got idil UC-NRLF $B 75T TMb DN THE TERMINOLOGY OF GRAMMAR BEING THE REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY Revised 191 i THIRD IMPRESSION LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. [Jos. SiGBTS KiSUTXD] Prke 6d. net ON THE TERMINOLOGY OF GRAMMAR BEING THE REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY Revised 1911 THIRD IMPRESSION LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. [All Rights Reserved] Price 6d, net MEMBERS OF THE COMIMITTEE Nominated by The Classical Association : Prof. R. S. Conway, of Manchester Dr. W. H. D. Rouse, of Cambridge Prof. E. A. SoNNENSCHEiN, of Birmingham Mr. F. E. Thompson, of London Nominated by The Modern Language Association : Mr. Cloudesley Brereton, of London Prof. H. G. Fiedler, of Oxford Mr. L. VON Glehn, of Cambridge Prof. W. Rippmann, of London Nominated by The English Association : Dr. F. S. Boas, of London Mr. P. G. Thomas, of London Nominated by The Headmasters^ Association f ]Mr. G. H. Clarke, of Acton The Rev. W. C. Compton, of Dover Mr. P. Shaw Jeffrey, of Colchester Mr. W. G. RusHBROOKE, of St. Olavo's Scliool Nominated by The Headmistresses^ Association : Miss R. M. Haig Brown, of Oxford Miss F. M. PuBDiE, of Sj'denham Nominated by The Assistant Masters'' Association : Prof. E. L. Milner- Barry, of Banci^or Ml. W. E. P. Pantin, of St. PanlV; School Nominated by The Assistant Mistresses' Association : Miss A, S. Paul, of Clapham and Netting Hill Dr. Eleanor Purdie, of Cheltenham Nominated by The Association of Preparatory Schools Mr. Frank Ritchie, of Sevenoaks Mr. L. C. W. Thrinq, of Haywards Heath Co-opted : Dr. Henry Bradley, of Oxford Miss Edith Hastings, of London CONTENTS OF THE REPORT PAGE PAGE INTRODUCTION • . 3 xiir. PARTS OP SPEECH . 18 RRCOMMENDATIONS : XIV-XIX, NOUNS, PRONOUNS AND I. SUR.TECT AND TRRDICATE • 8 ADJECTIVES . 18 11. I'KRDICATIVK ADJECTIVT., NOUN xx-xxv. VERBS .... 20 AND PRONOUN' . • 9 XXVI-XXX. ADVERRS ANT) CONJUNC- III. EPITHKT AND APPOSITION • 10 TIONS .... 21 IV. OBJECT. . 10 XXXI-XXXIII. CONNECTIVES, RELATIVES, V. ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB EQUIVA COifPOUND CON.l UNC- LENTS 11 TIONS AND PUEPOSI- VI. SIMPLE AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 12 TIONS .... 23 VII. DOUBLE AND MULTIPLE . 12 XXXIV. GENDER .... 24 VIII. CLAUSES U XXXV-XXXTX. CASES .... 25 IX. PHRASES 14 XL. TENSES .... 28 X. KINDS OP SENTENCE 15 XLI-XLIV. MOODS .... 33 XI. KINDS OF NOUN-CLAUSE 16 XLV, XLVI. VERB-NOUNS AND VERB- III. KINDS OF ADVKRB-CL/USE . 17 ADJECTIVES 37 Pi 01 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY Being a revised and exteridcd issue of the Interim Report presented in December 1909 INTRODUCTION A PROPOSAL for the simplification and unification of the ter- minologies and classifications employed in the grammars of difierent languages was mooted at the Birmingham meeting of the Classical Association on October 10, 1908 ^ ; and in December of the same year the Council took steps to invite other Associations to join in the movement. Early in 1909 a Joint Committee was constituted, consisting of representa- tives elected by eight Associations — The Classical x4s3ociation. The Modern Language Association, The English Associa- tion, The Incorporated Association of Headmasters, The Association of Headmistresses, The Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters in Secondary Schools, The Incorporated Association of At^sistant Mistresses in Public Secondary Schools, The Association of Preparatory Schools. To the twenty-one members of the Committee thus appointed two members were added by co-optation — Dr. Henry Bradley and I\Iiss Edith Hastings. Two honorary correspondents were also appointed — Prof. F. Brunot of the Sorbonnc, and Geheimer Oberregierungsrat Dr. Karl Reinhardt of the Berlin Education Office. In November 1909 Mr. L. von Glehn took the place of Dr. Spencer as a representative of The Modern * See Proceedings of the Classical Association for 1908, p. 83 ; and addresses on The Teaching of Languages deUvered to the North of England Educational Conference, January 8, 1909, and on Simplifica- tion and Uniformity in Grammatical Terminology, delivered at the annual meeting of the Incorporated Association of Headmasters, January 13, 1909, by Professor Sonnenschcin, 3 4 liEFORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE Language Association ; and at the beginning of 1910 Dr. Boas and Mr. Tiiomas succeeded Dr. Gow and Miss Dingwall as representatives of The English Association. In 1910 a second representative of The Association of Preparatory Schools was added to the Committee, making its total number twenty-four. \t the first meeting of the Committee Professor Sonnen- schein ^vas elected Chairman, and Professor Conway Honorary Secretary. Professor Rippmann was subsequently appointed Honorary Treasurer ; and Mr. Milner-Barry, Honorary Secre- tary of the Enquiries Sub-Committee. At the end of 1909 Pro- fessor Conway resigned the Secretaryship through pressure of other work, and Mr. W. E. P. Pantin was appointed in liis place. The movement seems to have been well timed. The Committee has received unmistakable evidence that many teachers feel that a reform of this kind is needed. The principle has been cordially approved by a large number of individual correspondents, and by the leading educational journals. Unnecessary perplexities and difficulties at present confront pupils studying several different languages at the same time, and the teacher of one language frequently undoes the work accomplished by the teacher of another. Moreover the Committee has learnt with interest of the existence of an important movement for the reform of gram- matical terminology in France. The report of a French Commission, signed by Prof. Brunot and M. Maquet, was submitted to the Ministry of Public Instruction in 1909, and taken into consideration by a Committee of the Conseil tSuperieur. By the courtesy of M. Liard, Vice-Rector of the University of Paris, and the kind offices of the Director of Special Enquiries and Reports of the Board of Education, this report was communicated to the Joint Committee in February of the present year, with an intimation that any comments on it which the Joint Conmiittee might desire to make would be welcomed. The report of the French Com- mission was therefore taken into consideration, and comments on it were forwarded to M. Liard through the Director of Special Enquiries in June. In July the ^Ministry took action by issuing an Arrete (dated July 25, 1910), containing an official scheme of grammatical terminology.^ No knowledge 1 This scheme of terminology will be referred to below under its title of Nomenclature Grainmaticalt. ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 5 of grammatical terminology beyond that indicated in this Arreie is to be required at any examination of elementary schools or for the certification of teachers for such schools, or at any examination of secondary schools up to and in- cluding that which marks the end of the secondary school course. This scheme, like the report of the Commission which preceded it, deals with the terminology of French grammar only. But the Joint Committee has found it of great service as showing what terms of French grammar will be recognized in France hereafter ; and it has influenced the Joint Committee in its choice of some of the terms to be recommended for use in this country (see especially Rec. IX, Note 1, and Rec. XL, p. 30). In America too a need for the simplification of grammatical terminology seems to be felt.^ The Classical Association of New England has adopted the following resolution and communicated it officially to the Joint Committee — " That the Executive Committee be instructed to signify to the Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology recently formed in England the interest of this Association in their work ; and to request that the grammars used in America be taken into account, to the end that the results of their deliberations may be available in this country."' Com- munications have also been received from Continental scholars suggesting an international congress on the subject ; and the Committee hopes that, when the time is ripe and the ground has been prepared in the several countries concerned, an international congress may be arranged. At the same time the Committee is of opinion that such a conference should be preceded by full discussion in each of the countries separately, and that in each country the mother-tongue should form the basis of the grammatical scheme to be constructed. 1 " Surelj'' nowhere under heaven can there be a land in which there is greater confusion in grammatical terminology or greater failure on the part of boys and girls to master the grammar of any single language, even their own." Professor John C. Kirtland, in The Classical Weekly (New York), May 22, 1909.—" It [i.e. a unified scheme of terminology] seems to me to promise an immense gain in the effectiveness and economy of our work in English Grammar." Jessie Frances Smith, Head of the English Department in the Wadleigh High School, New York {Educational Review, Rahway, N.J., and New York, Oct. 1910). 6 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE At a preliminary meeting of the Joint Committee held in London on Feb. 27, 1909, it was resolved to make the project known as widely as possible, and to invite the co-operation of the general body of teachers of languages in this country. A circular letter was therefore issued on March 8 to all the members of the eight Associations represented on the Com- mittee. This circular stated the object of the Committee to be "to consider the terminology used in teaching the lan- guages, ancient and modern, including English, commonly studied in English schools, in the hope of framing some simplified and consistent scheme of grammatical nomen- clature, tending in the direction of uniformity for all the languages concerned.'" It seemed well to ascertain at the outset what points of current terminology were found, in actual practice, to be causing error, confusion, or other difficulty in the minds of English pupils of any age. Teachers were therefore asked to inform the Committee what terms used in modern text-books they had found unserviceable or less serviceable than others used to denote the same thing. In reply to this enquiry over a hundred answers, some of them very full, were received, and the Committee found them of great value, especially in determining the points on which reform is most urgently and most generally desired. The result of the Committee's deliberations has been to confirm its belief in the possibility and the desirability of the reform contemplated. It was found that, although differ- ences of opinion manifested themselves on particular points of grammatical doctrine, there was on the whole a large amount of agreement on fundamental matters ; nor did any cleavage arise between teachers of ancient languages on the one hand and teachers of modern languages on the other. Most of the resolutions of the Committee have been reached either unanimously or by substantial majorities. With a view to facilitating the use of the terminology herein proposed, the Committee has thought it Avell to suggest in the case of each of the English terms recommended a corresponding German and French term, for the use of teachers in this country who employ these languages in their gram- matical teaching. At the close of the year 1909 the Committee presented an Taterim Report containing the conclusions which it had ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 7 reached up to that time. This Interim Report was discussed by nearly all the Associations represented on the Committee at their General Meetings of the year 1910, and the reception which it met with was in all cases favourable and in somo particularly cordial. Certain sections, however, of the Report were criticized and referred to the Committee for further consideration. These criticisms were, as might have been expected, not entirely consistent with one another. What one Association disapproved was in some cases warmly approved by another Association. Nevertheless there were several sections which did not commend themselves to a considerable number of the Associations ; and these are now presented in an amended form, in order to meet the views of as many teachers as possible. But all suggestions received, whether from Associations or from individual scholars and teachers who have favoured the Committee with an expression of their views, have been very carefully considered by the Committee, and the present Report contains amendments of detail in many places. At the same time the Committee has not seen reason to depart from its main principles as to what will prove most serviceable to the cause of sound grammatical teaching in the country. It is the hope of the Committee that the terminology suggested in the present Report will be widely adopted, by teachers, by writers of school books, and by examining bodies, as a standard terminology for the fundamental facts of grammar. The Committee, however, recognizes that, in dealing with special points of grammar which arise in connexion with more advanced work, teachers and writers of text-books will find it necessary to supplement this standard terminology by additional terms not inconsistent with those here pre- sented. On the other hand, it will readily he understood tliat the very scope of the Committee's work has made it necessary to recommend some terms the use of which the Committee would deprecate in the early stages of learning a language, as express- ing distinctions which belong to a comp>araiively advanced stage of learning. The Report was presented to the Associations represented on the Committee in December 1910, and received with general approval. The present issue contains a few modifications, based on suggestions received from the Associations. 8 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE There have been altogether twenty-six meetings of the Committee, nine in 1909, fifteen in 1910, and two in 1911, last- ing on an average 3 J hours each ; and also many meetings of sTib-committees. RECOMMENDATIONS The corresponding German and French terms are given after each of the recommendations. I. That the first stage in the analysis of a sentence be to divide it into two parts, to be called the Subject Analysis. ^^^ *^® Predicate, the Subject being the group of words or the single word which denotes the person or thing of which the Predicate is said, and the Predicate being all that is said of the person or thing denoted by the Subject. Subject Subjekt Sujet Predicate Prddikat Pridicat In the following examples the Predicate is distinguished from the Subject by heavy type : — The merciful man is merciful to his beast. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. How sv/eet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! liong live the King ! Hatte ich es doeh nicht gesagt ! Quid mihi Celsus agit P Cinq Strangers sur dix savent notre langue. Tis d-yopevciv PovXcrai ; Note 1. — Where the Subject consists of several words, the Noun or Noun Equivalent around which the other words are grouped may, when necessary, be distinguished as the Subject Word, Note 2. — In a normal sentence the Subject and the Pre- dicate are fully expressed, but there are instances in which either the one or the other is only implied, wholly or in part. Examples : — Come [you] here.— [I] thank you. — ^What a beautiful night [it is] ! Diesen K\i8s [gebe ich] der ganaen Welt. Nugas [agis]. [Jevous demande] mille pardons. Al8cus lUcTTw aot. or i>i.Hv]. — Mop|Jiw • ddsfei J'ttttoj. ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 9 II. That the part of the Predicate which indicates (a) what the person or thing denoted by the Subject is declared to be, become, be named, or seem (&) what the person or thing denoted by the Object (see Rec. IV) is declared to be made or named be called the Predicative Adjective, Predicative Noun, or Pre- dicative Pronoun ; and that the same terms be applied to Adjectives, Nouns and Pronouns similarly used in connexion with other Verbs than those mentioned above. Predicative Prddikativ Prcdicaiif The term ' predicative ' is also applicable to Equivalents of Adjectives and Nouns usedpredicatively (Recommendation V). Examples : — (0) He is happy. — He was made happy. — I will live a bachelor. Thou art the man. — Are you not he ? The ring is of great value. Der Himmel wurde grau. Haec insula vocatur Mona. — Wudus ara, sere nudus. Vous etes studieuses, mesdemoiselles. — C'est moi. rioXXwi/ 6 Kaipbs ylyperai SiSdcTKaXos. — XaXeird ra KoKd. — ^aiverai irpoSovS TTiv irbXiv. — ^"0 TToraiMbs pei jj.e'yas. — UpcoTos Trpoa^dWei. (6) It made him happy. — They brought him home dead. Man heisst den Lowen den Konig der Tiere. Hanc insulam Monam vocant. — Caesar Helvetica primes de- bellavit. On I'a elu roi- X<5;itf ' d8€X4>ovs Toi'S dXrjdLvovi (pCKovs. — ^'EXa/Se tovto SoSpov. Note 1. — Predicative Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns always express some part of the Predicate, but they differ widely from one another in regard to the proportion which that part bears to the part expressed by the Verb. Thus : (1) He is happy, (2) He became happy, (3) He looked happy, (4) He went to bed happy. Note 2. — The terms * copulative ' and * factitive/ as applied to some of the Verbs employed in sentences of the above classes (a and b respectively), should be abandoned as unnecessary. Note 3. — The term * proleptic/ though useful to describe the Adjective in instances like " Ere humane statute purged the gentle weal " (Shakespeare, Macbeth^ III. iv. 76), " Rubra 10 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE deterges volnera mappa " (Juvenal, Satire V. 27), Twr o-wv aSc'pKTWi/ o/x/xaT0)v TrjTwfiao'; (Sophocles, Ocd. Col. 1200), should not be applied to the Adjective or Noun in sentences of the classes referred to in Recommendation II above, e.g. (a) Fortis Etruria crcvit, (6) Quadrifidam quercum scindebat. III. That the term Epithet be used to distinguish Adjec- tives and Nouns wliich are not predicative. Epithet Epithet Epithcte or Bei/ugung Examples : — the happy warrior ■\ der fliegende Hollander populus Romanus J- (Epithet Adjectives) la Rome moderne I avdpes *A0Tivaiot J the County Council, London streets ^ a dancing master I Gebriider Braim ! (Epithet Nouna) regma pecunia i \ r / I Maison Hachette iv5pei SiKaoTaC Note 1. — The term 'Epithet* has been preferred to * Attribute ' as the description of non-predicative Adjectives and Nouns in order to avoid confusion with the French term * Attribut,' which is used to denote the Predicative Adjective or Noun in the official French scheme of terminology (1910), where also the term * Epithete ' is employed as above. See Nomenclature Grammaticale, p. 4. Note 2. — The term Apposition may be applied to examples like " Peter the Hermit " ; " Zu Dionys, dem Tyrannen, schlich Moros " \ " The fact that he was there (VIII) is undoubted " ; " He killed all his prisoners — a barbarous and impolitic act." IV. That the term Object be used to denote the Noun or Noun Equivalent governed by a Verb. Object Ohjekt Objet Examples : — I have finished my course. Sie hat einen andern erwahlt. Gorgias adulescentes docebat. Je las connais. E\e7o;' Td8€. (( ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 11 Gedenke meiner. (Genitive Object) Credo tibi. (Dative Object) Victoria uti nescis. (Ablative Object) MavTiKTJ ov ireiOopLou. (Dative Object) I wiah to learn. Discere cupio. (Infinitive as Object) He asked me many questions. ^ Er lehrte mich die deutsche Sprache. I Illud te rogo. ; (Two Objects) Gorgias adulescentes dicere docebat. I BaffiXeiis vjias to, BirXa diraiTe?. J Note 1. — In such sentences as " He gave me a book," Pecuniam tibi credidi,'* the words me and tihi may be called the Indirect Object. Note 2. — -Although in such examples as those quoted above the Infinitive is clearly an Object, it is impossible to draw the line between these uses and those in which the Infinitive has a more or less marked adverbial character, e.g. *' Possum dicere/* " Multa habeo dicere^'* *' Gaudeo videre.'* Note 3. — The CJommittee recommends the term Retained Accusative for use in sentences which are passive inversions of such active constructions as " He asked me many questions," ** They awarded him the prize.' it Examples : — I was asked many questions. '\ goorit™Hus'.''"'" (Retained Accusatives) Sei'o^wJ' tTreTpdirr] ttjv apXTJv. J V. That any group of words or single word which (not being an Adjective) is used either predicatively or as an epithet qualifjring any Noun in the sentence be called an Adjective Equivalent or be said to be used adjectivally ; and that any group of words or single word which Cnot being an Adverb) is used to qualify any Verb, Adjective, or Adverb in the sentence be called an Adverb Equivalent or be said to be used adverbially. 12 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE Examples : — (a) Adjective Equivalents : — The man in the moon. — A ring of great value. Sei guten Muts. Regina pecunia. Elle etait joyeuse, riant toujours et a to us. Oi VVV dvOpUTTOL. (b) Adverb Equivalents : — Come unto these yello^w sands. Horst du's klingen machtigen Rufes ? His rebus gestis, domum rediit. II demeure a Rome. 'AG-^vi^criv (or ev 'ASijvais) ot/ce?.— "Orav ?X9t)S, e/)w. VI. (a) That sentences containing only one predication be called Simple. (b) That sentences containing one main predication and one or more subordinate predications be called Complex, Sentence Satz Proposition Simple Sentence Einfacher Satz Proposition Sitnple Complex Sentence Zusammengesetzter Satz Proposition Complexe Examples : — (a) The quality of mercy is not strained. Wer reitet so spat durch Nacht und Wind ? Die, M. Tulli. y (Simple Sentences) La haine est la colere des faiblcs. I 1 Tl6.vTa pe7. (b) He jests at scars that never felt a wound. Wer nie sein Brot mit Tranen ass . . . Der kennt euch nicht, ilu* himmlischen Sliichte. |^ (Complex Die mihi quid feceris. j Sentences) Quand il reviendra, je le lui dirai. 'Ea.u Toure Trpd^rj, KoXaadrjaerai,. 1 J VII. That the terms Double or Multiple be used to describe any Sentence or any member of a Sentence which consists of two or more coordinate parts. Double Doppelt Double Double Sentence Doppelsatz Proposition Double Double Subject Doppeltcs Subjekt Sujet Double etc. etc. etc. Multiple Vielfach Multiple Coordinate Beigeordnet Coordonne The adoption of this recommendation renders unnecessary the term ' Compound Sentence/ which is ambiguous, being often used to denote what is called a Complex Sentence above, VI (b). - ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 13 Examples : — God made the country and man made the to"wn. The tale is long, nor have I heard it out. Words are like leaves; and where they most abound Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found. j 1 (Double Sentence) The buyer and the seller came to an understanding. '\ ,j^ , . Der Kaiser und sein Feldherr entzweiten sich. i ^ ou e 'H8ovT^ KoX XtiirTi iv rrj 7r6\ei jSaaiXevcreTou. r Subject) Conticuere omnes intentique ora tenebant. (Double Predicate) Ientra dans la maison, se debarrassa de son sabre, remplaca son kepi par un vieux' chapeau et s'en alia retrouver le cure. (Multiple Predicate) TI reprit et continua sa vie d'autrefois. (Double Verb) Lifeless but beautiful he lay. Golden und rosig wehen Die Wolken driiber her. (Double Predicative Adjective) Die Rose, die Lilie, die Taube, die Sonne, \ Die liebt' ich einst alle in Liebeswonne. J (Multiple Object) VIII. That a part of a sentence equivalent to a Noun, Adjective, or Adverb, and having a Subject and a Predicate of its own, be called a Subordinate Clause {Noun Clause, Adjective Clause, or Adverb Clause), Subordinate Clause Noun Clause Adjective Clause Adverb Clause Nebensatz Substantivsatz Adjektivsatz Adverbialsatz Proposition Subordonnee Proposition Substantive Proposition Adjective Proposition Adverbiale Examples : — That you have wronged me doth appear in this. The proposal that he should be appointed was dropped. Tell me where is fancy bred. Tu ne quaesieris (scire nefas) quern mihi, quern tibi, finem di dederint. Hac re homines bestiis praestant quod loqui possunt. Je crois qu*il vient. Tco i/ * vae victis ! * KUKWV XIV. That the terms Collective and Abstract be retained for the practical purpose of framing certain rules of grammar, e.q. that collective nouns mav take a plural verb, Nouns. ".-... and that abstract nouns in -io in Latin and in -Jieit or -keit in German are feminine ; but the Committee depre- cates the practice of classifying all Nouns under the heads * Abstract,* ' Concrete ' ; ' proper,' ' Common.* ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 19 XV. That the words 'my/ 'thy/ 'her/ 'its/ 'our/ Pronouns ' Y^^^/ * their/ and ' his ' as used in " his fatlier '* ; ajtid ' mein/ ' dein/ ' sein/ ' ihr/ ' unser/ ' euer/ ' Ihr ' ; Adjectives. . ^^^^, . ^^^^, . ^^^g^, 'noster/ ' vester ' ; ' mon/ ' ton/ ' son/ ' notre/ ' votre/ ' leur ' ; e/^o?, o-o's, yfieTepos, vfiirepo^ be called Possessive Adjectives. So too 'mine* and * thine * as used in poetry before a vowel. XVI. That in their ordinary use English ' hers/ ' ours/ * yours/ ' theirs/ and ' mine/ ' thine/ ' his/ as used in " This is mine," " This is his," " His is better than hers " ; German ' meiner/ ' der meine/ ' der meinige/ etc. ; French * le mien/ etc., be called Possessive Pronouns. Possessive Poss&ssiv Possessif XVII. That Enghsh ' tliis ' and ' that/ if used \Wth a Noun, be called Demonstrative Adjectives, but if used without a Noun be called Demonstrative Pronouns ; and that the same terminology be applied to the corresponding words in the other languages. Demonstrative Demonstrativ Demonstratif XVIII. That the words 'myself,' 'thyself,' 'himself,' ' herself,' ' itself,' ' ourselves,' ' yourselves,' ' yourself,' ' them- selves,* as used in sentences like " I hate myself," *' Leave them to themselves," be called Reflexive Pronouns ; so too the following words in the corresponding use — German * mich,' ' dich,' ' sich,' etc., Latin and French ' mc/ ' te/ ' Se,' etc., Greek ifiavrov, a-eavrov, eavTov, etc. Reflexive Reflexiv Eeflechi XIX. That the words 'ipse,' ' selbst,' '-meme,* 'myself/ ' yourself,' ' himself,' ' herseK,' ' itself ' (in the sense of ' ipse '), and avro's be called Emphasizing Adjectives or Pronouns. Examples : — Ipse dixit. — Nomentaaus erat super ipsum. I said it myself. — Here's a shilling for yourself. Envphasizing Empkaiisch or Betonend Emphatique 20 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE XX. That in view of the twofold use of many verbs the terms Transitive and Intransitive be applied to uses „ , rather than to classification, i.e. that it is better to speak of a verb used transitively or intransitively than to speak of a transitive or an intransitive verb. transitively transitiv transitivement intransitively intransitiv intransitivement Examples : — Used transitively Used intransitively He moved the rock. The moon moves round the earth. The birds are building Birds build in spring, their nests. XXI. That in English sentences containing such ex- pressions as " He laughed at the story/* it is generally advisable to treat the Verb as used intransitively, and to take the Preposition with the Xoun that follows as forming an Adverb Equivalent. Note. — In English it is difficult to draw a line determining at what point an Adverb or a Preposition becomes so closely attached to the Verb as to make the term * Compound Verb ' necessary. But there are certain constructions in which, side by side with the analysis just recommended, it is necessary also to recognize that the process of composition has been nearly completed : viz. : (1) When the Verb and the Adverb or Preposition are together used in the passive, although the Verb alone could not be so used, e.g. *' The matter was talked about," " The distinction was whittled away.** (2) Where the meaning of the Verb + the Adverb or Preposition varies according to the closeness of the connexion between the two ; contrast, for example, {a) *' He laughed at everything good ** with " Did he laugh at 2 o'clock in the morning ? ** (6) " The doctor was sent for ** with '' The boy was sent for the doctor.** XXII. That the term * active * be no longer used in th© senses of * transitive,* and that the term ' neuter * be given up altogether in connexion with Verbs, ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 21 XXIII. That the term Impersonal Verb (or Verb used im'personally) be retained in its ordinary sense. XXIV. That the term Auxiliary Verb be retained in its ordinary sense, and that Verbs that are not auxiliary be described as Verbs with full meaning. XXV. That the terms Strong and Wealc, as appHed to conjugation and declension, be retained. Examples : — Strong Weak to fall to fell breehen lernen guter Wein der gute Wein der Mann der Knabe XXVI. That the words * when/ * where/ * whither/ Adverbs 'whence/ 'how/ 'why/ etc., together with the and Con- corresponding words in other languages, when junc ions, introducing questions, whether non-dependent or dependent, be termed Interrogative Adverbs. Interrogative Interrogativ Interrogatif German : wann, wo, wohin, woher, wie, warum, etc. Latin : quando, ubi, quo, unde, quam, quomodo, ut {=^ how '), cur, etc. French : quand, oic, d'ou, comment, pourquoi, etc. Greek : Trdre, 6it6t€ : TrrjvLKa, oTT'QVLKa ; ttov, ottov : ttol ottoi ; TToQev, oTToOev : ttw?, ottcos. XXVII. That no words which can be treated as Adverbs be included among Coordinating Conjunctions ; it beiniy recognized that some Adverbs qualify the sentence as a whole and not any single word in it. [See Recommenda, tion XXXI.J 22 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE Such words as the following, then, are Adverbs : — therefore, consequently, so; daher ; itaque, igitur ; alors ; ow. yety nevertheless ; doch ; tamen ; neanmoins ; o^m<;^ fxivToi. also^ moreover; auch; etiam, quoque ; aussi ; km = ' also.* Note. — The German words quoted above involve as a general rule inverted order, like other Adverbs in German. There is therefore a practical convenience in calling them Adverbs rather than Conjunctions. XXVIII. That the words 'and,' 'nor,' 'or/ ' but/ and in modern English ' for,' together with the corresponding words in other languages, be termed Coordinating Conjunctions. German : und ; noch ; oder ; aber, allein, sondern ; denn. Latin : et, atque, ac, -que ; neque ; aid, vel, -ve ; scd, at, aiUem, verum, vero ; nam, namque, enim. French : et ; ni ; ou ; mais ; car. Greek : kuI, re ; ovSi, fxrjSe ; ^ ; dAAot, Be ; yap. Coordinating Beiordnend Coordonnant Note. — In an earlier use, some instances of which are found in Shakespeare, the English ' for ' was a Subordinating Conjunction (= 'because*) : e.g. " They are not ever jealous for the cause, but jealous for they are jealous " (Othello, III. iv. 160). XXIX. That the same term {Coordinating Conjunction) be applied to the words ' both ' (followed by ' and '), ' neither ' (followed by ' nor '), and ' either ' (followed by * or '). German : sowohl (followed by als), weder (followed by noch) ; entweder (followed by oder). Latin : et (followed by et), que (followed by que) ; neque (followed by neque) ; aut (followed by aut), vel (followed by vel). French : et (followed by et) ; ni (followed by ni) ; ou (followed by ou). Greek : re (followed by KaC or re), Kai (followed by xal) ; ovVc (followed by oure), firp-c (followed by i^jre) ; 7} (followed by rj) ; /u-eV (followed by 8c'), ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 23 XXX. That on syntactical grounds {e.g. the rules for the order of words in German) it is desirable to give the same name in all the languages considered to such words as the German wenn and dass, introducing Adverb Clauses or Noun Clauses ; and that the name for all such words be Svhordinat- iwj Conjunction, though it is desirable to recognize that the origin of many of these words in case constructions or other adverbial expressions can still be clearly traced. Subordinating Unterordnend Subordonnant The following are some of the more important of these words : — (1) introducing Adverb Clauses of Time : when ; wenn, als ; cum ; quand, lorsque ; ore, i-nu. while ; wdhrend ; dum ; pendant que ; cW, «/ w. before ; ehe, bevor ; ante {prius) quam; avant que ; vpti/. (2) introducing Adverb Clauses of Place : where ; wo ; ubi ; oil ; ov, evOa. (3) introducing Adverb Clauses of Cause : because ; well ; quia, quod, ciim ; parce que ; otl, Stort. (4) introducing Adverb Clauses of Purpose : tJmt, in order iMt ; damit ; ut ; afin que ; Iva, ottcos. (5) introducing Adverb Clauses of Result : that ; dass ; ut ; que (after si, etc.) ; wore. (6) introducing Adverb Clauses of Condition : if ; wenn, falls ; si ; si, en cas que, au cas ou ; ei. (7) introducing Adverb Clauses of Concession : tJwugh ; obgleich, obivohl ; etsi, quamqiiam, quamviSf cum, ut ; quoique ; d Kal, koI el. (8) introducing Adverb Clauses of Comparison : as ; ivie ; ut, sicut, quum ; comme, que ; ws. than ; als ; quam ; que ; i]. (9) introducing Noun Clauses : that ; dass ; quod, ut ; que ; on. XXXI. That the term Connective be used to comprise all words, whether Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, or Con- junctions, which serve to connect clauses or sentences. [Recommendatioas XXVII, XXVIII, XXIX, XXX, XXXII.l 24 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE Note. — The term Link may be used as a short substitute for ' Connective/ XXXII. That the term Relative be retained in its ordinary use, as the specific name for certain connective Pronouns {e.g. Lat. qui, quae, quod) smd Adjectives {e.g.lLjQ^t.qualis,qwintus), and as indicating the origin of many Conjimctions, and both the origin and the actual use of words like Engl, when, where, Lat. cum, uhi, Fr. oil, que, when they introduce an Adjective Clause with a Noim as antecedent, e.g. " the season when the roses bloom,'' " the house where he was born." XXXIII. That groups of words like * in order that,' ' in case,' be described as Compound Conjunctions, and groups like * because of,' ' as to/ as Compound Prepositions. XXXIV. That in English Grammar the dis- tinction of Grender be not emphasized. Note. — The objection to distinctions of gender in English is that they are (1) unnecessary and (2) misleading. To call * father ' masculine, * mother ' feminine, ' table ' neuter leads to nothing in English grammar ; for, as there are no inflexions of gender in adjectives in modern English, there is no agree- ment of the adjective with its noun in gender ; and further, to use the term * masculine * as denoting male, * feminine ' as denoting female, and * neuter ' as denoting neither male nor female is to adopt a false definition of the term * gender.' In Grerman, Latin, French, and Greek there is only a partial identity between ' masculine ' and ' male,' ' feminine ' and * female,' ' neuter ' and ' neither male nor female ' ; nor is it true that the distinctions of gender in these languages are ultimately based upon distinctions of sex. For the results of modern research on this question see Brugmann, Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik, 2nd edition, Vol. II, part 1, pp. 82-103, and the discussion of the question (in a review of the abridged edition of this book) by K. S. Conway, Classical Review, Vol, XVIII (1904), p, 412. See ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 25 also the brief statements relating to English nouns and pronouns in H. Sweet's Primer of Historical English Grammar (1902), § 231, and the English Accidence in the Parallel Grammar Series, by J. Hall and E. A. Sonnenschein (1889), § 49, § 74. XXXV. That the terms * Obiective,* * Possessive ' and ^ * Nominative of Address ' as names of Cases in English be discarded, and that so far as possible the Latin names of the Cases be used. Thus :— Instead of ' Subjective ' the term Nominative should be used ; „ ,, ' Nominative of Address ' the term Vocative should be used ; »» jj ' Objective ' the two terms Acciisative and Dative should be used ; „ ,, * Possessive ' the term Genitive should be used. Examples : — I am ; thou art ; he is ; etc. (Nominative) Where art thou, beam of light ? \ (Vocative) Good day. Sir. / ^ ' Nobody saw me. \ /Accusative) Who saw him die ? j l^ccusative} I saw Mark Antony offer him. a crown. (Dative) Caesar*s trophies. ^ Caesar's images. I Caesar's murderers. > (Genitive) A stone's throw. I Tempo's classic vale. J Note.— The term Case is necessary even for English Grammar by itself, in view of the surviving inflexions, especi- ally in Pronouns, and also because it is desirable for the learner to recognize the likeness of English, so far as it extends, to more highly inflected languages. From this point of view the following statement may be made in regard to the Cases in English : — English, like German, has five Cases, viz. Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, Genitive, and Dative. In modern 26 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE English many of the distinctions of form wliich originally existed have fallen away, but the differences of meaning are of great importance, as may be seen, for instance, in the double use of ' him ' : e.g. *' I brought him here " (Accusative) ; " I brought him a present '* (Dative). Moreover the distinction between the Accusative and the Dative of Nouns in sentences which have both Cases is marked by their order in the sentence (Dative before Accusative) : e.g. *' I gave my son a present " ; " It saved my father much trouble." See H. Sweet, Neic English Grammar, Part II, §§ 1823, 1990 ; C. T. Onions, Advanced English Syntax, § 103. On the importance of order of words as one of the means employed by languages to mark distinctions of Case, see Wundt, Die Sprache (Vol. I. 2 of his Volkerpsychologie, ed. 1900, pp. 73-85). The distinction between the Nominative and the Accusative, for example, is marked (if at all) only by the order of words in several classes of Nouns and Pronouns even in highly inflected languages : e.g. Neuters, in the singular and the plural, in German, Latin, and Greek ; Feminines, in the singular and the plural, in German ; Masculines plural and many Masculines singular in German ; all duals in Greek. XXXVI. That the names of Cases adopted by Recommen- dation XXXV be used also in German and, so far as case names are found to be needful, in French also. Case Kasus Caa Nominative Nominativ Nominatif Vocative Vocativ Vocatif Accusative Akkusativ Accuaatif Genitive Qenitiv Qcnitif Dative Dativ Datif Examples : — Nom. Je I'ai dit. — Ich liabe es gesagt. Voc. Vous avez tort, mon ami. — Sieli, Herr, den Ring. Aco. II me vit. — Er sah mich. Gen. J'en aiquatre. — Lamaison dont j'ai la clef. — Der Schliissel des Hauses. Dat. II me dit cela. — Er sagte es m^ir. Note. — The traditional names of the Cases seem to the Committee preferable to new terms such as ' Werfall ' (for Nominative), ' Wenfall ' (for Accusative), ' Wesfall ' or ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 27 * Wessenfall ' (for Genitive), * Wemfall ' (for Dative), which are used by some teachers and writers of grammars in Germany. XXXVII. That in EngUsh and French the combination of a Preposition wdth a Noun or Pronoun may be called a Case-phrase ; and that if the case of the Noun or Pronoun depending on the Preposition be named, it be called the Accusative. Examples : — He came to London. He travelled with me. Nous sommes alies au theatre. Je suis revenu avee lui. Note. — In French the latter part of tliis recommendation can be justified not only by obvious convenience but also his- torically, since in Vulgar Latin, both on inscriptions and in late writers, we find the Accusative replacing the Ablative after Prepositions {Saturninus cum silos discentes, at Pompeii even, i.e. before a.d. 70, see Meyer-LUbke, Grammaire Com- paree des Langues Bmnanes, II. p. 29) ; and similarly in Byzantine Greek (from a.d. 600) and in vernacular modern Greek all Prepositions take the Accusative as their ordinary construction. XXXVIII. That in Latin the names used for the Cases be as follows : Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative ; and that the term Locative be used to describe forms like ' humi,' ' ruri,' ' Romae.' Note. — The retention of the traditional names of the Cases in Greek and Latin to denote the particular categories of form is not inconsistent with the treatment of Cases like the Greek Genitive and the Latin Ablative as ' syncretic ' Cases — the Greek Genitive having absorbed the functions of the original Ablative, the Latin Ablative those of the original Instrumental and Sociative (which were identical in form) and largely also those of the Locative. 28 BEPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE Examples : — '0 davaro^ iXevdepot ttjv \pvxriv Tov orwjxaTos. (Genitive for original Ablative) NaOi' elXof, avrois dvBpdoriv. (Dative for original Sociative) Seeuri percussus est. (Ablative for original Instrumental) Eo anno interfectus est. (Ablative for original Locative) XXXIX. That the order of the Cases (where found) be as follows : — Nominative Vocative Accusative Genitive Dative Ablative of the^ XL. That the following scheme of names of Indicative. Tenses of the Indicative be adopted. In this scheme account is taken not only of the relations of the tenses in the five languages to one another, but also of the needs of each language as taught separately. The verb * write ' is taken as an example (3rd person singular). English. writes Present will write Future wrote Past would write Future in the past has written Present Perfect will have written Future Perfect had written Past Perfect would have written Future Perfect in the past with special Continuous Forms of each {is writing, will he writing, was writing, ivozdd be writing, has been writing, etc.), which mark the action as going on, and Compound Forms of the Present {does write) and Past {did write), used in negative and interrogative sentences and to express emphasis. Verbs like * be/ ' love/ ' know/ which denote a state as distinct from an act, have as a rule no special Continuous Forms. The tense called Past has a double use, (1) as a Past Historic, e.g. " On his arrival he wrote to me " ; (2) as a Past Con- tinuous, marking the action as either going on or habittial in ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 29 the past, e.g. " He wrote while I read/' " The poor soul sat sighing/' " England loved Queen Victoria/* " ]\Iilton wrote both Latin and EngHsh verse/' The Future in the past and the Future Perfect in the past are seen in examples like " I thought that he would write/' *' I thought that he would have written before this/' *' A few days were to bring on the fatal fight of Edgehill, when the slain would be counted by thousands." [For the usage in Main Clauses of Conditional Sentences see Recommendation XLIII.] German. I As English, except that German has no special Continuous Forms and no Future in the past or Future Perfect in the past of the Indicative Mood. scJireibt Present tuird schreiben Future Bchrieb Past hat geschriehen Perfect wird geschriehen Future Perfect hahen hatte geschriehen Past Perfect The German Past has the same double use as the English Past : (1) as a Past Historic, e.g. " Als er ankam, schrieb er an mich " ; (2) as a Past Continuous, marking the action as either going on or habitual in the past, e.g. " Das Wasser rauscht', das Wasser schwoll, ein Fischer sass daran " ; " Goethe schrieb Balladen." The German tense that corresponds to the English Present Perfect is used (1) as a Present Perfect, e.g. " Er hat schon an mich geschriehen," " Ich habe gelebt und geliebet " ; (2) colloquially as a Past Historic, e.g. " Nach seiner Ankunft hat er an mich geschriehen." Hence this tense is called simply ' Perfect,' in order to distinguish it from the English ' Present Perfect.' The forms wurde schreiben, wiirde geschrieben haben have the same functions as the Future in the past and the Future Perfect in the past of English and French, but they belong to the Subjunctive Mood (see P.ecommendation XLIII, Note 3). Present Prdsens Perfect Perfekt Future Futur Future Perfect Futur-Perfzht (for Futurum Exactum) Past Prdteritum Past Perfect Prdterit-Perfekt (if the shortened (or, if this is un- form Prdterit acceptable, Plusquam is unacceptable) perfekt) 30 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE French. As English, except that French has no special Continuous Forms and that the two meanings of the English Past are represented in French by two distinct tenses (the Past Historic and the Past Continuous or Imperfect). French has also two forms of the Past Perfect. The French tense that corresponds to the English Present Perfect is called simply ' Perfect/ because it is used (like the German Perfect) not only as a Present Perfect, e.g. " II m'a deja ecrit," but also as a Past Historic, e.g. " Apres son arrivee il m'a ecrit.' >> ecrit ecrira ecrivait ecrivit ecrirait Present Present Future Past Continuous ^ or Innperfect Past Historic Future in the past Future Past Continuous or Imperfect Past Historic Future in the past Present Futur Passe Continu'^ ou Imparfait Passe Historique Futur dans le passe a ecrit aura ecrit avait ecrit Perfect Future Perfect Past Perfect eut ecrit 2nd Past Perfect aurait ecrit Future Perfect in the past Perfect Future Perfect Past Perfect 2nd Past Perfect Future Perfect in the past Parfait Futur Parfait Passe Parfait Second Passe Parfait Futur Parfait dans le passe The names ' Passe Defini ' (for ecrivit) and ' Passe Indefini * (for a ecrit) have been given up by the French Ministry {Nomenclature Grammaticale, p. 3). And Prof. Brunot writes as follows : " Tant que je cJmntai et j'ai chante s'appelaient Fun passe defini, Tautre passe indefini, ni maitres ni enfants n'avaient grande chance de comprendre, car ces mots sont si obscurs que les grammairiens du XVIIP, et meme du XVIP siecle, en faisaient sou vent un usage absolument con- traire a celui qui a ete adopte depuis " {L'Enseignement de la Langue Francaise, Paris, 1909, p. 15). The name Futur dans le passe is adopted by Prof. Brunot in L'Enseignement, etc. (p. 110). That the Future in the past is a tense of the Indicative Mood is proved by its history. It is in origin a compound of the Infinitive with the Past Continuous or Imperfect of the verb avoir : ecrirait 1 The term 'continuous' (in 'Past Continuous') is to be understood as covering both the durative and the habitual meanings of the tense. ON ORAM MAT ICAL TERMINOLOGY %\ = ecrire + avail (Latin scribere habebat, lit. '' he had to write "), just as the Future Indicative ecrira is a compound of ecrire + a (Latin scribere habct). L4TIN. As French, except that Latin has no separate form with the meaning of the French Past Historic, the Latin * Perfect * being used (like the French and the Grerman Perfect) both as a Present Perfect, e.g. " Scripsi ut rescribas,'' and as a Past Historic, e.g. '* Scripsi ut rescriberes,*' " Postero die ad me scripsit.*' Latin has also no Future or Future Perfect in the past of the Indicative Mood, the past prospective meaning being expressed partly by the Future Infinitive, partly by tenses of the Subjunctive Mood. scrihit Present acripait Perfect(= 1. Present Perfect; 2. Past Historic) scribet Future acripaerit Future Perfect scribebat Past Continuous^ or Imperfect acripaerat Past Perfect Greek. Here the two meanings of the English ' Past ' are expressed by distinct forms, as in French, the Greek Past Historic being called the Aorist. It seems desirable on several grounds to otain the traditional name for this Greek tense ; for the Greek Aorist often corresponds in meaning to an English Present Perfect, i.e. is wider in use than the tense called Past Historic in French ; and the name is convenient in describing the forms other than those of the Indicative which come from the same stem. 7pd0et Present 7e7/>a0e(!') Present Perfect ypdrpei. Future yzyp6.ypf.TaL Future Perfect (Pass.) ^ypa • iH •«» cS V • A 13 G l-H O f ^ •«-» • • «4H ^ O ^ CO OQ BO 1-^ c fl W •4id 00 a> «4-l w O ^ H p£: C o tU • p-4 o ■4^ «4-l OQ b4 (^ S3 o O .£3 VM CO © fl") A •4-> pO cd •413 tuo ,2 •— « o © _^ "^ v_-^ u> \u H •e- -^ -©- ■©^ •s "^ ■©' 1 ^ -a 03 ^•^ CO "5 C5. C-- VlU •*a 43 > 'C H o 43 43 O »© o •© 43 3 »© (4 ft4 O NO > o NO 08 08 C3 3> 43 •3 > 03 '3 03 09 •r* is 43 3 •4» 2 43 43 t4 © 43 05 © CO ^4 •c Pi .&• Qi k] o to «0 5 ^ OQ © ^ «> m 00 • -H bl o re C © ^ © C3 © c3 C © © 13 o <4» © (O 1 © CD ts .2 1 00 © 1 1 © © •© CD © •^4 o CO © -4^ 1 1 ^ e3 to 4^ ^^ ^ -- '^ < .-^ '"^ to /- -^ ' s fl bO fcO d S fcO © 4-> 43 d 60 a 60 © VS 1 g c: 42 © © J2 writes ,3 writing will write will be writi wrote as writin ould writ Id be wri as writte: been wri ill have wri . have been © ould have 1 writing • f^ ^ ^ g c8 j:: e3 ^ A .C o & 00 o « fcO P-l 00 s| »o ««-< •j» © «« 43 2j O ^ fO 43 © C ao 2 © C © © Si j: ^ tj en ^ i—i ^ • © to ^^ c « 43^ © ^ J^ Hi "" o bO OQ "^ s -^ © © <*4 § ^§ Oh > OQ g * M I 9 ^ w M d ® ""IS J3 © © e3 m , ^t ON GEAMMATICAL TERMINOLOQY 53 XLI. That a Subjunctive Mood be recognized in English, German, Latin, and French ; and in Greek a Subjunctive and an Optative Mood : and that their chief tenses be named as in the following table. The examples are in the 3rd person singular. Moods. English. write wrote German. schreihe schriebe Latin. srrihat licriberet Fbknch. Ccrive ecrivit Greex. Present Subjunctive Past Subjunctive Present Subjunctive Past Subjunctive Present Subjunctive Past Subjunctive * have written Perfect Subjunctive had written Past Perfect Sub- junctive habe geschrieben Perfect Sub- junctive hdtte geschrieben Past Perfect Subjunctive acripserit scripsisset Present Subjunctive j ait icrit Past Subjunctive ^ j eut ecrit Perfect Subjunctive Past Perfect Sub- junctive Perfect Subjunctive Past Perfect Sub- junctive ^ ypd(pri ypd^Qi Present Subjunctive Present Optative yeypaepCii g Perfect Subjunctive ypd\p7) Aorist Subjunctive yeypacpCis d-q Perfect Optative yp6.'p€u[v) Aorist Optative [For the other tenses of Greek and German see Recommen- dation XLI v.] ^ This term, besides indicating the parallelism of the Latin form to the forms in other languages, is truer of Latin taken by itself than the term ' Imperfect (or Past Imperfect) Subjunctive ' ; for the action denoted by this tense is not necessarily incomplete or con- t inuous : e.g. Quid scriberet ? ' what was he to write ? ' ; Imperavi ut scriberetf * I commanded that he should write.' Nor are the forms n -renii -res, -ret derived from the Continuous or Imperfect forms of I he Indicative in -bam, -bas, -bat. 2 This French Subjunctive {ecrivit) corresponds in vise both to the Past Continuous or Imperfect and to the Past Historic of the Indi cative Mood. 3 This French Subjunctive {eut ecrit) corresponds in use to both of the Past Perfect forms of the Indicative {avait ecrit as well as eut ecrit). U BE POET OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE XLIL That it be recognized that the above-mentioned Subjunctives and Optatives differ in respect of their temporal signification from the tenses of the Indicative to which they correspond in name. Subjunctives and Optatives, as used in expressions of Will, Anticipation, Purpose and Wish, involve as part of their meaning a reference to future time,^ the Present Subjunctives commonly referring to what is in prospect at the time of speaking (what is to be), and the Past Subjunctives to what was in prospect at some time in the past which the speaker has in mind (what was to be) ; and the Greek Optatives referring in some usages to what is to be, and in others to what was to be. The Perfect, Past Perfect and Aorist of these moods differ in general from their other tenses in describing a completed action as in prospect (now or then), though in some usages no sense of completion is conveyed. Examples : — God save the King ! The Committee recommends that this kind of clause bear ( r= shall bear) the name ' Noun Clause.' It is requested that answers be written concisely. He said that he would do it if he were asked ( = ' sliould be asked '). Man bestraft (bestrafte) ihn, damit er sich bessere. Er wollte nicht warten, bis ich kame ( = * should come '). Quid faciam ? — Quid faceret ? Venio ut videam. — Venit ut videret. Metuo ne absim. — Metuebat ne abesset. Attendez que je vienne. — Je suis reste jusqu'a ce qu'il partit (= • should have gone'). A(ybi\i.fv (EtirwiAtv), — A^-yoi (Ei'iroi). ToLTO iroiQ 'iya awepyoui ^X**** — Tovto inoiqaa 'Iva avpepyoui '{\oi\n,. * In some uses, however, the reference to the future has disappeared, 80 that the modal tense form has come to refer to the same time as the corresponding tense of the Indicative : e.g. in some Dependent Questions and some Consecutive Clauses of Latin (relating to a matter of fact), Buch as " Quid sit nescio," " Tantopere exarserunt iudicea ut reum condemnaverint." In German the distinction between the primary and the secondary tenses of the Subjunctive has to a large extent fallen into disuse (since the sixteenth century), so that modern German cannot be said to have a rule of Sequence of Tenses. ■13 ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 35 ^Non prius duces ex concilio dimittunt quam ab his sit concessum. ut arma capiant. (So even in clauses of purj)Ose, occasionally : e.g. Ne decLerit gratis quae dedit, usque dabit.) Antequam de adventu meo audire potuissent ( ' should have been able '), in Macedonian! perrexi. Tlepifi^veTe ews B.v dvoixfifi to decrfj-UTripLou. Ilepi€n4vo/JL(u ^ws dvoix6eiT) rb deafjLUTrjpiov. Mrjoevl rCiv 'EXX^^'wi' l:ioT}d€?Te 6s d.v fir) irp&repos ^6^or\Q\\KCiS vp.7u '^. [Ovoei't ^oijdelv i^ovXeade, 6'j firj Trpdrepos ^iPor]9r\K0iS vfuv el't]. Note. — In some usages (especially in clauses of condition) the Past Subjunctive has come to express not futurity from a past point of view but remoteness of expectation at the time of speaking. 1 Examples :■ — If he came, I should be glad. (Contrast ' If he comes (come), I shall be glad.') Wenn er doch endlich eine Wohnung fande, die ihm gefiele ! L'entrepris© dut-elle 6chouer, il sera toujours beau de I'avoir teniae. XLIII. That Equivalents of Subjunctive forms or Sub' junciive Equivalents be recognized in English ; especially forms compounded with ' may/ ' might/ ' shall/ ' should ' in Subordinate Clauses, and forms compounded with * should ' (1st person) and ' would ' (2nd and 3rd person) in Main Clauses. Examples : — I am writing in order that he may write in return. (Equiv. of Present Subj.) I wrote in order that he might •write. (Equiv. of Past Subj.) The agreement requires that he shall write. (Equiv. of Present Subj., which would also be good English) The agreement required that he should virrite. (Equiv. of Past Subj.) 1 feared lest he should write. (Equiv. of Past Subj.) If he asked me, I should w^rite. \ (Equiv. of Past Subj. in If I asked him, he would write. / Main Clause) 2 ^ The same idea of remoteness is expressed in French by a past tense of the Indicative, e.g. S'il venait{'ii he came '), je serais heureux. 2 Cf. ' It were well ' = ' It would be well ' ; ** To lose thee were to lose myself." 36 REPORT OP THE JOINT COMMITTED: Note 1. — All these forms, being compounds of verbs which have such meanings as permission or possibility, obligation, willingness or intention, naturally relate to some act which lies in the future from the standpoint of the speaker or from some other point of time which he has in mind. Note 2. — Of the above-mentioned Subjunctive Equivalents the forms ' I should (you would, he would) write ' and ' I should (you would, he would) have written ' as used in Main Clauses of Conditional sentences may also be described by the names Future in the fast and Future Perfect in the past respectively, their mood being not specified. These forms, whatever their mood may be, are clearly the past forms of * I shall (you will, he will) write * or * . . . have written,' corresponding in this respect to the Past Subjunctive which is used in the Subordinate Clause of the same kind of Con- ditional sentence ('if he asked me '), and to the Past Im- perfect Indicative in the corresponding clause in French (' s'il demandait '). If it be asked how a Future in the past has come to be used to express, as it does in these cases, merely a remote possibility as to what may happen in the future regarded from the present standpoint, the answer is that to state now that something yesterday seemed likely, without adding that the same thing still seems likely, inevitably sug- gests that the likelihood has diminished, i.e. that the thing will happen only under certain circumstances : cf . ' Is he coming ? ' ' Well, he was coming/ ' I should do it ' properly means ' I was under an obligation to do it (but I don't say that I am still under the obligation)/ The same shift of meaning is seen very clearly in Latin, where facturus eram is a frequent substitute for facerem or fecissem in the Main Clause of a Conditional sentence, e.g. facturus eram, si liceret or licuisset. An expression which originally denoted remoteness in time has here come to be used to denote remoteness of likeli- hood or expectation, i.e. to express the idea of conditioned futurity. Note 3. — The German forms * wurde schreiben,' ' wiirde geschrieben haben ' may on the same principle be called simply ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 37 Future in the past and Future Perfect in the past respectively ; for although they are clearly compounded with a Subjunctive auxiliary {luiXrde, Subjunctive of the Past of werden) and there- fore belong to the Subjunctive Mood, yet there are no com- pound Indicative tenses in modern German of which they can be called the Subjunctives, and therefore none from which they need to be discriminated. ^ XLIV. That in German and Greek there be recognized, in addition to the modal tenses enumerated above (Recom- mendation XLI), two others, which are used mainly in Reported Speech : — er werde schreiben Future Subjunctive er werde geschrieben haben Future Perfect Subjunctive ypixpoL Future Optative 7e7/jdn Verb-noun in Verb- -ndum, -ndi, -ndo ; and that the teim Supine be adjectives, retained in Latin. XL VI. That the Verb-nouns and Verb-adjectives formed from the several tense stems of the ^'erb be named as in- dicated in the following table : — 1 In Old German (to the time of Luther) a corresponding Indicative existed — er wurde schreiben, which was equivalent in meaning to er schrieb. (See Sutterhn, Die deutsche Sprache der Gegenwart, § 273 ; Moser, Historisch-grammatische Einfilhrung in die fruhJiocIidcutschen Schriftdialekte, p. 226 ; Paul, Dcvtschcs Worterbuch, under ' Werden.') The turning of the auxiliary into a Subjunctive gave to the compound tense the meaning oi futurity. 38 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE to ■e- ;<• Ji a < ^ "3 -a -5 ?^ ?: C5 O < •o- a ' ^ o • 'o *-• HH u "o .G w o o V3 tD c « o-j —J •-4 C &. o > .a & *<-) c if o •A a; 5 o in [/I 3 o 09 o en n ^ •^ o u -o 13 k. u, o O K* > 1> > C a CJ o ^ -Q o o —^ 'E u J3 ^ o u t/: M V O t:c 6D fl ca ^.j ^^ ^ v*" ^ o 4-1 0) *c X> p»» 4) r^ > o ca Xi j: o p 1 A s tfl s c •^ w »»^ kl *2 c o O o M > O M.X < •c w o tf u J> ^^ CO < i u eg 3 o 4-' c: >> o ■f-i (3 0^ c O (ft M 3 s o o 09 x: u CA O •a s 9i Xi •mm 4) bi JS CO 9 N ^ X! tc C 0^ CO > c >- o Ol o u a; Hi Ki 3 cv- c« ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 39 SIGNATURES E. A. SoNNENSCHEiN, Chairman. E. L. Milner-Bartiy. F. S. BoAS.i H. Bradley. 2 Cloudesley Brereton.3 R. M. Haig Brown. G. H. Clarke. W. C. COMPTON. R. S. Conway.* H. G. Fiedler. Louis von Gleiin.^ Edith Hastings. P. Shaw Jeffrey.^ Agnes S. Paul. Eleanor Purdie. F. M. Purdie. Walter Rippmann. Frank Ritchie. "^ W. H. D. Rouse. W. G. RUSHBROOKE. P. G. Thomas."^ F. E. Thompson.*' L. C. W. TlIRLNG. W. E. P. Pantin, Hon. Sec. ^ With reservations as to Recommendations II and XXI. 2 But dissenting from the Recommendation as to Dependent Ex- clamations. " The point is not, however, very important, and there is some real difficulty about the class of sentences so named." (H. B.) 3 With reserve as to Recommendation XXXVI. " Cases in French should be limited to Pronouns and the Article (in which actual changes of form occur), in accordance with the scheme of terminology adopted by the French Ministry." (C. B.) * With reserve as to the terms Noun Clause, Adjective Clause, and Adverb Clause, wherever they occur, and as to Note 1 to Recommen- dation XII ; and with dissent fromany reservation in the latter part of Recommendation XXXVI. *' To admit cases in Pronouns but deny them in Nouns would be to add another to the grave confusions of current grammars." (R. S. C.) ^ With reserve as to Recommendations XXXVI, XXXVII, and the French portion of XL, " It seems to me unwise in the subjects treated in these sections to depart from or add to the terminology of the Nomenclature Oramniaticale.^' (L. von G.) ** With reservations. ' With reservations, particularly as regards Recommendation XXI, 40 REPORT ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY ADDENDU]\I. We, the undersigned minority of the Terminology Com- mittee, regret that the Committee has decided to make no recommendation as to the nomenclature of French pronouns such as me and moi. Our views are fully stated in an Adden- dum to the Interim Report issued in 1909 and reprinted in the Proceedings of the Classical Association, Vol. VII. (1910), pp. 137-140, and to these views we adhere. R. S. Conway. R. M. Haig Brown. Edith Hastings. E. L. Milner-Baiiry. Eleanor Purdie. w. g. ru shbrooke. Primed by Uaieil, Watson it Viruj/, Ld., London and AyUslnry, 14 DAY USE I^^TURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last datP«,,™» ju ■ ^!!!:r!l^^^k»«e subject to i'Z^dfate recall. LD 21 A-45w-9,'67 (H5067sl0)476B General L/brar Uiu varsity of Cal; Berkeley