sawing, is better for writing than the round.
Plaster Black Wall.
The following directions may be safely followed in making plaster black wall.
In the first place, the scratch coat, made with coarse sand, is spread upon the
laths as usual, and the brown coat follows, being left a little rough under the
" float." When the brown coat is perfectly dry, the black coat is laid on.
This is prepared of mason's " putty" and ground plaster and beach sand, mixed
in the usual proportions for hard finish. The coloring matter is lamp-black, wet
with alcohol or whiskey, forming a mixture of the consistency of paste. This is
mixed with the other ingredients just as they are about to be spread upon the wall.
The quantity of coloring to be used must be sufficient to make a black surface ;
the sufficiency being determined by experiment no rule can be given. An in-
telligent mason can very soon try experiments so as to insure success. It is to be
remembered that the black surface requires much more working with the smooth-
ing trowel than ordinary white finish. It should be finished by being softly
smoothed with a wet brush. When perfectly dry, it is nearly as hard as slate, and
almost as durable, if carefully used. Great care should be taken not to put in too
much lamp-black.
In building a new school-house it would be well to have a belt of this black sur-
face pass entirely around the room, at the proper height. In a common school,
when small children are to use it, its lower edge should be about two feet from the
floor, extending thence upwai-d from 3 to 5^ feet. At the lower edge there should
be a " chalk trough," extending the whole length, made by nailing a thin strip of
board to the plank, which bounds the black-board, leaving a trough two inches in
width and depth, in which to place the chalk, brushes, pointers, &c. ; this will
also catch the dust which is wiped from the board. The upper edge should be
bounded by a simple moulding.
The best thing for removing the halk from the board is a brush, made of the
size of a shoe-brush, with the wooden handle on the back, the face being covered
with a sheep-skin with the wool on. This removes the chalk at a single sweep,
without wearing the surface, and without soiling the hand of the operator. This is a
great improvement over & dust-cloth or a sponge.
In all cases let the board be kept dry ; never allow a pupil to wet the wiper
when removing the chalk.
By long use, especially if the surface is ever cleaned with a wet wiper, this kind
of black-board becomes too smooth and glossy upon the surface ; the chalk passes
over it without taking effect, and the light is reflected by it. A very simple wash,
applied with a soft brush, will immediately restore it; this wash is made by dis-
solving one part of glue, to two parts of alum in water, so as to make a very thin
solution. It is well to have the wash slightly colored with lamp-black. Care must
be taken that this wash do not have too much '"* body."
390
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
A map exhibitor, consisting of a movable cross, (c) may be attached to a stand
or easel, by being let into a groove, cut in the form of a
dove- tail at the back (a) of the easel, just above the part
where the movable leg is hinged. To suit the varying
breadth of maps, the pins or hooks for holding them may
be made to slide in a groove in the cross or horizontal part
of the exhibitor. The same contrivance, the sliding hook,
may be applied to a groove in a board or slip of board, on
the side or end of the school-room, at the proper elevation,
for the purpose of displaying maps or charts.
As ink must be provided in all schools, except those of
the infant and primary grade, the material and shape of the
pot or well to hold the ink, and the mode of inserting the same in the desk, and
covering the mouth or top, so as to exclude dust and prevent evaporation, are
points of copsiderable practical importance.
The inside material or lining should be glass, to prevent the ink being injured
by corrosion. The conical shape, with a projecting rim slightly inclined towards
the opening, will be found to have many advantages such as facilitating its in-
sertion in the desk, or the tray the dip of the pen, without touching the side of
the pot or well the catching of any excess of ink thrown or jerked back by the
writer, or thrown out by any sudden jar of the desk. Glass ink wells of various
patterns can now be obtained at the principal crockery dealers, and are always
furnished by the manufacturers of first class desks.*
The ink well should be movable, for convenience of filling and cleansing of
sediment, and also for being emptied of ink when not in use, or of being emptied
or removed, to avoid freezing in winter.
Each desk should be
provided with a mova-
ble ink well, inserted in
a cast iron or other me-
talic box having a cover,
the box being set in, and
secured firmly to the
desk. The opening in
a glass ink well, when
not in use, will be protected by the lid, and the
well itself can be removed for convenience in
filling, cleansing, and emptying.
A Tray for Ink Wells, made of tin, of annexed con-
struction, will be found very useful to collect the wells
when not in use, or when they are removed for cleansing
or other purposes.
A Sponge Box, for damping sponge without exposing the surface of the water,
may be constructed after the following drawing from Richsori's
School Building Guide. To any desk standard (A) attach a
box (B) lined with lead. On the inside of the box place a sloping
cover, (C) lined on both sides with lead, having at the lower end
two rows of perforations, and in the upper a broad slit or open-
ing. Through this slit pass a strip of woolen list or flannel, one
end (n) of which shall be in the water and the other extend to the
perforations in the cover. The water which is taken up by the
woolen strip, will filter down the inclined plane, and pass again
into the box through the perforations. The surface of the strip
will be kept sufficiently wet to damp a sponge without allowing
the water to be exposed in the box/
" J. I,. Ross, corner of Ivers and Hawkins streets, Boston, has a very neat style of ink well,
box. and cover, as illustrated on pages 371 and 372. Mr. Ross is also the agent of the Cas-
tleton Slate Company, and can furnish slates planed by machinery to a perfectly smooth sur-
face, of any required dimensions, from eight feet long by five wide, and three-fourths of an
inch thick, to auy smaller size.
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
391
The Gonigraph is a small instrument composed of a number of flat rods
connected by pivots, which can be put into all possible geometrical figures
that Consist of straight lines and angles, as triangles, squares, pentagons,
hexagons, octagons, &c.
The Arilhmeticon, represented in the annexed cut. is a most useful in-
strument. In an oblong open frame, twelve rows of wooden balls, alter-
nately black and white, and of the size of a nutmeg or small walnut, and
twelve in each row, are strung like beads on strong wires. The instru-
ment, when fixed to a stand, is about four feet high, the frame being one-
fourth part broader than it is high. It may be made much smaller, as
in the cut. When it is used to exercise the children in arithmetic, the
teacher or monitor stands behind, and slides the balls along the wires from
his left; to his right, calling out tha number he shifts, as, twice two are
four, thrice two are six, shifting first four balls, and then two more. As
the children are apt to confuse the balls remaining with those shifted, a
thin board covers half the surface on the side next the children, as marked
by a line down the centre, so that they see only the balls shifted to the
open side.
NUMERAL FRAME.
392 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The Arithmeticon or Numeral Frame represented in the foregoing cut forms a
part of Holbruok's Common School Apparatus, which embraces, in addition, the
following articles.
For showing: the figures, names, properties, and uses of various Geometrical
Forms and Solids, the following blocks are made, accompanied with a sheet of
diagrams.
CUBES.
PAUALLELOFIPEPB.
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
393
OBLATE SPHEROID.
SPHERE. PROLATE SPHEROID.
HEXAGONAL PRISM. PRISM. TRIANGULAR PRISM. CYLINDER.
PYRAMID AND FRUSTRUM.
CONE AND FRUSTROM.
394 SCHOOL ARCHITECl'URE.
A Sectional Block, to illustrate the extraction of the cube root.
BLOCK TO ILLUSTRATE CUBE ROOT.
Accompanying this set is a Drawing Slate, designed particularly for young
pupils. On the frame are a set of copies for writing and drawing, which are pro-
tected from injury in consequence of friction on the desk by cushions made of
India rubber inserted in each corner. This slate is equally well adapted for ths
older pupils, and for all arithmetical operations, and its use is accompanied with
less noise than any other form of slate.
DRAWING SLATE.
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
395
A Terrestrial Globe, made of solid, firm material, and so mounted on a simple
pedestal that it can be readily removed, and suspended by a cord and thus be
held in the hand, and displayed conveniently for familiar illustrations to a class.
They are made from five to eight inches in diameter.
TERRESTRIAL GLOBE.
A Hemisphere Globe, cut in equal sections, and opening on a hinge, will solve
at a glance many of the difficulties encountered by young pupils in the study of
geography, and correct some fundamentally erroneous conceptions which even
older scholars are liable to form of latitude and longitude, or from an exclusive
use of maps.
HEMISPHERE GLOBE.
396
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The Tellurian is designed to illustrate all the phenomena resulting from the
relations of the Sun, Moon, and Earth, to each other the succession of day and
night, the change of the seasons, the change of the sun's declination, the different
lengths of day and night, the changes of the moon, the harvest moon, the preces-
sion of the equinoxes, the differences of a solar and siderial year, &c., &c.
TELLURIAN.
The Planetarium or Orrery, gives the proportionate size and relative positions,
and annual revolutions of the planets, composing the solar system, except the
asteroids.
PLANETARIUM.
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
397
Holbrook'S Common School Apparatus, is manufactured by the HOLBROOK
SCHOOL APPARATUS MANUFACTURING COMPANY, at Hartford, Conn., and sold,
securely packed for transportation, with a manual or text-book for the use of the
teacher, for $20.00 a set.
APPARATUS FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS.
The School Committee of Boston, in 1847. adopted the following arti-
cles as a set of Philosophical Apparatus for the Grammar schools, which
was selected and classified by Mr. Wightman, whose long experience in
manufacturing apparatus for schools of every grade, admirably qualified
him for the work :
Laws of Matter.
Apparatus for illustrating Inertia.
Pair of Lead Hemispheres, for Co-
hesion. ,
Pair of Glass Plates, for Capillary
Attraction.
Laws of Motion.
Ivory Balls on Stand, for Collision.
Set of eight illustrations for Centre
of Gravity.
Sliding Frame, for Composition of
Forces.
Apparatus for illustrating Central
Forces.
Mechanics.
Complete set of Mechanicals, con-
sisting of Pulleys ; Wheel and
Axle ; Capstan ; Screw ; Inclined
Plane ; Wedge.
Hydrostatics.
Bent Glass Tube, for Fluid Level.
Mounted Spirit Level.
Hydrometer and Jar, for Specific
Gravity.
Scales and Weights, for Specific
Gravity.
Hydrostatic Bellows, and Paradox.
Hydraulics.
Lifting, or Common- Water Pump.
Forcing Pump ; illustrating the Fire
Engine.
Glass Syphon Cup; for illustrating
Intermitting Springs.
Glass and Metal Syphons.
Pneumatics.
Patent Lever Air Pump and Clamp.
Three Glass Bell Receivers, adapt-
ed to the Apparatus.
Condensing and Exhausting Syr-
inge.
Copper Chamber, for Condensed
Air Fountain.
Revolving Jet and Glass Barrel.
Fountain Glass, Cock, and Jet for
Vacuum.
Brass Magdeburg Hemispheres.
Improved Weight Lifter for upward
pressure.
Iron Weight of 56 Ibs. and Strap
Flexible Tube and Connectors
for Weight Lifter.
Brass Plate and Sliding Rod.
Bolt Head and Jar.
Tall Jar and Balloon.
Hand and Bladder Glasses.
Wood Cylinder and Plate.
India Rubber Bag, for expansion of
air.
Guinea and Feather Apparatus.
Glass Flask and Stop-Cock, for
weighing air.
Electricity.
Plate Electrical Machine.
Pith Ball Electrometer.
Electrical Battery of four Jars.
Electrical Discharger.
Image Plates and Figure.
Insulated Stool.
Chime of Bells.
Miser's Plate, for shocks.
Tissue Figure, Ball and Point.
Electrical Flyer and Tellurian.
Electrical Sportsman, Jar and Birda
Mahogany Thunder House and
Pistol.
398
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Hydrogen Gas Generator.
Chains, Balls of Pith, and Amal-
gam.
Optics.
Glass Prism; and pair of Lenses.
Dissected Eye Ball, showing its
arrangement.
Magnetism,.
Magnetic Needle on Stand.
Pair of Magnetic Swans.
Glass Vase for Magnetic Swans.
Horseshoe Magnet.
Astronomy.
Improved School Orrery.
Tellurian, or, Season Machine.
Arithmetic, and Geometry.
Set of 13 Geometrical Figures of
Solids.
Box of 64 one inch Cubes, for Cube
Root, &c.
Auxiliaries.
Tin Oiler.
Glass Funnel.
Sulphuric Acid.
Set of Iron Weights for Hydrostatic
Paradox.
The foregoing Set is fully illustrated in " Wightman's Select Experiments,"
a valuable manual for the teacher.
The following illustrations of some of the articles enumerated in the above
list, are taken from " Wightman's Illustrated Catalogue," which persons select-
ing apparatus will do well to consult before making their purchases. The ad-
dress is Joseph M. Wightman, No. 33 Cornhill, Boston, Mass.
LAWS OF MATTEE AND MOTION.
INERTIA APPARATUS.
This Figure represents a very con-
venient apparatus for illustrating In-
ertia, a stiff card being projected by
the spring, and leaving the ball upon
the pillar.
COLLISION BALLS AND STAND.
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
MECHANICALS.
PULLETS, WHEEL AND AXLE, CAPSTAN.
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND LEVEHS.
SCREW.
INCLINED PLANE.
WEDGE.
400
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
HYDROSTATICS.
WIQHTMAN'S HYDROSTATIC BELLOWS AND PARADOX.
HYDRAULICS.
MODELS OF WATER PUMPS.
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
PNEUMATICS.
401
PATENT PORTABLE AIR PUMP.
BOLT HEAD FOUNTAIN IN VACUO. WIGHTMAN'S WEIGHT LIFTER.
EXPERIMENT.
26
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
ELECTRICITY.
PLATE ELECTRICAL MACHINE.
ELECTRICAL SPORTSMAN.
DANCING IMAGES.
CHIME OF BELLS.
ELECTRICAL BATTERY.
MISER'S PLATE.
CATALOGUE
OF
GLOBES AND SETS OF SCHOOL APPARATUS,
MANUFACTURED AND SOLD BY
BENJAMIN PIKE, JR., 294 BROADWAY, NEW YORK,
[Tho following Catalogue is compiled from a valuable work, in two volumes,
entitled " Optical, Mathematical, and Philosophical Instruments Illustrated and
Described, by Benj. Pike, Jr.," which every purchaser of School Apparatus should
consult before making his selections of articles. ]
The artificial globe is a round body or sphere, having on its surface a map of the
earth, or of the celestial constellations, as delineated, with the principal circles of
the sphere. In the former case it is called the terrestrial in the latter the celestial
globe. Artificial globes are used for the purpose of conveving to young persons
the first ideas of the figure and rotation of the earth, of latitude and longitude, and
the situation of places with respect to each other, and to the sun at different seasons
of the year. It is usual to employ them also for the purpose of solving mechanic-silly
elementary problems of astronomy, relative to the difference of the hour of the day
;it different places; the times of the rising and setting of the sun; the limits of the
visibility of eclipses, etc.
The fundamental parts of these instruments which are common to both, are, first,
the two poles whereon the globe is supported, representing those of the world ;
second, the brazen meridian, which is divided into degrees, and passes throngh tbe
poles ; third, the wooden horizon, whose upper side represents the real horizon, and
is divided into several circles; fourth, a brass quadrant of altitude; fifth, two hour
circles, one moving round each pole as a centre, and divided into twice twelve
hours, to indicate those of the day and night. Upon the surface of the globes are
depicted the lines of latitude and longitude, the equator, ecliptic, tropics, and polar
circles. On one globe, in addition to these, are the various countries, seas, etc., cf
the world; and on the other, the stars in their relative positions.
Terrestrial and Celestial Globes, 9, 12, 18, and 36 inches diameter, made by
MALBY & SON, London, under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion
of Useful Knowledge.
9-inch Globes, Celestial and Terrestrial (the pair), $16 00
12-inch " " " " 20 00
18-inch " " " " 48 00
36-inch " " " " 200 00
A Globe Quadrant accompanies each pair.
18-inch Terrestrial Globe, - $25 00 | 36-inch Terrestrial Globe, - $105 00
404
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
In these globes an endeavor has been made to combine a degree of accuracy,
such as is only possessed by the best modern maps, with the lowest price at which
excellence can be attained. The terrestrial globe has been compiled from the most re-
cent geographical surveys, with the aid of the accounts given by the best travellers.
The astronomical information which has been supplied of late years upon the
position and nomenclature of the fixed stars, has rendered a perfectly new celestial
globe a most desirable acquisition to the student of astronomy. The labors of
Piazzi, Bradley, Lacaille, Johnson, &c., in determining the places of the stars, and
those of Baily in the correction of their nomenclature (in the new edition of the
" British Catalogue"), have been carefully consulted in the celestial globe which is
now advertised. The stars in the northern hemisphere are all which are given by
Piazzi, with the addition of such of Bradley's (from the Tabulae Regiomontanar-) as
are not in Piazzi. The stars in the southern hemisphere comprise all those given
by Lacaille and Johnson.
SLATE GLOBES.
Malby's 12-inch Slate Globe, $10 00 18-inch Slate Globe, $25 00.
AMERICAN GLOBES.
3-inch Terrestrial Globe, f 1 5-inch do., $1 50
9-inch Terrestrial Globe,
10-inch " "
13-inch " "
8 00
10 00
13 00
9-inch Celes. and Terres. Globes (pair), $1G 00
10-inch " " " " 18 00
13-inch " " " " 25 00
16-inch " " " " 40 00
Terrestrial Globes on neat mahogany bases, inclined axis, without horizon
3-inch, 75 cts. ; 5-inch, $1 25 ; 7-inch, $3 25.
ENGLISH PEDESTAL GLOBES (very neat).
3-inch (the pair),
5-inch, ,
$3 50
6 50
6-inch (the pair),
9-inch, "
$8 00
15 00
13-inch Globes, with High Mahogany Stands and Compasses (the pair), $40 00
18-inch " " " " " $68 to $80
18-inch " " Rosewood " " " $100 00
Globes in neat Mahogany Cases, 1-inch, Terrestrial, 75c. ; If inch, $1 00;
2-inch (the pair), $3 00.
Mattison's Astronomical Maps, size 38 by 45 inches, on Cloth and Rollers, at $16 50
the set. Astronomical Diagrams for the Magic Lantern, of every variety and size.
PIKE'S SCHOOL APPARATUS.
405
SET OF APPARATUS FOR
MOTION, MECHANICS, AND MATHEMATICS. Price, $72 00.
1. Inertia Apparatus, $1 50
2. Collision Balls and Frame, - 3 00
3. Apparatus for Impenetrability, - 1 00
4. Adhesion Plates, - - - 1 50
5. Capillary Tubes, ... l 00
6 to 10. Set of Mechanical Powers, 16 00
11. Rocking Horse, .... 75
12. Planetarium, - - - /, '
13. Centrifugal Machine,
14. Surveyors' Compasses, 5 in. diam.
15. Chain, 2 poles, -
16. Quadrant, ....
17. Hour Glass,
$7 50
4 50
18 00
1 25
. 15 00
1 25
$72 25
The Mechanical Powers, figures 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, consisting of levers and pul-
leys, arranged on a mahogany frame 24 inches long and 26 inches high, with four
systems of pulleys attached. On each side of the frame, behind the pulleys, are
graduated scales, with cords passing across the length of the frame and dividing
the space into 24 equal parts, to show the number of inches, rise and fall, of the
weights, and that it is inversely as the power gained. Brass levers on the top of
the first, second and third orders; bent lever and pulley for passing over the cord;
and on one end is fixed the wheel and axle with four different diameters. The ac-
companiments are, a large and well-made inclined plane, with graduated arch and
carriage, wedge jointed in two parts, screw and lever, and screw as an inclined
plane, and a set of 10 brass weights, from one-quarter of an ounce to eight ounces.
Price $16 00. Also, Larger Sets, at $35 and $60. At wood Machines, at $25,
$40, $100 and $120. Whirling Tables and Apparatus, $30 and $75.
SET OF APPARATUS FOR OPTICS. Price $163 00.
1. Set of Six Lenses, - - - $1 50
2. Prism, 75
3. Color-blender, - - - - I 00
4. Pair of 5-inch Mirrors, Concave and
Convex, - - - - - 2 25
5. Multiplying Glass, ... 38
6. Camera Obscura, - - - - 4 00
7. Cosmorama and 12 Views, - 4 25
8. Model of Eye,
9. Muscles of Eye,
10. Long and Short Sight Explained,
11. Image on Retina, ...
12. Simple Microscope,
- $1 00
13. Compound " ... 3 50
14. Solar " - - - - 28 00
15. Magic Lantern, $3 to 15 00
16. 1 dozen Sliders, - - - $2 to 15 00
17. Set Astronomical Sliders, $7 50 to 20 00
18. Astronomical Telescope, with 3-inch
AchromHtic Object Glass, and
about 5 feet long on Stand, - 48 00
19. Polariscope, .... 4 50
20. Crystals for Polariscope. - 1 00
$163 13
A good Compound Microscope may be had for $3 50 ; larger, $5 50, $9 50,
$10, and $20. Superior Magic Lanterns, $15 ; Sliders, 4 inches wide, on Astron-
omy, $20 the set; Natural History, $20; Botany, $20; Scripture History,
$27 50? Humorous and Comic Sliders, $1 25 each. Also, Views and other sub-
jects in great variety. A pair of Lanterns, with Dissolving Apparatus, $50. As-
tronomical Telescopes, with mahogany tube, on Stands, according to size, $30 to
Others of various kinds and styles, with brass tubes, varying from $25 to
The Eye Models in four parts. A Dissected Eye, four inches diameter.
406
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
showing the cornea, iris, ciliary process, choroid tunic, crystalline lens, vitreous
humor, retina, black pigment, optic nerve, &c., showing the eye in its socket with
the muscles ; the Eye, with the rays of light passing from an object and forming the
image on the retina ; the object and image movable, showing the cause of long
sight, short sight, and perfect sight. A 4-inch ball, with convex lens on one end,
and a ground glass fixed to a sliding brass tube on the other end, and on which may
be seen the inverted image, representing! the eye as a camera obscura, and by the
aid of the set of lenses, the use of spectacles to the eye explained.
SET OF PNEUMATIC APPARATUS. (Price $42 00.)
B.PIKE.JZ
204- BROADWAY.
N.Y.
1 25
75
4 00
Consisting of a Double-barrel Air Pump, worked by racks and cog wheel, by
double lever handles, mounted on a polished mahogany frame. Price $23.
2. Swelled Air- Pump Receiver, - - $L 75 7. Flask with stop-cock, to weiah air,, $2 00
3. Hund ftnd*Bladder Glass, . 75 8. FreozingApparatus and LowReceiver, 1 50
4. Pressure Glass, - - - . 75 j 9. Bolt Hend Experiment, -
5. Fountain in Vacuo, - . - 4 00 I 10. Air Shower Experiment,
6. Bell and Receiver, - 2 25 | 11. Magdeburg Hemispheres,
With the above represented Air Pump, and ten different appendages, many in-
teresting experiments may be performed, and all the most important principles
connected therewith, illustrated in a satisfactory manner. All but the last two are
drawn in the cut. On the left of the cut is represented a brass Condensing Pump,
the barrel ten inches long, and one and a half diameter, and a strong glass Air
Chamber, with cap, stop-cock, and pipes, attached ; also, a Revolving Jet, Straight
Jet and Rose Jet. The whole being a complete apparatus for the condensation of
air and experiments therewith. The jets may be used by the passage of either air
or water through them. Price $12. An apparatus with cylindrical copper air
chamber, at the same price. Also, a Brass Tube for illustrating the principle of
the Air Gun, price $1 50. The Air Pump Apparatus, or any portion of it, may
be used with a Single Barrel Air Pump, at $7, $9, or $12, according to size, or
with Pike's Improved Single Barrel Air Pump, price $20, being the largest, most
powerful and durable pump mnde for the price. Also, Pike's elegant Lever Air
Pumps, 4 feet high, price $63, or with gauge, $70. Larger Double-barrel and
Lever Air Pumps, and more extended apparatus constantly on hand.
SET OF APPARATUS FOR HYDROSTATICS. Price
1. Hydrometer. $0 50
2. Tube lor relative weight of fluids, 1 50
3. Level and Plumb Level. - - - 1 25
4. Syphon with Drawing Tube, - 75
5. VVirtemberg Syphon, - - - 75
6. Tantalus Cup, .... 2 00
7. Hydrostatic Equilibrium, 2 50
8. Lifting Pump, .... 3 50
9. Forcing Pump, - - - . 5 00
Frame for Pumps,
10. Hydrostatic Bellows, -
11. Spouting Fluids,
12. Barker's Mill, ....
13. Archimedes Screw, -
14. Upward and Downward Pressure
of Fluids, ....
$1 50
5 00
5 00
5 00
9 00
2 00
$45 25
PIKE'S SCHOOL APPARATUS. 407
SET OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS. Price $31 50.
Consisting of a well-made, 7-inch Cylinder Electrical Machine, with mahogany
frame, neat, turned pillars, Insulated Prime Conductor, Brass Ball and Wire, Pair
of Chains, and Box of Amalgam. Price $14 00.
1 25
1 25
1 25
2 00
50
2 00
9. Cylinder with Dancing Pith Balls,
10. Long Hir Man, ....
11. Electrical Chase Four Revolving
Horsemen on Insulated Stand,
12. Insulating Stool, ...
13. Electrical Swan, ....
$1 50
75
2 50
3 00
25
2. Leyden Jar (quart size),
3. Jointed Discharger,
4. Quadrant Electrometer, -
5. Image Plates and Pith Images,
6. Chime of three Bells,
7. Revolving Flyer, -
8. Luminous Spiral Tube,
The above described Set is one much approved, and is warranted superior to any
other sets thai have yet been before the public, for its price ; and the working of the
machines is unsurpassed, if equalled, by any of their size. Any portion, or all of
this Electrical Apparatus, may be used with a 4j-inch cylinder machine, costing but
$8, or*5-inch, $10; 6-inch, $12; 8-inch, $16; 9-inch, $18; 10-inch, $20. A
16-inch Plate Electrical Machine, handsomely finished, the Prime Conductor and
Rubber Conductor of brass, supported on stout, swelled glass pillars, having brass
sockets and mahogany frame, and mounted on four turned feet. Price $25 00, or,
with the Apparatus, $42 00.
A 20-inch plate Electrical Machine, mounted as the preceding one, but much
larger in all its parts, $38, or with above apparatus, $55.
Larger Machines and more extended Apparatus, in great variety of form and
price.
$6 50
- 8 00
( 4 quart Leyden Jars, in a Mahogany Case,
Electrical Batteiy of < 4 2-quart " " " (<
, 4 gallon - 10 00
SET OF APPARATUS FOR MAGNETISM AND GALVANISM.
Price $52 or
1. Bar Mngnet,
2. Horse-Shoe Magnet, -
3. Star and Circular Plate,
4. Rolling Armature,
5. Y. Armature,
6. Two Polished Iron Balls,
7. Iron Rods and Half Links,
8. Magnetic Swan and Fishes,
9. Magnetic N'V-dle and Stand,
10. Galvanic Battery,
11. Magneto Electric Machine,
$0 75
1 00
50
1 00
50
50
25
50
75
2 50
9 00
12. Electro-Magnet,
13. Magic Circle,
14. Rod in Air and Helix,
- 81 75
1 75
2 50
15. Magnetizing Helix on Stand, 2 50
16. Galvanometer, - 3 00
17. Tel.-graph Model, ... 7 50
18. Beam Engine $10, or Axial Eugine, 10 00
19. Wheel " .... 6 50
20. Powder Cup, - - 50
62 25
408
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Grove's Battery, 12 series of Zinc and Plalina in Glass Cups, arranged in a neat
Black Walnut Case, with Cover, with a set of Conducting Wires, tipped with fine
copper, steel and iron wire, watch-spring, &c., which burn with bright and varied
colors, brilliant scintillations, &c. ; a pair of Carbon Points, for producing the Gal-
vanic Light, and a Glass Globe, with wires tipped with platina, for collecting the
gases in the decomposition of water. Price of the Battery, according to size, $15,
$18, and $20.
SET OF APPARATUS FOR CHEMISTRY. Price $47 00.
1. Retort Stand, - 1
2. Spirit Lamp ....
3. Glass Flask with Ring Neck,
4. Three Glass Retorts,
5. Receiver with Stopper,
6. Matrass with long neck.
7. Pneumntic Cistern, ...
8. Two Bell Glasses, half gal. and quart,
9. Gas Bottle,
10. Bel] Glass, Stoppered,
11. Deflagrating Jar " and Spoon,
12. Bell Glass with Cap and Stop-Cock,
Bubble Pipe, Jet, and Gas Bag,
13. Hydrogen Gas Pistol,
14. " " Balloon,
15. Iodine in Glass Flask,
16. Scales and Weights,
17. Dropping Tube,
18. Glass Funnef, ....
19. Three Precipitating Glasses,
20. Three Test Tubes,
21. Graduated Measure Glass,
22. Beaker Glass, ....
23. Crucibles nest,
A great variety of other Chemical Apparatus on hand. A Compound Blow Pipe
and Pneumatic Cistern Combined, $8 50; larger, $12. Hydrogen Generator, $4.
Gas Bags to hold three or four gallons, with Stop-cock, $3 25 ; larger size, $7 to
$10. Sheet Iron Furnaces, $8. Davy's Safety Lamp, in Brass, $3. Apparatus
for Specific Heat, $4 ; for Unequal Expansion of Fluids, $4 ; for Ball and Ring
Experiment, $2 25 ; for Condensation by Mixture, $1 25. Marcel's Steam Boiler,
with Barometer and Thermometer, $15. Copper Still, Worm and Tub, $6 to $8.
Ure's Eudiometer, $2 50, if graduated, $4; Flask Holder, $1 50; Wolf 's Ap-
paratus, 4 bottles and tubes, arranged in a tray, $6 to $7 50 ; Glass Alembics, $1
to $2. Twelve 6-inch Test-Tubes, in mahogany polished frame, $1 50. Marsh's
Arsenic Apparatus, $2 50. Bulb Tubes, 37c. ; two Bulb Tubes, 50c. Drying
Tubes, 37 to 75c.
Chemical Materials on hand and furnished to order at regular prices.
1 50
24. Mortar and Pestle, ...
$0 75
75
25. Evaporating Dish, ...
38
2-T
1 AC
26. Adapter,
37
38
J UO
OOQ
37
t>O
37
29. Air Thermometer, -
19
2 00
30. Eolopile, '
38
1 25
31. Boiling Glass, ....
50
63
32. Steam Apparatus, -
1 50
1 00
33. Four Candle Bombs, - - *
1-2
1 00
34. Fire Syringe, ....
1 00
2 00
35. Chryophorous, ...
1 75
1 00
36. Flaiiieless Lamp, -
1 25
38
37. Conductometer, ...
1 75
1 25
38. Pyrometer.
3 50
38
39. Chemical Thermometer,
1 00
1 25
40. Downward Conducting Power of
38
Heat in Fluids,
1 75
18
41. Pair 13 inch Reflectors and Stands,
5 50
45
42. Iron Ball and Stand,
1 00
15
43. Differential Thermometer, -
1 50
63
Of)K
44. Improved Iron Retort for Oxygen,
3 50
*9
10
$47 03
PIKE'S SCHOOL APPARATUS. 409
SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. Price
1. Set, including Motion, Mechanics, and Surveying Instruments, - $72 00
2. " " Optics, Telescope, Solar Microscope, Magic Lantern, &c., 163 00
3. " " Air Pump and Apparatus, - - - - - 42 00
4. " " Condensing Pump, 13 50
5. " " Hydrostatics and Hydraulics, - - - - - 45 00
6. " Electrical Machine and Apparatus, ... 31 50
7. " " Magnetism and Galvanism, - - - - - 52 00
8. " Grove's Battery and Apparatus, .... 18 00
9. " " Chemical Apparatus, - - - - - - 47 00
10. A Barometer and Thermometer, $10 ; Hygrometer, $3 50 ; Rain
Gauge, $2 50, 16 00
$500 00
APPROVED SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. Price $250.
Being the same as the above $500 Set, with the omission of some of the more
costly articles.
1. Set, without Quadrant, Surveyor's Compass and Chain, ... $37 75
2. " " Telescope, Solar Microscope, and Magic Lantern, - 37 00
3. " Complete, 42 00
4. " " 13 50
5. " without Lifting and Forcing Pumps, Archimedes Screw, Barker's
Mill, Spouting and Pressure of Fluids, ----- 14 00
6. Set, Complete, 31 50
7. " without Telegraph, 3 Magnetic Engines, and Galvanometer, - 26 00
8. " Complete, --. 18 00
9. " without the seven last instruments in the list, ... 30 00
$250 00
These sets may he further reduced, added to, or alterations made, to suit the
purposes of the institution using the same, and it will be found, on examination,
that there has been no sets of as good quality, or embracing so many important in-
struments, offered at as low a price.
PARTICULARS OF A SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS, FOR $50.
A five-inch terrestrial globe, $1 50; a set of twelve geometrical solids, $1 25 ;
a numeral frame, 88c. --------- $3 63.
Optics. Prism, 38c. ; kaleidoscope, 12c. ; multiplying glass, 38c. ; magic lan-
tern and set of twelve sliders, $1 25; concave and convex mirrors, four-inch
diameter, $1 25 ; a microscope, $1 ; concave and convex lenses, 50c. $4 88.
Pneumatics. Single barrel air pump and receiver, $7 ; hand and bladder glass,
75c. ; air shower, 75c. ; pressure glass, 75c. ; Magdeburgh hemispheres, $4 ;
syphon, 38c. $13 62.
Electricity. Five-inch cylinder electrical machine, $8; Leyden jar, 75c. ; dis-
charger, 25c.; electrical bells, $1 25 ; pair of image plates and pith images, $1 25;
long hair man, 75c. : swan, 50c. ; revolving flyers, 50c. - - $13 25.
Galvanism and Magnetism. Galvanic battery, $2 50; electro-magnet, $1 ;
magic circle, $1 ; horse-shoe magnet, 50c. ; iron rods and filings, 25c. ; magnetic
needle, 38c. ; magnetic fish, 25c. $5 88.
Chemistry. Two glass retorts, 56c. ; one matrass, 25c. ; two flasks, 12c. ; retort
stand, $1 25; spirit lamp, 75c.; one bell glass receiver, 50c.; one stoppered glass jar,
38c. ; one. bell glass receiver with cap and stop-cock, $1 75 ; pipe, jet, and gas-bag,
88c.; blow-pipe, 38c.; nest of crucibles, 6c. ; air thermometer, 12c. ; funnel, 15c. ;
two test tubes, lOc. ; scales and weights, $1 25; hydrometer, 50c. - $9 00.
SCHOOL APPARATUS.
AIDS TO INSTRUCTION,
TO BE FOUND AT
IDE & BUTTON'S, 106 WASHINGTON ST., BOSTON.
Swain's Planetarium, $15.00
Solar Telluric Globe, 7.00
Cornell's Ter. Globe, 3.50
Loring's Globes, $2.50 to 50.00
Copley's 16 in. Globes, 20.00 pair
Holbrook's School Apparatus, $45.00 set
Numerical Frames, 1.00
Allen's Game of Letters, 50o. to 10.00
Black-board Brushes, 50 cts.
Chalk Crajons, 75 cts. gro.
Geometrical Solids, 1.25 set
Punctuation Tables, 25 cts.
Fowle's Outline Maps, $4.00
do. Map of Massachusetts, 5.00
Pelton's Outline Maps, 25.00
Mitchell's do. do. 8.00
Bliss's do. do. 7.00
Astronomical Diagrams, 15.00
Fowle's Physiol. Diagrams, 5.00
Cutter's do. do. 7.00
Ide's Teacher's Register, 25 cts.
do. do. Tokens, 25 per 100
School Rewards, all prices,
Ide's Skeleton Maps,
36c. doz.
A Set for every Primary School.
Fowle's Maps,
Loring's Semi Frame Globe,
Numerical Frame,
Black-board Brush,
Numeral Table, Sheet,
Punctuation Table, "
Articulation Table, "
Education Letter Table, Board,
$4.00
2.50
1.00
50
25
25
50
1.50
10.50
Persons enclosing us Ten Dollars, free
of expense, will recive the above set sent
as they may direct.
Large Grammar School Set.
Pelton's splendid Maps & Key, $25.00
Fowle's large Map Massachusetts,
(for use in Mass.,) 5.00
Loring's 12 in. Globes, (pair,) 25.00
Swajn's Planetarium, 15.00
Fowle's Physiol. Diagrams, 5.00
6 Black-board Brushes, 2.25
1 gross Chalk Crayons, 75
1 set Geometrical Solids, 1.25
1 set CUjbe Root Blocks, 75
Tollman's Chart of Chemistry, 5.00
$85.00
Persons enclosing us Eighty Dollars
will receive the above set sent as they
may direct.
We have also on hand the largest assortment of Maps (both ancient and mod-
ern), Atlases and Giftde Books, to be found in the city, and a great variety of
School Apparatus. Catalogues to be had gratuitous, by application by mail, post
paid. IDE & DUTTON.
GOODYEAR'S VULCANIZED INDIA RUBBER. 41 1
GOUDYEAK'S METALLIC GUM-ELASTIC, OR VULCANIZED INDIA RUBBER.
The fabric known as il Goodyear' 1 s. Gum-clastic, or Vulcanized India rubber"
invented and manufactured by Charles Goodyear, of New Haven, Conn., is
capable of many highly useful applications in the school-room, and for educa-
tional purposes generally. By the changes wrought by Mr. Goodyear in the
construction of his fabrics, all of the remarkable properties of the gum in its
native state are preserved and improved, while its defects and objectional
features are obviated. There seems to be no limit to the many useful purposes
to which it may be applied, in every department of the useful arts, and of prac-
tical life, and the public is not yet apprised of its manifold adaptations to hu-
mane purposes, and to the protection of life and property. We shall here notice
only a few of its many useful applications in the school-room, and for school
purposes generally.
Book-binding or Covers.
Several styles of Goodyear's fabrics are admirably adapted to the binding, or
covers of school-books. A cover of this material does not crack, or warp, is
not injured by water or oil, is not easily soiled, and if soiled, can be readily
cleaned. A school-book bound in this way, we have every reason to suppose,
will outlast, in the ordinary "wear and tear" of a child's use. (except that of
the knife, which ought never to be allowed in a child's hand in the school-
room,) a dozen bound in the best style with any kind of leather.
School Books.
Its uses are not confined to covers, but school books can be printed on this
fabric, which can be manufactured of suitable thinness for this purpose, and
at the same time have a strength of texture, which will not tear, but outlast the
best linen paper, and at the same time be readily cleaned when soiled.
When school books are printed on this labric, and bound in covers of the
same, one of the greatest items of educational expense will be reduced.
Maps and Charts.
We have seen beautiful specimens of maps printed on various specimens of
a new fabric, recently invented, and called vegetable leather, gum-elastic vellum,
and metallic tissue, which will admit of the roughest use, and are capable of
being handled for years without any injury, and can be rolled or folded np
when not in use. We see no difficulty in printing outline maps, charts, and
diagrams of all kinds on this fabric, which can be rolled up when not needed,
and which can be washed and wiped clean with sponge, if soiled from use, or
from the dust and smoke of the school-room. Both sides of the fabric can be
used for the purposes of printing. The outline maps, if made of suitable
fabric, can be filled up by the scholar, and the pencil marks erased by the
sponge. Maps of this material can be so made as to exhibit the elevations and
depressions on the earth's surface.
Globes. ,
We have seen beautiful specimens of globes, celestial and terrestrial, and
of a great variety of sizes, from three inches to three feet, made of the fabric
above described, such as 'vegetable leather, or gum-elastic vellum. When em-
bossed, they show the elevations and depressions, the mountains and valleys,
and water-courses of the earth's surface. When inflated with gas lighter than
atmospheric air, they float about the room. If soiled, they can be easily cleaned
with the sponge, and will bear the roughest usage. If the great outlines of the
globe only are printed, the pupil can be exercised in filling up the blank with a
lead pencil. When articles made of this fabric come inLp demand, our schools
ran be furnished with globes almost at the price of children's toys, and thus
the great objection of expense will no longer prevent the introduction of this
412 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
piece of apparatus, and of visible illustration, into every school of every grade.
When not inflated, the globe of three feet can be packed away in a space
of about as many inches.
Floor Cloth, or Carpet.
This fabric is admirably adapted for carpeting the aisles of a school-room,
both to prevent reverberation, and to secure cleanliness. It can be easily
cleaned, and will wear as long as the floor itself.
Blackboard and Desk Covering.
By using different styles of this fabric, a suitable surface of any desirable
size can be obtained for the lead or slate pencil, which can be attached per-
manently to a wall, or be made in a portable form.
It can be attached to the top of the desk, and thereby prevent all reverberation.
When thus applied, it will not gather dust, or wear out, like cloth, but can be
kept clean with a sponge, and will wear as long as the wood itself. The fabric
used for covering a desk, can be of the same style of fabric as that used for a
blackboard or slate, and thus answer all the purposes of either of these articles
of apparatus.
Sponge.
An article is made of the gum, leavened and raised like bread, and called a
sponge, from its close resemblance, in texture and uses, to the natural sponge.
It is the best article which we have seen for erasing marks made by a lead or
slate pencil, or chalk, on paper, slate, or blackboard, or prepared surface of
any kind in the nature of the blackboard or slate. Besides answering all the
purposes of the sponge in such applications, it will remove the oiliness which
is frequently communicated to the slate by the hand, &c. It is also inval-
uable as a mop, or scrub, or shoe mat, at the door of the school-house, as it is
not injured by exposure, or the roughest and most constant usage.
Pen and Pencil Wiper.
The article used for making the sponge can also be made into a pen-wiper,
and can be attached to the inkstand, (which can also be manufactured of the
same material.) It can also be attached to the end of the lead pencil, or to the
port-crayon, or handle for the more convenient use of the crayon, chalk, or slate
pencil. It will work much closer than the native gum, and is admirably
adapted to drawing purposes.
Calisthenic Exercises.
Every school, and especially every school for girls and young ladies, should
be supplied with swings, and other apparatus for developing, expanding, and
strengthening the muscles of the chest, arms, &c., and for these purposes several
styles of this fabric are admirably adapted.
Drawing and Writing Tablets.
One style of the improved metallic fabric is admirably adapted as a substi-
tute for paper or slate, for introductory exercises in writing and drawing, as
each impression of the pencil can be removed by the sponge, and a fresh, clean
surface as constantly secured. The same material can be used for books for
memoranda, records of attendance, returns of school committees, &cc.
The excellence of this fabric for all school purposes, as compared with paper,
and other materials wsed for similar purposes, consists in its durability and
economy.
LIBRARY.
EVERY school should be furnished with a Library which should include,
1. Books on schools and school-systems, lor the use of school officers
and parents ; and on the theory and practice of teaching, for the pro-
fessional instruction of teachers.
2. Books of reference, for the use principally of teachers.
3. Books for circulation among the pupils.
4. Books for circulation among the parents, and inhabitants of the Dis-
trict, or neighborhood.
In the arrangement, and furniture of a school-house, provision should
be made for the Library.
The following catalogue may assist those who are charged with the
purchase of books :
BOOKS ON EDUCATION.
THE SCHOOL AND SCHOOL-MASTER, by Alonzo Potter, (Bishop ot
Pennsylvania,) and George B. Emerson. New York : Harper and
Brothers. Boston : Fowle and Capen. Price $1.00. 551 pages.
This volume was prepared at the request of the late James Wads-
worth, of Geneseo, New York, with special reference to the condition and
wants of common schools in that State. Its general principles and most
of its details are applicable to similar schools in other parts of the country,
and. indeed, to all seminaries employed in giving elementary instruction.
Mr. Wadsworth directed a copy of it to be placed in each of the school
libraries of New York, at his expense, and his noble example was fol-
lowed in respect to the schools of Massachusetts, by the Hon. Martin
Brimmer, of Boston.
CONTENTS, PART I. Introduction. CHAPTER I. EDUCATION OP THE PEOPLE. See. I.
What is Education. Sec. II. Prevailing Errors in regard to the Nature and End of Education.
Sec. III. The same Subject continued. Sec. IV. Same Subject continued. Sec. V. What is
the Education most needed by the American People. Sec. VI. The Importance of Education,
1. To the Individual. Sec. VII. The Importance of Education, 2. To Society.
CHAPTER II. COMMON SCHOOLS. Sec. I. Relation of Common Schools to other Means of
Education. Sec. II. Present State of Common Schools. 1. School-houses. 2. Manners. 3.
Morals. Sec. III. Same Subject continued. 4. Intellectual Instruction. 5. Irregular Attend-
ance. Sec. IV. How can Common Schools be improved? 1. Discussion. 2. Female Teachers.
3. Union or High Schools. 4. Consolidation of Districts. Sec. V. The Improvement of Com-
mon Schools continued. Organization in Cities. 1. District System. 2. Monitorial. 3.
Fiicher System. 4. American system. 5. Diversity of Class books. Sec. VI. Same Subject,
continued. Education of Teachers.
CONTENTS. PART II. Introduction. BOOK I. QUALITIES. Chap. I. Mental and
Moral, important in a Teacher. Chap. II. Health. Exercise. Diet. Sleep. Recreation.
BOOK II. STUDIES. Chap. I. Laws of the Creation. Chap. II. Natural Laws. Chap. III.
Independence of the Natural Laws. Chap. IV. Higher Studies. Chap. V. Advantages of a
Teacher's Life.
BOOK III. DUTIES. Chap. I, To Himself. Self-Culture. Chap. II. To his Pupils, to give
them means of Knowledge. Chap. III. To his Pupils, to form their Moral Character. Chap.
IV. To his Pupils, Cultivation of their Powers. Chap. V. Communication of Knowledge.
Chap. VI. To his Fellow-Teachers. Chap. VII. To Parents and the Community.
BOOK IV. THE SCHOOL. Chap. I. Organization. Chap. II. Instruction. General Princi-
ples. Chap. III. Teaching: 1. Reading. 2. Spelling. 3. Grammar. 4. Writing. 5. Drwv-
414 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
ing. 6. Arithmetic. 7. Accounts. 8. Geography. 9. History. 10. Physiology. 11. Com
position. Chap. IV. Government.
BOOK V. THE SCHOOL-HOUSE. Chap. I. Situation. Chap. II. Size. Chap. III. Position
and Arrangement. Chap. IV. Light. Warming. Ventilation.
THE TEACHER'S MANUAL, by Thomas H. Palmer. Boston: Marsh,
Capen, Lyon & Webb, 1840. pp. 263. Price, 75 cents.
This work received the prize of five hundred dollars, offered by the
American Institute of Instruction, in 1838, for " the best Essay on a sys-
tem of Education best adapted to the Common Schools of our country."
CONTENTS. PART I. Chapter I. Introductory. Chapter II. Who are our Schoolmas-
ters. Chapter III. Physical Education. Chapter IV. Intellectual Education. Chapter V. In-
tellectual Education, continued. Chapter VI. Moral Education. Chapter VII. Recapitulation.
PART II. Chapter I. Introductory. Chapter II. Physical Education. Chapter III. Physi
eal Education, continued. Chapter IV. Physical Education, continued. Chapter V. Intellec-
tual Education. Chapter VI. Intellectual Education, continued. Chapter VII. Intellectual
Education, continued. Chapter VIII. Intellectual Education, continued. Chapter IX. Intel-
lectual Education, continued. Chapter X. Intellectual Education, concluded. Chapter XL
Moral Education. Chapter XII. Moral Education, continued. Chapter XIII. Conclusion,
THE TEACHER TADGHT, by Emerson Davis, late Principal of the
Westfield Academy. Boston : Marsh, Capen, Lyon & Webb, 1839.
pp. 79. Price 37 i cents.
This valuable work was first published in 1833, as " An Abstract of a
Course of Lectures on School-keeping."
SLATE AND BLACKBOARD EXERCISES, By William A. Alcott. New
York: Mark H. Newman. Price 37 cents.
The chapters in this little work were first published in the Connecticut
Common School Journal, in 1841. The various suggestions and methods
are highly practical.
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING, by David P. Page, Principal
of the New York State Normal School. New York : A. S. Barnes & Co.
CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The Spirit of the Teacher. CHAPTER H. Responsibility ot the
Teacher. Sec. I. The Neglected Tree. Sec. II. Extent of Responsibility. Sec. Ill The Au-
burn Prison. CHAPTER HI. Habits of the Teacher. CHAPTER IV. Literary Qualifications of
the Teacher. CKAPTER V. Right Views of Education. CHAPTER VI. Right Modes of Teach
ing. Sfc. I. Pouring in Process. See. II. Drawing-out Process. Sec. III. The more Excel-
lent Way. Sec. IV. Waking up Mind. Sec.V. Remarks. CHAPTER VII. Conducting Recita
tions. CHAPTER VIII. Exciting an Interest in Study. Sec. I. Incentives. Emulation. See.
II. Prizes and Rewards. Sec. III. Proper Incentives. CHAPTER IX. School Government.
Sec. I. Requisites in the Teacher for Government. Sec. II. Means of securing Good Order.
Sec. III. Punishments, Improper, Proper. Sec. IV. Corporal Punishment. Sec. V. Limita-
tions and Suggestions. CHAPTER X. School Arrangements. Sec. I. Plan of Day's Work.
Sec. II. Interruptions. Sec. III. Recesses. Sec. IV. Assignment of Lessons. Sec. V. Re-
views. Sec. VI. Examinations, Exhibitions, Celebrations. CHAPTER XL The Teacher's Re-
lation to the Parents of his 1'upils. CHAPTER XII. The Teacher's Care of his Health. CHAP-
TER XIII. The Teacher's Relation to his Profession. CHAPTER XIV. Miscellaneous Sugges-
tions. See. I. Things to be avoided. Sec. II. Things to be performed. CHAPTER XV. The
Rewards of the Teacher.
HINTS AND METHODS FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS. Hartford: Price
25 cents.
This volume is made up principally of selections from publications on
methods of teaching, not easily accessible ; and under each subject dis-
cussed, reference is made to various volumes, where additional sugges-
tions can be found.
THE DISTRICT SCHOOL AS IT WAS. by one who went to it, (Rev.
Warren Burton.) New York: J. Orville Taylor, 1838.
In this amusing picture of " the lights and shadows" of school life as it
was in New England twenty years ago, the teachers and scholars of
some of our District Schools as they are, will recognize the school-house,
books, practices, and methods with which they are too familiar.
BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 415
CONFESSIONS or A SCHOOL-MASTER, by Dr. William A. Alcott. New
Y"ork: Mark H. Newman. Price 50 cents.
If our teachers will read these confessions of errors of omission and
commission, and the record which it gives of real excellencies attained by
the steps of a slow and laborious progress, they will save themselves
the mortification of the first, and realize earlier the fruits of the last.
Few men have the moral courage to look their former bad methods so
directly in the face. Every young teacher should read this book.
CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. MY INTRODUCTION TO SCHOOL KEEPING. Section I. Prepara
lion and Engagement. Section II. The Examination. Section III. My Cogitations.
CHAPTER II. MY FIRST YEAR. Sectionl. First day of School. Section II. General Course
of Instruction. Section III. Particular Errors. SectionlV. Religious Exercises.
CHAPTER III. MY SECOND YEAR. Section I. Course of Instruction. Section II. Serious
Mistakes.
CHAPTER IV. MY THIRD YEAR. Section I. Complaint to the Grand Jurors. Section II.
Introduction of a New School Book. Section III. Meeting of the Schools.
CHAPTER V. FOURTH AND FIFTH YEARS. Section I. Modes of Punishing. Section II. At-
tending to other Employments. Section III. Late Evening Visits. Section IV. Studies and
Methods.
CHAPTER VI. MY SIXTH YEAR. Section I. Teaching by the Year. Terms and Object.
Section II. Description of the School and School-house. Section III. First Efforts at Im-
provement. Punctuality. Section IV. Methods and Discipline. Section V. Schools Neglected
by Parents. Section VI. School Libraries. Section VII. Improper Company. Example.
CHAPTER VII. MY SEVENTH YEAR. Section I. Divided Attention. Section II. Teaching
on the Subbalh.
CHAPTER VIII. MY EIOHTH YEAR. Section I. General Account of my School. Sectionll.
Causes ot' Failure.
CHAPTER IX. MY NINTH YEAR. Section I. A Novel Enterprise. Section II. Methods of
Teaching. Discipline.
CHAPTER X. MY EXPERIENCE AS A SCHOOL VISITOR. Sectionl. Examination of Teachers.
Section II. Special Visits to Schools. Section III. Meetings for Improvement. Section IV.
Introduction of a New Reading Book.
CHAPTER XI. MY TENTH YEAR IN SCHOOL. Section I. Commencement of School. Sec-
tion II. Spelling, Reading, Writing, etc. Section III. Teaching Geography. Section IV. A
Practical Exercise. Section V. Experiment in Teaching Etymology. Section VI. Teaching
Orthography. Section VII. Forcing Knowledge. Section VIII. Teaching Pupils to sit still.
Section IX. 'My Moral Influence. Section X. My 111 Health. Section XL Countenancing the
Sports of my Pupils. Section XII. Discipline.
THE SCHOOL TEACHER'S MANUAL, by Henry Dunn, Secretary of the
British and Foreign School Society, London. Hartford : Reed & Bar-
ber, 1839. pp. 223. Price 50 cents.
The American edition of this work is edited by Rev. Thomas H. Gal-
laudet, which is the best evidence that could be given of the general
soundness of the views presented by the English author.
TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, by W. B. Fowle. Boston.
TEACHING A SCIENCE: THE TEACHER AN ARTIST, by Rev. B. R.
Hall. New York : Baker & Scribner.
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT, by Lyman Cobb. New York: Mark H.
Newman.
SCHOOL KEEPING, by an Experienced Teacher. Philadelphia: John
Grigg, 1831.
THE SCHOOL-MASTER'S FRIEND, with the Committee-man's Guide, by
Theodore Dwight, Jr. pp. 360. New York, Roe Lockwood, 415, Broad-
way, 1835.
THE TEACHER, or Moral Influences in the Instruction and Govern-
ment of the Young, by Jacob Abbott. Boston, Whipple & Damrell, No.
9 Cornhill. Boston. Price 75 cents.
THEORY OF TEACHING, with a few practical Illustrations, by a Teacher.
Boston : E. P. Peabody, 1841. pp. 128.
DISTRICT SCHOOL, by J. Orville Taylor. New York: Harper &
Brothers, 1834.
416 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
LECTURES ON EDUCATION, by Horace Mann, Secretary of the Massa-
chusetts Board of Education.' Boston : Fowle & Capen, 1845. Pp. 338.
Price $1.00.
This volume embraces seven lectures, most of which were delivered
before the Annual Common School Conventions, held in the several
counties of Massachusetts, in 1838, '39, '40, '41, and '42. They are pub-
lished in this form at the request of the Board of Education. No man,
teacher, committee, parent, or friend of education generally, can read
these lectures without obtaining much practical knowledge, and without
being fired with a holy zeal in the cause.
CONTENTS. Lecture I. Means and Objects of Common School Education. Lecture II
Special Preparation, a prerequisite to Teaching. Lecture III. The Necessity of Education in
a Republican Government. Lecture IV. What God does, and what He leaves for Man to do, in
the work of Education. Lecture V. An Historical View of Education ; showing its Dignity
and its Degradation. Lecture VI. On District School Libraries. Lecture VII. On School Pun-
ishments.
LOCKE AND MILTON ON EDUCATION. Boston : Gray & Brown, 1830.
THE EDUCATION OF MOTHERS, by L. Aime-Martin. Philadelphia:
Lea & Blanchard, 1843.
EDUCATION AND HEALTH, by Amariah Brigham. Boston: Marsh,
Capen & Lyon, 1843.
DR. CHANNING ON SELF CULTURE. Boston : Monroe & Co. Price
33 cents.
Miss SEDGWICK ON SELF TRAINING, OR MEANS AND ENDS. New
York : Harper & Brothers.
These two volumes, the first written with special reference to young
men, and the last, to young women, should be read by all young teachers,
who would make their own individual character, attainments, and con-
duct, the basis of all improvement in their profession.
The following works have special reference to instruction in Infant and
Primary Schools :
EXERCISES FOR THE SENSES. London: Charles Knight & Co. Pub-
lished under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Use-
ful Knowledge.
LESSONS ON OBJECTS : as given to children between the ages of six
and eight, in a Pestalozzian School at Cheam, Sussex, by C. Mayo.
London : Seeley, Burnside & Seeley, Fleet street, 1845.
LESSONS ON SHELLS, as given to children between the ages of eight
and ten, and by the author of " Lessons on Objects." London : Seeley,
Burnside & Seeley, 1846.
PATTERSON'S ZOOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. London.
MODEL LESSONS FOR INFANT SCHOOL TEACHERS, by the author of
" Lessons on Objects." Parts I. and II. London : Seeley, Burnside &
Seeley, 1846.
WILDERSPIN'S INFANT SYSTEM. London: James S. Hodgson, 112
Fleet street.
WILDERSPIN'S ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. London: James S. Hodgson.
CHAMBERS' EDUCATIONAL COURSE, INFANT EDUCATION, from two to
six years of age. Edinburgh : W. R. Chambers.
PRACTICAL EDUCATION, by Maria Edgeworth. New York: Harper &
Brothers, 1835.
BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 417
THE TEACHER AND PARENT; a Treatise upon Common School Edu-
cation. By Charles Northern!. New York : A. S. Barnes & Co. Price
75 cents.
This is a valuable treatise, full of practical suggestions to teachers
and parents, by one who has felt the want of such suggestions while act-
ing as teacher of the Epes Grammar School in Salem, and more re-
cently as Superintendent of Public Schools, in Danvers, Mass.
CONTENTS, PART I. CHAPTER I. Common Schools. II. The Teacher. Ill Thorough
Knowledge, Aptness to Teach, Accuracy, Patience, and Perseverance. IV. Candor, Truth-
fulness, and Courteousnesa. V. Ingenuity, Individuality. VI. Kindness, Gentleness, For-
bearance, and Cheerfulness. VII. Common S-nse. Knowledge of Human Nature, General
Information, Desire to do Good, and Hopefulness. VIII. Correct Moral Principles, Exem-
plary Habits and Deportment ; Diligence. IX. Neatness and Order; Self-Control. X. Ear-
nestness, Knenry. Enthusiasm. XI. Judgment and Prudence; System and Punctuality; In-
<l'pemi-nce. XII. Professional Feeling and Intere.-t : a Deep and Well-grounded Interest in
Teaching. XIII. Means of Improvement. XIV. Teaching. XV Discipline. XVI. Means
of luteresthvj; Pupils and Parents. XVII. Moral Instruction. XVI11 Emulation ancl Prizes.
XIX. Primary Schools. XX. Lessons and Recitations. XXI. Examinations and Exhibi-
tions. XXII. Multiplicity of Studies. XXIII. Heading. XXIV. Spelling. XXV. Penman-
ship. XXVI. Geography. XXVII. Grammar. XXVIII. Letter Writing and Composition.
XXIX. Arithmetic. XXX. Book-Keeping ; Declamation. XXXI. Singing. XXXII. Mis-
cellaneous.
PART II. CHAPTKK I. Introductory Remarks. II. School Houses. III. Children should
not be sent to School too Young. IV. To Provide Good Teachers. V. School Supervision.
VI. Parents should Encourage the Teacher. VII. Speciiic Duties. V11I. Candor and Chari-
"ableiiets. IX. High and Honorable Motives.
AMERICAN EPUCATION ; its Principles and Elements. By Edward
D. Mansfield. New York : A. S. Barnes & Co., 1853.
This is a philosophical discussion of the principles, and not a practical
treatise on the modes of instruction, in the several subjects treated of.
CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The idea of a Republic. II. Means of perpetuating Civil and
Religions Liberty. 111. The idea of American Education. IV. The Teacher h'S qualifica-
tions, teaching, and character. V. The idea of Science. VI. The Utility of Mathematics.
VII. The Utility of Astronomy. VIII. The Utility of History. IX. The Science of Language.
X. Literature a Means of Education. XI. Conversation an Instructor XII. The Constitu-
tion the Law-book of the Nation. XIII. The B.ble the Law-book from Heaven. XIV.
The Education of Women. Elementary Ideas. The Future.
THE TEACHER'S INSTITUTE ; or, Familiar Hints to Young Teachers.
By William B. Fowle. Boston: Lemuel N. Ide, 18i9. Price 75 cents.
Mr. Fowle has had a long and successful experience as a teacher, par-
ticularly in the monitorial system, and has been eminently successful in
conducting the exercises of Teachers' Institutes, or gatherings of young
teachers for the purpose of instruction, in the matter and manner of
teaching. This volume embraces the results of his experience, both as
a teacher of children and of teachers.
CONTENTS. Reading. Spelling. Arithmetic. Mental Arithmetic. Writing. Drawing.
Lecturts on Geography. Remarks on Geography. Lecture on the Uses and Abuses of Mem-
ory English Grammar. Composition. Letters on the Monitorial System. Remarks on
the Use of Monitors. Neatness. The Opening and Closing of School. Music. Emulation
and Discipline. Conclusion.
POPULAR EDUCATION ; for the use of Teachers and Parents. Ey Ira
Mayhevv. New York : Burgess & Cady. Price 75 cents.
This Treatise was prepared and published in accordance with a reso-
lution of the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of
Michigan, by the author, while Superintendent of Public Instruction.
CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. In what does a correct Education consist? II. The Import-
ance of Physical Education. III. Physical Education The Laws of Health. .IV. The Laws
of Health Philosophy of Respiration. V The Nature of Intellectual and Moral Education.
VI. The Education of the Five Senses. VII. The Necessity of Moral and Religious Educa-
tion. VIII. The Importance of Popular Education. Education dissipates the Evils of Igno-
rance. Education increases the productiveness of Labor. Education diminishes Pauperism
and Crime. Education increasfs human Happiness. IX. Political Necessity of National
Education. The Practicability of National Education. X. The Means of Universal Educa-
tion. Good School-houses should be provided. Well-qualified Teachers should be em-
ployed. Schools should continue through the Year. Every Chilli should attend School
The redeeming Power of Common Schools. Index.
27
418 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
LECTURES AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF IN-
STRUCTION from 1830 to 1853.
These volumes embrace more than 150 lectures and essays, on a great
variety of important topics, by some of the ablest scholars and most suc-
cessful teachers in the country.
CONTENTS. VOL. I, for 1S30. Introductory Discourse, by President Wayland. Lecture
I. Phys.c:il Education, by John C. Warren. M. D. Lecture II. The Development of the In-
tellectual F.tcuitits, and on Teaching Geography, by James if. Carter. Lecture III. The In-
fant School System, by William Russell. Lecture IV. The Spelling of Words, and a Rational
Method of T- aching their Meaning, by Gideon t\ Thaijer. Lecture V. Lyceums and Socie-
ties for the D. (fusion oi Useful Knowledge, by Nehemiali C/eace.'and. Lecture VI. Practical
Method o!' Teaching Rhetoric, by Samuel P. Newman. Lecture VII. Geometry and Aiirebra,
by /'. J. Grund. Lecture VIII. The Monitorial System ot Instruction, by Henry K. Oliver.
Lecture IX. Vocal Music, by William C. Woodbridge. Lecture X. Linear Drawing, by
Walter li. Johnson. Lecture XI. Arithmetic, by Warren (Joll/urn. Lecture Xll. Classical
Learning, by Cornelius C, Ft/ton. Lecture Kill. Tiie Construction and Furnishing of School-
Rooms and School Apparatus, by William J. Adams.
VOL. II. for 1S31. Introductory Lecture, by James Walker. Lecture I. Education of Fe-
males, by liturgy D. Emerson. Lecture 11. Moral Education, by Jacob AlibM. Lecture
111. Usefulness of Lyceums, by .S 1 . C. Phillips. Lecture IV. Education of the Five Senses, by
Wiiliam H. Bro,ks. Lecture V. The Means which may be employed to stimulate tile Student
without the aid of Emulation, by Jj/in L. Parkhurst. Lecture VI. Grammar, by 'JoM
Brown. Ltctare VII. Influenceof Academies and High Schools on Common Schools, by Wil-
liam C. Puttier. Lecture VIII. Natural History as a Branch of Common Education, by Cle-
ment Durgin. Prize Essay on School Houses, by W. A. Aleut t.
VOL. Ill, for 1S32. Introductory Discourse, by Francis C. Gray. Lecture I. The best
Methods of Tt aching the Living Languages, by George Ticknur. Lecture II. Some of the
Diseases of a Literary Life, by G. Ilcyicard, M. D. Lecture 111. The Utility of Visible Illus-
trations, by Walter li. JohnsM. Lecture IV. The Moral Influences of Physical Science, by
John Pier pant. Lecture V. Prize Essay, on the Teaching of Penmanship, by B. B. Foster.
Lecture VI. Nature and Means of Early Education, as deduced from Experience, by A. B.
Alcutl. Lecture VII. On Teaching Grammar and Composition, by Asa Rand.
VOL. IV, for 1833. Introductory Lecture, by William Sullivan. Lecture I. On the Impor-
tance of a Knowledge of the Principles of Physiology to Parents and Teachers, by Edward
Reynolds, M. D. Lecture II. The Classification of Schools, Ly Samuel M. Kurn'side. Lec-
ture III. Primary Education, by Gardner B. Perry. Lecture IV. Emulation in Schools by
Leonard Wilhiiigtun. Lecture V. The best Method of Teaching the Ancient Languages, by
Alpheiis S. Packard. Lecture VI. Jacotot's Method of Instruction, by George W. Greene.
Lecture VI I. The best Method of Teaching Geography, by W. C. Woodbridge. Lecture VIII.
Necessity of Educating Teachers, by Samuel R. Hall. Lecture IX. The Adaptation of Intel-
lectual Philosophy to Instruction, by Aliijah R. Baker. Lecture K. The best Mode of Teach-
ing Natural Philosophy, by Benjamin Hale.
VOL. V. Ib34. Introductory Lecture, by Caleb Gushing. Lecture I. The best Mode ol Fix
ing the Attention of the Young, by Warren Burton. Lecture II. The Improvement which
may be made in the Condition oi" Common Schools, by Ste]>hen Farley. Lecture III. Duties
of Parents in regard to the Schools where their Children are Instructed, by Jacub Abbutt.
Lecture IV. Maternal Instruction and Management of Infant {Schools, by M. M.'Carlt. Lecture
V. Teaching the Elements of Mathematics, by Thomas Shenein. Lecture VI The Dangerous
Tendency to Innovations and Extremes in Education, by Jlubbard Winsloic. Lecture VII. Un-
ion of Manual with Mental Labor, in a System of Education, by Beriah Green, Lecture VIII.
The History and Uses of Chemistry, by C. T. Jackson. Lecture IX. Natural History as a
Study in Common Schools, by A. A. Gould, M. D. Lecture X. Science of Government as a
Branch of Popular Education, by Joseph Story.
VOL. VI, for 1835. Introductory Lecture, by W. H. Furness. Lecture I. The Study of the
Classics, by A. Crosby. Lecture II. Education for an Agricultural People, by Samuel j\'utt, Jr.
Lecture III. Political Influence oi Schoolmasters, by E. Washburn. Lecture IV. State and
Prospects of the German Population of this Country, by //. Hokum. Lecture V. Religious Ed-
ucation, by R. Park. Lecture VI. Importance of an Acquaintance with the Philosophy of the
Mind to an Instructor, by J. Gregg. Lecture VII. Ends of School Discipline, by Henry L.
McKean. Lecture VIII. Importance and Means of Cultivating the Social Affections among Pu-
pils, by J. Blanchard. Lecture IX. Meaning and Objects of Education, by T. H. Fux. *Lcc-
tureX. Management of a Common School, by T. Dwight, Jr. Lecture XI. Moral and Spir-t-
ual Culture in Early Education, by R. C. Wa/erstun. Lecture Xll. Moral Uses ol the Study cf
Natural History, by W. Channing^l. D. Lecture Kill. Schools of the Arts, by W. Johnson.
VOL. VII., for 1830. Lecture 1. Education of the Blind, by Samuel G. Ifuire, M. D. Lec-
ture II. Thorough Teaching, by William If. Brooks. Lecture III. Physiology, or -The House
I live in," by William A. Alcott. Lecture IV. Incitements to Moral and Intellectual Well-Diiino-.
by J. II. Belcher. Lecture V. Duties of Female Teachers of Common Schools, bv Daniel
Kimball. Lecture VI. Methods of Teaching Elocution in Schools, by T. D. P. Sto'ne. Lec-
ture VII. Influence of Intellectual Action on Civilization, by I{. R. Cieavdand. Lr.ctur'Vlll
School Discipline, by S. R. Hall.
VOL. VIII., for 1337. Introductory Discourse, by Rev. Elipha White. Lecture I Study of
the Classics, by John Mulligan. Lecture II. Moral Education, by Joshua littles ' Lerture'lll
Study of Natural History, by John Lewis Russell. Lecture IV. Comparative Merits of Private
and Public Schools, by Theodore Edson. Lecture V. Elocution, by DavidFusdick Jr Lee-
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION. 419
ture VI. Relation between the Board of Trustees and the Faculty of a University, &c.. by Jot-
per Adams. Lecture VII. School Reform, or Teachers' Seminaries, by Charles Brooks. Lec-
ture VIII. Teaching of Composition in Schools, hy R. G. Parker. Lecture IX. Eviis of the
Present System of Primary Instruction, by Thomaa H. Palmer. Lecture X. Reading and
Declamation, by William Russell.
VOL. IX, for 1833. Lecture I. Literary Responsibility of Teachers. by Cliarlr-s White. Lec-
ture II. The Head and the Heart ; or, Tin- Relative Importance of Intellectual and Moral Cul-
Page. LfctureVlll. Man, the Subject of Education, by Samuel G. Gout/rich.
VOL. X, tor 1S39 Introductory Discourse, The Education of a Free People, by Robert Ran-
toul.Jr. Lecture 1. Physiology of the Skin, by John G. MetcaJf, M. I) /^ecture II. Mind and
its Developments, by Emersan Davis Lecture III. A Classic Taste iii^iur Common Schools.
hy Luthf.r II. L'ncoln. Lecture IV. Natural Theology as a Study in 'Schools, by Henry A.
miles. Lecture V. Division ol Labor in Instruction, by Thomas Cashing. Jr. Lecture VI. The
Claims of our Age and Country upon Teachers, by David Mack. Lecture VII. Progress of
Moral Science, and its Application to the Business ol" Practical Life, by Alexander H. Everett.
Lecture VIII. The Comparative Results of Education, by T. P.Rodman, Lecture IX. Physi-
cal Education, by Abel L. Picrson, M. D.
VOL. II. NEW SERIES, for 18-10. Lecture I. Intellectual Education in Harmony with Moral
and Physical, by Joshua Bates. Lecture II. Results to be aimed at in School Instruction and
Disciplne, by T. Cashing, Jr. Lecture III. Duty of Visiting Schools, by Thomas A. Greene.
Lecture IV. Objects and Means of School Instruction, by A. B. Muzzey. Lecture V. Courtesy,
and its Connection with School Instructi<>u, by G. /'. Thai/er. Lecture VI. On the Brain and
the Stomach, by Usher Parsons, M. D. Lecture Vll. Common Complaints made against
Teachers, by Jacob AbbM.
VOL. XII, for 1841. Lecture I. Best Method of Preparing and Using Spelling-Books, by Hor-
ace Mann. JjKcture II. Best Method of Exercising the Different Faculties of the Mind, by Win.
li. /We. Lecture III. Education of the Laboring Classes, by T. Parker. Lecture IV. Impor-
tance of the Natural Sciences in our Svstem of Popular Education, by A. Gray. Lecture V.
Moral Culture Essential to Intellectual Education, by E. W. Robinson. Lecture VI. Simpli-
city of Character, as Affected by the Common Systems of Education, by J. S. Dicight. Lec-
ture VII. Use of the Globes in Teaching Geography and Astronomy, by A. Fleming. Lecture
VIII. Elementary Principles of Constitutional Law, as a Branch of Education in Common
Schools, by Edward A. Lawrence.
our Systems of Education, by R. B. ilubbard. Lecture IX. Importance of our Common
"i i eacneiy. by D(l7iit-i j'. uuuuujr. J^K^IIHK v. i><iiurai injury UK el jvrgumi ^[ct?iu 111 uui
Seminaries, by Charles Brooks. Lecture VI. Classical Instruction, by A. II. Weld. Lecture
VII. School Discipline, by Joseph Hale. Lecture VIII. Methods of'Teachingto Read, by Sam-
vet S. Greene. Lecture IX. The Duty of the American Teacher, by John N. Bellows. Lec-
ture X. The Necessity of Education in a Republican Form of Government, by Horace Mann.
VOL. XVI, for 1345. Lecturel. Dignity of the Teachers Office, by Joel Hants,?).!). Ad-
dress. The Formation and Excellence of the Female Character, by Joe! Haices, 1). D. Lec-
ture II. The Duties of Examining Committees, by Prof. E. D. Sanborn. Lecture III. The Per-
fect Teacher, by Deni.ion Olmstend. L. L. D. Lecture IV. Physiology, by Eihrard Jam's, M. D.
Lecture V. Intellectual Arithmetic, by f\ A. Adams. Lecture VI. County Teachers' Institutes,
by Sa'em Tmen. Lecture VII. Geography, by William B. Foirle. lecture VIII. Vocal Mu-
sic in Common Schools, by A. A T . Johnson. Lecture IX. History, by George S. Hillard.
VOL XVII, for 1340. Journal of Proceedings. List of Officers. Annual Report. Lfe-
turel. Hume Preparation for School, by Jason Whitman. Lecture II. The Influence of Moral
upon Intellectual Improvement, by //. R. Hooker. Lecture III. The Essentials of a Common
School Education, and the conditions most favorable to their Attainment, bv Ritfus Putnam.
Lecture IV. The Education of the Faculties, and the Proper Employment of' Young Children,
by Samuel J. May. Lecture V. The Obligation of Towns to Elevate the Character of our Com-
mon Schools, by Luther 13. Lincoln. Lecture VI. Importance of Cultivating Taste in Early
Life, by Artel Parish. Lecture VII. On Phonotypy and Phonography, or Speech- Writing and
Speech'.Priming, by Stephen P. Andrews. Lecture VIII. On the Study of the English, Lan-
guage, by D. Huntington.
VOL. XVIII, for 1847. Journal of Proceedings. List of Officers. Lecture I. On the Study
of Language, by Hubhard Winslow. Lerturell. On the Appropriateness of Studies to the State
of Mental Development, by Thomas P. Rodman.
420
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
VOL XIX , for 1818. Journal of Proceedings. List of Officers. Lecture I. Failures in
teaching by John Kinesbury. Lecture II. Co-operation of Parents and Teachers, by Jacob
Batchclder Lecture III. Qualifications of the Teacher, by Rev. Nat/tan Munroe. Lecture
IV. School Government, by J. D. Philbrick. Lecture V. The Improvement of Common
Schools, by Win. D. Swan.
VOL. XX , for 1849. Journal of Proceedings. List of Officers. Lecture I. The Defect of
the Principle of Religious Authority in Modern Educat.on, by John H. Hopkins, D.D.
Lecture II The Education demanded" by the peculiar character of our Civil Institutions, by
Benjamin Larubee, D. D. Lecture III. Earnestness, by Ruger S. Howard. Lecture IV.
The Essentials of Education, by Thomas H., Palmer. Lecture V. The Claims of Natural
History, as a branch of Common School 'Education, by William O. Ayers. Lecture VI Edu-
cation the Condition of National Greatness, by Prof. E D. Sanborn. Lecture VII. The
Duties of Legislatures in relation to the Public Schools in the United States, by Rev. Charles
Brooks. Lecture VIII. Practical Education, by W. C. Ooldthwuit.
VOL. XXI , for 18oO. Journal of Proceedings. L-st of Officers. Annual Report. Lecture
I. God's Plan for Educating Man, by C. C. Chase. Lecture II. Political Economy, as a Study
for Common Schools, by Amasa Walker. Lecture III The Importance of Early Training,
by Solomon Jenner. Lecture IV. Characteristics of the True Teacher, by John D. Phil-
brick. Lecture V. Influence of the Social Relations in the West upon Professional Usefulness
and Success, by Edward Wyman.. Appendix. Instruction in ILstory. by Elizabeth 1'.
Peabody. General Index, from 1830 to 1850. List of Members, Past and Present.
VOL. XXII., for 1851. Journal of Proceedings. List of Officers. Annual Report. Lec-
ture I. T-achers' Morals and Mariners, by Henry K. Oliver. Lecture II. The Supervision
of Schools, by D. B. Hagar. Lecture III. The Teacher in the Nineteenth Century, by
Thomas dishing, Jr. LecturelV. Importance of Moral and Religious Education in a Re-
public, by William D Nurlhend. Lecture V. The Manifestations of Education in Different
Ages, by Samuel W. Bates. Lecture VI. On the Present Condition and Wants of Common
Schools, by RcV. L. W.Leonard. Lecture \'l\. Methods of Teaching Spelling, by Christo-
pher A. Green. Lecture V11I. Physical Education, by Rev. Darwin H. Ranney.
VOL. XV., for 1S52. Proceedings. List of Officers. Annual Report. Lecture I. The In-
centives to Mental Culture among Teachers, by James D. Butler. Lecture II. Dr. Thomas
Arnold, by Jjshua Bates, Jr. Lecture III Self Reliance, by William H. Wells. Li-dure
IV. The School System of the State of New York, by Juseph McKeen. Lecture V. Essen-
tial Elements in American Educatian, by Charles If. Wheeler. Lecture VI. Drawing, a
Means of Education, by William J. Wliitaker.
VOL. XXIV., for 1S53. Journal of Proceedings. List of Officers. Prize Essay, by E. A.
H. Allen. Lecture. I. Reading, by F T. Russell. Lecture 11. Life and Educational Princi-
ples of Pestalozzi, by Hermann Kruisi.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE WESTERN LITERARY INSTITUTE AND COLLEGE
OF PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS, from 1834 to 1840.
The first General Convention of the Teachers of the West was held
at Cincinnati, in June 1831, under the auspices of the " Academic Insti-
tute," and the proceedings and addresses were published in No. 1. of the
Academic Pioneer. The second General Convention was held in Octo-
ber, 1832, at which the teachers organized a Constitution and officers
under the name of the "College of Teachers," which held a meeting
in October, 1833. In October, 1834, the fourth annual meeting was
held at Cincinnati, the proceedings and lectures of which meeting were
published, and constitute the first volume of the " Transactions," &c.
A volume of Transactions was published every year, from 1834 to 1840/
VOLUME L, for 1S34. Journal of Proceedings. Constitution. Names of Members, ,'j.
Opening Address, by Albert Picket. II The Philosophy of Family, School, and College
Discipline, by Daniel Drake. Ill Sltuly of the Greek ana Latin Languages, as a part in The
course of a l,b?ral education, by T M. Post. IV. Neither the classics northe inntheniat'ea
should form a part of a scheme of General Education in our country, by Thomas .$'. (rriyike.
V. Ulihty of the Mathematics, by E. D. Mansfield. VI. Report on the question, ' Ought the
classics to constitute a part of Education/' by Alexander Kinmmit. VII. The application of
Principles to Practice, in the various depart nients of Physical Science, by Elijtih ti'ack. VIII.
The Government of Public Literary Institutions, by AT. A. H. Nilcs IX. The History and
Moral Influence of Music, by William Nix.m. X. The best method of Teaching Language*.
by William HoojurooU.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE MASSACHUSETTS TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION.
Edited by the Secretary. Boston : Samuel Coolidge. 1852.
CONTENTS. VOL. L, for 1315 to 1847. Origin of I he Association. Proceedings of the Asso-
ciation. First Annual Sess. on Second Annual Session. Third Annual Session. Lecture I.
On the Claims of Teaching to the rank of a Distinct Profession, bv Elbridgt Smith. Lecture
II. On the first Principles of School Government, by Rev. J. P. Cowles. Lecture III. On the
Management of the School-room, by Ariel Parish Lecture IV. On Thorough Instruction,
bv Joseph Hale. Lecture V. On the Relation of Education to its Age, by Samuel W. Hates.
Lecture VI. On the Relation of Common Schools to Higher Seminaries, by Rev. Charles
Hammond Lecture VII. On Teaching as a Profession, by N. Wheeler. Constitution. Index.
BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 421
The following works will exhibit a pretty full view of the progress and
condition of education in Europe.
SMITH'S HISTORY OF EDUCATION. Harper & Brothers. Price 50
cents.
This work is substantially an abridgement of the great German work
of Schwartz, and is worthy of an attentive perusal, not*only for its his
torical view of the subject, but for the discussion of the general principles
which should be recognized in every system of education.
BIBER'S MEMOIR OFPF.STALOZZI, and his plan of Education. London:
I. Souter, 1831.
EDUCATIONAL, INSTITUTIONS OF DR. FELLENBERG, with an Appendix
containing Woodbridge's Sketches of Hofwyl. London : Longman,
1842.
REPORT ON EDUCATION IN EUROPE, by Alexander Dallas Bache.
Philadelphia: Lydia R. Bailey, lSi>9. pp. 666.
REPORT ON ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN EUROPE, by Calvin E.
Stowe. D. D. Boston: Thomas H. Webb & Co. Price 31 cents.
SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT of the Secretary of the (Massachusetts)
Board of Education, Hon. Horace Mann, 1813. Boston: Fowle and
Cnpen. Price 25 cents.
These three reports introduce the teacher into the school-rooms of the
best teachers in Europe, and enable him to profit by the observations and
experience of men who have been trained by a thorough preparatory
course of study and practice at home, to the best methods of classification,
instruction, and government of schools, as pursued abroad.
ACCOUNT OF THE EDINGURGH SESSIONAL SCHOOL, Edinburgh, by
Jolm Wood. Boston: Monroe & Francis, 1830.
COUSIN'S REPORT ON PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA, translated
by Sarah Austin. New York : Wiley & Long, 1835.
WILLM ON THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE, translated from the
French by Prof. Nichol. Glasgow: 1S47.
MANUAL OF THE SYSTEM OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION pursued in the
model schools of the British and Foreign School Society. London: 1S39.
MINUTES OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON
EDUCATION, from 1838 to 1844. London : 8 vols.
STOW'S TRAINING SYSTEM, as pursued in the Glasgow Normal Semi-
nary. Edinburgh : 1840.
AN OUTLINE OF THE METHODS OF TEACHING, in the Model School of
the Board of National Education for Ireland. Dublin: I. S. Folds, 1840.
COUSIN'S REPORT ON PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. London:
1835.
GIRARDIN'S REPORT ON EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA, BAVARIA, &c. Paris:
1835.
HICKSON'S ACCOUNT OF THE DUTCH AND GERMAN SCHOOLS. London:
Taylor and Walton, 1840.
INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUC-
TION FOR MASTERS OF PHIMARY SCHOOLS, by B. S. Denzel, President of
Royal Training College for School-masters at Esslingen. 6 vols. Stut-
gard. 1839.
This is considered the most complete German Treatise on the subject
422
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
NATIONAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE ; being an account of the Organ-
ization, Administration, Instruction, and Discipline of Public Schools of dif-
ferent grades in the principal States. By Henry Barnard. New York:
C. B. Norton, 71, Chambers-street. 894 pages. Price $3.
This volume embraces not only the results of Mr. Barnard's observations
in schools of diierent grades, and study of official documents during two
visits to Europe, but the substance of the elaborate and valuable reports of
Professor Calvin E. Stowe, D. D., to the Legislature of Ohio, in 1837 ; of
President Alexander Dallas Bache, LL. D., to the Trustees of the Girard
College of Orphans in Philadelphia, in 1839 ; of Honorable Horace Mann,
LL. D., to the Massachusetts Board of Education in 1846; and of Joseph
Kay, Esq., of the University of Oxford in 1850, on the subjects treated of:
the nature and variety of which, can be seen in the following Index :
Aberdeen, industrial schools, 512, 731.
Adults, schools and classe* for. 2(59, 399, 729.
Adventure schools in Scotland, 669.
Agriculture, schools of, in France, 467.
" " Ireland, 699.
" Wirtemberg, 307.
" " Belgium, 589.
Russia, 626.
Agricultural education, 467.
" colonies, 487, 557.
Agronomic institute at Versailles, 470.
Alfort, veterinary school at, 472.
Alphabet, how taught, 51.
Amusement, taste and habit of, cultivated, 494.
Annaburg, military orphan school at, 115.
Annuaire des deux mondes, extracts from, 406.
Anthropology, 361.
Apparatus, for primary schools, 267.
" " polytechnic, 163, 336.
" agricultural. 467, 473, 336.
" " veterinary, 472.
Apprentices, house or family for, 410, 412.
" schools, 590.
Architecture, study of, 164,486.
Arithmetic, how taught, 6(1, 63, 130, 137, 617. ~-
Arts, schools of, in Prussia, 155, 159.
" " " " Berlin, 159.
" " " " Vienna, 335.
" " " " France, 406.
" " " " England, 734.
Ashley, Lord, 511.
Association of teachers, 179, 298, 3C4, 425, 592.
Attendance, law respecting, in Prussia, 95, 121.
" " Baden, 294.
" " " Saxony, 266.
Bavaria, 313.
Switzerland, 342. _
Atcham union workhouse school, 711.
Athenaeum in Belgium, 587.
AUSTRIA, 325.
System of public instruction, 325.
popular schools, 325.
upper schools, 326.
commercial academies, 326.
high schools for girls, 326.
gymnasia, 326.
lyceum, 326.
university, 326.
inspection, 329.
Regulations respecting teachers, 331.
System of normal schools, 333.
Polytechnic institute at Vienna, 335.
Statistics of elementary schools, 338.
" secondary schools, 339.
" tuperior, 339.
" academies of science, 340.
Bache, A. D., Report on Education in Europe, 3.
" " " extracts from, 81, 85, 117, 139, 122,
273, 457, 599.
BADEN, 293.
School authorities, 293.
System of primary schools, 293.
Educational statistics of Baden, 293.
" school attendance, 294.
" internal organization, 294.
" plan of instruction, 296.
Evening classes, 297.
Sunday classes, 297.
Industrial instruction, 297.
Education of children in factories, 297.
Teachers' conferences, 298.
Normal seminary at Carlsruhe, 300.
Bamberg, normal school at, 314.
Basedow, 25.
Battersea, training college at, 823.
BAVARIA, 314.
System of primary schools, 313.
Normal seminary at Bamburg, 314.
Plan of seminary bv Jacobi, 314.
Educational statistics, 315.
Mr. Kay's estimate of public schools. 316.
Dr. Grazer's system of instruction, 319.
Common school at Bayrenth, 320.
Bayreuth, Dr. Grazer's method at, 319.
Beckendorf on self-education, 254.
BKLGUTM, 583.
History of public instruction, 583.
Outline of system adopted in 1842, 585.
Primary schools, 586.
Secondary, 587.
Sii|)erior, 588.
Special and industrial, 588.
Industrial education, 588.
Normal instruction, 591.
Teachers' conferences, 592.
Normal school, 593,
Reform school at Ruysselede, 555.
Bell, Andrew, system of schools, 727.
Benefit of clergy. 722.
Berlin, schools of, 118, 124, 127, 142, 148, 233.
Berne, association of teachers of, 364.
Bernhardt, teachers' conference by, 243.
Bible in Prussian schools, 53, 73.
Black-book, 135.
Blockman college at Dresden, 280.
Boarding round, 168.
Books. 93, 110, 689, 403.
Borough Road normal school, 76J.
Brevet de capacite, 423.
British and Foreign School Society, 761.
Brougham, Henry (Lord,) educational services, 735.
extracts from, 754, 737.
Brothers, institute of, at Horn, 491, 501, 524.
" of the Christian doctrine, 436.
Briihl, normal school at, 207.
Burgh school in Scotland, 669.
Burgher school, definition of, 92.
" " in Berlin, 123.
*_" " " Halle, 112.
BOOKS ON EDUCATION.
423
Further school in Leipsic, 273.
Bursary or gratuity to teachers, 421, 618.
Campe, 25.
Carlsruhe, normal school at, 300.
Carter, Rev. T., remarks on young criminals, 508.
Carved wood work, school for, 410.
Cathedral schools, 721.
Catholic church and schools, 17, 75, 183, 206.
" cantons in Switzerland, 343.
Central society of education, 731.
Central school of arts in Paris, 408, 463.
Certificate to pupils leaving school, 93.
" " teachers in Prussia, 166, 188.
" " Saxony, 263.
" " " France, 423.
" " " England, 753.
Chalmers, Dr., on parochial schools of Scotland, 658
Chemistry, 459, 460.
Chester, training college at, 855.
Children, personal appearance, 75, 105, 109.
" rich and poor in same school, 105, 109.
" catholics and protestanU, 343, 428.
Christian Brothers, 435, 420.
" knowledge society, 729.
Christmas at a reform school, 522.
City Trade School at Berlin, 155.
Classical instruction, 156, 281, 383.
Classification in schools, 60, 103, 107.
Clay, Rev. J., on crime, &c., 515.
Cloister schools, 19, 279.
Coleman, H., extracts from, 475, 548.
Coleridge, Derwent, 806.
Collective teaching, 775.
College in French system, 383, 400.
" training. See Training College.
Comenius, 20.
Commercial school, 337.
Committee. See School Committee,
Committee of council on education, 739.
Common as applied to school, 401.
Composition, how taught, 56.
Compulsory school attendance, 21, 95, 121, 342.
Concours, nature of, 392.
Conference of teachers in Prussia, 167, 169, 243.
" " " " Biiden, 298.
" " " " France, 425.
" " " Belgium, 592.
" respecting reformatory schools, 497.
Conversation, exercises in, 50, 60, 66.
Conservatory of arts in Paris, 467, 407.
Correction, house of, 492.
Courses of study, 49, 92, 115, 119, 126, 127, 140,
152. 156.
Courteilles, Viscount, labors at Mettray, 534.
Cousin, extracts from, 382, 414, 598.
" on Prussian schools, 382.
" Hollnnd, 597.
" " normal schools, 414.
Cramming system discarded, 270.
Crime, juvenile, 732.
Cuvier on schools of Holland, 597.
Demetz, founder of Mettray reform school, 493.
DENMARK, 619.
Outline of system, 620.
Iceland, G2I).
Denzel, teachers' manual by, 303.
Diaconissen Anstalt at Kaiserswerth, 236.
Dick's bequest, 663.
Didactic, or art of teaching, 222, 843, 851.
Diesterweg, Dr., J27.
Dijon, normal school at, 447.
Diocesan schools in England, 855, 876.
Diploma to teachers, 173, 188, 263.
Discipline in polytechnic schools, 461.
normal schools. 449. 455.
Dismission of a teacher, 265.
Domergue on primary schools, 401.
Dorothean Higher City School in Berlin. 124.
Drawing, how taught," 59, 66, 51, 154, 320, 460.
Dresden, schools in, 261, 268, 272, 278.
Dublin, normal schools at, 693.
Ducpetiaux, E ; report on reform schools, 496.
extracts from, 517, 532 549, 557.
Dunmanway, model agricultural school, 709.
Dupin, Charles, educational map of France, 401.
Dwelling-house for teacher, 167, 259, 652, 394.
Ecclesiastical authority as to schools, 183, 327.
Edinburgh, normal schools at, 661, 671.
Eisleben, normal seminary of, 218.
Elberfeld, schools in, 97.
Elementary schools, 92.
Employment of young children, 97, 226,297.
Encouragements to pupils, 1J2.
Endowed schools, 105, 279, 668, 723, 736.
ENGLAND, 721.
History of public elementary schools, 721.
Cloister and cathedral schools, 721.
Benefit of clergy to those who could read, 722.
Grammar and free schools, 723.
Amount of educational endowments, 724.
Voluntary associations to promote schools, 725.
Sunday schools, 726.
Monitorial system, 727.
Joseph Lancaster. 728.
Andrew Bell, 727.
British and Foreign School Society, 728.
National society, 729.
Society for promoting Christian knowledge, 729.
Religions tract society, 729.
School for adults, 729.
Evening schools, 729.
Infant schools, 730.
Mechanics' institution, 730.
Society for diffusion of useful knowledge, 731.
Central society of education, 731.
Ragged school union, 731.
Philanthropic society's reform school, 732. ,
Schools for pauper children, 733.
Education of children in factories, 746.
Schools of industry, 733.
Schools of design, 734.
Lancashire public school society, 734.
National public school association, 734.
Parliamentary action in behalf of schools, 735.
Action of Committee of Privy Council, 740.
Remarks of T. B. Macaulay, 747.
" Thomas Carlyle, 750.
History and condition of normal schools, 751.
Examination papers on school management and
art of teaching, 757.
Normal school of British and Foreign School So-
ciety, 76i.
Normal department for young men, 763.
Course of conversational reading, 775.
Questions to test a school, 777.
Model school, 779.
Female department of normal school, 780.
Hints to candidates for admission, 784.
Normal and model schools of the Home and In-
fant School Sotiety, 787.
Syllabus of lectures on education, 800.
St. Mark's college, or training school, 805.
Battersea normal school, 823.
Chester dincesan training college, 855.
Normal schools for female teachers, 875.
Lectu/es on the principles of education, 877.
" " practice of education, 878.
Kneller Hall training school, 879.
Conference respecting reform schools, 497.
Philanthropic soc. farm school at Red Hill, 578.
Engineers, schools for, 461, 588.
English language, 837.
" literature, 837.
Esslingen, normal school at, 310.
Evening schools, 297, 685, 729.
Examination, public, 271.
oral, 460.
" by written questions, 231.
" of teachers in Prussia, 230.
424
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Examination of teachers in Saxony, 264, 270.
" " " France, 4-23.
" " ' Holland, 601.
" for universities, 143, 145.
Exflmnip.. influence of. in teachers, 253.
Exhibition for poor scholars, 422.
Factory children in Prussia, 96.
" Baden, 297.
a " " England, 746.
Family arrangement at reform schools, 545.
Farm schools for young criminals, 487.
FeCT, n or r tuiUon, 176, 596, 599, 658, 746.
Felbiger, 25.
Fellenberg's institute at Hofwyl, 351.
" principles of education, 354.
" normal course, 357.
Female teachers, 179, 235, 240.
" normal schools for, 235, 240, 404, 767
Fleidner, institute at Kaiserswerth, 236.
Fletcher normal seminary, 272.
Foreman in reform schools, how trained, 491, 535,
554, 562.
Forestry, schools of, 307.
Formal instruction, 203.
FRANCE, 381.
History of popular education, 381.
Ordinances of national convention, 381.
Decrees of Napoleon, 381.
Law of the government of Louis Phillippe, 382.
Report of Victor Cousin, 382.
Speech of M. Guizot, 387.
Degrees of primary instruction, 387.
Local and state inspection, 388.
Professional education of teachers, 389.
Mission of the teacher, 389.
Society of elementary instruction, 390.
Outline of system in 1850, 391.
University of France, 391.
Council of public instruction, 391.
Academies, 391.
Royal colleges, 392.
System of competion for professorship, 392.
System of primary instruction, 393.
School attendance, 393.
Local management, 393.
Examination of Teachers, 393.
Departmental inspection, 394.
Education of teachers, 394.
Course of instruction, 395.
Teachers' associations, 395.
Fund for relief of aged teachers, 395.
Governmental prizes to masters, 395.
Expenditures for school-houses, 395,
Schools embraced in university of France, 396
Primary education in the communes, 397.
Number of primary sch. belong, to each sect, 397
Attendance in primary schools, 3U8.
Classes for adults, and apprentices, 899.
Statistics of normal schools, 399.
State of secondary education, 400.
Primary education in department of Tarn, 401.
Institutions for special instruction, 405.
" " industrial instruction, 406.
History of normal schools in France, 413.
Conferences of teachers, 425.
Libraries of teachers, 427
Pecuniary condition of teachers, 430.
Institute of Christian Brothers, 435.
Primary normal school at Versailles, 447.
" " " " Dijon, 449.
Secondary normal school of Paris, 451.
Polytechnic school of France, 457.
" " engineers, 462.
" " roads and bridges, 462.
" " mines, 462.
Central school of nrts and manufactures, 453.
Agricultural education in France, 467.
Model farm schools, 468.
Regional schools of agriculture, 469.
National agronomic institute, 470.
Veterinary schools, 471.
Reform farm schools, 474.
Agricultural school at Grignon, 475.
" " " Grand Jouan, 485.
Farm schools for juvenile delinquents, 487.
Agricultural reform school at Mettray, 533.
Horticultural reform school at Petit-Bourg, 549.
Prison of La Roquette in Paris, 553.
Franke, educational labors of, 21.
" teachers' class, 24.
" orphan-house, 21, 112.
Frederick William Gymnasium, Berlin, 148.
Free church of Scotland, 669.
" schools, 325.
French language, how taught, 137, 142, 154.
Freres Chretiens, 441.
Freyberg, school of mines at, 289.
Funds, must not diminish school rate or tax, 167.
Gallery lesson, 720, 801.
Garden for teacher, 167.
Gardening, art of, acquired by teachers, 203,431,815.
Geography, how taught, 68, 114, 131, 138, 613.
Geometry^ how taught, 131, 137.
GERMANY, 17.
History of education, 17.
Parochial schools, 18.
Public schools, 19.
Martin Luther, 19.
Augustus Herrman Frank?, 21.
Orphan-house at Halle, 21.
Basedow, 25.
Pestalozzi, 25.
Zeller, 29.
Centennial birth-day of Pestalozzi, 30.
Progress of normal schools, 31.
General features of the school systems, 32.
Table. Normal schools in Germany in 1848, 34.
Results of the normal school system, 35.
Course of instruction in primary schools, 49.
For children between ages of six and eight, 50.
For children from ten to twelve, 55.
Children from twelve to fourteen, 57.
Extracts from report of Hon. H. Mann, 60.
Testimony of Joseph Kay, Esq., as to the practi-
cal working of the Prim. Sch. of Germany, 74.
31asnevin, agricultural school at, 683.
"lovernment, educational duty of, 76, 387,747,750.
Iraded schools, 102.
'rammar, how taught, 54, 56, 59, 65.
Jrand Jouan, agricultural school at, 485.
Srazer, system of instruction of, 319.
jREKCE, 033.
Outline of system, and statistics in 1852, 633.
Jreek church, "628.
irignon, agricultural school at, 475.
"~!uizot, plan of schools for France, 387.
" extracts from, 387.
lymnasium, in Prussia, 105, 139.
" " Saxony, 279.
" " Austria, 326.
lymnastics, 830.
Hague, primary school at, 609.
Halle, orphan-house at, 21, 113.
" burgher school at, 112.
HAMBURGH, reform school at, 517.
Hamilton, Sir William, extract from, 91. 382.
Harnisch, method of teaching reading, 114.
" plan of studies, 115.
Hebrew schools, 311, 631.
Hecker, 24, 31.
Hermann, seminary for classic teachers, 259.
HESSE CASSKL, 311.
Hickson, W. E. German nationality, 7.
" schools in Holland," 24, 597.
Higher burgher school, 124, 127, 135.
Hill. M. I)., on juvenile crime, 498.
Hitchcock, E., Report on agricultural schools, 703.
" extracts from, 469, 703.
BOOKS ON EDUCATION.
425
Hofwyl, Fellenberg's estnblishment at, 351.
Ilohenheim. agricultural institute at, 307.
HOLLAND, 595.
History of primary instruction, 595.
Outline of system. School inspection, 595.
Regulations as to examination of teachers, 601.
" school inspectors, 603.
" primary schools, 605.
Regulations respecting religious instruction, 606.
Table. Primary education in 1846, 608.
Primary school at the Hngue, 609.
" normal school at Harlaem, 617.
Home and colonial infant school society, 721, 746.
Horn, reform school nt, 517.
Horology, practical school of, 410.
ICELAND, family instruction, 620.
Iferten. See Yverdim.
Ignorance and crime, 749.
Indigent children, 487.
Induction, methods of, 117, 128.
Industry, school of, 733.
Industrial instruction, in normal schools, 187, 367.
" " primary schools, 297, 687.
" pauper schools, 882.
" reform schools, 4H7.
" special schools, 406.
Infant schools, 730.
Inspection of schools in Austria, 327, 329.
" " " Baden, 293.
" " " England, 742.
France, 388, 394.
" Holland, 596, 603.
' " " Ireland, 689.
" " " Suxony, 258.
" " " Spain, 649.
" " " Switzerland, 347.
" " " Wirtetnberg, 302.
Institute of arts at Berlin, 159.
" " agriculture at Hohenheim, 307.
Instruction, methods of, 43, 50, 60, 91, 110, 113, 128.
Intellectual education, 836.
Ionian Islands, schools in, 634.
IRELAND, 675.
History of national education, 675.
Legislation of Henry VIII., G76.
Protestant charter schools, 676.
Kildare-place society, 677.
Commissioners of English Parliament, 677.
" National Education, 677.
Results of the system, 678.
Training department and model schools, 693.
Agricultural education, 699.
Professorships in Queen's Colleges, 699.
Agricultural department in national system, 700.
Model farm at Glnsnevin, 703.
List of lectures at Glnsnevin, 707.
National school at Lnrne, 707.
Dunmanwny model school, 709.
Workhouse agricultural school, 710.
Operations of similar schools in England, 710.
Queen's Colleges and University, 711.
Irregular attendance, 206.
ITALY, 635.
System in Lombardy and Venice, 635.
" " Sardinia, 640.
" " Tuscany, 643.
" " Rome, 644.
" Naples, 645.
Itinerant schools in Norway, 623.
Jacobi, plan of normal school by, 314.
Julius, Dr.. Prussian schools as they were, 241.
Journals of education, 46, 182, 390.
Journal of Education, London, extract from, 401.
Jury of examination, 460.
Juvenile crime, origin of. 493.
cost of, 501, 503.
" criminals, school for in Belgium, 496, 557.
" " France, 492.
" " Wirtemberg, 489.
Juvenile criminals, school for, in Hamburgh, 490.
" " " " England, 497.
" " " " Switzerland, 487.
" " conference respecting, 497.
Kaiserswerth, school for nurses, governesses, 236
Kay, Joseph, on education of people, 94.
extracts from, 74, 94, 222, 226, 261,
305, 315, 341, 367, 441.
Kay, James Phillips. See S/iutUeworth.
Kneller Hall, 879.
Kindermann, 31.
Kirk session, nature and power of, 655.
Kirkpatrick, Dr., on agricultural schools, 700.
Knighton, W., lectures on teaching by, 877.
Koenigsberg, seminary for teachers at, 83.
Kribben, or nursery schools, 730.
Kruitzlingen, normal school at. 367.
Kussnacbt, normal school at, 373.
Lnlor, author of prize essay, 731.
Lamartine, on duty of educated men, 40.V
Lancashire public school association, 734.
Lancaster, Joseph, 727.
Lancasterian system, in England, 728.
Denmark, 620.
" " Holland. 595, 610.
" " Prussia, 106.
" Spain, 647.
Landed proprietors, duties to poor children, 106.
Lap-bag, for needlework, 780.
La Roquette, prison of, 555.
Larne, agricultural school at, 707.
Lasnlle, Abbe de, educational labors of, 435.
Lastadie, normal school at, 192,
Lateran, council of, 18.
Latin, how taught, 137, 285 813.
Lausanne, normal school at, 378.
Learned societies, 405.
Liberty of instruction, 584.
Libraries for teachers, 427.
Lierre, normal school at, 593.
Liepsic, burgher school in, 273.
" real school. 273.
" seminary for classic teachers, 259.
Locke, John, 25.
Lombardy. schools in, 635.
Lucerne, normal school at, 380.
Luther, Martin, educational labors of, 19.
" letter to elector of Saxony, 19.
" address in behalf of Christian schools, 19.
Lyceum, in Austria, 326.
France, 383.
Macanley, T. B. on public schools, 747.
Madras system, of Dr. Bell, 727.
Malthus, on state of schools in England, 726.
Manufactures, schools of, 406.
Management clauses, 744.
Manners of school children, 305, 77.
Mann, Horne, report on schools of Europe, 4.
" extracts from, 39, 60, 528.
Manufacturing districts, 96, 266, 297, 325.
Marienweider, normal school for females at, 236.
Material instruction, 203.
Map-drawing, 69, 615.
Maynooth, 713.
Me Neil, Sir John, on agricultural schools, 701.
Mechanics, science of, 866.
Mechanics' Institutions, 730.
Mecklenberg, duchy of, 311.
Mental arithmetic, 64.
Methodick, 206.
Mercantile and commercial schools, 335, 856.
Methods of teaching left with teacher, 93, 110.
Mettray, reform school at, 533.
Middle schools, 91.
Milne's Free School, 668.
Mines, schools of, 289, 462, 410.
M inutes of committee of council on education, 739.
Military schools, 590, 631.
526
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Military orphan schools, 115, 532.
Mixed schools, 79, 98, 401.
Model farm school, 468, 532.
" schools, annexed to normal schools, 165.
Models for drawing, 163.
Monasteries, schools in, 279, 721.
Monitorial system, 106, 401, 610.
Monitors, 106, 175, 343.
Moral Education, 355.
More, Sir Thomas, extract from, 725.
Mother school of Christian Brothers, 352.
Motives to study, 145.
Mulhauser's system of writing, 838.
Munich, 317.
Music, 74, 126, 131, 211, 228, 842.
Mutual instruction, 107, 610, 729.
Nassau, duchy of, 311.
National society, in England, 729.
Natural history, how taught, 131, 866.
Nature, knowledge of, 70, 137.
Naval schools, 405, 625.
Navigation. 589, 625.
Needle work in school, 780, 590.
" " taught by teachers' wives, 432.
Neufchatel, 343, 349.
New Lanark, infant school at, 730.
Nichols, G., extracts from, 598.
Non-attendance at school, 403.
Normal schools, definition of, 31, 333.
remarks on by C. E. Stowe, 35.
A. D. Bnche, 39.
H. Mann, 39.
E. Ryerson, 45.
" L. Stephens, 46.
Joseph Kay, 183, 232.
Shuttleworth, 826.
V. Cousin, 414.
M. Guizot, 388.
Lord Brougham, 751.
history of, 20, 30, 413, 661, 751.
number and condition of,
in Prussia, 165, 172, 185, 189, 190.
Saxony, 259, 261.
Wirtemberg, 310, 305.
Austria, 333.
Switzerland, 343,357,366,373,
Bavaria, 313.
Baden, 300.
Hesse Cassel, 312.
France, 399, 421, 431, 447, 451.
Spain, 647.
Portugal, 646.
Russia. 627.
Belgium, 591.
Holland, 617, 844.
Denmark, 620.
Greece, 634.
England. 751.
Ireland, 693. t
Scotland, 061, 671.
Germany, 34.
different grades of, 189. 415.
for female" teachers, 235, 404, 594, 875.
catholic teachers, 207.
protestant teachers, 317, 197.
teachers of primary schools, 191.
" secondary schools, 451.
259, 264.
pauper children, 879.
reform schools, 490.
524. 535.
agricultural do., 700.
city schools, 446, 233
rural districts, 415, 445
description of particular,
in Prussia. Lastadie, 192.
Pyritz, 194.
" " Potsdam, 197.
" " Bruhl. 207.
" " Eisleben, 218.
Normal schools in Prussia. Weissenfels, 219.
" " Berlin, 233.
" " " " Kaiserswerth, 236.
" " " Saxony. Leipsic, 259.
" " " " Dresden, 261.
" " " Baden. Carlsruhe, 300.
" " " Wirtemberg. Esslingen, 310.
" " " Hesse Cassel. Schluchtern, 312.
" " " Bavaria. Bamherg, 314.
" " " " Schwabach, 314.
" " " Austria. Vienna, 333.
" " " Switzerland. Hofwyl, 357.
" " " " Kruitzlingen, 367.
" " " " Zurich, 372.
" " " Switzerland. Kussnacht, 373.
Lausanne, 378.
" Lucerne, 380.
" " France. Paris, 451.
" " " Versailles, 447.
" Dijon, 449.
" Belgium. Lierre, 593.
" Holland. Harlaem, 617.
" Scotland. Edinburgh, 661, 671.
" Ireland. Dublin, 693.
" England. Boroughroad, Lon.761.
" " Chester, 855.
" " Chelsea, 805.
" " Battersea, 833.
" " Whiteland, 875
" Kneller Hall, 879.
" administration and instruction of,
" direction of, 197,219, 233,262, 373, 617.
" buildings and fixtures, 197, 207, 367.
" domestic arrangements, 225, 227, 233,
262, 367, 202, 421, 447, 449.
" director, or principal of, 416.
" discipline of, 449, 455, 618.
" plan of study, 416.
" expenses, &c., 197, 229, 424, 421.
" number of teachers, 198. 217, 261, 305.
" " of pupils, 198, 208, 261.
" age of admission, 422, 810.
" conditions of admission, 165, 185, 199,
219, 226, 232, 261, 303, 617, 694.
" pledge to teach, 422.
" course and subjects of study, 186, 192,
218, 272, 300, 306, 312, 372, 376, 378.
" length of course, 166, 184, 220, 225,
260, 261, 333, 617.
" physical, 209, 225.
" intellectual, 186, 201, 213.
" moral and religious, 196, 211, 220, 225,
234.
" " industrial, 187, 814, 861, 888.
" " science of teaching, 229, 232, 234, 617.
" " art of teaching, 204, 216, 234, 262, 617.
" " musical education, 228, 280.
" " examination for diploma, 166, 188, 204,
230, 262, 423.
" " privileges of graduates, 189.
" " general results of, 35, 39, 755.
NORWAY, 623.
Outline of system of public education, 623.
Norwood, industrial school for paupers, 733.
Novitiate of the Christian Brothers, 444.
Nursery schools, 730.
Nurses, training of, 236.
Oberlin, J. J., author of infant schools, 730.
Observation, how cultivated, 50, 206.
Oral instruction, 761, 612.
Order of exercises in school. See Time Table.
Organization of public schools. See Prussia,
France, &-c.
Orphans, number of, increased by war, 487.
" of tenchers provided for, 181.
" house for at Halle, 21, 112.
" " " Annnburg, 115. ;
Osborn, Rev. W. C., on cost of crime, 502.
Outline maps. 69, 613.
Overberg, Bernard, labors of, 247.
BOOKS ON EDUCATION.
427
Overseers of schools in Austria, 330.
Parents, duties of, to schools, in Prussia, 74, 75.
" " " " " Bavaria, 313.
" " " " " Saxony, 266.
" " " " " France, 393.
" " " " " Switzerland, 342.
Paris, polytechnic school, 457.
" normal school at, 451.
" school of arts, 463.
Parish or parochial schools, 346, 651.
Parkhurst, prison for juvenile criminals, 732.
Patronage society, for discharged criminals, 555.
Pauperism and education, 350, 879.
Pauper children, number of, 733, 879.
" schools for, 733.
" teachers for, 885.
Pedagogy, 183, 222.
Pecuniary condition of teacher, 430.
Pennmanship, see Writing.
Pensions for disabled teachers, 181,402.
Periodicals, educational, 46, 183, 390.
Pestalozzi, educational principles of, 25.
" system of in Prussia, 83.
orphan-house at Neuhof, 487.
" contrasted with Basedow, 26.
Petit-Bourg, reform school at, 549.
Philanthopinum of Basedow, 25.
Philanthopic society, 578,
" reform school of, 578.
Phonic method, 25, 613, 836.
Physical education, 138, 144.
Physiology, 830, 361.
Pietists, 25.
Piety of teachers, how shown, 194.
Play-ground, 106, 274.
Polytechnic school at Berlin, 159.
" " Vienna, 335.
" " Paris, 457.
Poor schools, in Holland, 609.
PORTUGAL, 646.
Potsdam, higher burgher school at, 135.
normal school, 197.
" orphan-house, 532.
Pounds, John, author of ragged schools, 731.
Practical instruction, 203.
Practice, or model schools, 165, 204, 216.
Preparatory normal school, 226.
Prevention, in school government, 211.
Preventive schools, conference respecting, 468.
Primary school in Saxony, 269.
Primary schools. See Prussia, France, ($-c.
" gradation of, 91, 387, 609.
" course of instruction in Germany, 49.
" Holland, 609.
" " " Austria, 327.
" " " " " Bavaria, 313.
" " " " France, 401.
" " " " " Saxony, 258,
" " " '' " Baden", 296.
" inspection of. See Inspection.
" teachers of. See Teachers.
Prince schools, 279.
Princen's reading board, 612.
Private schools, 103.
Pro-seminaries, 226.
PRUSSIA, description of primary instruction, 81.
History of primary instruction, 81.
Outline of system, 85.
Statistics of primary education in 1848, 88.
Remarks on progress of primary Schools, 89.
Subjects and methods of instructioii, 91.
Results, according to Mr. Kay, 94.
" Mr Mann, 39.
" Mr. Stephens, 46.
Education of young children, universal, 94.
School attendance, 95.
Children employed in factories, 96.
Voluntary system prior to 1819, 97. '
Schools where the people are of one faith, 98.
" " " " " different do. 98.
PRUSSIA, Mixed schools, 99.
Duties of school committee, 99.
Schools in large towns and cities, 101.
Advantages of large schools, 102.
School-houses, 103.
Superior primary schools, 105.
Real schools, gymnasia, endowed schools, 105.
Large landed proprietors, 106.
Laneasterian method, 106.
Paid monitors or assistants, 107.
Text-books, 109.
Suggestive character of the methods, 110.
Interest of children in their studies, 111.
Burgher school at Halle, 112.
Military orphan-house at Annaburg, 115.
Public schools of Berlin, 118.
Elementary schools, 118.
Burgher schools, 123.
Dorothean higher city school of Berlin, 124.
Model school of teachers' seminary, 127.
Seminary school at Weissenfels, 123.
Higher burgher school of Potsdam, 135.
Secondary Instruction in Prussia, 139.
Frederick William Gymnasium of Berlin, 148.
Royal real school, 152.
City trade school, 155.
Institute of Arts, 159.
Legal provision respecting teachers, 165.
Testimony of Mr. Kay, 169.
Social condition, 170.
Educational advantages, 172.
Schools preparatory to normal schools, 41, 171.
Examination on entering, 172.
Teachers are public officers 174.
Salaries fixed, and payment certain, 176.
Female teachers, 178.
Teachers' conferences, 179.
Pensions to old and invalid teachers, 181.
Widows and orphans of deceased teachers, 182.
Educational periodicals, 182.
Teachers seminary, or normal colleges, 183.
Conditions and examinations for entering, 41,185.
Intellectual training of a seminary, 186.
Industrial training, 187.
Diploma, 173, 188.
Location of normal schools in 1846, 190.
Small normal schools of Lastadie, 191.
Small normal school of Pyritz. 194.
Normal school of Potsdam, 197.
Normal schools at Bruhl, 207.
Normal seminary in Eisleben, 218.
Seminary for teachers at Weissenfels, 219.
, Seminary for teachers of city, at Berlin, 233.
Normal schools for female teachers, 235.
Seminary at Marienweider, 236.
Diaconissen Anstalt, at Kaisersworth, 236.
Prussian schools, a few years ago, 241.
School counselor, Dinter, 242.
Journal of a conference of teachers, 243.
SchooJ counselor, Bernhardt, 243.
Bernard Overberg, 246.
C. B. Zeller the influence of example, 253.
Self-examination by Beckendorf, 254.
Publicity of public schools, 75.
Public schools, rich and poor attend, 75, 316.
" " protestont and catholic, 63. 317.
Punishments, in reform schools, 512, 537, 552.
Pupil teachers, 753.
Pyritz, normal school at, 194.
Qualifications required in a teacher in Prussia, 165.
" " Austria, 331.
" " " " Saxony, 259.
" " " " Ireland, 693.
" " " " France, 423.
Queen's College and University in Ireland, 7i3.
" scholars, in England, 753.
Questions for self-examination by teachers, 254.
" " examiners in schools, 777.
" " on school management and art ef
teaching,757.
428
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Ragged schools, origin of, 731.
Raikes, Robert, and Sunday schools, 726.
Rambalt, 25.
Rate, or tax for schools, 734.
Ratich, labors of, 20.
Rauhen-haus, at Horn, 490, 517.
Raumer, F., extracts from, 635.
Reading, how taught, 50, 51, 55, 61, 114, 131/612,
Realia, 91, 321.
Real instruction, 56, 59.
Real schools at Berlin, 152.
" " " Leipsic, 277.
" " Vienna, 335.
Real objects, lessons on, 70.
Red Hill, reform school at, 578.
Reformation, influence of, 18.
Reform schools for young criminals 487, 559.
" public or private, 557.
buildings, 493, 5J8, 539, 549, 558.
farm, 559, 561.
" family arrangement, 545, 581.
" officers, 519, 535, 550, 562.
foremen, 491, 535, 562, 554.
" conditions of admission, 558, 560.
" number, 519, 536, 555. 5GO.
age, 520, 561.
previous life, 561, 557.
" classification, 518, 550, 564.
dress, 540, 563.
instruction, 519, 538, 566.
" employments, 535, 540, 558, 571.
daily routine, 521, 544, 564.
" amusements, 522.
" food, 519, 562.
infirmary, 544, 563.
" dormitories, 539, 549, 563.
" punishment, 541, 552, 569.
reward, 495, 530, 553, 568.
meetings of pupils and officers, 569.
discharge, 560.
cost, 501, 526, 534, 543, 565, 573.
result, 495. 520, 530, 556, 570.
aid to discharged inmates, 555, 576.
in Switzerland, 487.
" " Wirtemberg, 489.
" Hamburgh, 490, 517.
" France, 492.
" Belgium, 496,557.
" " England, 497, 578.
Reichelen, M., extracts from, 118. [134, 138, 145.
Religious instruction in Prussia, 53, 55, 57. 73, 124,
" Holland, 605, 614.
" Ireland, 679.
denominations, 103, 183, 302.
Regional school of agriculture, 469.
Repeaters, in French seminaries, 447, 458, 466.
Repetition schools in Austria, 326.
Rewards in school, 145.
Rochow, canon of, 27, 31.
Rosier, Abbe, founder of agricultural schools, 467.
Rousseau, 25.
Royal real school at Berlin, 152.
Rules, 862, 209, 211, 618.
Rural schools or colonies, 487.
RUSSIA, 625.
History of Public Instruction, 625.
Statistics of schools in 1850, 630.
Ruysselede, reform school at, 557.
Ryerson, Dr., extracts from, 45.
Salaries of teachers, 176, 265, 302, 432.
Salle, Abbe de la. See Lasalle.
Salzman, 25.
Sampson, Abbot, 721.
Sand, writing in, suggested the Madras system, 727.
Sardinia, 640.
Savings' society for teachers, 433, 444.
SAXONY, 257.
System of primary instruction, 257.
Institution for superannuated teachers, 259.
Statistics of schools, 260.
SAXONY, Royal sem. for teachers at Dresden, 26).
Examination for teachers' diplomas, 262.
Protection of teachers' rights, 265.
Compulsory attendance at school, 266.
School buildings, 267.
Primary schools of Dresden, 268.
Saxon Sunday schools, 268.
Plan of Sunday school at Dresden, 269.
Public examination of the schools, 271.
Fletcher normal seminary at Dresden, 272.
Burgher school at Leipsic, 273.
Plun of instruction, 275.
Public schools of Leipsic and Dresden, 278.
Secondary education in Saxony, 279.
Blochmann Gymnasium at Dresden, 280.
School of mines at Freyberg 289.
Sears, Bnrnas, extracts from, 19.
Secondary education, in Austria, 326, 339.
" " Prussia, 139.
" " Saxony, 279.
" " " " Russia, 627.
" " " France, 400.
" normal schools at Paris, 451.
Sects, can unite in same school system, 75, 79, 9'J
102, 343.
Seminary for teachers. See Normal Schools.
Seminary school at Berlin, 127.'
" " " Weissenfels, 133.
Sessional school in Scotland, 655.
Sexes, separation of, in schools, 490.
Seydlitz, endowment for schools of arts, 159.
Schluchtern, normal school at, 312.
Schmidt, method of drawing, 154.
Scholars. See Pupils.
School fittings, requisites of, 38.
School-houses and furniture in Austria, 329.
" " " " Baden, 78.
" " " " England, 742.
" " " " France, 395.
" " " " Prussia, 61, 78, 108.
" " " Ireland, 689.
School-houses and furniture in Saxony, 267.
School committee, local, in Prussia, 98.
" " " " Saxony, 258.
" " " " Baden, 293.
" management 757, 769, 800.
School regulations, 139.
Schul-vorstand, 86. See School Committee.
Scientific institutions, 406, 591, 626.
SCOTLAND, 651.
History of Parochial School, 651.
Normal School of the Church of Scotland, 661.
" School of Free Church, 671.
Shuttleworth, Sir James Kay, 740, 823.
extracts from, 444, 367.
Singing, See Music.
Simultaneous method, 111.
Sisters of Charity, 348, 535, 548.
Smith, Adam, on parish schools, 725.
Social influence of good public schools, 317, 657
Society for the public good, in Holland, 595.
SPAIN, 647.
Special instruction, schools for, 405.
State, relation of, to schools, 76, 747.
Statistics of education in Austria, 338.
" Prussia, 48, 88.
" " " " Holland, 608.
" " " " Saxony, 260.
" " " " Baden, 291.
" " " " Bavaria, 318, 315.
" " " " Wirtemberg. 301.
" " " " Lombardy, 636.
" " " " Sardinia, 640.
" " Rome, 644.
" " " " Naples, 645.
" " " " Portugal, 646.
" Denmark. 619.
" " Norway, 623.
" " " " Sweden, 622.
" " " " Russia, 627.
1 " Greece, 633.
BOOKS ON EDUCATION.
429
Statistics of education in England, 745.
" " " " Ireland, 694.
" " " " Scotland, 669.
" " " " France, 366.
" " " " Belgium, 583.
Stephens, Prof. L., extract from, 46, 84.
Stettin, normal schools at, 31.
Steinmetz, 24, 31.
St. Mark's training college at Chelsea, 805.
Stock, J., and Sunday schools, 726.
Stowe, Calvin E., extracts from, 35, 49, 527.
Stow's training system at Glasgow, 661.
Strasbourg, normal school at, 413.
Study room in boarding-school, 460.
" table. See Time Table.
Study out of school, 143.
St. Vincent de Paul, agricultural brothers of, 495.
Subjects of study in primary schools, Austria, 326.
Baden, 194.
" Prussia, 92.
" France, 395.
" Holland, 205.
" " Saxony, 258.
" Switzerland, 346.
Suggestive methods, 110.
Sunday schools, 268, 438, 726.
Superior schools or colleges, statistics of, 260, 293,
301, 315, 318, 339, 392.
Supervision. See Inspection.
Support of schools, mode of, in Holland, 596.
" " " " " Austria, 325.
" " " " " Prussia, 176.
" " " " " Scotland, 658.
SWEDEN. 621.
Syllabus of lectures on education, 668, 877.
SWITZERLAND, 341.
Outline of educational institutions, 341.
Reconcilement of difference of relig. belief, 341.
School attendance made compulsory, 342.
Education of teachers, 344.
Manual labor in normal schools, 344.
Vehrli's opinions on the habits of teachers, 345.
Course of instruction in primary schools, 346.
Religious exercises, 347.
Local inspection of schools, 347.
Results of the education of the people, 348.
Education of girls in catholic seminaries, 348.
Condition of the peasantry, 349.
Pauperism and ignorance, 350.
Educational establishment at Hofwyl, 351.
Emanuel Fellenberg, 351.
Fellenberg's principles of education, 354.
.Normal course for teachers at Hofywl, 357.
Berne cantonal society for teachers, 364.
Normal school at Kruitzlingen, 367.
Educational views of Vehrli,369.
Programme course of study, 372.
Normal school at Kussnacht, Zurich, 373.
Programme of studies, 376.
Normal school at Lausanne, 378.
Normal school at Lucerne, 380.
Tarn, report on schools in department of, 401.
Taxation for schools, 100.
Teacher, estimate of, 33, 37, 42, 46, 167, 16D, 599,
809.
" legal provision for, 33, 176, 432.
qualifications, 36, 112, 14], 203, 259, 423.
" pecuniary condition of, 37, 23, 170, 433.
civil state of, 33, 174, 401.
" employment out of school, 431.
" saving's box, or bank for, 434.
" associations, 33 425.
" conferences, 298, 418, 592.
" retiring, pensions of, 33, 434.
" dwelling and garden for, 177, 205.
" fixed salaries ot, 177, 265.
" social position, 170.
" seminaries for, 190.
" superannuated and disabled, 182.
" widow and children of, 181.
Teacher, sympathies with people, 184.
" professional training of, 36, 388.
" authority of, 37.
appointment of, 100.
Teaching, science of, 800, 877.
" art of, 800, 878.
Technical schools, 335, 637.
Technology, how taught, 136.
Temple, R., description of KnellerHall, by, 885.
Term, length of school, 274, 294.
Text-books in Prussia, 109, 110.
" " Ireland, 689.
Theological students must qualify themselves to
inspect schools, 255, 327.
Thinking exercises for little children, 70, 113.
Time table in primary schools, 115, 268, 614.
burgher, 126, 133, 135, 136, 275.
" gymnasia, 142.
" " Sunday schools, 269.
" " normal schools, 134, 214, 220, 234,
262, 272, 300, 312, 447, 449.
agricultural schools, 308, 470, 478.
polytechnic schools, 459.
school of arts, 162.
" reform schools, 517, 531.
" " secondary schools, 142, 149, 287.
real schools, 153, 158, 277.
" " school of mines, 289.
Topics, or themes for composition, 775.
Town, or higher grade of burgher schools, 93.
Trade schools, 155.
Training schools for teachers. See Normal Schools.
Trivial schools in Austria, 325.
Trotzendorf, monitorial system of, 20.
Turner, E., on reform schools, 578.
Tuscany, 643.
Union workhouse schools, 733.
j Universities, 588. 639, 638, 641, 713.
University of France, 391.
Upper schools in Austria, 326.
j Vehrli, pupil of Pestalozzi, 367.
Venetian States, educational statistics, 339, 636.
Versailles, normal school nt, 447.
" agronomic institute at, 470.
Vienna, polytechnic institute at, 335.
Vincent de Paul, philanthropy, 420.
Von Tiirk, 532.
Wages of teachers, 205, 302, 394
Warwick county asylum, 515.
Watson, VV., founder of industrial school, 731.
Weaving, practical school for, 410, 412.
Weights and measures, taught, 395, 615.
Weissenfels, seminary for teachers at, 219.
" school of practice, 133.
Whipping in prison, 503.
Whitbread, author of first school bill for Eng. 727.
Wicbern, F. H., teacher of reform school, 517.
Widows of teachers, 18J, 395.
Willm, extracts from, 425, 427.
Wimmer, S., account of Blockman college, 280.
WlRTE.MBERG, 301.
Educational statistics, 301.
System of primary schools, 301.
Denzel's introduction to the art of teaching, 303.
Normal seminary at Esslingen, 310.
Normal seminary at Nurtingen, 306.
Institute of agriculture at Hohenheim, 307.
Woodbridge, W. C., extracts from, 25.
Workhouse schools, 685.
Writing, how taught, 52, 60, 114, 119, 613.
Young children, exercises for, 50.
in factories, 96, 297, 726.
Yverdun, 29.
Zeller, C. B., labors of. 29, 83, 253.
Zinzendorf, 24.
Zurich, normal school at, 370.
430 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE COMMON SCHOOL
SYSTEM OF CONNECTICUT. Hartford : Case, Tiffany & Co.
This Volume is made np of different numbers of the Connecticut Common School Journal, which
contain separate documents of permanent vttliie. It makes a large quarto volume of 400 puses, in
double columns, and small type. Price $1.00.
I. DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF CONNECTICUT,
FROM MAY, 1838, TO MAY, 1842.
ItKPORTS of the Board of Commissioners of Common Schools, for 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842
iaruard's Report Legislative Document, 1838.
" ' A-Ulress of the Board of Commissioners of C. S. to the People, 1838.
First Animal Report to the Board of C. C. S., 1839; Second do. for 1840; Third do. for
1841 ; Fourth do. for 1842.
" Report on Education in ether States nnd Countries. 1840.
" Public Schools in Boston, Providence, Lowell, Worcester, &c., 1841.
" Address on Scliool-houSes in 1839.
Keport on Public Schools of llnrtford, 1841.
' Remarks on the History und Condition of the School Lows of Connecticut, 1841.
' Report on the Legal Provision respecting the Education and Employment of Children in
Factories in vnrious Stntes and Countries.
" Letter to a Committee of the Legislature on the Expenses of the Board of Commissioners,
1841.
Reports of School Visitors in most of the Towns in Connecticut, for 1840 to 1842.
Summary of the Legislation of the State respecting Schools from 1047 to 1839.
Act to provide for the better Supervision of Common Schools, passed 1838.
Act giving additional powers to School Districts and School Societies, 1839.
Revised Common School Act, 1841.
Keport and Act for repealing the Board of Commissioners, 1842.
II. DOCUMENTS OR ARTICLES RESPECTING THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF OTHER
STATES AND COUNTRIES:
Condition of Public Education in Scotland, Ireland, England, and Wales, from various sources.
" " " Holland, by Prof. Br.che, Cousin, and Cuvier.
" " " Prussia, by Prof. Bache. Cousin, Wyse, and Prof. Stowe.
" " " Duchy of Baden, nnd Nassau, bv Prof. James.
" " " Austria, by Prof. Turnbull and Bache.
" " " Tuscany, from (in. Review.
" " " Switzerland, from Journal of Education, and Prof. Bache.
" " " Bavaria and Hanover, by Hawkins.
" " " Saxony, by Prof. Bache.
" " " Russia, by Prof. Stowe.
" " " France, by Mrs. Austin and Prof. Bache.
" " " Belgium, from Foreign Q.U. Review.
III. NORMAL SCHOOLS, OR TEACHERS' SEMINARIES.
History of Teachers' Seminaries. State Normal School at Lexington, Mass.
Essays on, by Rev. T. H. Gnllaudet. Borough Road School, London.
Address respecting, by Prof. Stowe. Primary Normal School, at Hmirlem, (Holla- J.i
Account of in Prussia, by Dr. Julius. Seminary for Teachers, at Weissenlels, Prussia.
" " France, by Guizot. " " Potsdam, "
" " Holland, by Cousin. Primary Normal School at Stettin.
" " Europe, by Prof. Bache. ' " " Brlilil and Neuweid
" " Massachusetts, by Mr. Mann. Xormal School at Versailles, France.
" " New York, by Mr. Dix. Kussnacht, Switzerland
Normal Seminary, Glasgow. Beuggen,
Teachers' Departments, New York. " " Hofwyl, "
IV ACCOUNT OF PARTICULAR SCHOOLS.
Infant Schools. High School, Edinburgh.
Model Infant School, Glasgow. School for the Poor, Amsterdam.
" " " London. Primary School, Berlin.
Quaker Street Infant, " Dorothean High School, "
Infant School in Lombnrdy. Burgher School, "
" " Rotterdam. Higher Burgher School, Potsdam.
Evening Schools. Schools of Industry. !<c. Lovell's Lancastcrian School, New Hnven
Evening School in London. Schools of rftrriciilture, $c., <?-c.
School of Industry at Norwood. City Trade School, Berlin.
Ealing. Commercial School, Leghorn.
Lindfield. Agricultural School at Templemoyle.
Gowers Walk. Institute of Agriculture, Wurtemburg.
Guernsey. School of Arts. Edinburgh.
Warwick. Polytechnic Institute, Vienna.
' for Juvenile Offenders, Rotterdam. Technical School, /urich
Public Schools of Various (,'railts. Institute of the Arts, Berlin.
Primary School nt the Hague. Mechanic Institutions, London.
Intermediate School at Leyden. " " Manchester.
Borough Road School, London. Factory Schools.
Sessional School, Edinburgh. Adult Schools. Stindav School*.
BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 43 J
REPORT ox THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF RHODE ISLAND, for 1845,
by Henry Barnard, Commissioner of Public Schools. Providence:
C. Burnett, Jr.
ACT for ascertaining the condition of the Public Schools, and the better management and improve-
ment of the same.
Circular of Governor Fenner.
REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
I. Mode of ascertaining the condition of Public Schools, and other mentis of popular education.
1. By personal inspection and inquiry. 2. Bv circulars addressed to teachers and school com-
mittees. 3. By official returns and reports ol school committees. 4. By statements in publ:c
meeting, 5 7.
II. Measures adopted to improve the public schools under their present organization, and prepare
the way for u more complete and efficient system of public instruction. 1. Bv public lectures.
2. By conversation and letters. 3. By circulating tracts, periodicals, and documents relating
to schools, school systems, &.c. 4. By establishing a Library of Education. in each town.
5. By associations tor school improvement. 6. By assisting in the selection of good teachers.
7. By a more extensive employment of female teachers. 8. By a gradation of schools. 9. By
teachers' associations, or institutes. 10. By an itinernting norrna.1 school agency. 11. By
preparing the way for one normal school. 12. By making known plans of school-houses.
}3. By school apparatus and library. 14. By lyceums, lectures, and library associations.
15. By preparing the draft of school act, 7 10.
III. Defects in the former organization and administration of the system, with the outline of the
existing organization. 1. Summary of defects. 2. Outline of the system as reorganized
IV. Condition of the public schools, with remedies for existing defects, and suggestions for their
increasing usefulness. 1. Organization. 2. School-houses. 3. School attendance. 4. Clas-
sification of schools. 5. Agricultural districts. C. Manufacturing districts. 7. City districts.
APPENDIX. DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO is THE REPORT.
I. Circular to Teachers, and to School Committees, -------
II. Topics of Lectures on Education, ----------
III. As.-iociations for the Improvement of Public Schools, -------
Washington County Association, ---------- g(j
do. do. " Teachers' Institute, --------- KM
Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, ---------- 8!(
IV. Educational Tracts. ---- JK)
V. Books and Pamphlets, relative to education, circulated in the State, - - - -HI
VI. Catalogue of Books in Library of Education, -------- <r2
Educational Periodicals, ------------95
VTF. History and condition of the legislation of Rhode Island respecting public schools, - !)7
VIII. Draft of an act respecting public schools, with remarks explanatory of its provisions, - 111!
IX. Act relating to Public Schools, passed June, 1845, - 137
X. Statistical Tables, relating to population, valuation, expenditures of the State and of the
several towns, -------------- 349
XI. Apportionment of the State appropriation for public schools, for 184G, - - - j~,s
XII. School-house Architecture, ------------ lf,5
XIII. Names of different kinds of text-books t;scd in the State, 207
XIV. Public Schools in cities and large villages, ------ - -229
XV. Rules and Regulations of School Committees, --------241
do. do. Providence, ------- -- "4:5
Index to Report, ------- 253
JOURNAL OF THE RHODE ISLAND INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION:
commenced in 1845, and discontinued in 1849. Edited by Henry
Barnard, Commissioner of Public Schools. The set consists of three
volumes. Price 83.50 per set.
CONTENTS. VOLUME I.
Report on t/tc Public Sc/iuolg of Rhode Island for 1845, arftl the following articles in Extra
Journal. PAGE
Prospectus of Journal. ---- --------- j
Circular respecting Teacher!' Institutes, ------- _j
Teachers' Intitules, origin of, ------------ 5
Teachers' Institute at Scituate, ---------- .-g
Notices of Institutes and Public Meetings, - -------- jo
Circular of Commissioner, -------- . . . j;j
Lyceums Lectures Libraries, - ------ ](i
VVesterly Lyceum. -----. --W
Progress of education, Vermont, -- ---.----17
Massachusetts, --------- ..Jp
Teachers' Institutes, --------------20
Scituute and Foster Association, - _..-.. -.-33
Modes of school improvement, ------------25
Books on Education, ---..---------26
Progress of Education Virginia, - ....-----31
Massachusetts, -------35
432 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PACK
Educational Tracts, -------------- 3'J
Death of Francis Dwiglit,
Modes of school improvement, - ----------41
Educated men and the education of the people, --------- 49
Normal school at Kruit/lingen, ------------51
Kules for the good behavior of Pupils, -----------54
Notices of Public Meetings, ------------ 50
Annual Meeting of the Institute of Instruction for 1845, --------57
Professcr Ganiinell's Report,
Mr. Russell's Remarks, ------------- - tvt
Mr. Kingsbury's Report, ------------- G5
Modes of school improvement, ------------ 01;
Duties of Parent iJo their schools, ------ 68
Letter from a Teilthar to his Pupil, ----------- 73
School motives and school vices, ------------81
Teachers' meetings and tissociiitions, ----------- 8(J
District School Journal of New York, .---------88
Progress of education in other states, ----------- gg
" " " in Massachusetts, ---------- gs)
" " " in New York, .---.-----. ]05
" " " in Pennsylvania, - - - - - - - - - -113
" " " in Michigan, - - - - - - - - - - -1-1
" " " in Ohio, ------------ l-^ij
Smithsonian Bequest, -_- ...--.------ 534
Organization of School Districts, --------- -- ]3(j
Progress of education in Connecticut, ----------- ];j7
History of the English Language, by E. R. Porter, -------- j-,3
Adaptation of the Universe to the cultivation of the mind, by R. G. Hazard, - - - - IG'J
Address on 'Education, by R. G. Hazard, ---------- ]sy
Individual and Associated effort, ------------ 21!)
A Father's Prayer for his Son, ------- --.- ojj
Index to Extra Journal, - - - - - - - - - - - - - -213
VOLUME II., FOR 1847.
Prospectus, -
Discourse before (he Rhode Island Historical Society, by Hon. Job Curfee, - - 1
Causes of the neglect of Public Schools in Rhode Island, ----- 33
Origin and Repeal of the School Act of 1830, by John Howlaud, - - :!7
Condition of Education in Rhode island, in l&iB, -------- 33
Debate on the School Act of 1838, - 41
Memorial from East Greenwich, -----------41
Remarks of .1. L. Tillinghast, ------------ 42
" J. J. Waterman, ----------- 4(>
Dixon, 47
E. R. Porter, 4S
" R. T. Cranston, ----------- 43
Condition of Public Schools of Rhode Island in 183-2, --------49
Report by Oliver Angcll, ------------- 49
Annual Abstract of School Returns for 1839, --------
for 1844,
Debate on the School Act of 1845, - --------
Remarks of Wilkins Updike, - - - ----
Report of School Committee of North Providence, -------
Smithfield,
Cumberland, ------ ..
" Scituate, ------ -..
School -houses, ----------- - . .
Plan of Grounds for Village School, ---------
Plans for Schools of different grades, ---------
Plan of Public School in City of New York, -
" Primary School, -----------
Report on seats without backs,
IloEton Primary School Chair, ----------
Plans of Normal Schools in Massachusetts, --------
Brimmer Grammar School, Boston, ---------
Hints respecting blackboards, - ... ]0<)
Boston Plan of Warming and Ventilation, --------- 112
Condition of School-houses in Massachusetts, --------- i:',7
New York. Vermont, Maine, &c. l'K>
Second Annual Meeting of the Rhode hland Institute of Instruction, 153
Mr. Perry's Report, -- ------ --.. 1,53
Libraries value of books, --..-_---.-. J|J3
Origin of District School Libraries, ---*- - Ki7
letter of James VVadsworth, of Genesee, New York -------- j;;7
Report of D. D. Barnard, - 171
The first Juvenile Library in America, --------- . 173
Act relating to Libraries in Rhode Island, ---------- 175
Specimen of Constitution for Library Association, --------- 170
Catalogue of Hooks for Village Libraries, - ..-17-;
Rules and Regulations for the use of the books of a Library, - ... - onj
BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 433
MOB
Normal Schools, --.------------211
State Normal Schools in Massachusetts, ----------- 212
New York State Normal School, 216
Acts relating to Public Schools in Rhode Island, --------- 225
Remarks on the several provisions of the same, --------- 241
Forms for conducting proceedings under the same, --------- 202
Form of District Return, ..------28
Specimen of Rules and Regulations for School Committees, ------ -289
Index to School Law, Remarks and Forms, - _..----- 293
Progress of Education in the United States for 1847, ------- -305
Connecticut, -------------- 305
Prize Essay by Noah Porter, 307
Maine, ---------------- 328
Massachusetts, 331
New Hampshire, -------------- 331
Vermont, ---------------- 332
New York, 333
New Jersey, --------------- 333
Report on Normal Schools, ------------ 333
Pennsylvania, --------------- 344
Maryland, --------------- 346
Virginia, ---------------- 346
Letter of S. S.Randall, 347
Ohio, 348
Indiana, --------------- 350
Teachers' Institute in Rhode Island for 1847, ---------- 353
" " Centreville, 354
" " Pawtucket, 361
Progress of Teachers' Institutes in Connecticut, --------- 309
New York, 309
" " " Massachusetts, -------- 380
Ohio, 382
" New Hampshire, -------- 388
" " " Maine, ---------- 390
Michigan, --------- 393
" " " Vermont, ---------- 391
" " " Rhode Island, 395
Teachers' Meetings and Associations, ----------- 398
Topics for discussion, &c. ------------- 398
List of Educational Periodicals, ------------ 399
VOLUME III.
Report of Commissioner of Public Schools for 1848, -------- 1
Third Annual Report of Executive Committee of Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, - - 3
Officers for 1847, ---- - .---
Proceedings of Third Annual Meeting, - - - - - - - - - - -I
Remarks of Mr. Barnard, -------------15
Prof. Gammell, 23
" Rev. Mr. Osgood, 25
" Mr. Bishop, 26
Evening Schools, -- .-.---------28
Documents relating to the History and Condition of Public Schools in Rhode Island, - - 3
" " " " " Providence,
Letter of John Howland in 1824, -----------44
Report by President Wayland in 1828, 46
Memorial of Mechanics' Association, J1837, ---------55
Report to City Council, ---..-------57
Ordinance of City Council, 1838, 58
Organization of Public Schools in 1848, ---------62
Report of School Committee for 1838, 64
" " " 1839, 64
" " " 1840, 65
" " " 1841, 67
" " " 1842, 73
" " " 1843, 74
" " " 1844, 75
" " " 1845, 75
" " " 1846, 76
" " 1847, 80
1848, 81
Rules and Regulations, 1848, -----------
Report of School Committee of North Providence, 1848, --------97
' " " Scituate, 1848, 103
" " ' Smithfield, 108
" Glocester, 1847, 122
" 1848, 126
" " Coventry, 1847, 128
" " 1848, 138
< " Warwick, 1847, I 41
" Cumberland, 1848, 142
28
434
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
PAGE
Report of School Committee of Burrillville, 1847, 144
" " " Newport, 1827, 145
" 1828, ---- . ... 148
" 1844, - - - - 150
" 1848, 153
Bristol, 1843, 158
" 1845, 160
" 1847, 163
1848, 171
Warren, 174
School Architecture, -------------- 175
Ingraham's Primary School-house, Boston, ---------- 177
Boston and other School Furniture, ----------- 201
(iiiiucy Grammar School-house, ------------ 208
Putnam Free School-house, Newburyport, ---------- 211
Public High School-house, Hartford, - 214
Free Academy in City of New York, ----------- 223
Culver's Furnace, --------------- 230
Public School-houses in Providence, ----------- 233
Public High School, 253
Plans of School-houses with Apartments for Teacher, -------- 260
Teacher's Desk, 272
Remarks on School-houses in Rhode Island, .-----_-. 273
Principles of School Architecture, ----------- -274
Principles of Ventilation, ------------- 277
Plans of School-houses with one School-room, --------- 280
Plan of Grounds for Infant School, 283
Primary School-house in Westerly, ------------ 384
Village School-house at Allendale, North Providence, -------- 285
District School-house in Glocester, ------------ 286
" Harrington, 288
Mott's Ventilating School Stove, 290
Boston Ventilating School Stove, ------------ 291
District School-house in Cranston, ------------ 292
" at Clayville, Scituate, --------- 292
" at Centreville, Warwick, --------- 294
Remarks on Gradation of Schools, ----------- 296
Public School-house in Warren, ------------ 305
Union School-house at Woonsocket, ----------- 308
Chepachet, 309
" Pawtucket, ---310
Village School-house at Centre Mill, ----------- 312
Washington Village, 314
Female Seminary of Mr. Kingsbury, Providence, -------- -315
Chilson's Furnace, -----.-----.__ 3]g
Bushnell's ' --------------- 3J8
Apparatus for District Schools, ------------ 319
Grammar Schools, ------------ 323
High Schools, &c. 325
Hints respecting blackboards, ------------- 374
Library List of Books on Education, .......... 379
" " of Reference, ----.-390
Rules for the Care and Preservation of School-houses, -------- 391
Dedicatory Exercises, ----.-.---.-_- 401
Address of G. B. Emerson, ------------ 402
" Gideon F. Tlmyer, 405
President Wayland, ------408
Rev. Mr. Osgood, .--414
" President Everett, -....--.--- 419
Remarks on Libraries in Rhode Island, ----------- 425
History and Catalogue of Pawcatuck Library Association, 429
General Index to Vols. I., II. and HI., 549
CARE OF SCHOOL HOUSES. 435
v
RULES FOR THE CARE AND PRESERVATION OF SCHOOL-HOUSES.
The following provisions are included among the Regulations for the
Government of Teachers and Pupils of Public Schools, adopted by School
Committees in most of the towns of Rhode Island :
For Teachers:
There shall be a recess of at least fifteen minutes in the middle of every
half day ; but the primary schools may have a recess of ten minutes every hour :
at the discretion of the teacher.
It shall be the duty of teachers to see that fires are made, in cold weather, in
their respective school-rooms, at a seasonable hour to render them warm and
comfortable by school time ; to take care that their rooms are properly swept
and dusted ; and that a due regard to neatness and order is observed, both in
and around the school-house.
As pure air of a proper temperature is indispensable to health and comfort,
teachers cannot be too careful in giving attention to these things. If the room
has no ventilator, the doors and windows should be opened before and after
school, to permit a free and healthful circulation of air; and the temperature
should be regulated by a thermometer Suspended, five or six feet from the floor,
in such a position as to indicate as near as possible the average temperature,
and should be kept about 65 degrees Fahrenheit.
The teachers shall take care that the school-houses, tables, desks, and apjr>a-
ratus in the same, and all the public property entrusted to their charge, be hot
cut, scratched, marked, or injured and defaced in any manner whatever. And
it shall be the duty of the teachers to give prompt notice to one or more of the
trustees, of any repairs that may be needed.
For Pupils :
Every pupil who shall, accidentally or othervrise, injure any school property,
whether fences, gates, trees' or shrubs, or any building or any part thereof; or
break any window glass, or injure or destroy any instrument, apparatus or fur-
niture belonging to the school, shall be liable to pay all damages.
Every pupil who shall any where, on or around the school premises, use or
write any profane or unchaste language, or shall draw any obscene pictures or
representations, or cut, mark, or otherwise intentionally deface any school fur-
niture or buildings, or any property whatsoever belonging to the school estate,
shall be punished in proportion to the nature and extent of the offence, and
shall be liable to the action of the civil law.
No scholar of either sex shall be permitted to enter any part of the yard or
buildings appropriated to the other, without the teacher's permission.
Smoking and chewing tobacco in the school-house or upon the school prem-
ises, are strictly prohibited.
The scholars shall pass through the streets on their way to and from school
in an orderly and becoming manner; shall clean the mud and dirt from their
feet on entering the school-room: and take their seats in a quiet and respectful
manner, as soon as convenient after the first bell rings; and shall take proper
care that their books, desks, and the floor around them, are kept clean and in
good order.
It is expected that all the scholars who enjoy the advantages of public schools,
will give proper attention to the cleanliness of their persons, ana the neatness
and decency of their clothes not only for the moral effect of the habit of neat-
ness and order, but that the pupils may be at all times prepared, both in con-
duct and external appearance to receive their friends and visitors in a respect-
able manner ; and to render the school-room pleasant, comfortable and happy
for teachers and scholars.
In the " Regulations of the Public Schools in the city of Providence, 1 '
it is made the duty "of the principal teacher in each school-house, for the
compensation allowed by the Committee, to employ some suitable person
to make the fires in the same when necessary, and to see that this import-
ant work is properly and economically done ;" also " for the compensation
4g6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Allowed, to employ some suitable person to sweep the room and its entries
daily, and dust the blinds, seats, desks, and other furniture in the same,
and to clean the same once a quarter, and to see that this work is neatly
and properly done."
The teachers must also " take care that the school-houses, the appara-
tus in the same, and all the public property entrusted to their charge, be
not defaced, or otherwise injured, by the scholars, and to give prompt
notice to the Superintendant of any repairs and supplies that may be
needed."
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS RESPECTING VENTILATION, FIRES, SWEEP-
ING AND DUSTING.
The following suggestions are taken from the Manual of the System of
Discipline and Instruction for the Schools of the Public School Society of
New York:
VENTILATION.
Strict attention should be paid to all the means provided for temperature and
ventilation. During the season of fires, the thermometer should be watched,
and the ventilating flues, windows, doors, and stoves, should be constantly at-
tended to, and every precaution taken, to give as pure an atmosphere to the
school-room, as circumstances will allow. This is not only necessary, for a
proper and free exercise of the physical powers, but it will be found greatly to
influence every mental exercise; for, both will partake of either languor, or
vigor, according as ventilation is neglected, or duly attended to. In warm
weather, the upper sashes should be down during school hours, and allowed to
remain open about four inches during the night, except, that on occasion of a
storm, the windows against which it beats, may be closed. In winter, except-
ing when the weather is exceedingly cold and piercing, it may be of advantage
to have two or more of the upper sashes down about an inch during the night;
but these as well as the doors should be closed before kindling the fires. Two
or more of the upper sashes should be drawn down at the end of the first half
hour after opening school, and againy for a short time at each successive half
hour, and whenever the thermometer rises to 70 degrees. At all seasons, the
windows and doors should be thrpjvn wide open for a few minutes during each
recess, while the scholars are: in' the yard. The teacher should be careful to
require all the scholars to go out, except such as may reasonably be excused on
account of infirmity or sickness ; and even these should be required to change
their places, and to exercise themselves by walking to and fro in the school-room.
At all seasons, at the close of school, all the doors and windows should be
opened for a few minutes, in order that a pure atmosphere may be admitted
and retained during the noon-time recess, or at night. A thermometrical diary
must be kept during the winter season, and the temperature of the room noted
at the opening, middle, and close, of each daily session. Further directions on
this point are given in the instructions for making fires. The window-blinds
and curtains are for the purpose of guarding against the sunshine, or observa-
tion from without. They should, therefore, be so managed, as only to exclude
the direct rays of the sun, and kept open or shut accordingly. When required
as a screen from observation, they should extend no farther than accessary for
that purpose. Attention to these rules will give an air of cheerfulness within,
so congenial to the young. It is important that this fact be impressed on all
that air, and light, are grand essentials in a school-room: let the first be freely
admitted, and the second never causelessly excluded.
FIRES.
The ashes should be taken from the stoves in the morning only, leaving a
layer of one inch in depth : then to proceed to build with the materials after the
following manner: Place one large stick on each side; in the space between,
them, place the kindling wood; and above it,' the small wood, somewhat cross-
wise ; then, set fire to the kindling, and close the stove door. See that the
CARE OF SCHOOL-HOUSES 43^
draught is cleared of ashes, or other obstructions; and that the dampers are
properly adjusted; (these are generally so arranged as to open the draught
when the handle is parallel with the pipe). If the materials have been laid ac-
cording tc the foregoing directions, the combustion will be free. Should the
temperature of the room be as low as 40, fill the stove with wood. Under or-
dinary circumstances, in thirty-five minutes the temperature will be raised to
CO degrees, at which point it should certainly be, at the time of opening school;
when the stove may be supplied with one or two large sticks. At all times, be-
fore supplying wood, draw forward the brands and coals with the fire-hook. If
there should be too much fire, open the stove door, and if necessary, turn the
damper, or, what may be better for economy, effectually close the draft at the
stove door with ashes. By attention to all these directions,* the temperature
may be maintained, the wood entirely consumed, and the thermometer stand at
60 degrees, at the close of the school ; which is desirable in cold weather, so as
not to subject the pupils to too sudden a change of temperature on going into
the open air. The evaporating pan should be kept clean, and filled with water
when in use. In damp rooms it is not needed, nor in damp weather: but it
should be emptied, and wiped dry, before it is set aside.
DUSTING AND SWEEPING.
For a large room, or one department of a Public School building, six brooms
will be found sufficient to be in use. When half worn, they will serve for
sweeping the yard; and when well worn down in that service, will still be use-
ful for scrubbing, with water or sand; and, if properly used by the sweepers,
will be evenly worn to the last. Before sweeping, pull down the upper sashes,
and raise the under ones. Lei the sweepers be arranged, one to each passage
between the desks, and, beginning at the windward side, sweep the dirt before
them, till it is carried forward to the opposite side of the room. The broom
should rest square on the floor, and, with the motion used in raking hay, should
be drawn towards the sweeper, without flirting it outwards, or upwards, which
raises unnecessary dust, al wears the broom irregularly. The dirt, when
taken up, should be carriedinto the middle of the street. The dusting is to be
done in the same regular manner, allowing a suitable interval after sweeping.
If at noon, dusting should be done shortly before school time; if at night, dust
the next morning. In out-door sweeping, the same rule is to be followed the
sweepers going in ranks, and sweeping from the windward. Let the scrubbing
be done by a similar method. When once acquainted with these methodical
plans, the cleaners will do the work, not only more effectually, but with more
satisfaction and ease to themselves and being a part of domestic economy, it
will be, so far, an advantage to understand how to do it well.
Although nof strictly within the design of this work, but as closely con-
nected with habits of neatness and order, we insert from the Manual quo-
ted above, the following directions for delivering, holding, and returning
a book.
The Manual is soon to be enlarged, and well deserves a place in every
teacher's library, although it has special reference to the organization and
system of instruction adopted in the schools of the Public School Society.
* From a return recently made out respecting the quantity and coet of fuel used in the dif-
ferent schools of the Public School Society, it appears that the average cost of wood for a house
like Ts'o. 17, (plans and description of which maybe seen on p. 100,) having 13 stoves, including
cartage, sawing, carrying in and piling, is 8160. The lowest cost is 8141, and the highest, 8200.
In a Primary house, (like that described on page 103,) having four stoves, the average cost is 833;
the highest being 840, and the lowest $25. The difference in the cost is mainly to be attributed
to the difference in the care and oversight of the fire by the teacher.
With a view of correcting the evil, the committee having charge of this business have pre-
pared a table which exhibits at one view the quantity of wood furnished to each school, so as
to enable every teacher to compare himself with every other in this particular.
The cost of heating a Primary building of the same size, by wood in a furnace, is 875, and of
Ward school building, of the same sizft as No. 17, by coal in a furnace, is 8260.
438 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
REGULATIONS OF CHAUNCY-HALL SCHOOL, BOSTON.
The following Regulations of one of the best conducted Private Schools
for Boys in New England, will furnish useful hints to teachers in framing
regulations for their own schools, especially in reference to the good be-
havior of the pupils, and to the care of the school-room, furniture, &c. .
REQUISITION.
Boys are required to be punctual at school.
To scrape their feet on the scraper, and to wipe them on every mat they pass
over on their way to the hall.
To hang their hats, caps, coats, &c., on the hooks appropriated to them re-
spectively, by loops prepared for the purpose.
To bow gracefully and respectfully on entering and leaving the hall, and any
recitation room when a teacher is present.
To take their places on entering the hall.
To make no unnecessary noise within the walls of the building, at any time
of night or day.
To keep their persons, clothes, and shoes clean.
To carry and bring their books for study, in a satchel.
To quit the neighborhood of the school in a quiet and orderly manner, im-
mediately after dismissal.
To bring notes for absence, dated, and signed by persons authorized to do so,
and stating the duration of the absence; also, notes for tardiness, and for occa-
sions when pupils are wanted at home before the regular hour of dismissal.
To study lessons at home, except when inconvenient to the family in such
cases to bring a certificate of the fact in writing.
To present a pen by the feather end ; a knife, by its handle ; a book, the right
side upward to be read by the person receiving it.
To bow on presenting or receiving any thing. 9
To stand while speaking to a teacher.
To keep all books clean, and the contents of desks neatly arranged.
To deposite in desks all books (except writing books,) slates, pencils, rulers,
&c., before dismissal.
To give notice through the school Post Office, of all books, slates, &c.,
missing.
To pick up hats, caps, coats, pens, slips, books, &c., found on the floor, and
put them in their appropriate places.
To replace lost keys, books, Ace., belonging to the school, and make good all
damage done by them.
To write all requests on their slates, and wait until called.
To close desks and fasten them before quitting school for the session.
To raise the hand as a request to speak across the hall or any recitation
room
To show two fingers when a pen is wanted.
To put all refuse paper, stumps of pens, <kc., in the dust box.
To be accountable for the condition of the floor nearest their own seats.
To fill all vacant time with ciphering, as a general occupation ; and to give
notice to the teacher, before dismissal, in case of omitting the exercise wholly
on any day.
To be particularly vigilant, when no teacher is in the hall.
To promote as far as possible, the happiness, comfort, and improvement of
others.
To follow every class-mate while reading, and correct all errors discoverer
in pronunciation, emphasis, or inflection.
To point the fore finger of the left hand, at each letter or figure of the slip of
copy, while writing, and the leather of the pen towards the right shoulder.
To keep the writing book square in front.
To rest the body on ..the left arm, while spelling, and keep the eye directed
towards their own slates.
To sit erectly against the back of the chairs, during the singing lessons, and
to direct iheir attention to the instructor.
REGULATIONS OF CHAUNCY-HALL SCHOOL. 439
Transferrers to show reports finished as early in the week as 3 o'clock on
Tuesday, P. M.
PROHIBITIONS.
Boys are forbidden to buy or sell, borrow or lend, give, take, or exchange,
any thing, except fruit or other eatables, without the teacher's permission.
To read any book in school except such as contain the reading lesson of his
class.
To have in his possession at school any book without the teacher's knowledge.
To throw pens, paper, or any thing whatever on the floor, or out at a window
or door.
To go out to play with his class when he has had a deviation,
To spit on the floor.
To climb on any fence, railing, ladder, Ace., about the school-house.
To scrawl on, blot, or mark slips.
To mark, cut, scratch, chalk, or otherwise disfigure, injure, or defile, any por-
tion of the building or any thing connected with it.
To take out an inkstand, meddle with the contents of another's desk, or un-
necessarily open or shut his own.
To write without using a card and wiper.
To quit school without having finished his copy.
To use a knife, except on the conditions prescribed.
To remove class lists from their depositories.
To meddle with ink unnecessarily.
To study home lessons in school hours.
To leave the hall at any time without leave.
To pass noisily, or upon the run, from one room to another, or through the
entries.
To visit the ofiiee, furnace room, or any closet or teacher's room, except in
class, without a written permit.
To play at paw paw any where, or any game within the building.
To play in the play-ground before school.
To leave whittlings or other rubbish in the play-ground, on the side-walk, or
around the building.
To go out of the play-ground in school hours.
To carry out his pen on his ear.
To use any profane or indelicate language.
To nick-name any person.
To press his knees, in sitting, against a form.
To leave his seat for any purpose, but to receive class instruction.
To go home, when deficient, without having answered to his name.
To indulge in eating or drinking in school.
To go out in class, after having been out singly ; or going out singly, to linger
below to play.
To waste school hours by unnecessary talking, laughing, playing, idling,
standing up, turning round, teazing, or otherwise calling off the attention of
another boy.
To throw stones, snow-balls, or other missiles about the neighborhood of the
school.
To bring bats, hockey sticks, bows and arrows, or other dangerous play-things
to school.
To visit a privy in company with any one.
To strike, kick, push, or otherwise annoy his associates or others.
In fine, to do any thing that the law of love forbids that law which requires
us To do to others as we would think it right that they should do to us.
These regulations are not stated according to their relative importance, but
as they have been adopted or called to mind. They are intended to meet gen-
eral circumstances, but may be waived in cases of necessity, by special permis-
sion, obtained in the prescribed mode.
In a Lecture on Courtesy, delivered before the American Institute of
Instruction at Boston, in August, 1840, Mr. Thayer, the Principal of the
Chauncy Hall School, introduced the above regulat-'ons as the topics of
44 Q SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
his discourse. We extract portions of this admirable lecture, which may
be found entire in the annual volume of the American Institute, published
in 1842, and in the Massachusetts Common School Journal, Vol. II, for
1840.
Scraping the feet at the door, and wiping them on the mats. This should be insisted
on as one of the most obvious items in the code of cleanliness. It is not only
indispensable to the decent appearance of a school room, but, if neglected, a
large quantity of soil is carried in on the feet, which, in the course of the day,
is ground to powder, and a liberal portion inhaled at the nostrils, and otherwise
deposited in the system, to its serious detriment. Besides, if the habit of neg-
lecting this at school is indulged, it is practiced elsewhere; and the child, en-
tering whatever place he may, shop, store, kitchen, or drawing room, carries
along with him his usual complement of mud and dirt ; and the unscraped and
unwiped feet are welcome nowheae, among persons a single grade above the
quadruped race.
I may be told, it is a matter little attended to by many adult persons of both
sexes. To which I would reply, in the language of Polonius,
" 'T is true 't is
jjity ;
And pity 't is 't is true.''
But this, instead of being an argument in favor of the non-observance of the
wholesome rule in our schools, only points more emphatically to the duty of
teachers in relation to it; for when, unless during the school-days, are such
habits to be corrected, and better ones established ?
I am fully aware of the difficulty of carrying rules like this into execution,
even among children of double the age of those that form the schools of some
who hear me ; and do not forget how much this difficulty is increased by the
tender age, and consequently greater thoughtlessness, of most of the pupils of the
schools usually taught by females; but still, much may be done by proclaiming
the rule, and placing at the school entrance one of the elder scholars, to remind
the others of it, and see that it is observed, until the cleanly habit be established.
In the school above alluded to, the rule has grown into so general observance,
that the discovery of mud on the stairs or entry leads immediately to the inquiry,
whether any stranger has been in. For, though few carry the habit with them,
all are so trained by daily drilling, that it soon becomes as difficult to neglect it,
as it was at first to regard it.
Hanging up on the hooks, caps, outer garments, <f-c., by loops. It is not every
school that is provided with hooks or pegs for children's caps, garments, <Scc.
All, however, should be so provided with as much certainty as seats are fur-
nished to sit upon. It not only encourages the parents to send the children in
comfortable trim, but induces the children to take better care of their things,
especially if a particular hook or peg be assigned to each individual pupil. It
is one step in the system of order, so essential to the well-being of those des-
tined to live among fellow-men. If dependent on the attention of mothers at
home, I am aware that many children would often be destitute of the loops
spoken of; but the children themselves could supply these, under the teacher's
supervision ; for I understand the use of the needle is taught, in many schools,
to the younger pupils of both sexes, and has been found a very satisfactory
mode of filling up time, which, among the junior classes, would otherwise be
devoted to idleness.
The next in order is, on keeping clean the person, clothes, and shoes. This,
I am aware, must cost the teacher a great deal of labor to enforce ; for if sent
from home in a clean condition, the chances are more than two to one, that, on
reaching school, a new ablution will be necessary. And in how many families
this business of ablution is rarely attended to at all, with any fidelity ; and as
to clean clothes and shoes, if insisted on, the answer might be in some such
pleasant and laconic language as this : " He ought to be thankful that he can
get any clothes, without all this fuss, as if he were dressing for a wedding or a
coronation !" Still, the rule is a good one, and should be enforced, as far as prac-
ticable. Water can at least be had; and if a child seems a stranger to its ap-
plication, one or two of the elder scholars should be sent out, as is the practice
in some European schools, to introduce it to him, and aid him in using it. And
if you can arouse him to feel some pride in keeping his dress and person clean,
REGULATIONS OF CHAUNCY-HALL SCHOOL. 44.}
and his shoes well polished, or at least, in keeping them fre of mud, you teach
him a lesson of self-respect, that may prove his temporal salvation, and bring
him to be, when out of school, instead of the squalid vagrant, a companion of
pilferers and refugees from justice, the incipient worthy member of society, and
perhaps a benefactor of his race. It is amazing to reflect how very slight a
circumstance in the life of a human being, in the early stages, sometimes casts
him on that tide, which leads to glory or to infamy !
Some one of note has said, that " he considers cleanliness as next to godli-
ness;" and I have been accustomed to look upon one, thoroughly clean in the
outward man, as necessarily possessing a clean heart, a pure spirit. Whether
it may be adopted as a rule of judgment or noi, need not now be decided. The
claims of cleanliness are, without considering the deduction as infallible, too
commanding to be resisted, and should ever be maintained.
The fourth relates to quitting the neighborhood of the school, on being dis-
missed. This is desirable for the safety of the children ; it removes them to
some extent, from temptation, and aids in the fulfillment of the reasonable ex-
pectations of parents, that thsir children will be at home at the appointed hour.
It is a practical lesson in punctuality, which, as the young come into life, will
be found of great service to them, it may be ranked with behavior, and con-
sidered as among those things which constitute the character of a good child.
It is especially due to the families residing in the vicinity of the school. Do
what you may to prevent annoyance, it is scarcely possible for a large school
to be an agreeable neighbor to families within its hearing. They are subject
to its petty disturbances, in all states of health and sickness, in trouble and in
joy; and are surely entitled to the relief afforded by dismissal and sending the
children to their homes. Shouting, screaming, and yelling, should be prohibited,
and the children directed to go away in a quiet and orderly manner. Surely,
every principle of courtesy, of kindness, and good neighborhood, demands it,
and should not demand in vain. Who has not waited with the operations of
some of the senses suspended, for the periodical abatement of an intolerable
nuisance, audfdt, in due time, all the joy of the anticipated relief!
"Every boy to be accountable for the condition of the floor nearest his seat;"
that is. he is not to allow any thing, whether valuable or not, to lie on the floor,
and, consequently, every thing contemplated in the preceding rule, as far as any
individual's vicinity is concerned, is taken care of, and all worthless articles
likewise removed. This making committee-men of all the pupils must have a
very good effect on the condition of the school room, and promote that neatness
and order, which are above recommended.
The next rule requires the pupils to be particularly quiet and diligent, when
the teacher is called out of the room. This I regard as of very great conse-
quence ; for it involves a sentiment of magnanimity, which it should be the aim
of all guardians of the young to implant, to develop, and to cherish. Children
often infringe school regulations, and much is to be overlooked in them, espe-
cially when at a very tender age. Their little minds are scarcely able to en-
tertain, for a Ion? time together, the influence of many rules, except under the
excitement of great hope or fear; and when the teacher is present, they often
unconsciously offend, and should be judged with clemency; but when left as
their own keepers, they should be early made to understand how discourteous,
how dishonorable, how base, it is to transgress the laws of the school. Each
should vie with each in good example, and v thus convince the instructor, that
confidence reposed in them can never be abused.
The last item, under the head of Requisitions, is this: "To promote, as far as
possible, the happiness, comfort, and improvement, of others." If to the few
exclusively moral and religious obligations, those of courtesy be added, this re-
quisition cannot fail of being observed. I say, exclusively or strictly moral, be-
cause the notion of courtesy hardly enters the mind, when we speak of moral
conduct; and yet, in nearly all the minor points, and in most which affect the
happiness of others, in our ordinary intercourse with them, apart from the trans-
actions of business, it is covrtcsy that influences us most. It may be denomina-
ted the benevolence of behavior. Aware I am that a hypocrite may be courteous :
and hypocrisy in a child is inexpressibly loathsome. But hypocrisy is not a
necessary attendant on courtesy. One may be as courteous as Lafayette, and
yet as pure and upright as Washington. If, then, school-boys are kind-heartec
442 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
and friendly to their mates, and evince it towards them in theii manners, they
will, by their example as well as by their words, fulfill the injunction of the rule.
The " Prohibitions" are in the same spirit as the requisitions, and seem to be
much the same in substance, although thrown into a negative form of speech.
The first is in these words : " No boy to throw pens, paper, or any thing what-
ever, on the floor, or out at a window or door." This refers to a voluntary act
of the pupil, the rule requiring boys to pick up whatever is found on the floor
to those accidental scatterings, for which one would not be culpable. The pro-
hibition is founded on that necessity lor order and neatness, which must ever be
maintained in a well-conducted institution, to whatever object, worthy of atten-
tion, it may be devoted. And this is urged thus repeatedly, because of the in-
effable importance of first s'eps. BKGIN RIGHT, should be the motto and rallying
word of every nursery and every school.
Spitting on Vie floor. This topic I would willingly avoid, but fidelity to my
charge forbids it. The practice, disgusting as it is, is too prevalent in many ol
the families that furnish pupils for your schools, to be overlooked, or winked
out of sight; and if the children could carry home new notions in regard to it,
I am sure you would have furnished a good lesson to their parents.
The habits of large portions of society demand a reform. It is futile to ex-
pect any general amendment in those who have grown old in given practices ;
but with the children, those whose habits are, to a great extent, yet unformed,
much may be done. And although the counteracting influences of home mili-
tate against your wholesome requisitions, happy is it for us, that a goodly por-
tion of New England respect for teachers still remains, to give authority and
weight to your well-founded and reasonable rules. In many, if not in most,
families, of our own countrymen, the fact that the ' school-ma'am" said so, is
sufficient to make the rule promulgated binding on the parents; the mother, es-
pecially, will exert her authority and influence on the teacher's side ; and if the
teacher possesses the qualities of judgment, discretion, a proper consideration
for the circumstances of the families to which her children belong, to guide her
in the adaption of her regulations, she will be able to exert a power for good,
within the sphere of her daily duties, which will continue to be felt and acknow-
ledged, long after she shall have rendered her final account.
Marking, cutting, scratching, chalking, on the school-house, fence, walls, tf-c., are
forbidden, as connected with much that is low, corrupting, and injurious to the
property and rights of others. They are the beginnings in that course of de-
basing follies and vices, for which the idle, the ignorant, and profane, are most
remarkable ; the first steps in that course of degradation and impurity, by which
the community is disgraced, and the streams of social intercourse polluted.
You mark the track of its subjects as you would the trail of a savage maraud-
ing party, by its foul deeds and revolting exploits; as you would the path of the
boa constrictor, in itsjil/hy slime, which tells that man's deadly enemy is abroad.
And we are called on, by every consideration of duty, to ourselves, to our off-
spring, and to our race, to arm against this tremendous evil, this spiritual bohon
upas, which threatens so wide-spread a moral death.
We cannot escape the evidences of this, which assail us on every hand, some-
times on the very walls of our school-houses and churches ; but especially in
places removed from public view, where the most sckocking obscenity of lan-
guage is displayed, to poison the youthful mind, illustrated by emblems, which,
in the words of one who deeply mourns with us over the existence of this mon-
strous evil, this desolating curse, "would make a heathen blush!" These fright-
ful assaults on decency demand reform. The deep, low murmur of insulted
humanity will, I doubt not, unless this evil be checked, ascend to the tribunal
of Eternal Purity, and invoke the malediction of our Judge, which may yet be
displayed in the blasting of our fair land, like another Sodom ! To avert so
deplorable a catastrophe, let the thousands of the good and virtuous in youi
midst, formed into one indomitable phalanx, take the noble stand which belongs
to them, and never abandon it, till the enemy be forever vanquished ; forevei
banished from the now polluted, but ever to be cherished, land of the Pilgrims !
By these practices, the mind acquires such a hankering after, and morbid
relish for mischief, that no tree, or shrubbery, or flowers, or public embellish-
ments, or exhibitions of art or taste, however beautiful or expensive, are sacred
from the marring or destructive touch. A sensibility to the beautiful needs to
be cultivated among us ; and mav easily be done with the young, if a propei
REGULATIONS OF CHAUNCY-HALL SCHOOL. 443
and sincere value be placed upon it by ourselves, and the children see that our
admiration is a reality. It exists much more generally in continental Europe,
than in our own country. There, the decorations of public walks, parks, and
gardens ; the galleries of the arts, and the magnificent structures which adorn
their cities, are looked at, enjoyed, admired, by all classes; and rarely, indeed,
is the Vandal hand of mischief or destruction found to desecrate these monu-
ments of a nation's refinement. But how is it with us 1 No sooner has the
artist given the last touch to the fluted column, than some barbarian urchin
chips off a wedge of it, in wanton sport. How often is our indignation excited
by the painter's boy, who, as he passes the newly-erected dwelling or recently-
painted wall, daubs it with his black paint-brush, for yards in length, as he
saunters heedlessly along. And what more common, in almost all public build-
ings, in cupolas, observatories, &o., especially, for persons, apprehensive of be-
ing forgotten by posterity, than to cut out their names or their initials, as if this
were their only road to immortality !
The us", of knives is the thing next prohibited. In mere primary schools, this
rule, and the one last mentioned, would find, perhaps, little to do. Some, how-
ever, there are, I doubt not, even in such schools, who suffer from the too free
use of knives, as their forms, desks, or benches, could testify. Nothing is more
fascinating to a boy than a knife. And what pleasure can there be in possess-
ing a knite, if one may not use it? Hence the trouble occasioned by the instru-
ment. He early learns in imitation of his eltlers if not his betters, that wood was
made to be cut. and that the mission of a knife is. to do the work.
This topic can hardly be thought out of place, by those who will look into
the recitation-rooms of almost any of our colleges, where many a dunce, un-
worthy of any degree, soon, by his dexterity in this department, lays claim to
that of master of the art, of hacking ; "and has his claim allowed."
I have already adverted to the whitfMng propensities of our people ; but, with
your permission, I will add a remark or two, with a view to placing this nation-
al peculiarity in a stronger light. So proverbial have we become, among for-
eigners, in t'sis respect, that, if a Yankee is to be represented on the stage, you
find him with a jackknife in one hand, and in the other a huge bit of pine tim-
ber, becoming every moment smaller, by his diligent handiwork. If he is talk-
ing, arguing, or, more appropriately, if he is driving a bargain, you find him
plying this, his wonted trade, with all the energy and dexterity of a beaver;
and, as it was once said of an English advocate, that he cnuld never plead,
without a piece of packthread in his hands, so the Yankee would' lose half his
thrift, unless the knife and wood were concomitants of his chaffering. But the
habit is of evil tendency, and ought to be checked. He indulges in it without
discrimination, upon whatever is cut-able ; and, worse than the white ant, which
saws down and carries away whole human habitations, when they have become
deserted, the whittling Yankee would hack your dwelling in present occupation,
until he rendered you houseless. Let the mischief be checked betimes; doit
at school; showing, at the same time, the uselessness, the folly, and the annoy-
ing nature, of the habit. It is not merely at home, among our own people, that
it is practiced by us ; but we carry it with us wherever we go, and, even among
strangers, establish our N^v England identity by it.
The spirit of the schoorrules at which we have glanced, should be carried
into every family. It is not enough to present the summary at which we have
arrived ; we should also insist on minor particulars, by words and actions, not
at school only, but at home, where great familiarity produces influences unfa-
vorable to the exercise of courtesy, such as the closingof all doors, especially
in cold weather; the doing of it gently, \vit\\ out slamming ; moving quietly over
the floor; abstaining from shouting, "whistling, boisterous plays, wearing the
hat in the house, fee. Just in proportion as such habits can be secured by your
labors, will you brine down upon your heads the blessing of mothers, worn by
care, by sickness, and the rudeness of their offspring. Powerless themselves,
to produce a reformation, theii gratitude to you will be sincere and heartfelt.
Children should be taught to take leave of their pa rents and friends, on going
to school, and to offer the friendly salute and kind inquiry, on returning home.
Nothing tends more to strengthen the silken cords of family affection, than
these little acts of courtesy; and their influence on the observer is highly fa-
vorable to benevolent feeling. If these points are attended to in our families,
they will not fail of being carried into company, where they are always a coin
of sterling value.
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
DEDICATORY EXERCISES.
The opening of a new school-house is an occasion which well deserves
a public and joyful commemoration. Out of it are to be the issues of life
to the community in the midst of which it stands, and like the river seen
in the vision of the prophet, which nourished all along its banks trees
whose leaves were for the healing of the nations, the well-spring of all its
influences should be a spot consecrated by religion. In prayer, and in
praise to the Giver of all good, and the Author of all being, in song, and
hymn and anthem, and in addresses, from those whose position in society
will command the highest respect for any object in whose behalf they
may speak, and in the presence of all classes of the community, of pupils,
and teachers, of fathers and mothers, of the old and young, the school-
house should be set apart to the sacred purpose of the physical, intellec-
tual and moral culture of the children who will be gathered within its
walls. We rejoice to see that these occasions are thus improved, and that
BO many of our most distinguished teachers, scholars and statesmen take
part in the exercises. We have before us a large number of addresses, at
once eloquent and practical, which have been' delivered at the opening of
new school-houses, and we shall select a few, not for their superiority to the
rest, but as specimens of the manner in which topics appropriate to the
occasion are introduced, and as fitting testimony to the importance of
SCHOOL. ARCHITECTURE.
SCHOOL CELEBRATION AT SALEM, MASS-
On the first of March, 1842, the occasion of occupying several new
school-houses, was marked by a variety of interesting exercises, an ac-
count of which will be found in the Common School Journal for that year.
We copy the addresses of Mr. George B. Emerson, and of G. F. Thayer.
Mr. Emerson said,
" I congratulate you, my young friends, on this happy event. This
pleasant day is like a smile of Heaven upon this occasion ; and I believe
Heaven always smiles on events like this. Many of us whom you see
here have come from a distance, on the invitation of your excellent friend
the Mayor, to show the interest which we feel in you. and in what has been
done here ibr your improvement. We have taken great pleasure in look-
ing over the buildings prepared for your use, the admirable arrangements
and apparatus, so much superior to what is usually enjoyed by children
in your position. \Ve have been pleased to hear of the faithful teachers
that are provided for you, and the excellent plan of your studies, and the
excellent regulations.
Your fathers and friends have spared no pains to furnish you with all
the best means and opportunities for learning. They now look to you to
do your part. All that they have done will be of no avail, unless you
are excited to exert yourselves, to prove yourselves worthy of these
great advantages.
I was gratified, in looking over the regulations, to see the course marked
out for you, to see the stress laid upon the great substantials of a good
education, to see the prominent place given to that most useful art, that
DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT SALEM. 445
most graceful accomplishment, reading. You cannot, my young friends,
realize the great and manifold advantages of gaining, now, in the begin-
ning of your life, familiarly and perfectly, the single power of reading
distinctly, naturally, intelligently, with taste and interest, and of acquir-
ing a love for reading. There is no situation in life, in which it will not
prove to you a source of the purest pleasure and highest improvement.
For many years, and many times in a year, I have passed by the shop
of a diligent, industrious mechanic, whom I have often seen busy at his
trade, with his arms bare, hard at work. His industry and steadiness
have been successful, and he has gained a competency. But he still re-
mains wisely devoted to his trade. During the day, you may see him at
his work, or chatting with his neighbors. At night, he sits down in his
parlor, by his quiet fireside, and enjoys the company of his friends. And
he has the most extraordinary collection of friends that any man in New
England can boast of. William H. Prescott goes out from Boston, and
talks with him about Ferdinand and Isabella. Washington Irving comes
from New York, and tells him the story of the wars of Grenada, and the.
adventurous voyage of Columbus, or the Legend of Sleepy Hollow, or
the tale of the Broken Heart. George Bancroft, sits down with him, and
points out on a map, the colonies and settlements of America, their cir-
cumstances and fates, and gives him the early history of liberty. Jared
Sparks comes down from Cambridge, and reads to him the letters of
Washington, and makes his heart glow with the heroic deeds of that god-
like man for the cause of his country. Or, if he is in the mood for poetry,
his neighbor Washington Allston, the great painter, steps in and tells
him a story, and nobody tells a story so well, or repeats to him lines of
poetry. Bryant comes, with his sweet wood-notes, which he learnt
among the green hills of Berkshire. And Richard H. Dana, father and
son, come, the one to repeat grave, heart-stirring poetry, the other to
speak of his two years before the mast. Or. if this mechanic is in a spec-
ulative mood, Professor Hitchcock comes to talk to him of all the changes
that have befallen the soil of Massachusetts, sine the flood and before ;
or Professor Espy tries to show him how to predict a storm. Nor is his
acquaintance confined to his own country. In his graver hours, he sends
(or Sir John Herschel from across the ocean, and he comes and sits down
and discourses eloquently upon the wonders of the vast creation, of all
the worlds that are poured upon our sight by the glory of a starry night.
Nor is it across the stormy ocean of blue waves alone that his friends
come to visit him ; but across the darker and wider ocean of time, come the
wise and the good, the eloquent and the witty, and sit down by his table,
and discourse with him as long as he wishes to listen. That eloquent
blind old man of Scio, with beard descending to his girdle, still blind, but
still eloquent, sits down with him ; and, as he sang almost three thousand
years ago among the Grecian isles, sings the war of Troy or the wan-
derings of the sage Ulysses. The poet of the human heart comes from
the banks of Avon, and the poet of Paradise from his small garden-house
in Westminster ; Burns from his cottage on the Ayr, and Scott from his
dwelling by the Tweed ; and, any time these three years past, may
have been seen by his fireside a man who ought to be a hero with school-
boys, for no one ever so felt for them ; a man whom so many of your
neighbors in Boston lately strove in vain to see, Charles Dickens. In
the midst of such friends, our friend the leather-dresser lives a happy and
respected life, not lees respected, and far more happy, than if an uneasy
ambition had made him a representative in Congress, or a governor of a
State ; and the more respected and happy that he disdains not to labor
daily in his honorable calling.
My young friends, this is no fancy sketch. Many who hear me know
as well as 1 do, Thomas Dowse, the leather-dresser of Cambridgeport,
446 DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT SALEM.
and many have seen his choice and beautiful library. But I suppose
there is no one here who knows a neighbor of his, who had in his early
years the same advantages, but who did not improve them ; who never
gained this love of reading, and who now. in consequence, instead of liv-
" ing this happy and desirable life, wastes his evenings in low company at
taverns, or dozes them away by his own fire. Which of these lives will
you choose to lead ? They are both before you.
Some of you, perhaps, are looking forward to the life of a farmer. a
very happy life, if it be well spent. On the southern side of a gently
sloping hill in Natick, not far from the place where may be still standing
the last wigwam of the tribe of Indians of that name, in a comfortable
farm-house, lives a man whom I sometimes go to see. I find him with
his farmer's frock on, sometimes at the plough-tail, sometimes- handling
the hoe or the axe ; and I never shake his hand, hardened by honorable
toil, without wishing that I could harden my own poor hands by his side
in the same respectable employment. I go out to look with him at trees,
and to talk about them ; for he is a lover of trees, and so am I ; and he is
not unwilling, when I come, to leave his work for a stroll in the woods.
He long ago learnt the language of plants, and they have told him their
history and their uses. He, again, is a reader, and has collected about
him a set of friends, not so numerous as our friend Dowse, nor of just the
same character, but a goodly number of very entertaining and instructive
ones ; and he finds time every day to enjoy their company. His winter
evenings he spends with them, and in repeating experiments which the
chemists and philosophers have made. He leads a happy life. Time
never hangs heavy on his hands. For such a man we have an involun-
tary respect.
On the other side of Boston, down by the coast, lived, a few years ago,
a farmer of a far different character. He had been what is called fortu-
nate in business, and had a beautiful farm and garden in the country, and
a house in town. Chancing to pass by his place, some four or five years
ago, I stopped to see him. And I could not but congratulate him on hav-
ing so delightful a place to spend his summers in. But he frankly con-
fessed that he was heartily tired of it, and that he longed to go back to
Boston. I found that he knew nothing about his trees, of which he had
many fine ones, for it was an old place he had bought, nor of the plants
in his garden. He had no books, and no taste for them. His time hung
like a burden on him. He enjoyed neither his leisure rtbr his wealth. It
would have been a blessing to him if he could have been obliged to ex-
change places with his hired men, and dig in his garden for his gardener,
or plough the field for his ploughman. He went from country to town
and from town to country, and died, at last, weary and sick of life. Yet
he was a kind man, and might have been a happy one but for a single
misfortune ; he had not learned to enjoy reading^ The love of reading is
a blessing in any pursuit, in any course of life ; not less to the merchant
and sailor than to the mechanic and farmer. What was it but a love of
reading which made of a merchant's apprentice, a man whom many of
you have seen and all have heard of, the truly great and learned
Bowditeh?
Our friends the young ladies may not think this which I have said
exactly suited to them. But to you, my young friends, even more than
to your brothers, it is important now to acquire a talent for reading well,
and a taste for reading. I say more important, for, looking forward to
the future, you will need it more than they. They are more independent
of this resource. They have their shops, and farms, and counting-houses
to go to. They are daily on change. They go abroad on the ocean.
The sphere of woman, her place of honor, is home, her own fireside, the
cares of her own family. A well-educated woman is a sun in this sphere,
DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT SALEM. 447
bedding around her the light of intelligence, the warmth of love and
happiness.
And by a well-educated woman I do not mean merely one who has ac-
quired ancient, and Ibreign languages, or curious or striking accomplish-
ments. I mean a woman who, having left school with a firmly-fixed love
of reading, has employed the golden leisure of her youth in reading the
best English books, such as shall prepare her for her duties. All the best
books ever written are in English, either original or translated ; and in
this richest and best literature of the world she may find enoagh to pre-
pare her for all the duties and relations of life. The mere talent of read-
ing well, simply, gracefully, what a beautiful accomplishment it is in
woman ! How many weary and otherwise heavy hours have I had
charmed into pleasure by this talent in a female friend. But I speak of
the higher acquisition, the natural and usual consequence of this, a taste
for reading. This will give a woman a world of resources.
It gives her the oracles of God. These will be ever near her ; nearest
to her hand when she wakes, and last from her hand when she retires to
sleep. And what stores of wisdom, for this world and for a higher, will
she gain from this volume ! This will enable her to form her own char-
acter and the 'hearts of her children. Almost every distinguished man
has confessed his obligations to his mother. To her is committed the
whole formation of the character, mind, heart, and body, at the most
important period of life. How necessary, then, is it that she should pos-
sess a knowledge of the laws of the body and the mind ! and how can
she get it but by reading ? If you gain only this, what an unspeakable
blessing will your education be to you !
I need not, my young friends, speak of the other acquisitions you may
make. of writing, which places friends in the remotest parts of the world
side by side, or of calculation, the very basis of justice and honesty.
The acquisitions you may make will depend chiefly on yourselves.
You will find your teachers ready to lead you on to higher studies when-
ever you are prepared to go.
These excellent establishments are emphatically yours. They are
raised for your good ; and, as we your seniors pass away, and in a few
years we shall have passed, these buildings will become your property,
and your children will fill the seats you now occupy. Consider them
yours, then, to enjoy and profit by, but not yours to waste. Let it be
your pride to preserve them uninjured, unmarred by the mischievous
knives and pencils of vulgar children. Unite for this purpose. Consider
an injury done to these buildings as an injury done to yourselves.
There is another thing which will depend on you, of more importance
than any I have spoken of. I mean the tone of character which shall
prevail in these schools. Your teachers will be happy to treat you as
high-minded and generous children. Show that you can be so treated ;
that you are such.
Let me congratulate you upon the happy auspices of the name of him
under whom, with the zealous co-operation of enlightened and patriotic
associates, this momentous change in your school system has been
effected, a name which is borne by the oldest and best school in New
Hampshire, and by one of the oldest and best in Massachusetts. It will
depend upon you, my friends, to make the schools of Salem, equally, or
still more distinguished, among those of the State."
Mr. Thayer said,
Children : I did not expect that I should have the privilege of address-
ing you, on this most joyful occasion ; for it was not till I met your re-
spected Mayor, an hour ago, at the beautiful school-house we have just
448 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
left, that I received an invitation to do so. You will not, therefore, antici-
pate a studied discourse, or any thing particularly interesting. Devoted,
however, as my life is, and has long been, to the instruction and guidance
of the young in no inconsiderable numbers, I shall, without further pre-
face, imagine myself in the midst of my own school, and talk familiarly to
you as I would, and do, to them.
And allow me to add my congratulations to those of your other friends
for the ample, beautiful, and convenient arrangements that have been
made for you, in the school-houses of this city ; and especially in the new
one we have just examined. I can assure you, it is superior in almost
every respect to any public school-house in New England, if not in the
United States. It, with others in the city, has cost your fathers and
friends a great deal of money, which they have cheerfully expended as a
means of making you wise and good. But you have incurred a great
debt to them, which you can never repay while you are children, but
must endeavor to do it to your children, when you shall become men and
women, and take the place of your parents in the world. But before that
period, you can do something. Now, immediately on entering upon the
enjoyment of the precious privileges extended to you, you can acknowl-
edge the debt, evince the gratitude you feel, not by words, but deeds;
by, (to use an expression well understood by all children,) 'being good. 1
Yes, by ' being good and doing good ;' by obedience to parents and
teachers ; by kindness to brothers and sisters, and all your young friends
and companions: by fidelity in duty, at home and at school ; by the prac-
tice of honesty and truth at all times ; by refraining from the use of pro-
fane and indecent language ; by keeping the mind and heart free from
every thing impure. These are the means in your own hands. Fail not
to use them ; and although they will in fact be merely an acknowledg-
ment of your obligation for the boon you possess, your friends will con-
sider themselves well repaid for all they have done for you. It is from
such conduct that the teacher's, as well as the father's, richest reward
and highest satisfaction are derived. To see the beloved objects of our
care and instruction appreciating our labors, and improving in all that is
good and useful, under our management, affords the greatest happiness,
lightens the heavy load of toil, relieves the aching head, and revives the
fainting spirit-
There is, however, one great danger to which you, to which all the
young, are especially exposed. I mean the influence of bad example.
Example is omnipotent. Its force is irresistible to most minds. We are
all swayed more or less, by others. Others are swayed by us. And this
process is continually going on, even though we are entirely unconscious
of it ourselves. Hence we see the importance of choosing good com-
panions, and flying from the bad. Unless this is done, it will be in vain
for your friends to give you wise counsel, or for you to form good resolu-
tions. ' Who can touch pitch and be clean ?' You will resemble those
with whom you associate. You will catch their words, their manners,
their habits. Are they pure, you will be pure. Are they depraved, they
will corrupt you. Be it a rule with you, then, to avoid those who are ad-
dicted to practices that you would be unwilling your most respected
friends should know, and regulate your own conduct by the same
standard.
I would particularly caution you against beginnings. It is theirs/ step
that is the dangerous one ; since it is obvious that, if you were to ascend
the highest mountain, it could only be done by a step at a time, and if the
first were not taken, the summit could never be reached. But, one sue-'
cessfully accomplished, the next follows as a matter of course. And
equally and fatally sure is the downward track to crime and misery ! If
we suffer ourselves to be drawn in that direction, what human power can
DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT SALEM. 449
save us from destruction ? This danger, too, is increased by the feeling
of security we indulge, when we say, ' It is only a little thing ; we shall
never commit any great fault ;' not remembering that nothing stands
still in life, in character, any more than in the material universe. We
must be going forward or backward ; up, towards improvement and
glory, or down, towards infamy and woe ! Every thing accumulates,
according to its kind ; though it begins small, like the snowball you hold in
your hand, it becomes, as you roll it on the ground before you, larger at
every revolution, till, at last, it is beyond your power to move it at all.
I will illustrate this by a sad case which has recently occurred in Bos-
ton. But first, I wish to interest you in something of an agreeable nature,
in connection with the faithful performance of duty.
I have spoken of some things that you should do, to show your sense of
the benefits which have been conferred upon you, and I should like to
dwell on each one of them separately ; but I shall have time only to speak
of one. It is, however, among the most important. I allude to speaking
the truth, the most substantial foundation of moral character. It has in-
numerable advantages, one of which is strikingly exhibited in the fol-
lowing story :
Petrarch, an eminent Italian poet, who lived about five hundred years
ago, secured the confidence and friendship of Cardinal Colonna, in whose
family he resided in his youth, by his candor and strict regard to truth.
A violent quarrel had occurred in the family of this nobleman, which
was carried so far, that resort was had to arms. The cardinal wished to
know the foundation of the affair ; and, calling all his people before him,
he required each one to bind himself by a solemn oath, on the Gospels, to
declare the whole truth. None were exempt. Even the cardinal's
brother submitted to it. Petrarch, in his turn, presenting himself to take
the oath, the cardinal closed the book, and said, ' As for you, Petrarch,
your WORD is sufficient!'
What more delightful reward could have been presented to the feelings
of the noble youth than this, from his friend, his master, and one of the
highest dignitaries of the church? Nothing but the peaceful whispers of
his own conscience, or the approbation of his Maker, could have given
him more heart-felt satisfaction. Who among you would not be a
Petrarch ? and, in this respect, which of you could not ?
While, then, I would hold up for imitation this beautiful example, I
would present a contrast as a warning to you.
There is now confined in the Boston jail a boy of fourteen years of age,
who, for the previous six years, had been sinking deeper and deeper into
vice and crime, until last October, when he was convicted, and sentenced
to two years' confinement within the cold damp cell of a gloomy prison,
for aggravated theft. In his own written account of his life, which I have
seen, he says that he began his wretched course by playing truant from
school. His second step was lying, to conceal it. Idle, and destitute of
any fixed purpose, he fell in company with others, guilty like himself, of
whom he learned to steal, and to use indecent and profane language. He
sought the worst boys he could find. He became a gambler, a frequenter
of the circus and the theatre, and engaged in various other corrupt and
sinful practices. At length, becoming bold in his dishonesty, he robbed
the post-office of letters containing very considerable sums ot money, and
was soon detected and condemned. If you were to visit that abode of
misery, you might often see the boy's broken-hearted mother, weeping,
and sobbing, and groaning, at the iron grating of his solitary cell, as if
she would sink on the flinty floor, and die ! ' And all this,' (to use the
boy's own words.) 'comes from playing truant!' .
Look, then, my young friends, on these two pictures. both taken from
life. and tell me which you like best ; and which of the two character*
29
450 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
you propose to imitate. Will you be young Petrarchs, or will you adopt
the course of the unfortunate boy in Boston jail ? They are both before
you. If you would be like the former, begin right. Resist temptation
to wrong-doing, with all your might. Let no one entice you from the
way which conscience points out.
This precept is applicable to all, to both sexes and every age. Let
me, then, I pray you, when I shall inquire, hereafter, respecting the habita
and characters of the children of the Public Schools of Salem, have the
satisfaction to hear, that the instructions of this occasion made an impres-
sion on their minds favorable to truth and duty, which subsequent time
could never efface.
DEDICATION op THE NEW SCHOOL-HOUSE IN PAWTUCKET, OCTOBER 31, 1846
ADDRESS OP PRESIDENT WATLAND, OP BROWN UNIVERSITY.
LADIES AND GENTLEMEN,
There is something deeply interesting, both to the philanthropist and
to the political economist, in the appearance of such a village as this, the
abode of wealth, civilization and refinement. We find ourselves, as we
look upon it, unconsciously reverting to the period, not very remote, when
this whole region was a desert. Thick forests covered all these hills, and
pressed down even to the water's brink. This river rushed over its rocky
bed, or tumbled down its precipitous ledges, unnoticed by the eye of
civilized man. A few savages from time to time, erected their transient
wigwams upon its banks, as the season of hunting or fishing attracted
them, and they alone disputed the claim of the beasts of the forest to this
beautiful domain. The products of all this region were a scanty and pre-
carious pasturage for game, a few canoe loads of fish, and, it may be. a
few hundred pounds of venison. Whatever else the earth produced, fell
and perished ungathered. Age after age, beheld this annual waste.
Here was the earth with all its capabilities. Here were the waters with
all their unexpended powers. But here was no man whose intellect had
been instructed in the laws of nature. Here was neither continuous in-
dustry, nor even frugal forethought. Hence there could be no progress
All things continued as they were from the beginning of the creation.
About two hundred years since, the first civilized man cast his eyea
over this beautiful landscape. He brought with him the arts and the
science of the older world, and a new era commenced in the history of
that part of our country, since known as Rhode Island. The labors of
agriculture soon began to work their magic changes. The forest was
felled, the soil was tilled, and, in the place of the precarious products of
the uncultivated field, rich harvests of grain waved over these plains.
The beasts of the forest retired, and the animals given by the Creator
to aid us in our toil, occupied their place. Instead of the graceful deer,
the clumsy moose, the prowling wolf and the ravenous panther, these
fields were covered with the lowing herds, the bleating sheep, the labori-
ous ox, and the horse, in all latitudes the faithful servant of man.
This was a great and glorious transformation. From the moment that
a civilized man first thrust his spade into this earth, or here yoked his
oxen to the plough, the sleep of ages was broken, and the reign of pro-
gress commenced. From this moment the darkness had begun to pass
away, and the sun was dispersing that night, which, since the deluge,
ad brooded over this land. From that auspicious beginning, all the
means of happiness that the eye beholds, have proceeded. Acre after
DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT NORTH PROVIDENCE. 451
acre has been reclaimed from barrenness. Every variety of product has
been tried, in order to ascertain which would be produced by the earth
most kindly. The smoky wigwam gave place to the log house, and this
in turn, to the convenient farm-house, or the stately mansion. And thus
another portion of the earth was added to the area of Anglo-Saxon civili-
zation.
But still the river, to which all the distinctive prosperity of this region
owes its origin, ran, as it ever had ran, to utter waste. This mighty and
most productive means of wealth, remained wholly unemployed. A
mine richer than that of gold, was yet unwrought. It was a mine of me-
chanical power, instead of metallic treasure, and let me add, a mine of
incalculably greater value. At last it was discovered, that this little
river, falling over its innumerable ledges, could do the labor of many
thousand men. An accomplished manufacturer,* from England, whose
name has made this village one of the most renowned spots in our coun-
try, came among us, and applied the power of this water-fall to the spin-
ning and weaving of cotton. Who can measure the results of this one
grand experiment 1 We hear of battles and sieges, of the defeat of
armies, the capture of towns, the destruction of fleets; but what achieve-
ment of war was ever of such importance to a people, as that which was
accomplished, when that wheel made its first revolution, and the first
thread of cotton was here, in this very village, spun by water power 1
From this moment may be dated the commencement of general manu-
factures in this country, and that of cotton in particular. From that mo-
ment, every fall of water throughout our land became a most valuable
possession. From that moment, this noble natural agent began, every-
where, to fabricate garments for our people. From that moment all the
labor, of every age, throughout New England, could be profitably em-
ployed. From that moment it was certain that capital to any amount
could readily find investment. The rich proceeds of one manufactory
laid the foundations of a similar one by the side of it. As one branch
of manufactures began to supply the demand of the nation, another
branch was established. Thus we are every year adding millions to this
form of investment, and employing additional thousands of hands in this
mode of industry. We are entering into generous and successful rivalry
with the nations of Europe. Already many of our cottons are preferred
to theirs in the markets of the world. Soon, other branches of our man-
ufactures will be brought to equal perfection. Nay, I anticipate the
time when we, in this country, under a system of generous reciprocity,
shall supply the continent and England herself with all those articles,
for the fabrication of which we have special advantages.
But this chain of events by no means ceases here. Year after year
every branch of manufactures is increasing its means, and distributing
the proceeds of its labor over every part of our land. Wherever a fabric
is sent, it is exchanged, in some form, for the productions of that region
in which it is consumed. The common means for accomplishing these
mutual and increasing exchanges, soon became utterly inadequate; more
efficient modes of transportation must, from necessity, be invented. The
business of the country could not be carried on without them. Our man-
ufacturing prosperity, while it creates the necessity for internal improve-
ments, also supplies the means for constructing them. The annual gains
of manufacturing capital are next invested in canals and railroads, and
thus the means of transporting these fabrics at the least cost, are at once
" Mr. Slater has even a higher claim to the gratitude and veneration of this country, than
that which he derives from the introduction of the cotton manufacture. He established in
Pawtucket the first SUNDAY SCHOOL that was ever opened in America ; and for some time
sustained it wholly at his own expense.
452 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
provided. Here is, then, another mode created, of advantageous invest-
ment. By means of internal improvement, the market of every producer
is indefinitely extended, he also receives a fair remuneration for this very
investment, by which his market is thus extended, and, at the same time
the consumer receives whatever he purchases at a cheaper rate and in
greater perfection. Thus, as we always observe, under the government
of God. a real benefit to one is a benefit to all. And hence we learn,
that to attempt to secure exclusive advantages to ourselves, is always
abor lost. Nothing can be a real benefit to us, that is not a real benefit
also to our neighbors.
And the illustration of all that I have said, is manifest every where
around us. We behold how every other art has clustered around the art
of transforming cotton into clothing. We see how one establishment has
been the seed that has produced a multitude of those that resemble it.
You see how manufactures have given rise to internal improvements ;
how the spindle has cut through the mountains, and filled up the valleys
and graded the road, and stretched from city to city the iron rail. You
see how loth these inseparable friends are to be parted from each other.
The region of manufactures is the region of railroads. And you per-
ceive, as the iron road that passes through this village, pursues its way
toward the west, how it winds along through the valley of the Black-
stone, greeting every village and waking every hamlet to renewed ac-
tivity.
All this you readily perceive. You must be astonished yourselves,
when you reflect upon the amount of capital which a single life time has
added to the resources of this village, and the country in its immediate
vicinity. But while we exult in the large measure of prosperity with
which a bountiful Providence has endowed us, it may not be uninstruc-
tive to inquire, in what ways have these blessings been improved? Has
it ever occurred to you, that almost all this capital has been invested in
procuring for ourselves, the means of physical happiness? We erect
nouses, and we render them spacious, warm, and commodious. We furnish
them with every means of physical luxury. We spread carpets for our
feet. We stretch ourselves on couches of down. We temper the at-
mosphere at our will. We clothe ourselves with vestments wrought in
every clime, and by people of every hue and language. We vary our
dress with every fashion. We load our tables with luxuries imported
fm the tropics or the poles; we vex sea and land for nfew viands to stim-
ulate our palates, already saturated with abundance.. We please our-
selves with every form of equipage, and tax the. ingenuity of every arti-
san, that we may be enabled to roll from place; to place without the fa-
tigue of motion. But why need I proceed to specify any further. We
all perceive, on the least reflection, that it is in expenditures of this kind,
that almost all the expenses of living are incurred.
But if this be true, must there not be some grievous error in the prin-
ciples of our conduct? Can this be a wise mode of expenditure for intel-
ligent and immortal beings? In all that I have here recited, is there any
thing in which, on principle, we have excelled, ( excuse the homeliness of
the illustration,) the Bearer that once inhabited these streams? The
thoughtful animal expended all the treasures of his intellect or instinct,
in rendering his dwelling commodious; and he accomplished it. Have we
not done precisely the same thing ? Has not all the expenditure of
which I have spoken, been consumed for the convenience of the physical,
the perishable, the material ? Might not all this have been done, had we
no consciousness of an immortal spirit?
But God has made us immortal. He has given to us a spiritual exist-
ence. Each one of us possesses a priceless mind. We are endowed with
reason to discover truth, imagination to form conceptions of the beautiful
DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT NORTH PROVIDENCE. 453
and the grand, taste to delight in all that is lovely or glorious, and con-
science by which we are allied to God the Father of all, and the holy
and blessed throughout the universe. It is by the possession of these
powers, that man claims precedence over the brute. It is by the cultiva-
tion of these, that we have become more powerful than the savage, who
once dwelt where we now dwell. It is by the use of these powers, that
all the wonders of art have been wrought, which we now behold around
us. If such be the fact, it must certainly be true that this, the spiritual
part of man, is by far the most deserving of attention, and that, in the
cultivation of this portion of our nature, we can in the most appropriate
manner invest our capital.
But while this is evident, does our practice correspond with these well
established principles ? We liberally expend our substance to preserve
our bodies in health, and to cultivate in our children the full development
of every power, and the outward manifestation of every grace. But do
we bestow proportionate labor in developing every spiritual faculty, and
protecting the immortal part from the spreading contagion of evil exam-
ple, and the wasting results of evil habit? We expend whatever is ne-
cessary in furnishing our tables with every thing that may be desired for
the sustentation of Ae body. Where is there the man among us, who
would not blush to be considered an illiberal provider for the wants of his
household ? but is any man ashamed to confess, that he has made no pro-
vision for the spiritual appetites of his children? Who of us would per-
mit tainted or unwholesome food to be brought into his house, or placed
upon his table ? and yet is not intellectual food of the most questionable
character, daily read in the houses of many of our most excellent citi-
zens ? Who is ashamed to declare, that he has no library in his house,
or that, he has never taken the pains to inquire whether the books that
are read by his family, are useful or deleterious ?
But this is not all. We know that the youthful mind is destitute of
knowledge, and that it is strongly predisposed to the formation of im-
proper habits. Every one knows that a child needs instruction, and that
the labor of giving it instruction should be devolved upon those only,
who are intellectually and morally qualified to impart it. The parent
can rarely do this for himself. The principle of division of labor teaches
us, that it can be much more successfully done by some one who will de-
vote his whole attention to it. But, now, let us look over our own neigh-
borhoods, and observe how very small, until quite lately, has been the
amount of capital devoted to the education of our youth. Compare it
with almost every other form of investment, and you at once perceive
how small is its relative amount. Take, for instance, the railroad which
passes within a stone's throw of the place in which we are assembled.
Many of you and your fellow citizens, subscribed for its stock. You did
wisely. It will, I presume, raise the value of every form of property
here. Land will sell for a better price. You will thus become directly
connected with the whole of the South, and with the whole of the East
and West; and you can, at very little expense of transportation, ex-
change productions with the remotest extremities of our country. This
is certainly an improvement upon your former means of communication,
and you are willing to invest your capital in the effort to secure it. But
suppose you had been assessed to an equal amount, in order to provide
the means of education; suppose you had been called upon to subscribe
the same sum in aid of an etfort to give to the youth of this village the
best education in New England, would you not have considered the
demand excessive ? Would you have believed that you could possibly
have paid it ? Yet, 1 ask, is not the education of your children as impor-
tant an object as the improvement of your means of transportation?
Suppose you were to unite in such an effort, would not the amount of
454 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
which I have spoken be sufficient to accomplish the result, the giving to
your children the best education in New England. Is it not evident, then,
that we bestow upon the means of education, an attention very much
less than they deserve ?
I have spoken in this manner as though I were addressing you in par-
ticular. But this is not what I intend. I speak of the amount of atten-
tion which, until lately, has been given to this subject, here in this State,
and throughout New England. I know as well as you, that you have
not been specially behind hand in this matter. You have always been
prepared to do your part, in every effort to improve the condition of
education amongst us. I have, however, alluded to these facts and have
presented these parallels, that you maybe enabled to judge of the degree
in which we have erred, in estimating the proportion of our income
which is due to the cause of education.
1 greatly rejoice, however, that indications of decided improvement in
this respect, are visible every where around us. In Massachusetts, for
several years past, no subject has appealed with greater success to the
enlightened public opinion of her citizens. One of her most gifted and
eloquent sons has consecrated his life to this noble cause, and the results
of his efforts have become every where apparent. Nor have we of Rhode
Island been wholly wanting to ourselves in this good work. Although for
many years the people were indifferent to their true interests in this re-
spect, yet, when they came to its importance, they pursued it with a
manly steadfastness and a far-seeing liberality, which would do honor to
any community in our country. The school system of Providence is ac-
knowledged to be second to none in the land, in excellence and efficiency.
The people in all our districts, agricultural and manufacturing, are seek-
ing to know the best means of promoting the thorough education of their
children; they are building school-houses on the best models that can be
presented to them, and are raising money, with annually increasing lib-
erality, for the purpose of accomplishing these results most perfectly.
It gives me great pleasure. Ladies and Gentlemen of Pawtucket, to be
a witness to the enlightened zeal which you have manifested on this sub-
ject. From this village, first went forth the impulse which called into
existence the most important manufacturing interest in this country. It
is meet that as you have taught us how to supply our external, you should
teach us how to supply our internal wants. You have taught us how
we may clothe our bodies, it is well that you should teach us how to cul-
tivate, and strengthen, and ennoble our minds. You have intended to
render this school-house a model for your fellow citizens throughout the
State. It is a noble and patriotic emulation, and we thank you for it.
We hope that every village and district in the State will imitate your
example.
I am delighted to observe that, in all your arrangements, you have in
this matter acted with wise and thoughtful liberality. Instead of put-
finer vour school-house out of sight, in an inconvenient and unhea! ; > *
puoi^on, you have placed it on an eminence, in a desirable locality, and
nave determined to surround it with ample play-grounds. The building
itself is exceedingly pleasing in its external proportions, and forms one of
the most agreeable ornaments of your village. You thus associate edu-
cation in the mind of the young with every thing gladsome and alluring;
while, at the same time, you testily to your children, the importance which
you attach to their intellectual cultivation.
The apartments of your house are large and convenient. The desks
are constructed upon the most improved models, and the seats seem to me
durable and neat, and, at the same time, comfortable to the pupil. Every
thing in the school-rooms has the air of finish and completeness. The
arrangements for illustration, by the blackboards, are, and I presume
, DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT NORTH PROVIDENCE. 455
that those by every other means will be, ample. With such instructors
as you have appointed, seconded by your own zealous and untiring efforts,
I have no doubt that this school will be all that you desire to make it, one
of the first model schools of Ne\r England.
But I perceive that your forethought has gone farther. You have de-
termined that other habits, besides those of the intellect, shall here receive
their appropriate share of attention. You have provided for each scholar
an exclusive place for his own hat and outer clothing. You have fur-
nished your apartments with convenient wash-rooms, an improvemen
which I do not remember to have seen in any other school-house. Thus
you have made it necessary tor each scholar to Cultivate habits of order
and cleanliness. In all these respects, I do not see how your arrange-
ments could be better made, or how any thing else could reasonably be
desired.
How delightful an object of contemplation is such a school as this,
when faithfully and zealously conducted. Here the slumbering germs of
intellect will be quickened into life. Here talent, that would otherwise
become torpid from inaction, will be placed upon the course of indefinite
improvement. Here, the rough and uncultivated, arrested by the charms
of knowledge, and allured by the accents of kindness, will lay aside their
harshness, and assume the manners of refinement and good breeding.
From hence the lessons of knowledge and the habits of order will be car-
ried to many a family, and they will there awaken a whole circle to a
higher and purer life. In a word, take the five hundred children, whom
this building will accommodate, and suppose them destitute of the know-
ledge, the discipline and the manners, which this school will confer ; trace
their course through life in all its vicissitudes, and observe the station
which each of them must occupy ; and then, suppose these five hundred
children imbued with the knowledge whi^ you here are prepared to give,
and the habits which you intend to cultivate, and follow them through
life, and observe the stations which you have qualified them to occupy;
and you have the measure of good which, year after year, you are accom-
plishing by the establishment of these means of instruction. Look at the
money that it costs. You can calculate it to a single cent, both the prin-
cipal investment and the interest which it would yield. But can you esti-
mate the intellectual service, and moral advantages which will accrue to
you and your children, by this expenditure ? The one is to you as the
small dust of the balance. Were it all lost, you would hardly think of it.
You would not think it worth while to smile at a man, who should say,
Pavvtucket is ruined, for it has lost a sum equal to that which all its means
of education have cost. But suppose that, what that sum has purchased
were lost ; suppose that your schools were shut up. and your whole pop-
ulation consigned to ignorance ; that henceforth reading, writing, and all
the knowledge which they unfold, should be taught or learned here no
more for ever ; then would Pawtucket in reality be ruined. Every virtu-
ous and intelligent family would flee from your border, and very soon*
your name would be an opprobrium to New England. I ask. then, in
view of all this, is there any money which you invest, that brings you in
BO rich a revenue, as that which you devote to the cause of education ?
But I ought to apologize for occupying so muchJarger a portion of
your time than I intended. I must, however, even now, break off abrupt-
ly, and give place o others who are much more deserving than myself to
be heard on this occasion. I will therefore add but a single suggestion.
Let this effort which you have made, be but the first step in your pro-
gress. Cultivate enlarged and liberal views of your duties to the young
who are coming after you, and of the means that are given you to dis-
charge them. A place as large as this, can perfectly well provide for all
its youth of both sexes, as good an education as any one can desire.
456 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
What we are capable of doing in this respect, is so little known, that any
public spirited and united population, as wealthy as this, can easily place
itself in the vanguard in this march of improvement. It is in your power
so to cultivate the mind and manners of yur children, that wherever they
go, they will take precedence of those of their own age and condition.
Your example would excite others to follow in your footsteps. Who can
tell how widely you might bless others, while you were laboring to bless
yourselves ? Are you prepared to enter upon so noble a career of im-
provement 1 ?
REMARKS OF REV MR. OSGOOD.
Mr. Osgood, of Providence, being called upon by the Chairman of the
School Committee, spoke in substance as follows :
You will agree with me, friends, in deeming it a happy circumstance,
that he, whose position places him at the head of the educational interests
of this State, and whose name stands among the highest in the literature
of our land, has favored us with his presence upon this occasion, and
borne so decided witness to the importance of a far nobler popular educa-
tion. After what we have heard, we cannot but recognize the common
interests of all friends of sound learning, and rank the school and the uni-
versity as helpers in the same good cause.
We have met to-day to consecrate this pleasant edifice to the service
of popular instruction. Solemn prayer has been offered to the throne of
mercy, and honest counsel has been addressed to you. This house is now
consecrated as a temple of learning. Do we feel duly the significance of
these exercises 1 Do we realize the common responsibility that we as-
sume by participating in them ^ This afternoon has been spent in mock-
ery, unless the parties here repesented entertain and carry out serious
convictions of duty.
Let us feel that in consecrating this house to the purposes of education,
we consecrate it to the spirit of order. Without good order, education
cannot succeed ; and surely all will allow that good order cannot exist
without the aid alike of master and scholar, parent and guardian. Let
the teacher have your hearty co-operation in his endeavors to regulate his
school. Let him not be left at the mercy of the unreasonable, who will
call every act of discipline, tyranny ; or of the quarrelsome, who will re-
sent every restraint as a personality. Encourage in yourselves and your
children the idea that good order has its foundation in the very nature of
things, in the plan of the creation, and the hearts of man. There is or-
der in God's works, in the heavens above. on the earth beneath. We
imitate the divine mind when we strive to do our work in accordance with
the best rules, and submit passing impulses and little details to a common
standard of right. Let the child oe taught to accept this idea, and to see
in the order of the school not so much the teacher's will as the law of
general good. Let this idea prevail, and a new day will come over our
schools. Teachers will be more careful to place their passions under due
control, by looking beyond present provocations to permanent principles ;
and parents and children will acknowledge the justice of proper discipline,
even when its penalties fall upon themselves. Consecrating this house
to education, we consecrate it then to the spirit of good order.
Akin to order is the spirit of good will, that love th^t heightens every
task, and cheers every labor. Let. us feel that this building is set apart
as the abode of good will. In the simple beauty of its walls, and the
neatness of its arrangements, we see at once that it is intended to be a
pleasant place, where the young shall come rather in love than fear. Let
every thing be done to carry out this idea, and remove all gloom from the
work that here is to go forward. Let the voice of music be heard in the
DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT NORTH PROVIDENCE. 45^
intervals of study, and charm away weariness and discontent. Let
courteous manners prevail between scholars and teachers. Let the law
of love be supreme, and the good of each be regarded as the good of all.
Let everything be done to make knowledge attractive, without impairing
its solidity. You have declared your principles upon this subject in the
very structure of this edifice ; virtually acknowledged the relation of the
beautiful to the true, and applied to education that law of attraction that
pervades all the plans of Divine Providence. Carry out these principles
without fear and without extravagance. Let not your care be given
merely to make your dwelling-houses attractive. Let there be no more
school-rooms so rude and uncleanly as hardly to be ftt to shelter well-bred
cattle. Let children learn neatness, taste, and refinement, along with
their alphabet and multiplication table. To good will, under every one
of its attractive agencies, this house should be devoted.
Thus devoted, it will be a nursery of good works. Utility will go hand
in hand with good order and good will. In this community, practical
industry is the ruling power ; utility is the prevailing standard. See to
it that this standard is rightly adjusted, and that we do not confine our
idea of usefulness to worldly or material interests. As we hear the sound
of the spindle and the anvil, and see the spray of the waterfall, and the
smoke of the furnace, let us rejoice at the large measure of enterprise and
prosperity that have been granted us. But when we turn away from
these things to look upon this house of learning, let us not think as some
base souls do, that we have left utility behind, and are dealing only with
what is visionary and unsubstantial. Next to the church of God, let us
feel that the school-house is the most useful building in the community,
and that from it should emanate the knowledge, principles, and habita
that are to give life its direction and efficiency. Reckon in your estimate
of the best wealth of your city, your schools, and, without them, regard
all other wealth as disgraceful covetousness or mental poverty.
Let the idea of utility preside over the direction of this school, and all
its studies tend not to fill the memory with loads of words, but to strength-
en the mind, and invigorate and regulate the will and all the active
powers.
Standing as it does in so sacred a seat of manufacturing industry, this
house has a peculiar significance. Overlooking this prosperous town, it
serves to express a generous creed to say as if it were : " We, the
people of North Providence, think much of the importance of industry and
wealth, but we think that some other things are of still greater import-
ance, and however remiss in duty we may have been in time past, we
mean to practice upon a more generous system, and this fair temple of
learning, standing so far above the factory and workshop, is a substantial
testimonial of our determination."
It is an interesting fact, that the first movement in this State in behalf
of- popular education was made, not by professional men, nor by mer-
chants, nor any of the classes that might be thought, from their leisure or
literature, to advocate the claims r/f sound learning, but by an association
of mechanics and manufacturers in Providence. I read to-day, with great
pleasure, the memorial which this association presented to the Legisla-
ture, in the year 1798. I honor those men for that document. But one
of the original signers now survives. Who can meet that old man with-
out respect? Who will not honor John Howland even more for taking
the lead in that memorial, than for having served under Washington at
Trenton, and braved death in the battles of the revolution? Peace to his
sturdy heart, and many good days yet to that stout Saxoft frame !
I must cease speaking with these few words as to the good order, good
"will and good works, to which this house of learning is devoted. May a
good providence watch over it. Imagination cannot but conjecture the
458 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
various scenes of its future history picture to herself the groups of chil-
dren who shall come to enjoy its privileges, and who in due time shall
leave its walls for the pursuits of maturer life. Prophesy is not our gift,
except the prophesy that calculates events by purposes and principles.
Let this edifice be used faithfully for true purposes and for just principles,
and its future history will be a blessed volume in the annal of your town
It will tell of generations of noble men and women, who have been educa-
ted within these walls. And when this house shall have gone to dust, it
will have performed a noble mission, by being the nursery of mental life
that cannot die. ,
" Cold in the dust, the perished heart may lie,
But that which warmed it once, can never die."
DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT CAMBRIDGE. 459
DEDICATION OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE, IN CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
The edifice, which has just been erected (1848,) for the accommoda-
tion of the Public High School of the city of Cambridge, is built of brick,
two stories high with a basement, and is a substantial, attractive and con-
venient school-house, of which the citizens of Cambridge may well
feel proud. The cost, including land, furniture and apparatus, is $13,500.
The plan of the interior is substantially the same as that of the High
School in Hartford.
The following account of the Dedication of this house is abridged from
the Cambridge Chronicle for June 29, 1848.
The services were commenced by the chanting of the Lord's Prayer
by the scholars of the school.
Alderman Whitney, in behalf of the building committee, transferred
the building to the care of the School Committee, through the Mayor of
the city, with an appropriate address. After a dedicatory prayer by Rev.
N. Hoppin, and another chant, of selections from Proverbs, by the chil-
dren, the Mayor addressed remarks to the audience upon the relation
of the High School to the other grades of schools, and to the cause of
education generally in the city, arid on some of the conditions on which
the success of this and the other schools depended. Addresses were also
made by gentlemen present, in which many pleasing incidents in the his-
tory of the public schools, and of the town and city of Cambridge, were
narrated, and many valuable suggestions thrown out, by which children,
teachers, parents and school officers can profit. We make the following
extract from the address of Rev. Mr. Stearns. Chairman of the High
School Committee.
" At the time of my settlement here as a clergyman in this place, in
December, 1831, there were in the town 6 school-houses, 8 school-rooms,
8 teachers and about 400 scholars.
At this time, 1848, there are 17 school-houses, 35 rooms, 44 teachers,
and 2136 children.
During this time, it is true, the population has more than doubled, but
the interest taken in the schools, and their progress, has much more than
tripled or quadrupled.
If at that period any school committee had seriously proposed the erec-
tion of such a building as this for a High School, they would undoubtedly
have been excused from public service the coining year, if not immedi-
ately sent to Charlestovvn as insane. But the spirit of improvement has
prevailed, and now we have all needed advantages for making good
scholars, who shall bean honor to their parents, and to their generation.
But, Mr. Mayor, it cannot be too deeply impressed on the minds of our
youth that the means of education, are not education itself. We may
have good school-houses, fine libraries, superior collections of philosophi-
cal apparatus, and the best of teachers, with miserable scholars. There
are means of improvement in creation all around us good influences
ascend to us from the earth and come down to us from the sky.
The sun is a teacher, the evening stars impart knowledge, while every
flower is eloquent with wisdom. But what intelligence do all these out-
ward instructors communicate to the ox who grazes without reflection, or
to the horse who eats his provender without thanksgiving? Hardly more
will books, and maps, and pleasant seats, and air-pumps, and scientific
460 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
lectures, do for a doltish mind. The outward may stimulate to improve-
ment, but all good action springs from within. There must be in the
scholar's own mind a strong desire for knowledge, a spirit aspiring to ex-
cellence, a force of moral purpose which no small difficulties can vanquish,
or but little which is valuable will be accomplished.
Mr. Chairman, we have great hopes from the school now to be organ-
ized in this house, and these teachers, and these parents, and these
scholars, must see to it that we and our fellow citizens are not disap-
pointed.
This school is intended to carry forward and complete the education of
our children I mean complete it as far as it goes for education never
can be completed. It is a work which extends beyond the school-room
into active life, all through time into eternity. It is the destiny of good
minds to improve for ever. They will go on rising, expanding, increasing
in true wisdom as the endless ages pass along, and their progress will be
co-eternal with the eternity of God. We wish to begin right with the
young in their earliest years, and to carry them forward in this school till
they are prepared for service and usefulness in society, and the good be-
ginnings of immortal advancement are firmly laid. We wish to attend
here to the proper development of their faculties, to see that these unfold
themselves in just proportions, and that our children are qualified to meet
the demands of the age and devote their powers to life's best ends.
We establish this school, also, with our schools generally, as a preserv-
ative against vice. When I look round, as I do now, upon more than
one hundred children fresh as a flower garden in the morning, it seems
hardly in good taste, to suggest that any of them may become the vic-
tims of evil, and sink in disgrace from society. And yet, it is possible that
among these young men and young women too, there may be some one
or more who will live to be the objects of public indignation and of self-
ecorn. God forbid ! But juvenile depravity has fearfully increased
within a few years ! And no one can tell who will be among the next
victims. Mr. Chairman, 1 once had a dream and it was among the most
terrible dreams which ever troubled my sleeping imagination. I saw a
bright and beautiful boy playing innocently upon the green, suddenly the
grass began to move, the earth to undulate till it became water, and
the boy went down in an instant, and nothing was left of him but three or
four air bubbles on the surface. I awoke in horror, and was troubled all
day by this midnight vision. I thought then, and I have ever since
thought, that it was a vivid illustration of the course and end of many a
youth. They sport thoughtlessly among the green and flowery fields of
temptation. They begin to yield, principle gives way, and they go down
and are lost as respects character for ever. We wish to render the treach-
erous earth under them firmer. We would change it into the hard
granite of virtue, we would have them stand on the immovable rock of
ages.
We hope, also. Mr. Mayor, from this school an advantage to the adult
community. The benefits of an institution like this do not terminate with
the children. By a reflex influence, they return to the families from
which our children come. It is no unheard of thing for a rough, hard,
uneducated man to be mellowed and transformed by the influences which
his children and his children's children bring home from the churches and
the schools. A good school does excite the adult mind ; it awakens in-
terest in education, and promotes improvement. If this school fulfills our
expectations, it will be to the community a moral and intellectual sun,
throwing light into every dwelling.
We believe also that it will act happily upon our younger schools. It
will be to them an object of hope and honorable ambition. They will
take their examples from it and our little children from the first will be
DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT CAMBRIDGE. 461
aspiring and reaching towards it. But I must stop, for I am impatient,
as doubtless you and this assembly must be, for the instructions which
are to fall from more eloquent lips than mine. Children, consider how
much is depending upon you. Be determined to fix down to hard study,
to do right ; arid on the first principle of all true wisdom, li Remember
now thy Creator in the days of thy youth."
After appropriate introductory addresses by the School Committee
and Mayor of Cambridge, Hon. Edward Everett, President of Harvard
College, responded to an invitation to address the audience, as follows :
May it please your Honor: .
Connected as I am with another place of education, of a kind which is
commonly regarded as of a higher order, it is precisely in that connection,
that I learn to feel and appreciate the importance of good schools. I am
not so ignorant of the history of our fathers, as not to know, that the
spirit, which founded and fostered Harvard College, is the spirit which
has founded and upheld and will continue to support and cherish the
schools of New England. I know well, sir, that Universities and Col-
leges can neither flourish nor even stand alone. You might as well
attempt to build your second and third stories in the air, without a first
floor or a basement, as to have collegiate institutions without good schools
for preparatory education, and for the diffusion of general information
throughout the community. If the day should ever come, which I do not
fear in our beloved country, when this general education shall be neg-
lected and these preparatory institutions allowed to perish ; if the day
should ever come (of which I have no apprehension) when the schools of
New England shall go down, depend upon it, sir, the colleges v/ill go
vith them. It will be with them, as it was with the granite warehouses,
the day before yesterday in Federal street, in Boston ; if the piers at the
foundation give way, the upper stories will come down in one undistin-
guished ruin.
I anticipate no such disaster, Mr. Mayor, though it must be admitted
that we livTe in an age of revolutions, of which every steamer brings us
some fresh and astonishing account. But our revolutions are of a more
auspicious character, and it occurred to me as 1 was coming down with
your worthy associate (Mr. Whitney,) and your respected predecessor
(Mr. Green.) to whom we have just listened with so much pleasure, that
we were traversing a region, in which a more important revolution com-
menced no very long time since, and is still in progress, far more impor-
tant for us and our children, than any of those which have lately con-
vulsed the continent of Europe. I do not now refer to the great politi-
cal and historical events of which this neighborhood was the theatre ; of
which the monuments are in sight from these windows, but to a revolu-
tion quiet and silent in its origin and progress, unostentatious in outward
manifestations, but imparting greater change and warranting brighter
hopes for most of those who hear me, for our young friends before us,
than any of the most startling events that stare upon us in capitals in the
columns of the newspapers, after every arrival from Europe. The Rev-
erend Mr. Stearns has beautifully sketched some of the most important
features of this peaceful revolution.
When I entered college, Mr. Mayor, (and I believe I shall not tell the
audience quite how many years ago that is ; you can do it, sir, but I will
thank you not to.) there were a few straggling houses, shops, and taverns
along the Main street at Cambridgeport. All back of this street to the
north, and I believe almost all south jf it to the river, the entire district
4(52 - SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
in the centre of which we are now assembled, was in a state of nature ;
pretty equally divided between barren pasturage, salt-marsh, and what I
must admit had no mean attraction for us freshmen, whortleberry swamp.
Not one of the high roads had been cut. which now traverse the plain
between Main street and the old road to Charlestown. East Cambridge
did not exist even in the surveyor's imagination. There was not a church
nor a public school east of Dr. Holmes' and Old Cambridge Common ;
and if any one had prophesied that within forty years a population like
this would cover the soil, with its streets and houses, and gardens, its
numerous school-houses and churches, its conservatories breathing all the
sweets of the tropics, its private libraries equal to the choicest in the land,
and all the other appendages of a high civilization, he would have been
set down as a visionary indeed. But this change, this revolution has
taken place even within the life time of the venerable lady (Mrs. Mer-
riam) introduced to us in such a pleasing manner by Mr. Stearns; and
we are assembled this morning to take a respectful notice of what may
be called its crowning incident, the opening of a High School in that
primitive whortleberry swamp. I believe I do not over-state matters when
I say, that no more important event than this is likely to occur, in the
course of the lives of many of those here assembled. As far as our in-
terests are concerned, all the revolutions in Europe multiplied tenfold are
nothing to it. No, sir, not if the north were again to pour forth its myri-
ads on central and southern Europe and break up the existing govern-
ments and states into one general wreck, it would not be an article of in-
telligence at all so important to us as the opening of a new school. No,
my young friends, this is a day which may give an auspicious turn to your
whole career in life ; may affect your best interests not merely for time
but for eternity.
There is certainly nothing in which the rapid progress of the country is
more distinctly marked than its schools. It is not merely their multipli-
cation in numbers, but their improvement as places of education. A
school forty years ago was a very different affair from what it is now.
The meaning of the word is changed. A little reading, writing, and
ciphering, a very little grammar ; and for those destined for college, a
little Latin and Greek, very indifferently taught, were all we got at a
common town school in my day. The range was narrow ; the instruc-
tion superficial. In our modern school system, taking it as a whole com-
posed of its several parts in due gradation, viz. the primary, the district,
and the High School, the fortunate pupil not only enjoys a very
thorough course of instruction in the elementary branches, but gets a
good foundation in French, a good preparation for college, if he desires it.
according to the present advanced standard of requirement ; a general
acquaintance with the applied mathematics, the elements of natural phi-
losophy, some suitable information as to the form of government and
political system under which we live, and no inconsiderable practice in
the noble arts of writing and speaking our mother tongue.
It might seem, at first, that this is too wide a circle for a school. But
the experience of our well conducted schools has abundantly shown that
it is not too extensive. With faithful and competent teachers and wil-
ling and hearty learners, all the branches I have named and others I have
passed over can be attended to with advantage, between the ages of four
and sixteen.
Such being the case, our School Committees have done no more than
their duty, in prescribing this extensive course and furnishing to master
and pupils the means of pursuing it. I cannot tell you, sir, how much I
have been gratified at hastily looking into the alcove behind us. As I
stepped into it this morning, Mr. Smith, the intelligent master of the
school, pointed out to me the beautiful electrical machine behind the door
DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT CAMBRIDGE. 453
with the just remark that my venerable predecessor, President Dunster,
would not have known what it was. No, sir, nor would the most eminent
philosopher in the world before the time of Franklin. Lord Bacon would
not have known what it was, nor Sir Isaac Newton. Mr. Smith reminded
me of the notion of Cotton Mather (one of the most learned men of his
day,) that lightning proceeded from the Prince of the Power of the Air,
by which he accounted for the fact that it was so apt to strike the spires
of churches. Cotton Mather would have come nearer the truth, if he had
called it a shining manifestation of the power and skill, by which the
Great Author of the Universe works out some of the mighty miracles of
creation and nature. And only think, sir, that these newly discovered
mysteries of the material world, unknown to the profoundest sages of
elder days, are so effectually brought down to the reach of common
schools in our day, that these young friends, before they are finally dis-
missed from these walls, will be made acquainted with not a few of the
wonderful properties of the subtle element, evolved and condensed by that
machine, and which recent science has taught, to be but different forms of
one principle, whether it flame across the heavens in the midnight storm,
or guide the mariner across the pathless ocean ; or leap from city to city
across the continent as swiftly as the thought of which it is the vehicle ;
and which I almost venture to predict, before some here present shall
taste of death, will, by some still more sublime generalization, be identi-
fied with the yet hidden principle which thrills through the nerves of ani-
mated beings, and binds life to matter, by the ties of sensation.
But while you do well, sir, in your High School to make provision for
these advanced studies, I know that as long as it remains under your in-
struction, the plain elementary branches will not be undervalued. There
is perhaps a tendency in that direction in some of our modern schools : I
venture to hope it will not be encouraged here. I know it is not to be
the province of this school to teach the elements; but I am sure you will
show that you entertain sound views of their importance. I hold, sir,
that to read the English language well, that is with intelligence, feeling,
spirit, and effect ; to write with dispatch, a neat, handsome, legible hand,
(for it is after all. a great object in writing to have others able to read
what you write,) and to be master of the four rules of arithmetic, so as
to dispose at once with accuracy of every question of figures which comes
up in practical life : I say I call this a good education ; and if you add
the ability to write pure grammatical English, with the help of very few
hard words. I regard it as an excellent education. These are the tools ;
you can do much with them, but you are helpless without them. They
are the foundation ; and unless you begin with these, all your flashy at-
tainments, a little natural philosophy, and a little mental philosophy, a
little physiology and a little geology, and all the other ologiesand osophies,
are but ostentatious rubbish.
There is certainly no country in the world in which so much money is
paid for schooling as in ours. This can be proved by figures. I believe
there is no country where the common schools are so good. But they
may be improved. It is not enough to erect commodious school-houses ;
or compensate able teachers, and then leave them, masters and pupils, to
themselves. A school is not a clock which you can wind up and then
leave it to go of itself. It is an organized living body : it has sensibili-
ties ; it craves sympathy. You must not leave the School Committee t*
do all the work. Your teachers want the active countenance of the whole
body of parents, of the whole intelligent community. I am sure you, Mr.
Smith, would gladly put up with a little injudicious interference in single
cases, if you could have the active sympathies of the whole body of
parents to fall back upon in delicate and difficult cases, and to support and
cheer you under the burthen of your labors, from day to day. I think
464 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
this matter deserves more attention than it has received ; and if so small
a number as thirty parents would agree together, to come to the school,
some one of them, each in his turn, but once a month, or rather if hut 25
or 26 would do it, it would give your teacher the support and countenance
of a parent's presence every day ; at a cost to each individual of ten or
eleven days in the year. Would not the good to be effected be worth the
sacrifice ?
I have already spoken too long. Mr. Mayor, and will allude to but one
other topic. In most things, as I have said, connected with education, we
are incalculably in advance of other days : in some, perhaps, we have
fallen below their standard. I know, sir, old men are apt to make unfa-
vorable contrasts between the present time and the past ; and if I do not
soon begin to place myself in that class, others will do it for me. But I
really think that in some things, belonging, perhaps, it will be thought, to
the minor morals, the present promising generation of youth might learn
something of their grandfathers, if not their fathers. When I first went
to a village school, sir, I remember it as yesterday ; I seem still to hold
by one hand for protection, (I was of the valiant age of three years) to
an elder sister's apron ; with the other I grasped my primer, a volume
of about two and a half inches in length, which formed then the sum total
of my library, and which had lost the blue paper cover from one corner,
(my first misfortune in life ;) I say it was the practice then, as we were
trudging along to school, to draw up by the road-side, if a traveller, a
stranger, or a person in years, passed along, " and make our manners," as
it was called. The little girls courtesied, the boys made a bow; it was not
done with much grace, I suppose : but there was a civility and decency
about it. which did the children good, and produced a pleasing impression
on those who witnessed it. The age of village chivalry is past, never to
return. These manners belong to a forgotten order of things. They are
too precise and rigorous for this enlightened age. I sometimes fear the
pendulum has swung too far in the opposite extreme. Last winter I was
driving into town in a carriage closed behind, but open in front. There
was in company with me, the Rev. President Woods, of Bowdoin Col-
lege, Maine, and that distinguished philanthropist and excellent citizen,
Mr. Amos Lawrence. Well, sir, we happened to pass a school-house
just as the boys (to use the common expression) were "let out." I sup-
pose the little men had just been taught within doors something about the
laws, which regulate the course of projectiles, and determine the curves
in which they move. Intent on a practical demonstration, and tempted
by the convenient material, I must say they put in motion a quantity ol
spherical bodies, in the shape of snow balls, which brought the doctrine
quite home to us wayfarers, and made it wonderful that we got off with
no serious inconvenience, which was happily the case. This I thought
was an instance of free and easy manners, verging to the opposite ex-
treme of the old fashioned courtesy, which I have just described. I am
quite sure that the boys of this school wquld be the last to indulge an ex-
periment attended with so much risk to the heads of innocent third
persons.
Nothing remains, sir, but to add my best wishes for teachers and pu-
pils ; You are both commencing under the happiest auspices. When 1
consider that there is not one of you, my young friends, who does not en-
joy gratuitously the opportunity of obtaining a better school education,
than we could have bought, Mr. Mayor, when we were boys, with the
wealth of the Indies. I cannot but think that each one of you, boys and
girls, will be ready to say with grateful hearts, the lines have fallen to
me in pleasant t)laces ; yea. I have a goodly heritage.
i-/S>
3 At
33
A 001408418 o
- -- -
...
>^
V.
.
'.
- -
I
.
'-
..
.
.
-
...