GIFT OF o 1 e V Pu b 1 i c l.i br '- ^n^ XV. me cAaiupico »»«» ow »,«*»-••—• ■» on the part of tho pupil. 11 A principle once taught is not allowed to bo forgotten. In one form w other it is mad« tho eubject of constant re- view. <>v''^ HISTORICAL MISCELLANEOUS aUESTIONS. RIOHMAL MANGNALL, FROM THE EIGHTY-FOURTH LONDON EDITION. •WITH LARGE ADDITIONS, EMBRACING THE ELEMENTS OF MYTHOLOGY, ASTRONOMY, ARCHITECTURE; HERALDRY, ETC. ETtt ADAPTED FOR SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES BY MRS. JULIA LAWRENCE. EMBELLISHED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. FIFTH EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED, WITH A CHAPTER ON THE AMERICAN CONSTITUTIOK, NEW YORK: D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 443 & 445 BROADWAY. CINCINNATI : RICKEY, MALLORY & COMPANY. 1860. NI5 Entered, according to Act of Congress, m the year 1848 Bf 1). APPLETON & COMPANY, IB the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Soot»ie» District of New York. PREFACE Having for many years made use of " Mangnall's Questions" in the education of my own children, I was tempted to intro- duce them into my school ; although they were not in general use, it being an expensive book, and at that time (seven years since) difficult to be obtained. I then discovered many defi- ciencies, which I had not before thought of, particularly in having no portion allotted to the history of the United States, so necessary in the education of all Americans ; and too much space appropriated to the English Constitution, together with many sentences, the appHcation of which are entirely local. These considerations have tempted me, feeling the value of the work in its original form, and being convinced that no book of the kind has ever been compiled so well calculated — to use the words of the author's preface — " to awaken a spirit of laudable curiosity in young minds," and satisfy that curiosity when awa- kened in a manner the most concise and clear ; to r6an"ange the work, adapting it more particularly for the use of schools in this country, by adding what has been entirely omitted, and curtailing those portions which, from their diflfuseness on mat- ters not particularly interesting to young Americans, are un- necessary. I claim no merit for this effort, even should it prove successful, as the portions of American history I have added have been compiled from standard works — those of Prescott, Bancroft, and Wooster — simplified as much as possible, and arranged according to the plan pursued in the English work. /Ti r\ r\ A >^ ^^ VI PREFACE. The chronological table lias been arranged on Mrs. Willard's plan, in her excellent " History." The " Common Subjects'* have been enlarged, and many errors corrected. As a knowl- edge of Mythology is necessary to the imderstanding and en- joyment of the Classics, and as I know of none, in English, adapted to ladies* schools, I have added to this book a transla- tion of Noel and Chapsal's well-known work, with some slight alterations and additions. In the English book there is only an alphabetical list of the deities, etc. A taste for Architecture is so rapidly increasing in this country, that it becomes neces- sary for every young person to understand the different orders, and terms made use of, to discriminate between the pure and mixed styles, and give to different portions of sacred edifices particularly, their proper names ; I have therefore devoted a few pages to this subject, taken from a little Enghsh book called the " Hand-book of Architecture," which I hope will be found useful. I have endeavored, in the few pages on the subject of Her- aldry, to give as concise an account of it as possible to convey a clear idea of the terms made use of, the orders of knighthood, titles, etc., which are constantly met with in reading history, and which it is difficult to explain to the pupil totally unacquainted with the subject. I have confined myself to that portion rela- ting to England, as our ideas on the subject are entirely taken from that mother country/. The plates will give a correct idea of the appearance of the escutcheons, etc. I trust this short explanation will not be thought out of place in our repubhcan country. Trusting that it may meet the approval of teachers in general, I commend to them and to the pubHc the American edition of ••Mangnall's Questions." Julia Lawrenck. ITkw York, July 10, 1848. CONTENTS, Wcs A Short View of Scripture History, from the Creation to the Re- turn of the Jews 9 (Questions from the Early Ages to the Time of Julius Caesar. ... 40 Miscellaneous Questions in Grecian History 47 Miscellaneous Questions in General History, chiefly ancient. ... 60 Questions containing a Sketch of the most remarkable Events from the Christian Era to the close of the Eighteenth Cen- tury 72 Miscellaneous Questions in Roman History 80 Questions in English History, from the Invasion of Caesar to the Reformation 94 Continuation of Questions in English History, from the Reforma- tion to the Present Time 109 Abstract of Early British History 123 Abstract of English Reigns from the Conquest 130 Abstract of the Scottish Reigns 140 Abstract of the French Reigns, from Pharamond to Philip 1 146 Continuation of the French Reigns, from Louis VI. to Louis Philippe ... 151 Questions Relating to the History of America from its Discovery to the Present Time , 161 Abstract of Roman Kings and most distinguished Heroes 219 Abstract of the most celebrated Grecians 222 Of Heathen Mythology in general 225 Abstract of the Heathen Mythology 316 The Elements of Astronomy 322 Explanation of a few Astronomical Terms 325 8 CONTENTS. Paqb list of Constellations 328 Questions on Common Subjects 330 Questions on Architecture 346 Questions on Heraldry 364 Explanation of such Latin Words and Phrases as are seldom Englished ^ 386 Questions on the History of the Middle Ages 388 HISTOEICAL MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY, FROM THE CREATION TO THE RETURN OF THE JEWS. {Abridged from Watts^ Scripture History.) When darkness ruled with universal sway, He spoke, and kindled up the blaze of day ; First, fairest offspring of th' omnific word ! Which, like a garment, clothed its sovereign*Lord. On liquid air he bade the columns rise That prop the starry concave of the skies : Diffused the blue expanse from pole to pole, And spread circumfluent ether round the whole. Blacklock. How came this world into being ? In the beginning the great God made heaven and earth, and all things that are in them. How did God make all things ? By his powerful word, for he commanded, and it was done. What time did God spend in making the world ? God, who could have made all things at once by his perfect wisdom and almighty power, chose rather to do it by degrees, and spend six days in making the world, with the creatures that are in it. Who were the first man and woman that God made ? Adam and Eve. In what manner did God make Adam ? He framed his body out of the dust of the ground, and then put a living soul within him. How did God make Eve ? He cast Adam into a deep sleep, and formed Eve out of one of his ribs, and then brought her to him to be his wife. In what state did God create them ? God created them both in his own likeness, in a holy and happy state, which is called the state of innocence. Where did God put Adam and Eve, when he made them ? Into the garden of Eden, to keep it, and take care of it, that even in the state of innocency and happiness they might have some work to be 10 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTUi :: HISTORY. employed iii. What was their food m that garden ? God gave them leave to eat of any of the herbs, plants, or fruits, that grew there, except the fruit of one tree, which he forbade them to taste, on pain of death. What was the name of that tree ? It was called tlie tree of knowledge of good and evil, because as soon as man ate of it, he would know evil to his sorrow, as well as he knew good before to his comfort. As there was one tree so dangerous that it exposed him to death if he ate of it, was there not also a tree that would secure him from death ? Yes, there was a tree called the tree of life, placed in the midst of the garden, whose fruit was able to have preserved him in life, if he had continued to obey God ; and it is reasonably supposed to have been designed as a pledge or seal of eternal life to him, if he had continued in his innocency. What was the reli- gion of Adam in the state of innocency ? The practice of all the duties towards God, and towards his creatiires, whicli the light of nature or reason could teach him, together with his observance of this one positive precept, of abstaining from the fruit of the tree of knowledge ; and this was given him as a spe- cial test or trial of his obedience to his Maker. This is called the dispensation of innocence. How did Adam behave himself in this time of his trial ? He ate of the fruit of the tree of know- ledge, which God had forbidden him on pain of death. How came Adam to disobey God, and eat of this forbidden tree ? Eve first was persuaded to eat of that deadly fruit, and then she persuaded Adam to eat of it too. Who tempted Eve to eat of it ? The evil spirit, that is, the devil, which lay hid in the serpent ; and for this reason he is called the old serpent in the Revelation. What mischief followed from hence ? As Adam sinned against God, so he brought in sin and death among all mankind, who were his children, and they have spread through all generations. Did God put Adam and Eve to death as soon as they had sinned ? No ; but they were condemned to die, and became liable to sickness and death : they were driven out of the garden of paradise, that they might not taste of the tree of life, and thej were appointed to labor hard for their food all their days. Did Cr-d who spared their life show them any fur- ther pity ? Yes ; he gave them a kind promise, and clothed them with the skins of beasts, because they were naked. What was the kind promise that he gave them ? That " the seed of the woman should bruise the head of the serpent" who tempted them to sin. Who is this seed of the woman? The Lord Jesus Christ, t4ie Son of God, who " in due time was born of a wo- man." What is meant by ** bruising the serpent's head ?*' A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTUIIE HISTORY. 11 That Christ should destroy the wicked works and designs of the devil, and thereby save mankind from the sin and death which were brought in among them by his temptation. What was the religion of man after the fall or sin of Adam ? All the duties of the light of nature which were required before : and besides these, he was now called to repentance for sin, faith or trust in the mercy of God, expectation of the promised Saviour, and oflfering of sacrifices. This is called the Adamical Dispen- sation of the covenant of grace, and it reached to Noah's flood. - Who were Adam's first children ? Cain and Abel. What was Cain? Adam's eldest son, and he was " a tiller of the ground." But what mischief did Cain do ? He killed his brother Abel, • who was " a keeper of sheep." Why did Cain kill him ? Be- cause his own works were evil, and God did not accept his sacrifices ; but his brother's works were righteous, and God gave some token that he accepted him. Whither went Cain when God reproved him for his murder ? He went out, and departed from the presence of the Lord, and from his father's family, where God was worshipped. What were the posterity of Cain ? Some of them are famous for inventions of music, and handicraft-trades, but they are supposed to have neglected religion. What other son had Adam ? Seth, who was born soon after the death of Abel, and several others born after him. Did the children of Seth neglect religion too ? Religion was publicly maintained for some generations in Seth's family, for they distinguished themselves from the wicked sons of men ; they prayed to God, and were called tlie sons of God. Did they grow degenerate afterwards ? All mankind grew so wicked except a few, that God saw it proper to manifest his righteous judgment, and his anger against sin, by destroying them. Who were some of the chief persons of Seth's posterity mentioned in scripture in those early times ? Enoch and Me- thuselah, Lamech and JSToah, were the most remarkable. Who was Enoch ? The man who walked with God, and pleased him in the midst of a wicked world, and foretold the judgment of God on sinners. What became of Enoch ? God took him to heaven without dying, as a peculiar favor and honor done to him. Who was Methuselah ? The son of Enoch, and the oldest man that we ever read of. How long did he live ? Nine hun- dred and sixty -nine years. Who was Lamech ? Noah's father, "who prophesied of the blessing the earth, which had been laid undsr a curse for the sin of Adam, should find in his son. Who was Noah ? The righteous man who was saved when the world was drowned by a flood. ■• How did God drown the 12 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. world ? When mankind had provoked him by their sins, which were exceeding great, he broke up the fountains of the great deep under ground, and caused it to rain forty days and forty nights. How was Noah saved ? In an ark, or great ship or vessel, which God taught him to build. Who was saved with him ? All his family, and some living creatures of every kind, namely, two of every unclean beast and bird, which were neither fit for food nor sacrifice ; and seven of every clean creature, whicn were fit for one or both uses. How long did Noah tarry in the ark ? At nine months* end he sent forth a dove, which brought in an olive-branch, to show him that the waters were abated ; and at the end of twelve months and ten days he came forth, and the creatures which were with him. What commands did God give Noah ? The offering of sacrifices was continued ; flesh was given to man for food, as herbs were before ; blood was forbidden to be eaten ; the blood of man was expressly forbidden to be shed, and murder was to be punished with death. What promise did God make to Noah ? That the world should never be drowned again ; and it pleased God to appoint the rainbow to be a token of it. Was there no rainbow before the flood ? It is probable that there was no rain before the flood, for the earth was watered daily by a thick mist, and then there could be naturally no rainbow, for this is made by the sunbeams shining upon falling rain. Who were Noah's three sons ? Shem, Ham, and Japheth ; and they were the fathers of all mankind after the flood. Who were the ofi'spring or posterity of Shem ? The Persians, who came from Elam their father ; the Syrians from Aram ; the Hebrews from Eber, as is supposed ; and par- ticularly the Jews, with other inhabitants of Asia. Who were the posterity of Ham ? The Canaanites, the Philistines, and others in Asia, and the Egyptians, with other inhabitants of Africa. Who were the posterity of Japheth? Gomer, sup- posed to be the father of the Germans, Javan of the Greeks, Meshech of the Muscovites, and other famihes that dwelt in Europe. Did mankind freely divide themselves after the flood into several nations ? No ; but, being all of one language, they agreed rather to build a chief city with a tower, that all men might be joined in one nation or kingdom. How did God scatter them abroad into different nations ? By making them speak diff'ercnt languages, and then they ceased to build the tower ; which was called Babely or Confusion. Did God pre- serve the true religion in any of their families ? It is supposed to have been chiefly preserved in the family of Shem, for God is called " the Lord God of Shem." A. SriORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 13 Who was the most famous man of Shem's posterity in these early ages ? Abraham, the son of Terah, of the posterity of Eber. What is the first remarkable thing recorded of Abra- ham ? He left his own native country to go whithersoever God called him. Whence did Abraham come, and whither did he go ? He came first from Chaldea, then from Haran ; and he went to dwell among strangers in the land of Canaan. Who came with Abraham into Canaan ? Lot, his brother's son ; and they brought with them all their substance and their household. Did they continue to dwell together ? Their cattle and servants grew so numerous that they parted for fear of quarrelling, and Abraham gave Lot his choice to go to the east or the west. Where did Lot sojourn ? He chose the east, and pitched his tent towards Sodom, because it was a well-watered and fruitful country. What calamity befell Lot here ? He was carried away captive together with other inhabitants of Sodom, when the king of Sodom was routed in battle by his enemies. What did Abraham do on this occasion ? He armed his own servants, three hundred and eighteen men, who pursued the conquerors and routed them, and brought back Lot and the other captives with their goods. When Abraham returned from the slaughter of the kings, what honor was done him? Melchisedek, the king of Salem, and the priest of the most high God, met him, and pronounced a blessing upon him. What civility did the king of Sodom show Abraham ? He offered him all the goods that Abraham had recovered from the former conquerors, but Abraham refused to accept them. What became of Sodom afterwards ? It was burnt by fire and brimstone from heaven, together with Gomorrah, and other cities, because of the wicked- ness of its inhabitants. Abraham pleaded with God to spare Sodom, and God would have done it, had there been but ten righteous men in all the city. How did Lot escape ? The two angels which were sent to destroy Sodom persuaded him to flee away with his family first. How many of his family escaped this judgment ? Only himself and his two daughters, for his two sons-in-law refused to remove. What became of Lot's wife ? She went with him part of the way, but when she looked back, hankering after Sodom, she was struck dead immediately, perhaps with a blast of that lightning which burnt Sodom, and Bhe stood like a pillar of salt. In what part of the country did Abraham dwell ? When he removed from Lot he went towards the west, and travelling on towards the southwest, he sojourned in the land of Abimelecb, king of Gerar, in the country of the PhiUstines. What sons had 14 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. Abraham ? The two chief were Ishmael and Isaac. Who was Ishmael ? He was the son of Abraham, by Hagar his hand- maid. What became of Ishmael ? Abraham, by the commani of God, turned Ishmael and his mother out of his house into the wilderness, because they mocked and abused his younger son Isaac. Did Ishmael perish in the wilderness ? The angel o/ God appeared to Hagar, and showed her a spring of water when they were dying with thirst : and Ishmael grew up to be a great man, and the father of a laro^e nation. Who was Isaac's mother? Isaac was the son of Abraham, by Sarah his wife^ according to the promise of God, Avhen they were both grown old. Why is Abraham called the father of the JFaithful, i. e. of the believers ? Because he beheved the promises of God against all probable appearance, and was a pattern to other believers in ill ages. What were the three chief promises which God gave Abraham ? 1. That he should have a son when he was a liun- dred years old. 2. That his children should possess the land of Canaan, when he had not ground enough to set his foot on there. And 3. That all the families of the earth should be blessed in him and his offspring, when he was but a private person. What did this last promise mean ? That Jesus Christ, the Saviour of men, should come from his family. What was the relicfion of Abraham ? The same with the relio^ion of Adam after the fall, and the religion of Noah, with the addition of cir- cumcision, and the expectation of Canaan, to be given to his seed, as a type of heaven ; and a trust in the promise of a Saviour who should spring from him, and bless all nations. How did Abraham most eminently show his obedience to God ? In his readiness to offer up his son Isaac in sacrifice at God's com- mand. And did he offer him in sacrifice ? _ No ; God withheld his hand, and sent a ram to be sacrificed in his stead. What further favors did Abraham receive from God ? God visited him, and conversed with him several times in a visible manner, and changed his name from Abram to Abraham. What is written concerning SarMi, Abraham's wife ? She believed God's promise, and had a son when she was ninety years old, and her name was also changed from Sarai to Sarah. What is recorded concerning Isaac their son? He feared the God of his father Abraham ; he had frequent visions of God, and went out into the fields to meditate or pray, and offered sacrifices to God. Who was Isaac's wife ? His father Abraham sent afar, and took a wife for him, even Rebecca, out of his own family in Mesopotamia, because he was unwilling he Bhould marry among the wicked Canaanites, whom God had A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. IS doomed to destruction. What cLildren had Isaac ? Two sons, Esau and Jacob. Who was Esau ? He was Isaac's eldest son, bred up to hunting rather than husbandry, who sold his birthright to his brother for a mess of pottage when he was faint with hunting. Who was Jacob? The youngest son of Isaac, Avho, by his mother's contrivance, obtained his father's blessing, though not in a right way. By what treachery did he obtain the blessing? Wlien his father was old, and his eyes dim, by order of his mother he put on Esau's clothes, and told his father he was Esau, his eldest son. How did Esau take this ? Esau threat- ened to kill him, and therefore he left his father's house. Whither did Jacob go? To Latiin the Syrian, who was his mother's brother. What did he meet with in going thither ? . He lay down to sleep on a stone at Beth-el, and had a holy dream of God, and of anajels there ascendins^ and descendinnj between heaven and earth. How long did he live there ? Twenty years, till he had got a large family of children and servants, much cattle and great riches. What did Jacob meet with in his return to Canaan ? He had a vision of God, as of a man wrestling with him. Why was Jacob called Israel ? Be- cause he prayed and prevailed with God for a blessing, while he wrestled with him in the form of a man. How did his brother Esau meet him ? God turned Esau's heart, so that he met him with great civility, though he came out with four hun- dred men (as Jacob feared) to destroy him. What posterity had Esau? A large posterity, who chiefly inhabited Mount Seir, and were called Edomites from their father's other name, Edom. How many sons had Jacob ? Twelve, and they were called the twelve Patriarchs, because they were the fathers of the twelve tribes of Israel. What are their names ? Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, the sons of his wife Leah ; Joseph and Benjamin, the sons of his wdfe Rachel ; Dan and IN'aphtali, the sons of Bilhah his concubine ; and Gad and Asher, the sons of Zilpah his concubine. Who were the most famous of all these in sacred history ? Levi, Judah, and Joseph. What is there remarkable concerning Levi ? The priesthood, and other things relating to the worship of God, were committed to Levi's family in following times. What is there remarkable relating to Judah ? He dealt very basely with his daughter-in-law Tamar, and committed shameful wick- edness. Did God forgive this sin ? Yes, God forgave it so far as not to punish his posterity for it : for the kingdom and government in future ages was promised chiefly to his family 16 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. What is there remarkable said of Joseph ? His brethren sold him for a slave into Egypt, where he became ruler of the land. Why did they sell him ? For envy, because his father loved him, and made him a coat of many colors, and because he dreamed that thev should bow down to him. What was his first station in the land of Egypt ? He was servant in the house of Potiphar. a captain of the guard, and by a false accu- sation of his master*s wife he was cast into prison, though he was entirely innocent. What was the occasion of his advance- ment ? He interpreted the dreams of some of his fellow- prisoners, and when the interpretation proved true, he was sent for to court to interpret the king's dream. And did this raise Joseph to be the ruler of Egypt ? Yes ; he was thus advanced, because he foretold the .^even years of plenty and seven years of famine, which Pbaraoh the king dreamed of* under two different emblems, of good and bad ears of corn, and of seven fat kine and seven lean ones. How did Joseph carry himself towards his brethren in his advancement ? In the famine they came to buy corn in Egypt, and bowed down to him, according to his dreams ; but he treated them roughly at fii-st, as a great lord and a stranger, till their consciences smote them for their former cruelty to him. Did he revenge himself upon them ? No, but he made himself known to them with much affection and tenderness. How did he manifest his forgiveness of them ? He sent for his father, and bade his brethren bring all their faraihes into Egypt, and he maintained them all during the famine. Did Jacob die in Egypt ? Yes ; but according to his desire his body was carried up to the land of Canaan, and was buried there in faith of the promise, that his seed should possess the land. What became of the families of Israel after Joseph's death ? They were made slaves in Egypt, and a i^ew king, who knew not Joseph, sorely oppressed them, and endeavored to destroy them. Did Joseph, as well as his father, profess any hope of his family and kindred returning from Egypt in following times ? Yes, he died in faith of the promise made to his fathers, that they should go and possess the land of Canaan ; and therefore he required them, when they went, to carry up his bones, and bury them in the promised land. Who delivered the Israelites from the slavery of Egypt? God heard their cry, and dehvered them by the hand of Moses and Aaron. Who was Moses ? He was one of the family of Levi among the people of Israel, who was wonderfully saved from drowning when he was an infant. How was lie in danger of drowning ? Pharaoh, the king of Egypt had commanded A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 17 every male child to be slain ; and when Moses' parents could hide him no longer, they laid him by the bank of the river, in an ark or box of bulrushes. How was he saved ? The king of Egypt's daughter found him by the river, pitied the child, and brought him up for her own son. Did he continue a courtier in Egypt? No, for when he was grown a man he showed pity to his kindred in thei . slavery, and slew an Egyptian ; which being known, he fled from the court of Pharaoh. Whither did he fly ? To the land of Midian, where he kept the sheep of Jethro, a priest or prince of the country, and married his daughter. How did God appoint him to deliver Israel ? God appeared to him in a burning bush, as he was keeping Jethro's sheep, and sent him to Pharaoh to require the release of Israel, his people. What was his ofiice afterwards ? God made him the leader and lawgiver of the people of Israel. Who was Aaron ? He was brother to Moses, and sent by God to meet him, as he was returning to Egypt, and appointed to assist him in his dealing with Pharaoh. What was Aaron's office after- wards? He was made the first high-priest of Israel. How did Moses and Aaron prove to Pharaoh, and to the people, that God had sent them upon this errand? They had power given them from God himself to work several miracles, or signs and wonders, to convince the people of Israel, as well as Pha- raoh, that they had a commission from God. What was the first miracle ? Aaron cast down his rod, and it became a ser- pent ; and when Pharaoh's conjurors did so too, Aaron's rod swallowed theirs all up. What did Moses and Aaron do further to dehver that people? Upon Pharaoh's refusal to let the people of Israel go, they brought ten miraculous plagues upon the king, and upon all the land, by the authority and power of God. What were these ten plagues? 1. Water turned into blood. 2. Frogs. 3. Lice. 4. Fhes. 5. Murrain among cattle. 6. Boils and blisters on man and beast. V. Thunder, lightning, and hail. 8. Locusts. 9. Thick darkness. 10. The first-born siain. Were Pharaoh and his people willing to release the Israehtes at last ? Yes, when they saw they were all like to be destroyed, for there was not a house wherein there was not one dead, then they hastened them out, and lent them jewels and gold to adorn their sacrifices and worship. How great was the number of the Israelites that went out of Egypt ? Si-^ hundred thousand men, besides children ; and all went on foot. Which way did the Israelites bend their journey ? Towards the wilderness of the Red Sea, as they were guided by God himself, marching before them in a pillar of cloud by day, and 2* (8 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. a pi lar of fire hj night. But did not Pharaoh and his armj pursue them after they were gone ? Yes, they repented that they had let them go, and pursued them to the Red Sea, re- sohing to destroy them. How did the people of Israel, who came out of Egypt, get over the Red Sea ? When they were in distress, with the Red Sea before them, and Pharaoh's army behind them, they cried unto God, whereon Moses bade them stand still, and see the salvation of the Lord. Then, at the command of God, Moses struck the sea with his rod, and divided the waters asunder, and the children of Israel went through upon dry land. What became of the Egyptians that followed them ? God troubled their army, retarded their march, and when Moses stretched out his hand over the sea again, the waters returned upon them, and they were drowned. Whither did the children of Israel go then ? They went whithersoever God guided them by the pillar of cloud and the pillar of fire ; and they moved and they rested according to the rest or the motion of this cloud. How did the people of Israel, who had seen all these wonders, behave themselves in their travels? At every new difiiculty, when they wanted meat or water, or met with enemies, they murmured against God and Moses. How long was it before they came to the place that God had promised them ? They wandered forty years in the wilderness, for their sins. What did they eat all the time ? God fed them with manna, or bread that came down every night from heaven, and lay all round the camp. What did they drink in the wilder- ness ? Moses smote the rock with his rod, and water gushed out in a river, which att^snded them in their journey. What did they do for clothes during these forty years ? Their raiment waxed not old, nor did their shoes wear out. Did Moses govern ail these people himself ? By his father-in-law Jethro's advice, and by God's approbation, he appointed officers and judges over the people for common cases, but every harder cause was brought to Moses. You told me that Moses was a lawgiver to the Jews, or people of Israel ; pray how came he by those wise and holy laws which he gave them ? He conversed with God fourscore days and nights on Mount Sinai, and there he learned them. What token was there that Moses had been with God ? The face of Moses shone so that the people could not converse with him till he put a veil on his face. What sort of laws were those which Moses gave the Jews ? Moral laws, ceremonial laws, and judicial laws, and all by God's appointment. What was the religion of the Jews or Israelites ? The same with the religion of Adam after his fall, of Noah, and Abraham, with A SHORT VIEW OF SCraPTUltE HISTORY. 19 those additions given by Moses. That is called the Jewish, oi Mosaical, or Levitical Dispensation. Which was the moral law given to the Jews ? All those commands which relate to their behavior, considered as men, and which lie scattered up and down in the books of Moses : but they are as it were reduced into a small compass in the ten commandments. How were these ten commandments first given them ? By the voice of God on Mount Sinai, three months after their coming out of Egypt ; and it was attended with thunder, and fire, and smoke, and the sound of a trumpet. Where was this moral law more especially written ? In the two tables of stone which God wrote with his own hand, and gave to Moses. What did the first table contain ? Their duty towards God in the first four commandments. What did the second table contain ? Their duty towards man in the last six commandments. What was the ceremonial law ? All those commandments which seem to have some religious design in them, especially such as related to their cleansing from any defilement, and their peculiar forms of worship. What were the chief rites or ceremonies appointed for puri- fication or cleansing among the Jews ? Washing with water, sprinkhng with water or blood, anointing with holy oil, shaving the head of man or woman, together with various sorts of sac- rifices, and some other appointments. What were those things or persons among the Jews which here required to be purified ? All persons, houses, buildings, garments, or other things which were set apart for the service of God ; and all such as had been defiled by leprosy, by touching human dead bodies, or the car- cass of any unclean animals, or by other ceremonial pollutions. Were there any crimes of real impiety which could be taken away by these outward ceremonies ? The blood of bulls and of goats, and the ashes of an heifer sprinkling the unclean, sanctifieth no farther than to the purifving of the flesh. How then were the sins of the Jews cleansed or pardoned ? They obtained pardon of God according to the discovery of grace and forgiveness scattered up and down through all the five books of Moses, and especially according to the promises made and the encouragements given to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Is it not said, " He shall bring his trespass-offering to the Lord, and the priest shall make an atonement for him before the Lord, and it shall be forgiven him- ?" This tresjMSS-offering would set him right indeed in the sight of God., as king of the nation against whose political laws the man had committed this tres« 20 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. pass ; but it never was designed to free him from the guilt of his sin in the sight of God, as the Lord of conscience, unless he repented of this sin in his heart, and trusted in the mercy of God so far as it was revealed in that day ; for it is certain truth that "the blood of beasts cannot take away sins." What were the most remarkable sins of the Jews against God in the wilderness ? Besides their murmuring at some difficul- ties in the beginning of their journey, the first remarkable and notorious crime was their making a golden calf, and worshipping it at the foot of Mount Sinai. What temptation or what pre- tence could they have for such a crime ? Moses was gone up into Mount Sinai, and tarried there so many days longer than they expected, that they wanted some visible token of God's presence among them ; and so they constrained Aaron to make this golden image, to be a representation of the presence of God, but without God's appointment. How did God punish them for the golden calf ? The children of Levi were com- manded to slay their brethren, and they slew 3,000 of the children of Israel. What was another of their remarkable sins ? In the next stage, after Sinai, they loathed the manna which God sent them, and murmured for want of flesh. How was the murmuring punished ? God gave them the flesh of quails in abundance, and sent the plague with it. What was their third remarkable sin ? Being discouraged by the spies, who searched out the land of Canaan, and brought an ill report of that promised land, they were for making a captain, to return to Egypt. How was this rebellion chastised ? Ten of the spies died immediately of a plague, and all the people were con- demned to wander forty years in the wilderness, till all those who were above twenty years old should die by degrees in their travels. Who of the spies were saved ? None but Caleb and Joshua, who followed the Lord fully, and gave a good ac- count of the land of promise. What was their fourth remark- able sin ? When Korah, Dathan, and Abiram stirred up a rebellion against Moses and Aaron. What was the occasion of this rebellion of Korah and his companions ? They pretended that all Israel were holy, and that Aaron and his family had no more right to the priesthood than they ; and that Moses took too much upon him to determine every thing among them. Ho\^ were Korah, Dathan, and Abiram punished ? They and their famihes (the sons of Korah excepted) were swallowed up by an earthquake, and their two hundred and fifty companions were burnt by a fire which came out from God ; and when the con- gi-egation murmured against Moses and Aaron for the death of A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 2\ these sinners, God smote above fourteen thousand of them, and they died of the plague. What miracle did God work to show that he had chosen Aaron's family to the priesthood ? He bid the heads of the people choose twelve rods for the twelve tribes of Israel, and write Aaron's name upon Levi's rod, and lay them up in the tabernacle till the morrow : at which time they took each man his rod, and Aaron's rod blossomed and yielded almonds. What was done with this rod of Aaron ? It was laid up in the ark to be a lasting testimony against these rebels, and to confirm Aaron's right to the priesthood. What was the fifth remarkable sin of the people ? They murmured because of the length of the way, and for want of better food than manna. How was this new murmuring punished ? God sent fiery serpents amongst them, which destroyed many of them. How were the people healed who were bitten by the serpents ? By looking up to a serpent of brass, which Moses put upon a high pole at God's command. What was the sixth remarkable sin of Israel ? Profligacy and idolatry. Who tempted them to this idolatry ? Balaam the wicked prophet and soothsayer. What became of Balaam at last ? He was slain among the Midianites by the men of Israel under the con- duct of Moses, before they came to the river Jordan. What became of the people of Israel after all their wander- ings in the wilderness ? Though their sins and punishments were many and great, yet they were not destroyed ; but God brought them at last into Canaan, the land which he promised to their fathers. Did Moses lead them into that land ? No ; he was only permitted to see it from Mount Pisgah, and there he died, and God buried him. Did Aaron go with them into Canaan ? Aaron died before Moses, and Eleazar his son was made high-priest in his room. Why were not Moses, the law- giver, and Aaron, the high-priest, suffered to bring the people into the land of promise ? Because they had both sinned, and offended God in the wilderness, and God would show his dis- pleasure against sin. Who was appointed to lead the people of Israel into the promised land ? Joshua, whose name is the same with Jesus, and who came to be the governor and captain of Israel after Moses died. How did they get over the river Jordan ? As soon as the priests who bore the ark dipped their feet in the brink of the river, the waters which were above rose up in a heap, and the channel was left dry, while all the people passed over. What memorial did they leave of their passing over Jordan on foot? By God's appointment they took up twelve stones out of the midst of Jordan, where the priesta 22 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. stood with the ark while the tribes passed over, and set them up as a monument in the place wherein they lodged the first night. How were they commanded to deal with the Canaan- ites when they took their land ? They were required to destroy them utterly, lest if they should live, they might teach Israel their idolatries, and their wicked customs. What was the first city they took in Canaan ? Jericho, whose walls fell down when by God's appointment they sounded trumpets made of rams' horns. What did they do when they took the city ' By God's command they 'devoted it as the first-fruits, to be a sacri- fice to the Lord, and therefore they burnt all the goods in it, together with the city, as well as destroyed all the inhabitants, except Rahab the harlot, and her kindred. Why was Rahab spared ? Because she believed that God would give Israel the land of Canaan, and she hid and saved the spies whom Joshua sent. How did they take the city of Ai ? By counterfeiting a flight ; and when the men of Ai were drawn out of the city, the Israelites, who lay in ambush, entered and burnt it. How did Israel conquer the king of Jerusalem with his four allies ? God helped Israel, by casting great hailstones from heaven upon their enemies. What remarkable things did Joshua do that day ? He bade the sun and moon stand still to lengthen out the day for his victory, and they obeyed him. What did Joshua do with the five kings when he took them ? He called the captains of Israel to set their feet on their necks, and then he slew them, and hanged them upon five trees before the Lord. Where was the tabernacle first set up after they came to Canaan ? In Shiloh, in the tribe of Ephraim, at some distance from Jeru- salem, and there it tarried above three hundred years, even to the days of Samuel. How came it to be set up there ? By the appointment of God ; for it is said, " He set his name first in Shiloh." How was the land of Canaan divided among the people ? Reuben and Gad, and half the tribe of Manasseh, had their inheritance given them by Moses on the other side of Jordan, and Joshua cast lots for the rest of the tribes before the Lord in Shiloh. Did not the tribes of Reuben and Gad, and half Manasseh, go to help their brethren in destroying the Canaanites ? By the appointment of Moses, they went over Jordan to assist their brethren, till they were settled in the land. What memorial did these two tribes and a half leave in the land of Canaan, that they belonged to the nation of Israel ? They built a great altar upon the borders of Jordan, not for a sacrifice, but merely as a memorial of their interest in the God of Israel, in the tabernacle, and m the worship thereof. Where A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 23 was the tribe of Levi disposed of ? Being devoted to the sei-vice of tlie tabernacle and rehgion, they were not fixed in one spot of ground, but had a share in the inheritance of every tribe, that they might teach every city the laws of God and their duty. What did Joshua do just before his death ? He sum- moned the people together, and made a most solemn covenant with them, that they should serve the Lord. Did the Israelites drive all the Canaanites out of the land ? No, for there were some left for several hundred years after Joshua's death : the Jebusites and the Philistines continued till the days of David. What were the most common sins that Israel was guilty of after their settlement in Canaan ? They fell into idolatry, or worship- ping the gods of the nations round about them, after Joshua was dead, and the elders of the people of that age who outlived Joshua. Who governed the people of Israel after Joshua's death ? God was always the king and ruler of Israel, and under him the several tribes probably chose their own magistrates and officers, according to the appointment of Moses. Was not the high- priest the ruler under God ? The high-priest seems to have been appointed by God and Moses to be the chief counsellor in declaring the laws and statutes of God, as the other priests were also counsellors ; but the executive power of government was rather vested in those who were called judges, whether they were ordinary or extraordinary. Did these ordinary officers do justice, and maintain good order in the land after the days ot Joshua ? We have very little account of them ; but it is cer- tain they did not fulfil their duty, because there was sometimes great wickedness among the people without restraint; much idolatry and mischief, both public and private, and that for want of government. Why did God, the king of Israel, leave his people under these inconveniences ? As they had forsaken God and his laws, so God seemed sometimes to have forsaken the care of them, and given them up for a season to the con- fusions and miseries which arise from the want of government, and also suffered their enemies, on every side, to make inroads upon them, and bring them into slavery. But did not the great God interpose for their deliverance ? Sometimes in the course of his providence, and by special inspiration, he raised up ex- traordinary judges to rescue them from the hand of their ene- mies, and to restore government among them. Who were some of the most remarkable of the extraordinary judges raised up to rescue the people of Israel ? Ehud and Shamgar, Deborah and Gideon. Jephthah, Samson, and Samuel. Who was Ehud ? 24 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY A man of Benjamin, wlio delivered Israel from the oppiession of Eglon, king of Moab. How did he deliver them ? By bring- ing a present to Eglon, and then stabbing him with a dagger. What did Shamgar do towards their dehverance ? He rescued Israel from the oppressions of the Philistines, and slew six hun- dred of them with an ox-goad. Who was Deborah ? She was a woman, a prophetess, who delivered Israel from th« tyranny of Jabin, king of Canaan, who had nine hundred char- iots of iron. How did she deliver Israel from his hand ? She sent forth Barak to battle against him, who routed his army, which was commanded by Sisera his general. How was Sisera slain ? By the hand of Jael, a woman, who, when he came to rest himself in her tent, drove a nail into his temples. Who was Gideon ? The son of Joash : he was called by an angel, or by God himself, to destroy the worship of Baal, and to deliver Israel from the hands of the Midianites. How did he begin his work ? He first threw down the altar of Baal, the idol, by night, and cut down the idolatrous grove, and then offered a sacrifice to the Lord, according to the order he had received from God. What further sign did God give him of success ? At his request God made a fleece of wool wet, when the ground all around it was dry ; and again he made a fleece of wool dry, when the ground was wet. How many men did God appoint for Gideon's army ? Out of thirty-two thousand he appointed but three hundred men. How did the three hundred men con- quer Midian ? Each of them, by Gideon's order, took a trum- pet, and a pitcher with a lamp in it, and coming at midnight on the camp of the Midianites, they broke their pitchers, and frightened them with a sudden blaze of lamps, the sound of the trumpets, and loud shouting. Did Gideon reign over Israel after this great victory ? No : he refused to reign, for he said God was their king. Did Gideon's sons govern Israel after- wards ? None of Gideon's threescore and ten sons set up them- selves, but Abimelech, the son of his concubine, made himself king. How did Abimelech advance himself to the kingdom ? He slew all his threescore and ten brothers, except the young- est, who escaped. How was Abimelech slain ? When he was besieging a city, a woman cast a piece of millstone upon his head. Who was Jephthah ? A mighty man of valor, who de- livered Israel from the power of the Ammonites. What was remarkable concerning him ? He made a rash vow to sacrifice to God the first thing that came to meet him after his victory, and that happened to be his daugliter and only child. Who was Samson ? The son of Manoah, and he delivered Israel 4 SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY, . 25 from the hands of the Philistines. What was his character ? He was the strongest of men, but he does not seem to hav? been the wisest or the best. What instances did he give of his great strength ? He tore a hon asunder ; he broke all the cords with which he was bound ; he slew a thousand Philistines with the jaw-bone of an ass ; and when the Philistines beset the gates of Gaza, he carried away the gate and gate-posts of the city with him, when he made his way out and escaped. What befell him afterwards ? Delilah, a Philistine woman, cut off his hair, and then betrayed him to the Philistines, who put out his eyes, and made him grind in a mill. What was Sam- son's end ? Thousands of the Philistines were gathered together to make sport with Samson ; and in order to revenge himself of the Phihstines, and to destroy the enemies of Israel, he pulled the house down upon their heads and his own. Who judged Israel after Samson ? EU the high-priest is said to have judged Israel forty years ; but he is not supposed to be one of the extraordi- nary judges who delivered them, but rather to have been made an ordinary magistrate, perhaps over some part of the land. Who was the last of these extraordinary judges ? Samuel the prophet, the son of Hannah, a pious woman. Where was Samuel brought up ? As he was requested of the Lord, so he was given to the Lord, and was brought up at the tabernacle in Shiloh, under the care of Eli, the high-priest. What was Samuel's office ? He waited on the service of the tabernacle as a Levite, being the first-born, and being given to God. Was he not also a prophet ? Yes ; God called him three times in one nig'ht when he was a child, and made a prophet of him, and told him what calamities should befall the house of EH the high-priest. What was the great crime of Eli ? Though he loved and honored God himself, yet he did not restrain his sons from wickedness. In what manner did God show his displeasure against the house of Eli? His two sons were slain by th( Philistines in battle, and the high-priesthood went into another branch of Aaron's family. What became of EU himself ? When he heard that the ark of God was taken by the Phihstines, he fainted for grief, and falling down backward he broke his neck. What did the Philistines do with the ark of God? They brought it into the house of their idol, Dagon, and the idol fell down and broke off his head and his hands upon the threshold. What punishment did the Philistines suffer for keeping the ark ? In several places where they placed it, God destroyed many of the inhabitants, and smote the rest with sore diseases. What became of the ark then ? The Philistines put it into a new cart 3 26 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. dra^vn by two milch-kine, whose calves were shut up at home, and yet they carried it directly into the land of Israel to BetJi- shemesh. What did the men of Bethshemesh do ? They looked into the ark, which was utterly forbidden, and God smote many of them with a great slaughter, and they sent the ark away to Kirjath-jearim. How did Samuel deliver Israel from the Phi- listines when they made a new war upon them ? He offered a burnt-offering, and prayed to the Lord, and God fought against the Philistines with thunder from heaven, and scattered and destroyed them. How did Samuel govern the people ? He travelled through the land every year ; he judged Israel with great honor and justice for many years ; but m his old age he made his sons judges, and they oppressed and abused the people. What was the request of the people on this occasion ? That they might have a king like the rest of the nations. What did Samuel do in this case ? He w^ould have advised them against it, because God was their king, but they still persisted in desiring a man for a king. Did Samuel gratify them in this desire ? Being admonished of God, he complied with their desire, and appointed a king over them. Who was the first king of Israel ? Saa], a very tall young man, the son of Kish, a Benjamite. How did Samuel first meet wuth him ? Saul was sent by his father to seek some asses that he had lost, and asking Samuel about them, Samuel took him aside privately, and anointed him king of Israel. But how was he made king publicly ? God chose and determined Saul to be king by casting lots among the tribes and families of Israel. How did Saul behave himself in his kingdom ? He governed well at first for a little time, but afterwards he disobeyed the word of God in several instances, and God rejected him. Whom did God choose in his room ? David, of the tribe of Judah, who is called the man after- God's own heart. Who were the forefathers of David ? He was the youngest son of Jesse, who was the son of Obed, who was the son of Boaz by Ruth his wife. How did God anoint him to be king ? He sent Samuel secretly to anoint him with oil at Bethlehem, in the midst of his brethren. How did David make his first appearance at court ? David understood music, and when the evil spirit of melancholy came upon Saul, hearing of David's skill in music, he sent for him to play on the harp to refresh him. What remarkable ac- tion made him more publicly known ? When Goliath the giant challenged the men of Israel, David undertook the combat, and slew him with a sling and a stone. What became of Saul at last ? The Philistines invaded Israel, and Saul was in grea» A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 27 distress, because God gave him no directions, nor answered liim by dreams, nor by the priests, nor prophets : he then inquired of a woman who had a famiUar spirit, and was informed that he and his sons should die on the morrow, which came to pass. Where was David all this while ? He was fled a second time to Achish, king of Gath, and he had been just then employed in destroying the Amalekites, who had plundered the city of Zik- lag, where he dwelt. What did David do upon the death oi Saul ? He made an elegy upon him 3,nd Jonathan his son, and went up to Hebron, a city of Judah, by God's direction, where the men of Judah made him their king. How long did David reign at Hebron ? Seven years and a half ; and then all Israel came to him and chose him for their king, and brought him up to Jerusalem. How did David govern Israel ? He executed judgment and justice among all the people. What were the chief blemishes of David's life ? His adultery with Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, and his pride in numbering the people of Israel. What were some of the chief troubles that actually came on David's family ©n account of his sins ? The rebellion and death of his children, except only Solomon. What was the other remarkable crime of David, besides his abuse and murder of Uriah ? The pride of his heart in numbering all the people of the tribes of Israel, that he might know how great a king he was. How was he punished for this sin ? God gave him leave to choose one of these three punishments, either seven years' famine, or three months of war, or three days' pestilence. Which did David choose ? The famine, or the pestilence, rather than war ; for he chose rather to fall into the hands of God than of man. What was the trouble that David met with from his son Adonijah ? When David was old, Adonijah set himself up for king. How came Adonijah to be so insolent ? His father liumored him too much all his life, and never displeased him. What did David do under this trouble ? He proclaimed Solo- mon, the son of Bathsheba, king, in his own lifetime ; and Zadok the priest, and Nathan the prophet, anointed him king of Israel. How long did David reign in all ? Forty years, and then he died in his bed in peace. What did David do towards the building of the Temple before his death ? He made a vast preparation of gold, silver, and jewels, and other mateiials, and gave the pattern of every thing to his son Solomon, as he re- ceived it of God. What was the general character of Solomon ? That he was the wisest of men. Wherein did his wisdom towards God ap- pear ? In that he asked not long life, nor riches, nor honors, 28 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. but understanding and knowledge, to govern so great a people. What special care did Solomon take for the worship of God t He built that temple for which David had made so large a preparation. It was a most glorious palace, built of cedar, and fir, and olive-wood, and hewn stone, with most amazing expense of gold, and silver, and brass, and precious stones, both f6r the adorning of the house itself, and for the holy vessels thereof. He built also two distinct courts about it, one for the people of Israel, and one for the priests, all of which were called " the Temple." In what form did he build it ? In imitation of the tabernacle of Moses and the court thereof, but with vast and universal improvement in the grandeur, riches, and magnificence of it, by the pattern that David his father received from God, and gave to him. Wherein did God bless the reign of Solo- mon ? By giving him prodigious treasures and magnificent state, and spreading the fame of his greatness and wisdom over all nations. How long did Solomon reign ? Forty years ; and though he had many wives, he left but one son behind him, Rehoboam, to succeed him in the kingdom of Israel. What was the character of Rehoboam ? Though Solomon had written so many excellent lessons of morality and piety for his son in the book of Proverbs, and given him so many warnings, yet he followed evil courses ; and Solomon himself seems to intimate it in the book of Ecclesiastes, chap. ii. 19: "Who knoweth whether his son will be a wise man or a fool ?" What further occasion did Rehoboam give for the revolt of the tribes of Is- rael from him ? Upon the death of his father, and his accession to the throne, he despised the counsel of the old men, aui^ hearkened to the advice of rash young men ; he threatened the nation of Israel to "make their yoke heavier" than his father had done, that is, to lay heavier taxes on them. What followed upon this threatening of king Rehoboam ? All the tribes of Israel, except Judah and Benjamin, made Jeroboam their king ; and thus the nation was divided into two kingdoms, which were afterwards called the kingdom of Judah and the kingdom of Israel. How many kings reigned over Israel after they were separated from Judah ? These nineteen, and not one of them was good : Jeroboam I., Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, Omri, Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, Joash, Jeroboam II., Zachariah, Shal- lum, Menahem, Pekahiah, Pekah, and Hoshea. Who were the most remarkable among these kings of Israel ? Jeroboam I., Omri, Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehu, Joash, Pekah, and Hoshea. What was the chief character and crime of Jeroboam ? Instead oi A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 29 worsliipping God, who dwelt between the cherubim in the tem- ple of Jerusalem, he made two golden images which are called calves, and set them up in two distant parts of Israel, namely, Dan and Bethel, and taught the people to worship before them. What was the worship he appointed ? Something like the worship which God appointed at Jerusalem, with an altar, and priests, and sacrifices, and incense. For what end did Jero- boam do this ? He feared, if the people went up frequently to sacrifice at Jerusalem, they would be tempted to return again to Rehoboam king of Judah. What visible token of displeasure did God manifest against this worship which Jeroboam set up ? He sent a prophet to the altar at Bethel, who foretold that a son of the house of David, Josiah by name, should burn the bones of Jeroboam's priests upon the altar. What sign did the prophet give that this prophecy should be fulfilled ? The prophet foretold that the altar should be rent asunder, and the ashes poured out, both of which were fulfilled immediately : and Jero- boam's hand withered when he stretched it out to lay hold of the prophet, though at the prayer of the prophet God restored it again. Who was Omri ? The captain of the host of Israel, who was made king by the people when Zimri set up himself. Who was Ahab, and what was his character ? Ahab was the son of Omri, who followed the wicked ways of his predecessors : he sinned against God and man grievously, and provoked God beyond all who were before him. How did God signify his displeasure against Ahab ? He sent Elijah the prophet to re- prove him, and to foretell that there should be neither dew nor rain for several years, which accordingly came to pass. How was Ehjah himself fed during this famine ? He was appointed to hide himself by the brook Cherith, and the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning and the evening, and he drank of the water of the brook. Whither did the prophet go when the brook was dried up ? God sent him to a woman of ^arepta near Sidon, to be maintained by her, when she had only a handful of meal in a barrel, and a little oil in a cnise. How could this maintain the woman, her son, and the prophet ? God wonderfully increased the oil and the meal, so that the barrel of meal wasted not, neither did the cruse of oil fail, till God sent rain upon the land. What further miracles did Elijah work in this woman's family, to prove that he was sent from God ? When her son died, the prophet raised him to life again. What special deliverance did God give Israel in the time of Ahab ? Though Ahab was so great a sinner, yet God made Israel victorious over the Syrians who invaded them, ba- 30 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. cause Benliadad the king of Syria boasted aid blasphemed G(xl. What were some of the special sins cf Ahab against God ? Be- sides the idolatry of the calves, he a>so set up the idol Baal, he caused Israel to worship it, and by the influence of his wife Jezebel, slew a great number of the prophets of the Lord. Were any of the prophets of the Lord saved ? Obadiah, the governor of Ahab's house, hid a hundred of them in two caves, and fed them with bread and water, while Elijah fled whereso- ever he could find a hiding-place. How did Elijah bring about the destruction of Baal's prophets ? He boldly met Ahab, and bid him summon all Israel together, and the four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal, that a sacrifice might be off'ered to Baal and to Jehovah, to make an experiment which was the true God. How did he convince the people that Jehovah was the true God ? Fire came down from heaven and consumed Elijah's sacrifice, after he had poured great quantities of water upon it ; which the prophets attempted in vain to procure on their altar though they cut themselves with knives, and cried aloud to thai God. What influence had this upon the people ? They fell upon their faces, and acknowledged Jehovah to be the true God ; and then, at the command of Elijah, the people slew all the prophets of Baal. How did God further manifest his ap- probation of this conduct of Elijah ? He immediately sent rain, and put an end to the famine. What was one of the most re- markable sins of Ahab against man ? He coveted the vineyard of Naboth, and by the help of false witnesses stoned Naboth to death for blasphemy, and took possession of his land. What was the manner of Ahab's death after so wicked a life ? In opposition to the prophecy of Micaiah, he went to fight with the king of Syria, and received a mortal wound. Wherein did the judgment of God against Ahab appear in his death ? The dogs licked up his blood, on that spot of ground where Naboth's blood was shed, according to the prophecy of Elijah. What sort of a man was Ahaziah ? Ahaziali was the son of Ahab, who succeeded him in his kingdom, and followed his wicked ways. What particular crimes of Ahaziah are recorded? When he was sick, he sent to inquire of Baalzebub, the god of Ekron, about his recovery ; and because Elijah reproved him for it, he sent out three captains, each with fifty men, to make Elijah their prisoner. What did Elijah do on this occasion ? He brought down fire from heaven, which consumed the first two of them with their troops, but he spared the third upon his entreaty, and then went down with him to king Ahaziah, and \old him he should surely die. How did Elijah leave the world * i SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 3i He was taken up to heaven in a whirlwind, by a chariot and horses of fire, and left his mantle behind him. Who succeeded Elijah in the office of prophet ? Elisha, who was with him when he was taken up to heaven, and had a double portion of the spirit of Elijah given him. What were some of the chief miracles and prophecies of Elisha? 1. He smote the waters of Jordan with Elisha's mantle, saying. Where is the Lord God of Elijah ? and the waters divided for him to pass over. 2. He cured the unwholesome water near Jericho, by casting salt into it. 3. He cursed some children that mocked and reproached him, and there came two she-bears out of the wood, and tore to pieces forty-two of them. 4. He brought water in a time of drought to supply three armies, namely, those of Edom, Judah, and Israel. 5. He increased the widow's pot of oil, that it was sufficient to pay her debts and maintain her. 6. He promised a son to the Shunamite woman who entertained him, who was before barren ; and raised this son to life again when he died. 7. He healed Naaman the Syrian of his leprosy, by bidding him wash in Jordan. 8. He pronounced the plague of leprosy on Gehazi, his own servant, for his covetousness and lying. 9. He made the iron head of an axe float on the water, that it might be restored to its owner. 10. He discovered the king of Syria's private counsels to the king of Israel, and smote his anny with blindness. 11. He foretold vast plenty on the morrow, in the midst of a siege and famine in Samaria. 12. He foretold the death of Benhadad the king of Syria : and that Hazael should succeed him, and treat Israel with cruelty. Who was Jehu, and how came he to the kingdom ? Jehu was a captain, who was anointed king by the prophet whom Elisha sent for that pur- pose, according to the appointment of God and Elijah. What was the great work for which God raised up Jehu to the king- dom ? To destroy the worship of Baal, and to bring the threat- ened judgments on the house of Ahab for their wickedness. How did Jehu execute this bloody work upon the house of Ahab ? These three ways : He shot Jehoram, the son of Ahab, who was then king, with an arrow, and cast him upon the land of Naboth; whom Ahab slew. 2. He commanded Jezebel, the wicked and idolatrous queen-mother, to be thrown out of tlio window, and the dogs ate her up. 3. He ordered the seventy remaining sons of Ahab to be skin in Samaria, and their heads to be brought him in baskets. How did he destroy the worship of Baal ? He gathered the prophets of Baal, and his priests, and his worshippers, together into the temple, under a pretence of a great sacrifice to Baal ; and then commanded thtm all to be 32 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. slain with the sword, and the image to be burnt, and the teji- pie to be destroyed. Did Jehu continue to obey God in all things ? No ; for though he executed the vengeance of God against Ahab, and the worshippers of Baal, yet he maintained the idolatry of Jeroboam, namely, the calves of Dan and Bethel. Who was Joash ? He was the son of Jehoahaz, the son of Je- hu, and he reigned over Israel. What is there remarkable in his conduct ? When Elisha was upon his death-bed, he came down to see him, and wept over him, yet he depaited not from tlie sins of Jeroboam. What did he do for the good of Israel ? According to the prophecy of dying Elisha, he smote the Syrians thrice, who had oppressed Israel in the days of his father. Is there any thing of moment recorded concerning Elisha after his death ? They buried a man the year following in the sepulchre of Elisha, and as soon as he touched the bones of Elisha, he revived, and stood upon his feet. What did Joash do against Judah ? When Amaziah king of Judah provoked him to war, he routed the army of Judah, and took the king prisoner : he brake down the walls of Jerusalem, and plundered the house of the Lord, and the king's house, of all the gold and silver vessels* Did any remarkable thing happen in the reign of Pekah ? This Pekah joined with the king of Syria to invade Judah, but he was repulsed. In his days Tiglath Pileser, king of Assyna, took many cities in Gahlee, and carried many of the people captive to Assyna. Who was Hoshea, and what is recorded of him ? He was the last king of Israel ; he slew Pe- kah, and made himself king. How came the kingdom to end in him ? In his days Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, took the city of Ss maria, bound Hoshea the king in prison, carried multitudes of Ii rael captive into Assyria, and distributed them into several distant countries, from which they have never returned to this day What provoked Shalmaneser to do this ? Hoshea had submitted to him, and afterwards plotted and rebelled against hira. What provoked God to punish Israel thus ? The people of Israel, with all their kings, after their separation from the house of David, had been guilty of continual idolatry, in oppo- sition to the many precepts and warnings of God, by the writings of Moses, and the voice of all the prophets. What became ot Samaria, and the other cities of Israel, when the people were diiven out of them ? Several of the heathen nations were placed there, and each worshipped their own gods and idols ; where- fore the Lord sent lions amongst them, and destroyed many of them. What was done on this occasion to appease the anger of God, and save the people from the hons? The king of A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 33 Assyria sent a Jewish priest thither, to teach them the worship of tlie God of Israe] What was the effect of this conduct of the king of Assyria ? These nations feared the God of Israel, and yet they could not lay aside their own idolatries, for they continued to serve their own graven images also in many follow- ing generations. But did they always continue in this mixed kind of religion ? In process of time they forsook their idols, worshipped the true God only, and submitted themselves to the Jewish religion, so as to receive the five books of Moses ; they had a temple of their own built on mount Gerizim, and in the New Testament are called Samaritans. How many kings and rulers reigned over Judah ? Twenty ; namely, Rehoboam, Abijah, Asa, Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, Aha- ziah, Athahah, the queen, Joash, Amaziah, Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah, Manasseh, Amon, Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah. Were all these rulers of Judah also great sinners as well as the kings of Israel ? A few of them were very religious, some very wicked, and others of an indiffer- ent or mixed character. What fell out in Rehoboam's reign, after the ten tribes had made Jeroboam their king ? When Rehoboam raised a great army out of Judah and Benjamin to recover the ten tribes, God, by his prophet, forbade them to proceed. Were there no wars then between Judah and Israel ? Yes : in the following times there were bloody wars between them. How did the people of Judah behave themselves under the government of Rehoboam? They fell into idolatry and shameful sins, whereupon God was angry, and Shishak, king of Egypt, plundered the temple and the king's house of their treasures, in the fifth year of Rehoboam's reign. So short-lived was the supreme grandeur and glory of the Jewish church and state ! Did Abijah, the son of Rehoboam, do any thing re- markable in his reign ? He made a speech and pleaded against Israel, when Jeroboam led them to war against him ; he re- proved them for their departure from the true worship of God, and from the house of David ; and when they would not hearken, but set upon him in battle, he and his army cried unto the Lord, and shouted, and slew five hundred thousand men. A striking example of divine success ! What is recorded con- cerning Asa, the son of Abijah, the king of Judah ? That he did what was right in the eyes of the Lord, and destroyed the idols which had been set up in the land. What token of favor did God show him ? When he called upon the Lord, and trusted to him, he defeated the army of the Ethiopians, who came against him, though they were a thousand thousand. Did 34 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. Asa continue all his days to fear the Lord ? In his old age he fell into distrust of God, and he gave the treasure that remain- ed in the house of God, and in the king's house, to the king of Syria, to guard and help him against Baasha, the king of Israel ; and he imprisoned the prophet who reproved him for it. What is remarkable in Asa's death ? That in the disease of his feet (which is supposed to be the gout) he sought not the Lord, but only to the physicians; "and he slept with his fathers." How did his son Jehoshaphat behave himself in the kingdom ? He walked in the first and best ways of his father David, and God was with him. Wherein did Jehoshaphat particularly discover his piety and goodness ? He appointed Levitcs and priests throughout all the cities of Judah, to teach the law of the Lord ; and he set judges in the land, with a solemn charge to do justice without bribery. Wherein did God manifest his special favor to Jehoshaphat ? God gave him very great treasures, and thq fear of the Lord fell upon all the king- doms round about Judah, so that for many years they made no war upon him. Did Jehoram, the son of Jehoshaphat, imitate his father's government in piety ? By no means ; for he slew all his own brethren, he walked in the ways of Ahab, king of Israel, and took his daughter Athahah to wife. How did God testify his displeasure against Jehoram ? He smote Jehoram with such an incurable distemper that his bowels fell out, and he died of sore diseases. Who succeeded Jehoram in the king- dom ? Ahaziah, his youngest son, for all his eldest were slain in the camp by the Arabians. Who succeeded to the throne of Judah when Ahaziah was dead ? Athahah his mother seized the kingdom, and destroyed all the seed-royal of the house of Judah, except Joash, the son of Ahaziah, an infant of a year old, who was hid in the temple. How did Athaliah reign ? As she counselled her son Ahaziah before, so she herself practised the idolatry of the house of Ahab. What was the conduct of Joash in his government ? He did that which was right in the sight of the Lord all the days of Jehoiada the priest, who was his uncle ; he repaired the temple, and the vessels thereof, and restored the worship of God. How did Joash behave after Je- hoiada's death ? He was persuaded to change the worship of God for idols, and most ungratefully slew Zechariah the son of Jehoiada, because he reproved the idolatry of the people. In what manner did God punish him for his crime ? He sent an army of the Syrians against him, who pillaged the country ; he smote him with sore diseases, and at last his own servants slew him on his bed. How did Amaziah the son of Joash reigjn ? A SHORT VIEW OF SCRU'TURE HISTORf. 35 At first he seemed to work righteousness, and hearkened to the voice of God and his prophets ; but afterwards, gaining a victory over the Edomites, he learned to worship the gods of Edom. Wliat were the character and reign of Uzziah the king ? He was made king at sixteen years old, in the room of his father Amaziah ; he sought after God in the days of Zechariah the prophet, and God prospered his arms against all his enemies, and made his name great. Is there any thing very remarkable in the reign of Jotham the son of Uzziah ? He was a good king, and God blessed his arms, so that he brought the Am- monites under tribute. How did Ahaz, the son of Jotham, be- liave himself ? He Avalked in the ways of the kings of Israel, made images for Baal, and offered his children in sacrifice by fire, after the abominations of the heathen. How did God show his displeasure against Ahaz ? His land was invaded by the king of Syria, and by the king of Israel : multitudes of his peo- ple were slain, and many captives were carried to Damascus and to Samaria, though the Israelites restored their captives again at the word of the prophet Oded. What further iniquities of Ahaz are recorded ? That he set aside the brazen altar which was before the Lord, and set up another in the .court of the temple, according to the pattern of an altar he had seen at Damascus, and at last fell in with the idolatry of the heathen nations. Did Hezekiah, the son of Ahaz, continue in the sins of his father ? No ; but he made a great reformation, not only in J udah, but also in Ephraim and Manasseh ; he brake the images, cut down their groves, destroyed their altars, repaired the temple, and restored the worship of the true God there. What pecuhar instance did he give of his zeal against all manner of idolatry ? He broke in pieces the brazen serpent that Moses had made in the wilderne&s, because the people burnt incense to it. In what manner did he keep the passover ? He sent to all Israel, as well as to Judah, to invite them to keep the passover at Jerusalem, ac- cording to the appointment of God. Did the other tribes of Israel come at his invitation ? Some mocked the message, but many out of several tribes came to the passover, so that there was not the like since the time of Solomon. Were all these people sufficiently purified to keep the passover ? No ; but at the prayer of Hezekiah, the Lord pardoned and accepted them, though several things in this passover were not exactly con- formable to the holy institution. Wherein did God show his acceptance of Hezekiah's zeal and piety ? God prospered him m his wars against his enemies, and enabled him to cast off the yoke of the king of Assyria while he trusted in him. What 36 A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. weakness was Hezekiah guilty o( afterwards, when Sennacherib^ king of Assyria, invaded Judah ? He bribed him to depart with gold and silver taken from the house of God. What suc- cess had this conduct of Hezekiah ? Very ill success ; for, some years after, Sennacherib sent an irmy to take Jerusalem. What did Hezekiah do in this distress ? When Sennacherib sent Rabshakeh with blasphemies against God and threatenings against the people, Hezekiah humbled himself greatly, and spread the railing letter before the Lord in the temple, and prayed earnestly to God for deliverance. What was the suc- cess of Hezekiah's prayer ? Isaiah the prophet assured him of deliverance : and the angel of the Lord slew in the camp of the Assyrians one hundred and fourscore and five thousand men at once. Wherein did Hezekiah misbehave himself after he had received all this mercy ? In the vanity and pride of his heart, he showed the messengers of the king of Babylon all his treasures. How was Hezekiah's pride punished ? God told him by the prophet Isaiah, that all these treasures should be carried into Babylon : but because Hezekiah humbled himself, God deferred the execution of it till after his death. What was the character and the government of his son Manasseh ? He forsook the good ways of his father Hezekiah ; he brought in idolatry of many kinds ; he worshipped the sun, moon, and stars ; he made his son pass through the fire, he used enchant- ments, and shed much innocent blood. How were his trans- gressions punished ? The captains of the host of Assyria came up against Manasseh, took him among the thorns, bound him ■^th fetters, and carried him to Babylon. How did Manasseh behave in his affliction ? He humbled himself greatly before God in prayer, whereupon God restored him to his kingdom, where he wrought a great reformation. What is written con- cerning Amon the son of Manasseh ? Am on restored the idola- try which Manasseh had once set up, but he never repented or returned to God as his father had done, arid he was slain by his own servants. What is worthy of notice in the reign of Josiah the son of Amon ? At eight years old he began his reign ; at sixteen he sought after God ; and at twenty he de- stroyed the altar and idols which his father Amon, the son of Manasseh, had set up. How did he carry on this work of reformation ? He repaired the temple, and restored the wor- ship of God ; and finding a book of the law of the Lord • by Mosefj, he rent his clothes, and mourned to think how httle this law had been observed. What further use did he make of tliis book ? He read the words of it in the ears of all the elders of A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 37 Judah, and the people, the priests, and the prophets, and made a covenant with the people of Judah to perform what was writ- ten in this book. How came Josiah by his death ? He went out to fight with the king of Egypt, without the direction of God, and he was slain, and great lamentation was made for him. Who succeeded Josiah ? Eliakim, sometimes also called Je- hoiakim. Who succeeded Jehoiakim ? His son Jehoiachin. Was there any king in Judah after Jehoiachin ? Yes ; the last king was Zedekiah. What fell out in the days of Zedekiah ? He rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar, to whom he had sworn subjection by the name of the true God, whereupon Nebuchad- nezzar came up and took the city of Jerusalem again, after a siege of two years. What became of the city and temple at this time ? The king of Babylon burnt the temple of the Lord, the palace of the kings, and all the houses of Jerusalem : he broke down the walls of the city, and carried away the rest of the people captive ; together with all the vessels of gold, and silver, and brass, great and small, that belonged to the temple. Was there any ruler of the scattered people that remained in the land of Israel ? Gedaliah was made governor by the king of Babylon, but he was slain in a little time by a faction under Ishmael, one of the seed-royal ; and there was nothing but confusion and disorder in the land. What became of the people afterwards ? Johanan, the son of Kareah, one of the captains under Gedaliah, routed Ishmael and drove him out of the land ; yet being afraid of the anger of the king of Babylon, and his resentment of the murder of Gedaliah, his governor, he was tempted to fly into Egypt, and to carry most of the people thither with him, where they were dispersed into several cities. Did the Jews behave themselves better in Egypt after all their afflictions and distress ? They practised idolatry in Egypt with insolence, in opposition to the reproofs of Jeremiah the prophet, who foretold the return of only a small portion of them to the land of Judah, though he predicted the return of their brethren from their captivity in Babylon. How long did the nation of the Jews continue in their cap- tivity, and their land lie desolate ? Though the land lay not ut- terly destitute till the final destruction of Jerusalem in the days of Zedekiah, which was between fifty and sixty years before their first release ; yet, from their first captivity by Nebuchad- nezzar in former reigns, their land was in some measure desolate seventy years, according to the prophecy of Jeremiah. Who released them from their captivity in Babylon ? When Babylon was taken by Cyrus, the general of the army under Darius the 4 do A SHORT VIEW OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY king of the Medes, the Assyrian or Babylonish empire was fin- ished. After Darius's death, Cyrus became king of Persia, and he not only gave the Jews a release, but gave them also a commission to rebuild the temple, and restored to them the ves- sels of gold and silver ; and this he did by the hand of Shesh- bazzar, a prince of Judah. Which of the tribes accepted of this commission, and returned to their own land? Many persons and families of several tribes of Israel took this opportunity of returning ; yet it was chiefly those of Judah and Benjamin, with the priests and several of the Levites, who returned, and were now all united under the name of Jews. Who were the first leaders and directors ? Zerubbabel, a prince of Judah, of the seed-royal, whose Chaldaic or Babylonish name was Shesh- bazzar ; he was their prince or captain, and Jeshua or Joshua was their high-priest. What was the first thing they did after their return ? They made a large contribution towards the re- building of the temple ; they gathered themselves together to Jerusalem ; they set up the altar of the God of Israel, and offered sacrifices upon it. In what manner did they lay the foundation of the temple ? While the builders laid the founda- tion, the priests and the Levites sang and praised the Lord with trumpets and other instruments, after the ordinance of David. What remarkable occurrences attended the laying the founda- tion of the temple ? While the younger part of the people shouted for joy, many of the ancient fathers wept with a loud voice, when they remembered how much more glorious the first temple had been than the second was likely to be. What was the first hinderance they found in the building of the temph ? The Samaritans desired to join with them in their building, and because the Jews forbade them, they gave them continual trou- ble in the days of Cyrus. What was the second hinderance they met with ? When Artaxerxes I. came to the throne of Persia, these people wrote an accusation against the Jews that the city of Jerusalem had been rebellious in former times : whereupon Artaxerxes caused the work to cease till the second year of Darius. Who persuaded the Jews to go on with their work under the reign of this Darius ? The prophets of God which were with them encouraged and required them in the name of the Lord to go on with the work of the temple ; for several of them were too negligent, and God punished them for it with scarcity of corn and wine. When was the temple finished ? Through many delays, arising partly from tlie negligence of the Jews, and partly from the opposition of their enemies, it was twenty years in building : nor was it finished till the sixth year A SHORT VIEW OF SCllIPTURE HISTORY. 39 of the reign of Darius, at which time they dedicated it with man}' sacrifices, and kept the passover with joy. What did Ezra do in his journey to Jerusalem ? He proclaimed a day of fasting and prayer, to seek the assistance of God ; for he was ashamed to ask the king for soldiers to be their guard, because he had told the king of the power and the mercy of their God. What did Ezra do when he came to Jerusalem ? He delivered the orders of th'i king to the governors of the provinces, and the gold and silver to those who had the care of the building, and so promoted the work. What reformation did Ezra work among the people ? When he was informed that many of tlie Jews h^id mingled themselves in marriages with the heathen, he, to- gether with the more religious part of the Jews, humbled them- selves before God for all their former iniquities, in an excellent prayer, and brought them into a covenant and an oath to put away their strange wives. Did the Jews rebuild the city of Jerusalem ? Yes, for the Babylonian army had broken down the walls and burnt the gates of it. Whom did God raise up to carry on the rebuilding of the city ? ISTehemiah the Jew, who was cup-bearer to Artaxerxes the king of Peisia. How was Nehemiah engaged herein ? When he heard of the continuance of the desolation made by the enemies, he fasted and prayed to God, and then he obtained leave of Artaxerxes the king, to go up to Jerusalem, and rebuild the city of the sepulchres of his fathers. What further encouragement did Nehemiah receive from the king ? He received an order for the governors of the provinces to assist him, and to give timber out of the king's forest. How did Nehemiah begin his work ? He rode round the city by night, and took a private survey of the ruins thereof, and appointed a particular part of the walls and gates to be re- paired by particular persons and tlieir companies. What oppo- sition did the Jews meet with in this part of their work ? San- ballat the Samaritan, and Tobiah the Ammonite, and their accomplices, at first laughed the Jews to scorn, and then conspired to fight against them while they were at work. How did Nehemiah prevent the mischief they designed ? He en- couraged the Jews to trust in their God, and appointed every man that labored in the work to have a weapon to defend him- self. What reformation did Nehemiah work among them ? He reproved those that took usury, and oppressed their breth- ren ; and he set himself for an example, who, though he Avas governor twelve years, took no salary, iDut maintained himself and one hundred and fifty Jews at his own charge. How did they keep the feast of tabernacles ? By dwelhng in booths made 4C A SHORT viu'.v of scripture history. of branches of trees seven days together, as God had command- ed by Moses, and they read and explained the book of the law every day of the seven. How were the people disposed of in their habitations ? The rulers dwelt at Jerusalem, the rest of the priests and people cast lots to bring one in ten to dwell at Jerusalem, and nine parts in the other cities, that the land might be peopled. How was the wall of Jerusalem the holy city dedicated ? The Levites came from all places to Jerusalem, and joined with the priests and the rubers in two large com- panies, and gave thanks, and offered sacrifices, and sang the praises of God, so that the joy of Jerusalem was heard afar off. Had Nehemiah no prophet to assist him in this difficult work ? It is supposed that Malachi, the last of the prophets, prophesied about this time, for he doth not reprove them for neglect of building as Haggai did, nor does he speak of the finishing of the temple as Zechariah did. But supposing that already done, he reproved them about their marriage with strangers, and of several wives, or of taking concubines ; their robbing God of their tithes ; their polluting the altar and neglect of offering God the best ; which were the very things which Nehemiah corrected in his last reformation. Thus far the holy scripture has delivered down to us the history of the transactions of God with men, and particularly with his own people, the nation of Israel, in a long and continued succession of events, from the creation of the world to the return of the Jews from the captivity ol Babylon, and the settling of the church and stale under Nehemiah, whom the king of Persia made governor over the land. QUESTIONS, JTROlf THE EARLIEST TIME TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE IMPE- RIAL POWER IN ROME, COMPREHENDING A SKETCH OF GENERAl HISTORY. And oft conducted by Historic Truth, We tread the long extent of backward Time. Thomson's Spring. Name some of the most ancient kingdoms. CLaldea, Baby- Ionia, Assyria, China in Asia, and Egypt in Africa. Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, is supposed to have founded the first of these, B. c. 2221, as well as the fiimous cities of Babylon and Nineveh ; his kingdom being withm the fertile plains of Chaldea, THE EGYPTIANS AND PHCENICIANS. 41 Cbalonitis, and Assyria, was of small extent compared with the vast empires that afterwards arose from it, but included several large cities. In the district called Babylonia were the cities of Babylon, Barsita, Idicarra, and Vologsia. When Ninus con- quered Babylon the Chaldean monarchy was united to the Assyrian. For what were the Chaldeans remarkable ? They were the first people who worked in metals, and were acquainted with astronomy : their priesthood practised medicine, interpreted dreams, and professed magic and astrology. What is the present state of Chaldea and Babylon? Those once fertile plains are now sterile, and the remains of the famous city con- sists of great fragments and piles of brickwork, that serve as quarries for the construction of other cities. When does the authentic history of the Chinese commence ? About 3000 years before Christ. The reign of Fohi commenced b. c. 220*7. It describes that people as a wandering horde, living in the forests of Shen-see, at the foot of the Tartar mountains, upon the spoils of the chase ; one of their chiefs, Swee-gin-shjie, dis- covered, accidentally, the production of fire by the friction of two pieces of dry wood, and taught them to look up to Tien, the creating and destroying power. What nation introduced regular government ? The Egyptians, in the time of Jacob ; they first gave mankind the principles of civil order, and to them we are indebted for the useful and elegant arts. To whom did the Egyptians communicate their discoveries ? To the Greeks ; the Greeks to the Romans, from whom the other European nations received their first ideas of civilization and refinement. What people introduced the arts of commerce ? The Egyptians ; they also were first acquainted with the implements of hus- bandry. Who improved the state of commerce ? The Phoe • nicians, who Hved in Palestine, (the Holy Land,) and were, even in the time of Abraham, considered as a powerful nation. What were the extent and character of their country ? It contained 4,232 square miles, was intersected by the woody ridges of Lebanon and Anti-Libanus, and, although possessing many large cities, never formed a single state. Its most ancient city, Sidon, now Saida, was famous for its manufacture of glass ; and. Old Tyre, a colony from Sidon, for its purple dye : a later Tyre was built upon an island, which Alexander, when he besieged it, converted into a peninsula. In what state was Europe at this early period ? The inhabitants were savage, wild, and bar- barous ; totally uninstructed and uninformed, having little or no jitercourge with the civilized part of mankind. What king improved the civil and miUtary estabhshments of the Egyptians ? 42 THE DEATH OF CODRUS. Sesostris : he succeeded that Amenophis (or Pharaoh) who was drowned in the Red Sea ; and, by the wisdom of liis laws and government, his kingdom became the most powerful then known. What part of Europe was first civihzed ? Athens, where Cecrops landed with an Egyptian colony, about 1550 b. c, and introduced order and harmony among the original inhabit- ants. Who was Amphictyon? 'The third king of Athens; endowed with uncommon genius and strength of mind ; he lived about 1496 years before Christ, and contrived to unite, in one common system of poUtics, the states of Greece. How did he effect this ? By engaging twelve of the Grecian cities to join for tlieir mutual advantage, sending each two deputies to Thermopylce twice a year, wiio debated there, and were called the Amphictyonic council. What was the end effected by tliis council? Its determinations answered the best purposes, as every thing, relative to the general interests of the cities repre- sented, was there discussed ; by these means the Greeks were able to preserve their liberty and independence from the attacks of the Persian empire. What other employments had the Am- phictyons ? They took care of the treasures, amassed by the voluntary contributions of those who consulted the oracle, in the temple of Delphos. Which of the Grecian cities first acquired superior power ? Athens ; for Theseus, king of that place, invited strangers to reside there, instituted new religious rites, and promised protection and friendship to such as should prefer his dominions to the neighboring states. How did Theseus further promote his country's benefit ? He divided the Athe- nians into three classes ; nobility, tradesmen, and husbandmen : the two latter, from the encouragement given to arts and agri- culture, had great weight in the state, and soon became opulent and considerable. Erectheus, an Athenian king, the first of the name, raised an image of Minerva, of olive-wood, in Cecropia, and instituted festivals called Athenaea, in honor of the goddess, to be celebrated by the twelve Attic cities. How long were the Athenians governed by kings ? Till the death of the self-devoted Codrus, in the year b. c. 10*70, when they pro- claimed that Jupiter alone should be king of Athens ; about the same time the Thcbans established a republic ; and tlie Jews weary of a theocracy, petitioned to be governed by kings. How did the Athenians conduct their republic ? For more than 300 years their supreme magistrate was called an archon, whose office continued for life ; at length, thinking the power of these archons too great, they chose nine of these magistrates, who THE LAWS OF LYCURGUS. 43 were elected annually: Medon, the son of Codrus, was the first archon. Who first gave the Athenians written laws ? Draco, one of their archons ; but these laws were afterwards revised by Solon. What did Solon for his country ? He revived the Areopagus, (a court of justice instituted by Cecrops ;) restored and augmented its authority ; and its reputation was so exten- sive, that even the Romans referred causes, too intricate for their own decision, to the determination of this tribunal. Who were honored with a place in this court of justice ? In the time of Cecrops, such citizens as were eminently famed for virtue were constituted judges there ; but Solon ordained that none should preside in the Areopagus who had not passed the office of archon. How was Sparta then governed ? By two kings, who reign- ed jointly ; their power was very limited, and their chief use was to head the army in military expeditions. When were the Spartan laws new-modelled? 884 years b. c, by Lycurgus. What was remarkable in his laws? He eff"ected an equal division of lands among the Spartans, dispensed with the use of gold and silver, trained the youth in perfect obedience and military discipline, and ordered " that particular respect should be paid to the aged." In what fight were the Spartans con- sidered ? Entirely as a warlike nation ; but they were forbid- den to attack or oppress their neighbors without provocation, and v/ere only allowed to defend themselves against the inroads of other states. What was the great defect in the Spartan laws? Lycurgus directed his attention to form a nation of soldiers, wholly neglecting the culture of the mind : thus the sciences were banished, and the Spartans, owing to their rough- ness and austerity, were little esteemed by their more polished neighbors. Hoav long did the laws of Lycurgus subsist ? More than 500 years. How were the Egyptians then govern- ed ? By a succession of weak kings, till the monarchy was quite overthrown by Cambyses, king of Persia, (this happened 300 years after the death of Lycurgus ;) it continued annexed to the Persian dominions for 200 years more, when Alexander made it part of the Macedonian empire. How did the Egyp- tians become such an easy prey to the Persians ? They had long been accustomed to a polished life ; had neglected to for- tify their cities sufficiently, so as to stop the progress of an enemy ; their manners were effeminate, and their courage doubtful; while the Persians, just emerging from barbarism, brave and warlike, pushed on their conquests with ardor and rapidity. 44 ROME FOUNDED. What reniarkaLle events befell the kingdom of Babylon about this period ? Nebuchadnezzar had overthrown the Jewish monarchy, and led the Jews into captivity. Cyrus the Great, in the reign of Belshazzar, grandson of Nebuchadnezzar, besieged Babylon with a powerful army ; the city, as the prophets had foretold, was taken, and Belshazzar killed in his palace. What happened to the Grecian states upon the death of Cyrus ? The succeeding Persian monarchs continued the war with the Greeks, who, in many hard-fought battles, had opportunities for the exercise of those virtues which the freedom of their government inspired. Which side proved victorious ? During the reigns of Xerxes and Darius the contest was doubtful, but the Greeks at length established their ascendency over the Persians. Did the Greeks improve these victories ? No ; they had many divisions among themselves, and the famous Pelopon- nesian war weakened both their virtue and military force ; then Philip, king of Macedon, an artful and enterprising prince, em- braced this favorable opportunity for enlarging his own power, and, by bribery and promises, gained such numbers to his in- terest, that, after the battle of Cheronea, fought against him by the Greeks, (as the last eflfort of expiring liberty,) they fell entire- ly into his hands. What put an end to Philip's ambitious schemes ? His sudden death ; being assassinated by Pausanias, whom the Persians hired to commit the act. Who succeeded Philip ? His son Alexander, whom all the Grecian states, but Thebes and Athens, had chosen general of their united forces, against Darius ; in three pitched battles, Granlcus, Issus, and Arbela, he conquered the Persian monarch, and established the Macedonian empire upon the ruins of the Persian. What be- came of Alexander ? He died in the prime of life, in the midst of a rapid career of glory, at Babylon, in the year b. c. 323. What progress did the Greeks make in the arts ? From the time of Cyrus to that of Alexander they were gradually im- proving: warriors, statesmen, philosophers, poets, historians, painters, architects, and sculptors, form a glorious phalanx in this golden age of Hterature ; and the history of the Greeks at this period is equally important and instructive. When was Rome founded ? About 752 years before Christ, by Romulus : this city, the fame of which extended through the known world, was at first only a mile in circumference, and inhabited by those who sought a refuge there from other places, driven by their necessities or their crimes. What was the char- acter of Romulus ? He had great military talents ; and, as he ftnd his followers drew their subsistence from war, his plan was, CARTHAGE THE RIVAL OF ROME. 45 after conquering the surrounding states, to unite them to Rome, adopting their improvements in arts or arms ; thus, from every successful war liis city gained fresh strength, power, and repu- tation. How long did the regal power subsist in Rome ? 243 years, when Tarquin the Proud incurred the hatred of the Ro- mans for his vices, and was ignominiously expelled. How were the Romans then governed ? By two aunual magistrates, called consuls ; their power being of such short duration, each en- deavored to distinguish himself by some warlike action, and the people were perpetually led out against some new enemy. What powerful state contended with Rome ? Carthage ; which had been settled by a colony of Phoenicians some time before the building of Rome ; and, animated by the spirit of its founders, was now become of the first commercial importance. When did the famous Punic wars begin? 264 years before Christ : after long and frequent struggles Carthage acknow- ledged the superior power of her rival, and her own as rapidly declined, u. c. 146 Carthage was razed to the ground. How were the principal parts of the known world occupied at that time ? While Rome and Carthage were contending for empire, Greece, Egypt, and Asia were agitated by the quarrels of Alexander's successors, at whose death the extensive domin- ions acquired by him were portioned into four shares, and the proper way of dividing them was an affair occasioning continual disputes. From the sanguinary conflicts for the vacant throne three mighty empires arose : the Egyptian, founded by Ptolemy, from whom sprung a race of wise and learned monarchs ; the Syrian, estabhshed by Seleucus, and ruled after him by his descendants ; and the Macedonian, over which Antigonus and his posterity reigned until the Roman intrusion. How did the Romans acquire dominion in Greece ? The ^tolians (a Gre- cian state) called them over to assist in lessening the power of Philip, one of the Macedonian kings ; the Romans compelled him to resign the forts he had erected, and the Grecian cities were again declared free. Were the Greeks really free ? No ; their liberty was no more than a name ; for Philip becoming tributary to the Romans, the Grecian states dependent upon him were so too. What were the terms of this kind of subjective alliance ? Rome allowed them the possession of their owr ter- ritories and form of government ; and, under the specious name of allies, they were obliged to comply with the most humihating conditions. When were Macedonia and Greece first considerec? as Roman provinces ? Macedonia, in the year b. c. 148 Greece, two years after, by the name of Achaia. 46 ATHENS, SPARTA, THEBES. What monarch yielded last to the Romans ? Mithiidatea, king of Pontus, in Asia Minor ; he was vanquished successively? by Sylla, Lucullus, and Pompey ; and at length bereft of his dominions and his life. What general extended the Roman empire ? Caius Marius ; he vanquished Jugurtha, king of Numidia, in Africa ; released Italy, and made the barbarians m the north of Europe tributaiy to his power. Who stretched the Roman power to its utmost hmits ? Julius Ca3sar ; he conquered Egypt, Asia, Spain, France, and invaded Britain. What befell Caesar ? Owing to the constant di\-isions of the senate and people, and his own excessive thirst of power, he was assassinated, b. c. 44, by those who called themselves the friends of the people ; and Octavius Caesar, his kinsman, by a train of fortunate events, obtained the diadem which Julius had so earnestly desired and bled for. When was Octavius Caesar declared emperor ? In the year of the republic V24 : the Carthaginian, Persian, Macedonian, and Grecian glory, was now no more ; all nations courted his alliance ; and, conqueror both by sea and land, he extended the olive-branch, and closed the temple of Janus, for the third time since its erection by Numa ''^ompilius. What is the present state of Egypt ? It was taken by the Saracens, in the sixth century, and afterwards by the Turks, under whose government it now remains ; the Pacha, Mehemet Ah, rendered himself independent of the Sultan, and the pachalic is now hereditary in his family. He pays a tribute to the Porte. What is the Porte ? The government of the Sultan of Constantinople is called the " Subhme Porte." What is the present state of Athens? After the Romans, the Venetians possessed it ; it next became subject to the Turks, who exer- cised so much cruelty and injustice in their administration, that the inhabitants, although not without a sanguinary struggle, threw off the Turkish yoke in 1828, and set up a provisional government, which was finally succeeded by a monarchy under Otho, a Bavarian prince, in 1832. Sparta has also experienced the sam3 revolutions. What is the present state of Macedon and Thebes ? After their conquest by the Romans they fell into the hands of the Turks, who still keep possession of these territories. Persia became first a prey to the Saracens, then to the Tartars. What revolutions has Rome expeiienced ? From the time of Augustus Caisar it was governed by a succession of emperors till the year of our Lord 410 ; it was then plun- dered by the Goths, afterwards by the Vandals; at length Charlemagrje, king of France and emperor of Germany, havint' ROME, THE PAPAL RESIDENCE. 47 given this city to the Popes, they fixed upon it as the seat of their power ; but it has been entered and despoiled by the modern French, who compelled Pius VI. to abandon it : it was occupied by the French in 1*798, who caused its annexation to the Roman republic ; carried pope Pius VI. to France, where he died, and obliterated his temporal kingdom. The presence of the victorious armies of Russia and Austria in Italy favored the election of Pius VII. to the papal chair, in 1800 ; but he resigned a great part of his temporal authority by the terms of a concordat which he concluded with Napoleon, first consul of France, the following year, and the remainder was added to France in 1808 ; a pension of 2,000,000 francs was settled on the pope for the maintenance of his ecclesiastical dignity : by a decree of the French government even the ecclesiastical state of the papal kingdom was terminated, and Pius VII. detained in France until 1814, when he was restored to his ancient dignity by the downfall of Napoleon and overthrow of the French empire. Rome once more became the asylum of fallen princes, of proscribed families, and the seat of the fine arts, and Gregory XVI., who succeeded Pius VII., has not abridged the liberties of its inhabitants. The present pope, who succeeded to the popedom in 1846, is still more liberal in his views, and has increased the liberties of the people. MIISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS GRECIAN HISTOEY. Here studious let me sit, And hold high converse with the mighty dead, Sages of ancient time, as gods revered ; As gods beneficent, who blessed mankind With arts, with arms, and humanized a world. Thomson's Wintbr. How may the Grecian history be divided ? Into four ajres. The first extends 1000 years, from the building of Sicyon to the siege of Troy ; the second, from the demofition of Troy to the reign of Darius, (when the Greciar and Persian history mingle,) containing six hundred years' the third, from the 48 SIEGE OF TROY. beginning of the reign of Darius to the death of Alexander, comprehending the most important part of Grecian history ; and the fourth begins at the death of Alexander, and continues through the gradual declension of the Grecian power till totally reduced by the Romans. .Which were the most considerable states in Greece ? Sicyon was the most ancient, its first king, Agialeus, being contemporary with Noah ; Argos, whose king, Inachus, was contemporary with Abraham and Nimrod ; Atliens, founded by Cecrops, an Egyptian ; Sparta, or Lacedemon, so called from a son of Jupiter and Taygeta ; Corinth, Thebes, founded by Cadmus, a Phoenician, 1500 years before Christ ; Macedon, which subsisted as a kingdom from its foundation till the defeat of Perseus, by the Romans, 162 years before Christ, a space of 626 years ; Thrace, and Epirus. How many dialects were used among the Greeks ? Four ; the Attic, Ionic, Doric, and ^olic. Which was the most elegant ? The Attic, spoken in Athens and its vicinity ; Thucydides, Isocrates, Xenophon, Plato, Aristophanes, and Demosthenes, wrote in it. Which was the dialect next esteemed ? The Ionic, spoken chiefly in Asia Minor : Herodotus and Hippocrates wrote in it. What nations spoke the Doric dialect ? The Spartans, Sicilians, Dorians, Rhodians, and Cretans : Theocritus, Pindar, ' and Archimedes, wrote in it. What states used the JEolic dialect ? First, the Beotians ; afterwards the Cohans, who lived in Asia Minor. Why was the Grecian expedition against Troy under- taken ? To recover Helen, the beautiful queen of Sparta, who had been carried off by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy. Who commanded this expedition ? Agamemnon, a Grecian king, brother of Menelaus, king of Sparta : Nestor and Ulysses, who both served in his army, are said to have assisted him by their wise counsels : Achilles, Ajax, and Diomede, are repre- sented as the bravest of his generals. Troy, after a siege of ten years, was taken by the Greeks. What was the Areopagus ? The place where the Areopagites, or Athenian judges, assem- bled to debate in : it was for many years after its first institution famed for the justice of its decrees : Cecrops, kiog of Athens, instituted this court ; he also regulated marriage ceremonies among the Greeks, making them binding for life. Who was the first king of Thebes ? Cadmus, its founder : Thebes after- wards became a republic, and the city was at length dismantled by the Romans. What was meant by the term Beotarch ? All magistrates and generals, who had supreme command in Thebes, were called Beotarchs, or governors of Bcotia. For what were the Beotians noted ? For their heaviness and stupid GRECIAN GAMES. 49 ity : Plutarch, Epaminondas, and Pindar, are however great exceptions to this rule. Who was Lycurgus ? The Spartan lawgiver : to his exertions and useful decrees the Spartans were indebted for their discipline, and much of their valor. What effects did his laws produce ? The Spartans became brave, active, and noble-minded ; and were inspired with a peculiar readiness to defend their lives and liberties. What great exam- ple did Lycurgus give of patience and ready forgiveness of mjurics ? That of pardoning Alcander, a Spartan youth, who in a tuLiult struck out one of his eyes : Lycurgus even took hin into nis house, and treated him with the greatest kindness. V/here did iron pass as current coin ? In Sparta : Lycurgus established this regulation to check any improper desire which the Lacedemonians might show for riches. Who were the Helots ? Lacedemonian slaves, who tilled the ground and did all servile drudgery : the severe treatment of their masters frequently urged them to revolt ; and their lives were then at the disposal of those whom they served. The Spartans, to show their children the enormity of drunkenness, used to expose their slaves to them in that condition. What were the Gym- nasia ? Academies, in which the Athenians were taught the use of arms, and all manly exercises. Which was the most polished city in Greece ? Athens. What was the character of the Athenians ? Glory, liberty, and interest were their dar- ling passions ; but their liberty frequently degenerated into licentiousness : they were capricious and ambitious ; excelled in the art of navigation ; and were the general patrons of the liberal arts. What was the Neomenia ? A feast solemnized in honor of the new mo6n, among the Hebrews, Egyptians, Per- sians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. What was the lo Pean ? A hymn of triumph, celebrated in honor of Apollo. Who was Homer ? The earliest and best Grecian poet ; he wrote the Iliad, which gives an account of the last year's siege of Troy ; and the Odyssey, which relates the adventures of Ulysses. What were the Olympic games* ? They are said to have been instituted by Hercules, among the Greeks, in honor of Jupiter^ upon the plains of Elis, now called Antilala, near the city of Olympia ; they were revived by Iphitus, of Elis, before Christ 884 years, and by Choraebus, 776, from which date the Olym- piads are reckoned ; they consisted of boxing, running, chariot- races, wrestling, and quoiting, and were celebrated at the com- mencement of every fifth year. At first, no women were per- mitted to be present, but this law was repeajeci. What were the Isthmian games ? They were cele|3rated every third (sonie 5 " ' 50 GRECIAN HISTPRT. say every fourth) year, in honor of Paloemon, or, as othei-s say, of Neptune, by the Greeks, upon the Isthmus of Corinth. What were the Pythian and Nemaean games ? The Pythian were celebrated in the Crissean fields, at first every nine years, in honor of Apollo, after he had slain the serpent Python ; but afterwards, every five years, by command of the assembly of Amphictyons ; and the Nemsean derived their name from Nema3, a small town of Argolis, in Peloponnesus ; they were probably instituted by Adrastus, in honor of Hercules, who is said to have destroyed the Hon of the Nemaean forest, and were solemnized every two years. What were originally the rewards of the victors in all these games ? A simple ^vreath. In the Olympic games, which were accounted the most honorable, because sa- cred to Jupiter, and instituted by the first of their heroes, this wreath was composed of wild olive ; in the Pythian, of laurel ; and in the Isthmian and Nemaean games, of parsley ; honor, not interest, being the best reward of great exertions. What in- fluenced the Greeks to keep up the commemoration of these games ? As each of them was dedicated to the memory of some god, or hero, they were considered both in a rehgious and political light ; and these frequent assemblies of the Grecian states united them more closely, and strengthened their mutual interests. Who was Thales? An ancient geographer, and founder of the Ionic sect of philosophers, so named from Ionia, where he was born ; they held many singular opinions, one of which was, that water was the principle of being, and that God formed all things by water : Thales fixed the term and duration of the solar year among the Grecians. Who was Draco ? The first rigid legislator of Athens. Who was Solon ? One of the seven sages of Greece ; the reformer of Draco's code : his laws were held in high estimation. Name the Grecian sages. Thales, Solon, Chile, (a Lacedemonian,) Pittacus, Bias, Cleobu- lus, Periander : Anacharsis (the Scythian) has also been classed by some among the sages, and he appears to merit the distinc- tion. Who was Pythagoras ? A native of Samos, and a hea- then philosopher ; he taught the transmigration of souls, and was the founder of the Pythagorean sect. Who was Pisistratus ? An aspiring Athenian, who usurped the government of Athens, during the absence of Solon. Who built and destroyed the famous temple of Diana, at Ephesus ? Ctesiphon, the cele- brated architect, built, and Erostratus burnt it. When was the battle of Marathon? 490 years before Christ, between the Persians and Athenians; the Greeks gained a signal victory. This was the first great battle in which the Greeks were evei OSTRACISM. 51 engaged: they were familiar with civil contests, often termi- nated by an easy accommodation ; this was with an array of 120,000 men, and with the greatest monarch in the world. Why did the Persians invade the Grecian states ? The Atheni- ans having, 500 years before Christ, taken and burnt the city of Sardis, Darius, king of Persia, led his subjects on to revenge the affront. How did the Athenians honor Miltiades, who commanded their forces at Marathon ? Polygnotus, a famous painter, some time after the battle, presented the Athenian state with a picture representing this celebrated action; the most conspicuous figure was Miltiades, at the head of the ten com- manders, exhorting them to victory or death : this picture was preserved for many ages, and hung in the porch where the Stoic philosophers assembled. Was this the only recompense awarded Miltiades ? Yes : in those times glorious actions ob- tained no higher reward than the fame attending them. Did the Athenians retain their sense of gratitude to Miltiades ? No : this fickle people threw him into prison, upon a false accusation of treachery to his country, and he was condemned to lose his life in the most ignominious manner, but this sentence was mitigated to paying a fine of 50,000 crowns : not being able to pay this, he was never liberated from prison, but died there of the wounds he received in his country's service. How did his son Cimon signalize his filial piety on this occasion ? By raising the money among his friends and relations, and thus purchasing permission to inter his father's body: Cimon afterwards dis- tinguished himself at the battle of Eurymedon. What marks of esteem did Polygnotus receive from Greece ? Having painted many pictures at Delphos, and presented the Athenians with some excellent ones representing the Trojan war, he was hon- ored with the solemn thanks of all Greece, conveyed to him by the Amphictyonic council ; apartments free of expense were destined him in all the Grecian cities ; and he was presented with crowns of gold. What was the Ostracism ? A law intro- duced into Athens by Clisthenes, one of its chief magistrates ; its original intention was to prevent the excesses of ambition, by banishing, for the space of ten years, those citizens whose dis- tinguished talents led them to wish for pre-eminence over their countrymen : the sentence of the law ran thus, " If any one aim at obtaining superiority over his fellow -citizens, let him go, and excel elsewhere." Why was this law termed the ostracism ? From the custom which prevailed of writing the name of the person they wished to exile upon an oyster-shell ; and he whose name was most frequently inscribed upon these shells, was 52 GRECIAN HEROES. adjudged to suffer this punishment ; but, as many of the best citizens were exiled by this law, its impohcy and bad tendency were at last perceived, and it was repealed. What was the petahsm ? A sentence of much the same nature as the ostra- cism ; it took its name from the decree being written upon an olive leaf ; was in force among the Sicihans ; and this banish- ment lasted twelve years. Where ran the river Eurotas? Through Peloponnesus and the Lacedemonian states ; it washed the walls of Sparta, whose inhabitants, from frequently plunging into its waves, acquired much of their strength and vigor. What were the peculiarities of Spartan conversation ? Brevity and conciseness : a laconic answer is a proverb. What ancient states had their meals in public ? The Spartans and the Cre- tans. Which of the Spartan kings made the bravest defence against the enemies of his country ? Leonidas, at the straits of Thermopylae ; he, with 300 Spartans, engaged the Persians, under the conduct of Xerxes, with 100,000 men : Leonidas and his brave fellow-soldiers were all killed, except one man, who jfled back to Sparta, where he was treated with deserved con- tempt, till he made amends for his cowardice at the battle of Platea. What were the words on the monument erected to the memory of Leonidas and his brave companions ? " Go, passen- ger, and tell at Sparta, that we died here, in obedience to her sacred laws." Between whom was the battle of Artemisium ? This naval engagement was between the Persians and the Greeks, on the very day that the Spartans and Persians were engaged at the straits of Thermopylae ; the success was doubtful. What was Athos ? A famous peninsular mountain in Macedonia ; Xerxes, in his expedition against the Grecian states, ordered a passage to be cut through it. Which of the Athenians have best contributed to their country's glory ? Theseus, Miltiades, Cimon, Themistocles., Aristides, and Pericles: Aristides was famed particularly for his justice. What testimony did Plato give to his merit ? This : " Themistocles, Cimon, and Pericles," said Plato, " have enriched Athens with statues, edifices, and pubhc ornaments, but Aristides with virtue." Where did Themistocles acquire the greatest honors ? At Salamis : this was the most signal victory gained by the Greeks over the Per- sians. What was the prevailing custom among the Athenians after a battle ? The commanders declared who had distinguish- ed themselves most, and best deserved the prize of victory, (a laurel crown,) by writing their names upon a slip of paper : after the battle of Salamis, each general adjudged the first priz< k) himself, the second to Themistocles, thus tacitly givin^f him » TROPHIES OF VICTORY. 53 decided preference to all. What honors did Themistocles re- ceive ? The prize of wisdom was decreed him ; the Spartans presented to him the best chariot in their city, and commanded 300 of their young men to attend him to the frontiers of their state; when he appeared at the Olympic games, the whole assembly rose in compliment to him ; all eyes were directed to Themistocles, and this involuntary homage from a countless multitude must have been infinitely more jflattering to a great mind than the most eloquent orations in his favor. What privileges were granted, in the last ages of the Athenian re- public, to those who had deserved well of their country ? They were made free of the city, and exempted from giving public feasts and shows, which often amounted to great sums : these immunities in some cases were extended to their posterity ; and they were frequently honored by the erection of statues to their memory. What funeral ceremonies were observed by the Athenians ? The bones of those citizens who had fallen in battle, after being strewed with perfumes and flowers, were ex- posed three days in an open tent ; they were then enclosed in coffins, and carried round the city. Where were these bones finally laid ? In a pubhc monument called the Ceramicus : here were deposited in all ages those who had fallen in battle, except the warriors of Marathon, who, to immortalize their un- common valor, were buried there. What were the trophies so frequently mentioned in ancient history ? They were, among the Greeks, wooden monuments, erected in the place where some signal victory had been obtained, and either were adorned with real arms, and colors taken from the enemy, or had war- like instruments carved upon them : the block of white marble which the Persians brought into the field, to erect as a trophy should they prove victorious at Marathon, was converted by Phidias into a Nemesis, or goddess of revenge. Why did the Greeks choose wood for their trophies ? From this noble mo- tive ; they were unwilling to eternize the memory of feuds and state quarrels, and therefore preferred wood to a more durable substance, that as national animosities in time decayed, the re- membrance of them might do so too. -ff How long did the first war between the Persians and Greeks continue ? Fifty-one years. Who was Pericles ? A celebrated Athenian general and orator. How did Pericles show his public spirit in Athens ? By improving and beautifying the city con- siderably, under the direction of the celebrated Phidias : Pericles, hearing that the Athenians murmured at this disposal of the public money, ofiered himself to defray all necessary expenses, 6* 64 THE THIRTY TYRANTS. pro\ided his name were recorded upon the public edifices. Did the Athenians suffer this? No: they felt the intended re- buke, and afterwards allowed him whatever suras he thought proper. What were the last words of Pericles ? "I am sur- prised," said he, speaking to the friends who surrounded his bed, and were relating his great exploits to each n^her, *' that you should forget the most meritorious circumstance of my hfe : I never caused any one citizen to mourn on my account." It cannot, however, be forgotten, that it was he who procured the revival of an obsolete law, declaring no person a citizen of Athens whose parents, both father and mother, had not been Athenian citizens also ; in consequence of which, 5,000 individuals, who had before been free, were sold as slaves. Which were the chief works of Phidias ? A Minerva, erected in the city of Athens, and a Jupiter Olympius, sixty feet high, made of gold and ivory : Phidias, exasperated at his countrpnen's in- gratitude to him, presented his Jupiter to the Eleans, a neigh- boring nation. What was the Peloponnesian war, and its cause ? A contest carried on between the Spartans and Peloponnesian states (the Argives and Achaeans excepted) on one side, and the Athenians and Grecian cities of Asia on the other. It was excited by the conduct of the Athenians in aiding the Corcyre- ans against the Corinthians, broke out 431 years before Christ, lasted for twenty-seven years, and ended in the most complete overthrow of the Athenian power : the history of this war is related by Thucydides and Xenophon. What particular calamity befell the Athenians at this period ? A terrible plague raged in Athens, 430 years before Christ : the famous physician, Hippocrates, then distinguished himself by his care of the sick, and greatly increased his reputation. What was the Odeon ? A musical theatre, erected in Athens, by command of Pericles : it was ornamented by the celebrated Phidias : the Greeks con- sidered music as one of the essentials in the education of their children. How was the style of the historian Herodotus dis- tinguished? By its elegance and simplicity. What honors did Herodotus receive from the Greeks? When he read his history at the Olympic games, the Greeks, after bestowing upon this celebrated work unbounded applause, gave to each separate book the name of one of tlie nine muses. Who was Lysander ? A Lacedemonian general, and the conqueror of Athens : towards the conclusion of the Peloponnesian war, he established thirty magistrates, known by the appellation of the thirty tyrants : wealth in their eyes was the greatest crime ; thoy seized wherever they found i :, and are said to have put more to death XENOPHON AGESILAUS. 55 in eight months than the enemies of Athens had done during the continuance of a long war. Who was Thrasybulus ? A noble Athenian, who after attacking and defeating the thirty tyrants who then usurped the government of Athens, and re- storing freedom, passed an act of amnesty, (or general pardon,) by which the citizens engaged, upon oath, to bury all past trans- actions in oblivion. Which of the Grecian philosophers was most famed for his virtues and liberal opinions ? Socrates : history records an action of his, truly heroic. When unjustly sentenced to death by the Athenians, he refused to escape from prison, although an opportunity presented itself, since it was contrary to the standing laws of his country. ^Vhy was the Isle of Delos famed ? The common treasures of Greece were there deposited, and the Athenians were accustomed to send a ship, every year, to offer sacrifices at Delos : the laws forbade any person being put to death in Athens, from the time of this ship's departure till its return. What great man was once sentenced to die at Athens, before these sacrifices left the city ? Socrates: the execution of his sentence was suspended for thirty days, after Avhich he was compelled to drink hemlock. Were the Athenians ever sensible of his merit ? Yes : the Delphic oracle had before declared him the wisest of mankind ; and, after his decease, great honors were paid him ; a statue (the work of Lysippus) Avas erected to his memory ; and, at length, Socrates was worshipped as a demigod. Who was Xenophon ? A famous historian, philosopher, and warrior, who commanded the 10,000 Greeks, in their celebrated retreat to their own country from Asia, after the battle of Cunaxa. What was the favorite diversion of the Athenians ? Hunting : it was so highly esteemed at Athens, that Xenophon wrote a treatise purposely to display the advantages resulting from an exercise which enatles its followers to suffer hunger, cold, heat, and thirst, with equal indifference. Who was Agesilaus ? A valiant king of Sparta, who defeated the Persian army near Sardis, and the Thebans in the plains of Cunaxa ; he was assassinated on the coast of Lydia, in the eighty-fourth year of his age, return- ing from the conquest of Egypt. Who were the Ephori ? Spartan magistrates : nine were elected, but five had the power of acting collectively ; all, even kings, were compelled to appear before them upon any cliarge of mal-administration ; they regu- lated religious rites, made peace and war, and had the custody of all the public treasures. What celebrated action is recorded of these Ephori ? They were such strict disciplinarians, that they fined one of their valiant soldiers for gaining a victory un- 66 THE SACRED WAR. armed ; the youth was bathing, when he heard the sound oi the trumpet, and rushed from the bath to head the troops imder his command : after gaining the victory, the magistrates decreed him a crown of laurel for the courage he had shown, but fined him for not staying to put on his armor. What superstitious rites had the Athenians ? Feasts celebrated in honor of Adonis ; the whole city then appeared in mourning, and funeral pro- cessions of images, representing dead persons, were carried about the streets. To what amusement were the Athenians most partial ? To theatrical entertainments, in the representa- tion of which they excelled. What were the Anthesteria? Festivals, in which the slaves were entertained. What was the Barathrum ? A public pit in Athens, into which those con- demned to die were thrown. What was the Lyceum ? Anciently a temple dedicated to Apollo ; afterwards converted into a public school, in Athens, where the orators declaimed. Who was Epaminondas ? A celebrated Theban general, the contemporary and friend of Pelopidas ; they jointly gained the battle of Leuctra ; Epami- nondas commanded at Mantinea alone, where he bravely fell, in his last moments breathing an ardent wish for the glory and safety of his country. Where stood Pella ? This city, famed as the birthplace of King Philip, and Alexander his son, was anciently the capital of Macedonia. What Grecians distin- guished themselves against J^hilip of Macedon, by their speeches and writings ? Lycurgus, the orator, Demades, and the cele- brated Demosthenes, whose orations were called phihppics, from Phihp, king of Macedon, against whom they were directed. Who rivalled Demosthenes in eloquence ? Eschines, the orator ; but being in the interest of the Macedonian king, he was com- pelled to withdraw to Rhodes and Samos, and opened a school of rhetoric, in which he had the magnanimity to recite the ora- tions of his rival for the instruction of his scholars. When was the social war, or war of the aUies ? 358 years before Christ, carried on by several Grecian nations, for the purpose of throw- ing oflF the Athenian yoke, and re-establishing independent states. What occasioned the sacred war ? The Phoceans, who in- habited those territories near Delphos, had ploughed up some land consecrated to Apollo; for this supposed sacrilege they were sentenced by the Amphictyonic council to pay a heavy fine ; and upon their refusal a war broke out, in which most of the Grecian states were engaged, called the sacred war. What sides did the Greeks take in this quarrel ? The Spartans and A.thenians assisted the Phoceans; the Beotians, Locrians, and ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 57 Tbessalians, sided with the Amphictyons. When was the battle of Cheronaea ? In the reign of Philip of Macedon ; by the event of this battle Philip became master of Greece. Where was the philosopher Aristotle born ? At Stagyra, a city in Macedon, which was destroyed by I^ng Philip, but rebuilt by his son Alexander, the pupil of Aristotle. Which were the first battles gained by Alexander against the Persians ? Those of Granicus, Issus, and Arbela. Where stood Tyre ? It was a city of Phoenicia, besieged and taken by Alexander. How did Alexander dishonor his character in respect to the Tyrians ? By inhumanly putting them all to the sword, except 2,000, whom he reserved for crucifixion ; and he actually had crosses erected along the sea-shore, where this barbarous sentence was rigidly executed. What particular instance did Alexander give of his pride and folly ? Suffering his subjects to pay him adora- tion as the reputed son of Jupiter Ammon, (the god of the Egyptians.) Where stood the temple of Jupiter Ammon ? In Africa, in the midst of the Libyan desert, in a fertile spot called the Northern Oasis, or Oasis of Siwah ; the god worshipped there was by the Greeks called Jupiter, by the Egyptians Ammon ; at length both these names became one : Bacchus is thought to have built the temple. In what battle did Alexan- der completely triumph over the Persians ? In that of Arbela ; the defeat and death of the Persian monarch Darius gave Alex- ander another empire. Where stood Persepolis? This city was anciently the capital of the Persian empire, now called Cilminar, or the Forty Columns ; besieged by Alexander, who, in a fit of intemperance, burnt its palace. Who was Calanus ? An Indian philosopher, who attended the court of Alexandei of Macedon. What was his end ? Although he professed to follow a most severe philosophy, yet, being attacked by a painful disorder, he had not patience to bear its repeated approaches, but resolved to burn himself upon a funeral pile. Did he effect his purpose ? Yes ; against the earnest entreaties of Alexan- der : it is generally supposed that he was prompted to this action chiefly by vain-glory, and the desire of making himself conspicuous to after ages. What story does Josephus relate of some Jewish soldiers in the service of Alexander ? When commanded by that prince to assist in rebuilding the temple of Belus, (which Xerxes had destroyed,) they absolutely refused, alleging that as idolatry was forbidden by their law, the respect due to that and their conscience would not allow them to assist in the erection of a temple designed for idolatrous purposes. How did Alexander act upon this ? He gave orders for their 58 HERO AND LEANDER. immediate punishment ; but, upon reflection, their conduct ap' peared in a more favorable light, and he discharged and sent them home. How did Alexander in one day evince the ex- tremes of generosity and passion ? In the morning he gave his friend Clytus the government of Maracanda, one of his most important cities ; and in the evening killed him, in a hasty fit of resentment, at a banquet. Who was Porus ? An Indian prince, who was taken prisoner by Alexander ; and when brought be- fore him in chains, showed equal fortitude and presence of mind : the Macedonian monarch asked how he would be treated ; As a king, replied Porus : Do you then wish for nothing more ? said Alexander. No : all things are comprehended in that sentence. Alexander, touched by his greatness of soul, restored him his kingdom. Who were the Theti ? This was a name given to ihe lower class of people among the Athenians, including all artisans and laboring men. How did the Athenians honor those who fell in their country's defence? Their most celebrated orators were appointed to pronounce funeral orations in their praise : this was done to inspire the Athenians with an ardent desire of glory and military fame. How were the children of those Athenians who died in battle treated ? At the time of their solemn festivals a herald, producing these children dressed in complete armor, proclaimed in words to this effect : " These orphans, whom a sudden and glorious death has deprived of their illustrious fathers, have found in the people a parent, whose care was extended to them during infancy ; and now, armed at all points, their country invites them to follow the bent of their own genius, and to emulate each other hi deserving the chief employments of the state." How did the Greeks excel the Romans in humanity ? They could never be persuaded to have public exhibitions of gladiators in their cities ; and the speech oi an Athenian upon this subject well deserves to be remembered. "First," said he, "before we permit these barbarous shows, let us throw down the altar which our ancestors have erected to mercy." What story is recorded of the Hellespont ? This strait, which lies between Europe and Asia, has been famed as the place where Leander met an untimely fate : he was attached to Hero, a priestess of Venus ; and is said to have swam over th« Hellespont, nightly, to \isit her ; but Avas at length unfortunately droAvned ; and she, in despair, threw herself into the sea. Why was Agis, king of Sparta, executed ? This prince, who lived in the time of Alexander's successors, Avished to revive the ancient laws of Lycurgus, but his people, dead to all sense of iustice or virtue, rose against, and condemned him to this igno- GRECIAN ORACLES, ETC. 59 ininious end. What forms of government liave at different periods prevailed in Athens ? It was first governed by kings ; then by archons ; they gave place to the tyrannical power of the Pisistratides ; this was destroyed, and freedom again re- stored, till the city was taken by the Lacedemonians; the thirty tyrants then assumed absolute power, and after their ex- pulsion the democratical form of government was again estab- lished, till the Romans made Greece a tributary province. What forms of government have prevailed in Sparta? For the space of 900 years it was governed by kings ; then Ly- curgus establislied a repubUc, which continued 700 years longer, under the most pi-omising auspices ; but the Spartans having subdued the neighboring states, particularly the Athenians, the tide of victory began to turn, and the Thebans, headed by Epaminondas and Pelopidas, compelled them, after the battle of Leuctra, to sue for peace. Philip of Macedon, and finally the Romans, completed the conquest of this famous state. What was meant by Great Greece ? The colonies settled by the Grecians in^ the southern parts of Italy and Sicily. Where stood the city of Sybaris ? In Great Greece : its inhabitants were noted for their luxurious and effeminate lives ; they were enervated by the mildness of the climate, the richness of the soil, and their great wealth. How did the Sybarites betray the weakness of their character ? They are said to have decreed marks of distinction to such as excelled in giving magnificent entertainments ; they removed from their city those citizens and artisans whose work was noisy ; and even the cocks were ex- pelled, lest their shrill cries should disturb the peaceful slumbers of the inhabitants : in the war with Crotona 300,000 Sybarites were defeated by 100,000 of their enemies, which terminated their existence as a distinct nation. Name the most famous oracles consulted by the Pagan world. That of Apollo, at Delphos ; of Trophonius, in Beotia ; the temple and oracle of the Branchidae, in the neighborhood of Miletus ; and one at Dodona, a city of the Molossians. What happened to the tem- ple of Delphos ? It was destroyed by fire eighty-three years before Christ ; from that time the famous oracle there ceased to answer the questions proposed to it. What were the Mace- donian Phalanx, and the Roman Legion ? The Phalanx was a body of heavy-armed infantry, consisting of 16,000 men, placed always in the centre of the battle ; and the Legion was a body of the Roman army, consisting of ten companies, placed always in the van, or rear, containing from 3 to 6,000 men. Four le- gions, the standing army, were placed under the control of the 60 DEATH ^F SARDANAPALUP. two consuls, in equal commands, — on the approach of war tliia force was increased, and on some occasions there were eip»hteen legions armed and on duty. MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS IN - GENERA! HISTORY, CHIEFLY ANCIENT. The sage historic muse Shall next conduct us through the deeps of Time, Show us how empire grew, declined, and fell In scattered states ; as thus we talked Our hejurts would bum within us, would inhale That portion of Divinity, that ray Of purest heaven, which lights the public soul Of patriots, and of heroes. Thomson's "W lnteb. Name the four great ancient monarchies. The Assyrian or Babylonian, the Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman. Name the four earliest Assyrian monarchs. Nimrod, Belus, afterwards worshipped, Ninus, and Semiramis ; this queen finished building the city of Babylon, in a style of superior magnificence ; the city consisted of an inmiense square, divided by the Euphrates into two nearly equal parts ; Herodotus states, that the palace and tower stood in opposite divisions ; and modem travellers seem confident that the ruins of the palace are on the eastern side, from which it follows that the stupendous pile, called the " Birs of Nimrod, ^^ is all that remains of the famous Tower o" Belus. For what was Babylon famed ? ilfor its hanging gar- dens, and great walls ; its inhabitants were peculiarly luxurious and eflfeminate. Who was Sardanapalus ? The last king of the first Assyrian empire ; his luxury and effeminacy were notorious ; he reigned twenty-three years, and being besieged by the Bactrians in his city of Nineveh, he defended it for two years ; but, an inundation of the Euphrates having destroyea part of the walls and rendered the city untenable, he burnt himself in bis palace with his domestics, b. c. 7l7; from th** FEAST OF THE PASSOVER. 61 ruins of his kingdom were founded the three separate ones of Nineveh, Babylon, and Media. Which ancient nation had the clearest ideas of religion ? The Jewish nation ; they being then the only people who adored the one true God : Moses was their lawgiver. How were the Jews anciently governed ? First, by judges ; during that period they fell frequently into idolatry and slavery : then by kings ; till Nebuchadnezzar carried the tribes of Benjamin and Judah into captivity : after their return to their native land they were ruled by high-priests and the Sanhedrim, or council of experienced Jews : the Maccabean race then governed Judea as high-priests and kings : the famous Herod was their first Idumean prince ; he is said to have com- manded the slaughter of the innocents : some years before his reign the Jews had acknowledged themselves tributary to the Komans. What great feast and fast do the Jews commemorate ? The feast is that of the passover, which they keep annually, in memory of the destroying angel passing the door of the Israel- ites, and slaying the first-bom of the Egyptians ; and they observe the fifth month in every year as a fast, in remembrance of the seventy years' captivity. For what were the Chaldeans famed ? For their knowledge of astronomy, and pretended divination by dreams. Which ancient nation was the most ridiculously superstitious ? The Egyptians ; they worshipped as deities, leeks, onions, cats, dogs, worms, and serpents ; their religion was gloomy, and even their acquirements in natural philosophy mystical : every thing was ascribed by them to the immediate influence of their gods ; Osiris, Isis, and Hermes, were gods of separate diseases ; their system of magic rested on this notion. What custom was peculiar to the Egyptians ? That of judg- ing people after their death : if upon examination they were found to have acquitted themselves with credit, their bodies were decreed honorable funeral ceremonies ; if otherwise, they were thrown to the dogs. By what virtue were the Egyptians distinguished ? By gratitude. Where stood the celebrated city of Hehopolis ? In Lower Egypt ; there was erected in it a magnificent temple, dedicated to the sun. What ancient na- tion first instituted libraries ? The Egyptians : they were called offices or treasuries for the diseases of the soul. What lav/ had the Egyptians with respect to debtors and creditors ? No man was permitted to borrow money without pawning to the creditor the dead body of his father, or nearest ancestor, which every man kept embalmed in his house ; it was thought infamous, and 6 62 EGYPT ANP PERSIA. impious, not to redeem so precious a pledge ; and he who died without having discharged that duty, was deprived of the cus- tomary honors of burial. Who was Sesostris ? Son of that Pharaoh, king of Egypt, who was drowned in the Red Sea ; he conquered Asia ; made Ethiopia and Scythia tributary ; obtained the surname of Egyptus ; and, after a long reign, killed himself. Who built the Pyramids ? Cheops, Cephrenus, and Asychis, all kings of Egypt, and chiefly noted for their oppression : after their reigns, few among the Egyptian princes are worth record- ing, till in the year b. c. 685 twelve of the chief lords, during a state of anarchy, seized the kingdom, and shs red it into twelve parts, each governing with equal authority : this government was called a dodecarchy, and lasted fifteen years. Which of these lords most distinguished himself? Psammeticus, who defeated the eleven, and became sole monarch of Egypt ; he was distinguished for valor and prudence. What did the Egyptians use as a substitute for paper ? The bark of trees, and a species of reed grass called papyrus, that grows in the stagnant places of the Nile. For what were the ancient Persians famed ? For learning, hospitality, and love of magnificence. To what god did they direct their supreme adoration ? To Oromasdes. Who were the Satraps ? Governors of provinces among the Persians. What punishment was peculiar to the Persians ? Smothering in ashes ; Darius Nothus inflicted it upon his own brother. Which of the ancient nations paid the greatest attention to the education of their children ? The Per- sians ; but they were at length inspired by the Medes with a taste for luxury and effbminacy, which afterwards became consp^.cuous in them. Which is the most ancient kind of idol- atry ? That which the Persians adopted ; the worship of the sun and moon. Who were the Magi ? An order of Persian priests, founded by Zoroaster, who worshipped fire. What were the principal tenets of the Magi ? They professed an utter aversion to images, for which reason they worshipped their god under the form of fire : the Sabeans, another order of priests, who allowed the worship of images, derived their ideas of re ■ ligion, in some degree, from their knowledge of astronomy ; for they considered each planet • as inhabited by some superior being, and thus image worship spread from the Persians to the Greeks. { 3" "^'' What rank did the priests hold in ancient Egypt? They were considered as next in dignity to the king ; their land paid no taxes, and they were consulted as oracles, both in religion and literature. What opinions had the eastern naticms concern- ATHENIANS AND LACEDEMONIANS. 63 ing guardian angels? They thought that every man at his birth had his good genius given, to attend him through life, as his guide and director. What ideas had the ancients of a future life ? As they entertained some confused notions of a future state and the resurrection of the body, their first care after a battle was to demand a suspension of arms till the sacred rites of sepulture were performed ; on these duties they imagined the happiness of a future state Avould depend. What nation paid particular respect to old age? The Egyptians and the Spartans, ever ready to 'engraft in their laws any thing which tended to the preservation of good order in society, adopted this rule, and obliged their youth to rise up in the presence of the aged, and offer them the most honorable seats. What story is related of the Spartans as to this law? At a theatrical repi^esentation, when an old man, an Athenian, came too late to be able to procure a good seat, the young Athenians unani- mously endeavored to sit close, and keep him out. Abashed at this, he hastily made his way to the seats appointed f^r the Lacedemonians : they all immediately rose and received him in the most honorable manner. The Athenians, struck with a sudden sense of virtue, gave a thunder of applause ; and the old man exclaimed, " The Athenians know what is right, but the Lacedemonians practise it !" How were false accusers pmi- iohed in Egypt ? They were sentenced to undergo the same punishment which those they accused would have merited, had the accusation been just. What was a libation ? Pouring out upon the ground either milk, wine, or any other liquor, after the priests had tasted it : this ceremony was performed by the ancients in honor of their deities. What opinions, employments, and manner of living, had the ancient Bramins ? They believed in the transmigration of souls, and on this account abstained from meat ; they studied astrology and astronomy, assisted at the public sacr.^ces, and the only tribute which they paid to the king of their country was their advice. Did all hold the same opinions ? No ; they were divided into many sects : some of thesr?! thought self-murder not only defensible but vir- tuous ; and when oppressed by age, or sickness, deemed it meritorious to burn themselves alive : another order spent great part of the day in chanting hymns to their deities ; their lives were passed in solitude, and they thought it wrong to marry. Who was Confucius ? A celebrated Chinese philoso- pher, who flourished about 550 b. c. ; he was of royal descent, a Mandarin in the province of Lu ; was famed for his wisdom and virtue, and the reformer of the Chinese religion. Who 64 STORY OF DAMOCLES. fought the battle of Thymbria ? Croesus, king of Lydia, ceh> brated for his riches, and Cyrus king of Persia; the former being defeated and taken prisoner, Sardis, the capital of his dominions, became subject to the Persians. What kings in ancient history aflford the most striking proof of the vicissitudes to which human life is subject ? The rich Croe- sus, king of Lydia, who, according to Herodotus, was condemned to be burnt ahve by Cyrus, but was afterwards pardoned ; and Dionysius the Younger, tyrant of Sicily, who from a powerful monarch became a schoolmaster at Corinth. How did Damo- cles, the Sicilian, learn that the life of a tyrant is not as happy as it appears to be ? Damocles, who was one of the courtiers of Dionysius the Elder, frequently extolled the happiness of his master, thus surrounded by wealth and power : Will you then, said Dionysius, make trial of my felicity ? The offer was accepted, and Damocles ushered into a room where the most magnificent repast was prepared ; incense, perfumes, and slaves of the highest beauty appeared in profusion. What followed ? In the midst of all his pleasures he cast his eyes towards the ceiUng, and perceived the point of a sword hanging by a single horse-hair over his head ; all his joy now vanished, anxiety took possession of his mind, and he learned this useful lesson — that even in the highest stations there is always a something which corrodes our bliss, and renders us in happiness upon an equality with others. When was Agrigentura founded? This city, anciently one of the most famous in Sicily, was founded by the Greeks in the 38th Olympiad ; it was first subject to the Car- thaginians, then to the Romans. Name the tutelar divinities of the Sicihans. Ceres and Proserpine: the foundations of the temples dedicated to them are now the basis of a Christian church : luxury, and a taste for magnificent expense, not even exceeded by Asiatic splendor, form the striking characteristics of the Agrigentines. For what building was ancient Agrigen- tum famed ? For a celebrated temple, dedicated to Juno, which, at the siege of ths city by the Carthaginians, was burnt down ; and a picture of Juno, by Zeuxis, exquisitely finished, shared the same fate. Who was Empedocles ? A native of Agrigentum, who flourished 400 years before Christ ; he shone as a philosopher, but was noted for his vanity, which led him to throw himself into the gulf of Mount Etna, in hopes that the Sicilians would regard him as some divinity suddenly removed to his proper sphere ; but the mountain, in a subsequent erup- tion, threw out his shppers, and discovered the real fate of -the pretended deity. SICILY CARTHAGE. 65 What barbarous punishment was used by Phalaris, one of the Sicilian tyrants? A brass-founder of Athens, named Pe- rillos, knowing the cruel disposition of Phalaris, cast a brazen bull larger than life and capable of containing a human victim, so contrived, that a fire being placed beneath the bull, the unhappy man was burnt to death : Phalaris, having admired it, caused tho inventor to make the first trial of it himself. What became of Phalaris ? Zeno, the philosopher, while at the court of this prince, advised his resignation ; and Phalaris, suspecting Zeno of designs inimical to his crown, immediately ordered him to the torture ; Zeno refused to submit to this outrage upon justice and humanity, reproached the assembled citizens for criminal weak- ness in witnessing the execution of such a decree, and incited them to open resistance ; animated by his harangue, they flew to aims, defeated the tyrant's guards, and Phalaris was stoned to death by his exasperated people. What were Scylla and Charybdis ? A rock and gulf which form the Straits of Messina : the poetical fiction recorded of them is, that Scylla was formerly a beautiful woman, changed by the .envy of the enchantress Circe into a monster ; Scylla, in despair, threw her- self into the sea, and was turned into a rock. Charybdis was said to be a ravenous woman, changed by Jupiter into a gulf, beneath the rock. Where was ancient Carthage situated, and about what time was it founded ? It stood on a peninsula in the Mediterranean, thirty-six miles northwest of the site of Tunis, and 352 miles east of Algiers, directly opposite to Rome : the Phoenicians were its founders, but at what date is uncertain, perhaps ] 00 years before the foundation of Rome. Which were the principal deities of Carthage? The Moon and Saturn: they frequently sacrificed human victims to the latter; and when Agathocles threatened to besiege the city of Carthage, its inhabitants, to appease the anger of Saturn, sacrificed 200 chif.- dren of the first rank : the worship of fire was common also to the Persians and Babylonians, though not attended with such circumstances of horrid barbarity. To what did the Car- thaginians owe their riches ? Partly to their trade, and partly to their discovery of the silver mines in Spain : this flourishing republic existed 700 years. Name the chief curiosities and antiquities in Egypt. The Pyramids, the Labyrinth, the Mum- my Pits, Pompey's Pillar, erected at Alexandria, the Sphynx, and the lake of Moeris, dug: to receive the inundations of the Nile. How did the successors of Alexander divide his dominions ? Into four separate kingdoms ; the Macedonian, the Asiatic, the 6* THE SEPTUAGINT. Syiian, and the Egyptian. Antipater succeeded Alexander of Macedon in the Macedonian empire, and Perseus, its last king, about 150 years afterwards, was taken prisoner by the Roman Paulus ^milius, and Macedonia reduced to a Roman province. Who claimed the Asiatic kingdom? Antigonus: it compre- hended NatoHa, and some districts beyond Mount Taurus ; this kingdom was at length di\dded into those of Pergamus, Pontus, and Armenia : Pergamus became a Roman province by the ex- press will of its last king, who appointed the Romans his heirs : Pontus and Armenia fell into their hands in the time of Mithri- dates. Who first, upon the death of Alexander the Great, possessed the Syrian kingdom ? Seleucus Nicanor : it flourished long un- der his successors, and those of Antiochus, till the nctorious Pompey added the Syrian monarchy to the list of conquered provinces. Who, upon Alexander's death, claimed Egypt ? Ptolemy Lagus, one of his generals ; twelve princes, his succes- sors, called after him Ptolemies, governed Egypt. Cleopatra, its last monarch, was subdued by Augustus Caesar. Who was Ptolemy Philadelphus ? One of those kings of Egypt, who employed seventy-two linguists to translate the Old Testament into the Greek language : a translation frequently called the Septuagint, from the number of those employed in it ; Ptolemy Philadelphus also founded the Alexandrian library. When was this library burnt? Forty-seven years before the birth of Christ ; it contained 400,000 valuable books. Name the most famous battles of antiquity. Marathon, Thermopylae, Arte- misium, Salamin, or Salamis, Platea, Eurymedon, Arginusa, Leuctra, Granicus, Arbela, Issus, Ticinus, Trebia, Thrasymene, Cannae, Zama, Pharsalia, Philippi, and Actium. Name the most famous sieges of antiquity. That of Babylon, by Cyrus and Darius ; of Carthage, by the Romans ; of Platea, by the Lacedemonians : of Syracuse, by the Athenians ; of Tyre, by Alexander the Great ; and of Athens, by Sylla, the Roman dictator. Name the great examples of mutual friendship, in ancient history. David and Jonathan, Jews; Damon and Pythias, Sicilians — they hved under Dionysius, tyrant of Syra- cuse ; Pylades and Orestes, natives of Argos ; Epaminondas and Pelopidas, Thebans ; Cicero and Atticus, the Scipios, and the Laelii, Romans. What ancient queens have been most celebrated ? Didc, said to be the founder and queen of Car- thage, (Virgil makes JEneas her lover and contemporary, though this is certainly an anachronism ;) Artemisia, queen of Caria, VhI widow of Mausoleus, to whose memory she erected a noble CHRISTIANITY aND MAHOMETAN ISM. 6> monument; it was 411 feet in compass, 130 feet high, and thn principal front adorned with thirty-six columns ; it was reckoned one of the seven wonders of the w^orld, and Praxiteles is sup- posed to have been employed on it ; Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, in the time of Alexander the Great ; Cleopatra, queen of Egypt ; and Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. What was remark- able in Cleopatra ? She was equally beautiful and luxurious ; yet, in the midst of her excesses, she preserved a taste for polite learning and the arts ; her ambition was unbounded ; Julius Caesar and Marc Antony were successively enslaved by her charms : her empire over Antony was such as to make him in- sensible to the claims of conjugal affection, patriotism, and glory. How was Zenobia styled ? Empress of the East : she was besieged in her capital by the Roman Emperor Aurelian, who carried her captive to Rome : Longinus, the celebrated critic and brator, was her secretary. What custom was long prevalent among the Gentoo women ? That of burning themselves upon the funeral pile of their hus- bands : the horrid custom was founded upon a passage in their Bedas, or sacred writings : " She who dies with her husband, shall live with him forever in heaven." What are the Arundclian mar- bles ? They are ancient marble tablets, found in the isle of Paros, about the beginning of the seventeenth century, and supposed to be sculpture(L in the year b. c. 264 ; they contain the chro- nology of ancient history ; were bought for the celebrated Ear of Arundel, and afterwards presented to the Oxford University. Over what parts of the known world has Christianity extended ? Those who embraced the gospel were first termed Christians at Antioch ; its doctrines prevailed in the southern parts of Europe as early as the year 50 ; in Britain it was the general religion about A. D. 156 ; Christianity extended over the north of Europe from the fifth to the twelfth century ; at the opening of the fifteenth century it was extensively promulgated in Asia, Africa, and America, but many corruptions crept into the sys- tem ; and, in the sixteenth century, the reformed or Protestant doctrine spread through the greatest part of Christendom. Who was ^fahomet : what nations acknowledge his doctrines ? A native of Mecca, in Arabia, who, about the year of our Lord 622, declared himself a greater prophet than Jesus, and the last whom God would send : he promised his followers the speedy conquest and undisturbed possession of this ■*• orld ; and a paradise of every delight in another. His doctrines are received in Arabia, Turkey in Europe, and in Asia, Barbary, Persia, Egypt, India, and Nubia. How do the Mahometans reckon i|P GENERAL COUNCILS. time ? From the Hegira, or flight of Mahomet from liis per* secutors, a. d. 622 ; they also reverence Mecca, as the birth- place of Mahomet ; and Medina as that of his interment Which were termed expressively the dark ages ? From tht close of the sixth to the dawning of the fourteenth century. During this dreary night, Alfred and Charlemagne aimed at the revival and restoration of literature in their dominions, but with little success. The Arabians, in the ninth century, were the great patrons of the arts and learning, while the mists of super- stition and ignorance enveloped Europe. Who are the Cardi- nals ? The word cardinal was applied originally to the pres- byters and deacons in great churches ; but in the eleventh century, to the presbyters and deacons of Rome only : in Imitation of Christ's disciples, their number was Hmited to seventy. How did they rise into such estimation with the Catholic church ? Gradually ; their exclusive power of electing the popes was acquired in the time of Edward the Confessor : they first wore the red hat (a token that they were to shed their blood for religion if necessary) towards the middle of Henry in.'s reign : they received from pope Urban VIII. the title of Eminence, in the time of Charles I. of England : their power is, however, at present much diminished, having httle influence in the Christian world. What is the Conclave ? An assembly of the cardinals, after the pope's decease, to elect his successor : the distinguished family of Medici gave two popes to the eccle- siastical state, viz. Leo X., son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, and Clement VIL, natural son of Juhan, the brother of Lorenzo ; Julius II. and Leo X. were patronizers of the fine arts : Julius began St. Peter's church at Rome ; the architect was Michael Angelo. What is meant by Christian or General Councils? They were meetings of the pope, cardinals, and clergy, for the suppression of what were termed Heresies ; and to fix the doc- trines of the Roman church. By whom was the first Christian council held ? By the Apostles, in the year 50 ; the first general one was held at Nice in 325, for the express purpose of censuring the doctrines of Anus, at which the emperor Con- stantino presided. How many general councils have been held ? Twenty : the four most noted were as follow : the seventh general council, which was held towards the end of the Saxon heptarchy, to restore the worship of images : the tenth, to pre- serve to the church its revenues and temporalities, which was called in Stephen's reign',! 000 fathers attending : the fifteenth, in the reign of Edward II., to suppress the order of Knights Templars ; and the twentieth, in the reign of Edward VI., to THE POPEDOM TOURNAMENTS. 69 condemn the doctrines of the celebrated reformers, Luther and Calvin. The name pope, derived from the Greek papas, father, was given to the Bishop of Rome long before he possessed the authority that is now connected with his name. From the close of the fourth century he was the first amongst the five Patriarchs of Christendom, because Rome was the ancient capital of the kingdom, and, according to tradition, the last dwelling-place of the apostle Peter ; his jurisdiction over foreign kingdoms was ob- tained by the pretence of being the successor of Saint Peter, by the wealth of the Roman Catholic church, and by a decree of *vhe Emperor Valentinian III. in 445. The advantages gained at this date were extended in the eighth century ty the es- tablishment of churches in Germany, subject to Rome ; by the political confusion in Italy and France ; the decretals of the pretended Isidore ; the schism between the Eastern and Western empires, and the individual superiority of some popes over their contemporaries. Name some of the most famous popes. Leo the Great, the first pope whose writings have been preserved : Hyginus, who estabhshed the form of consecrating churches, and ordained that godfathers and godmothers should stand for children ; he lived in the early ages of the church : Sylvester, in whose popedom was the council of Nice : Gregory, first called the Great, who, at the close of the sixth century, introduced many new doctrines, processions, &c. : Boniface V., who, at the commencement of the seventh century, made churches sanctu- aries for criminals : Leo III., who crowned Charlemagne : Ser- gius, who, from a swine-driver became a pope ; and Benedict IX., whose scandalous life has frequently disgraced the his- torian's pen ; he lived about the middle of the eleventh century ; was several times deposed and restored ; and once sold his pre- tensions to the papacy, but resumed them again. Name some famous popes since the Norman conquest. Gregory VII., whose power was once excessive ; he excommimicated the em- peror of Germany, but afterwards died himself in exile : Adrian IV., whose former name was Nicholas Brakespeare, the only Englishman who ever reached that dignity : Innocent III., who appointed auricular confession, and established the infamous in- quisition : Clement V., who removed the seat of power from Rome to Avignon : Leo X., noted for granting indulgences ; he was pope when Luther preached against them : Clement VII., who excom- municated Henry VIII., king of England : Gregory XIIL, the reformer of the calendar : Sixtus V., and Clement XIV., (or Oanganelli,) both excellent popes. What gave rise to tourna- ments? They took their lise from the suppression of the 70 OTTOMAN EMPIRE FOUNDED. gladiators in tlie fifth century ; at tlieir first institution, a knight, who was superior to a rich lord in single combat, set what price he pleased upon the liberty of the vanquished, and many, after they had killed their adversary, obliged his friends or relations to purchase the mangled body and spoils, left in possession of the victor ; but at length these tournaments assumed the ap- pearance of mock fights, the combatants taking the precaution to blunt the points of their swords and lances. " Impartial taste," says Gibbon, " must prefer a Gothic tournament to the Olympic games of classic antiquity. Instead of the naked spectacles which corrupted the manners of the Greeks, the pompous decoration of the lists was crowned with the presence of chaste and high-born beauty, from whose hands the con- queror received the prize of his dexterity and courage. The tournaments as they were invented in France, and adopted in the east and west, presented a lively image of the business of the field. The single combat, the general skirmish, the defence of a pass or castle, were rehearsed as in actual service ; and the contest, both in real and in mimic war, was decided by the superior management of horse and lance." liame some famous Peruvian emperors. Manco Capac, founder of the empire : Huana Capac, and Atahuallpa, who was emperor when Pizarro conquered the country. Name the most celebrated Mexican emperors. Montezuma and Guatimo- zin. Name a few of the most remarkable Turkish emperors. The Emir Osman, (bone-breaker,) a bold and successful captain, unobstructed by the weak and divided Byzantines, founded upon the ruins of the Saracen, Seljook, and Mongol power, the empire of the Osman or Ottoman Turks in Asia, in the year 1300, i. e. 700 of the Hegira, or from the flight of Mahomet. He forced the passes of Olympus with his Tartan horde, pro- claimed himself sultan, and reigned till his death in lo2G. To him succeeded eight great princes, whom the dignity of cahph placed iff possession of the standard of the prophet ; they were animated by religious fanaticism, and a passion for military glory. Orchan, the son of Osman, organized a valiant infantry, com- posed of Christian slaves brought up in the Mohammedan faith ; styled himself Padishah; and the entrance to his palace at Bursa was called the Porte. Under his son and successor, the brave Soliman I., the Ottoman army spread over Europe and Asia. In 13G0, Amurath I. took Adrianople and made it the capital of his empire in Europe, subdued Macedonia, Albania, and Servia ; but after the battle of Caschare, in 1380, was stabbed by his rival, who lay wounded on the ground. The fcro* ROMAN EMPER0R8. 71 cious Bajazefc, surnamed the Lightning, conquered Sigismund, and imposed a tribute upon the Greek empire ; but was de- feated and taken prisoner by Tamerlane, in 1402, at Ancyra, where more than a miUion warriors contested the empire of the world. Amurath II. was wise and valiant ; having concluded a peace, he laid down the reins of government, but the perjury of his enemies caused him to gird on the sword of Osman again, beneath which the Christians fell at Varna ; Ladislaus and Julian, legates of the pope, were amongst the slain. The son of this great prince, Mohammed II., set up Alexander for his model ; he took Constantinople 29th May, 1453, when the last Palaeologus, Constantino XI., buried himself under i\e ruins of his throne ; and from that period Stamboul, or Cons tantinople, has been the residence of the Sublime Porte. During fifty years the Ottoman arms were the terror of Europe and Asia, especially under Soliman II., called the Magnificent and the Lawgiver, who reigned between 1519 and 1566. This prince united the priestly dignity of the caliph to that of the Ottoman Porte. From SoHman's decease nineteen sultans have reigned, amongst whom neither a brave warrior nor victorious prince has appeared. Mohammed II. reformed Turkish manners, and annihilated the Janisaries. He was succeeded by Abdul Med j id. Name the Roman emperors who flourished in the first cen- tury. Augustus Csesar, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, Trajan. Name those of the second century. Adrian, Antoni- nus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Verus : Commodus, Pertinax, Didius, Severus. Name those of the third century. Caracalla and Geta, Macrinus, Hehogabalus, Alexander Severus, Maximi- nus, Gordian I., Pupienus and Balbinus, Gordian II., Gordian III., Philip the Arabian and his son Decius, Gallus, ^milian, Valerius and Gallienus, Claudius II., Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Carus, Carinus and Numerian, Dioclesian, Constantius Chlorus, and Galerius. Name the Roman emperors in the fourth century. Constantino the Great, Constantino II., Constantius and Con- stans, Julian the Apostate, Jovian, Valentinian I. and Valens, Gratian, Valentinia n II.^ _J]ieodosius I., Arcadius, emperor of the East, and Honorius, enipfe«(^r of the West. Who was the last Roman emperor ? Augustulus, who resigned in a. d. 4*75, Inking conquered by Odoacer, king of the Heruli. 78 FIRST TO FOURTH CENTURA QUESTIONS, CONTAINING A SKETCH OF THE MOST REMARKABLE EVENTS FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE CLOSE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CEN- TURY. Name the great events in the first century. The foundation of London, by the Romans ; the persecution of the Druids, in Britain ; Rome burnt in the reign of Nero, and the Christians first persecuted by him ; Jerusalem destroyed by Titus ; and the New Testament written. Name the chief events in the second century. The Scots regained those territories wrested from them by the Roman power ; and the Romans, under the conduct of Agricola, built many strong forts in Britain, subju- gating that nation almost entirely. What was the character of Agricola's civil government ? He reformed abuses occasioned by the avarice of his predecessors ; put a stop to extortion ; caused justice to be administered impartially, and endeavored to soften the rough manners of the Britons by the introduction of those of their conquerors. Name some distinguished characters in the second century. Martial, Pliny the Younger, Suetonius, Plutarch, Juvenal, Ptolemy, Justin, Lucian, and Galen ; the five named before Ptolemy wrote chiefly in the first century, but died in the second. Name some events in the third century. The inroads of the Goths upon the Roman empire, to whom the emperors consented to pay tribute ; and the professors of Christianity divided into many ditferent sects : in this century Origen and Cyprian distinguished themselves by their theo- logical writings ; Dion Cassius and Herodian flourished as historians, and Longinus as a critic and orator. Name the chief events of the fourth century. The tenth and last great persecution of the Christians stopped by Constantine the Great, who became one of the most zealous professors of that faith : a council assembled at Nice to settle the disputes between Arius and Athanasius : the Roman empire divided, and governed by separate emperors ; Constantinople being the capital of the eastern, and Rome of the western empire. Name some learned men in the fourth century. At this period, ecclesiastical knowledge was m.ost in request ; and Arius, Eusebius, Basil, and Ambrose, are the most distinguished writers ; Athanasius, and ApoUinarius flourished then ; and Ossian, the celebrated FIFTH TO THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 73 northern poet. What were the remarkable events in the fifth century ? Rome was plundered by Alaric, king of the Goths : France erected into a monarchy : the heptarchy established in Britain ; the light of science extinguished, and the works of the learned destroyed, by the Goths, and other fierce invaders of the Roman empire. Name the chief events in the sixth century. Time computed by the Christian era : a plague, which extended over Europe, Asia, and Africa, lasting fifty years : and the unlimited temporal, as well as spiritual authori- ty, assumed by the popes. Name the chief events of the seventh century. The successful spread of the Mahometan re- ligion ; Jerusalem taken by the Saracens, followers of Mahomet, and the Alexandrian library (that great repository for general learning) supposed to be burnt by their command : the Britons also, after many severe struggles, were expelled their native country by the Saxons, and many of them obliged to retire into Wales. Name the most distinguished characters in the seventh century. Mahomet, Ali, and the general patron of learning, Abubeker. Name the chief events of the eighth century. Dis- putes respecting image worship harassed the Christian world, and caused many insurrections in the eastern empire ; Bagdad became the residence of the caliphs ; and the Saracens conquered Spain : Aaron or Haroun al Raschid, " the just," and the ''venerable Bede," a monk of Wearmouth, the most authen- tic of the old British historians, flourished in this century. Name some events in the ninth century. The empire of Ger- many established under Charlemagne : Britain perpetually ha- rassed and invaded by the Danes : the Scots and Picts united. Name some events in the tenth century. The Saracen power began to totter, having been divided into seven different usurpa- tions ; the empire of Germany made elective ; and Poland erected into a monarchy. Name some events in the eleventh century. The Turks con- quered Persia, and retook Jerusalem from the Saracens : the Crusades were engaged in ; and the Moors settled themselves in Spain : Abelard, so famous for his poetry, divinity, and attachment to Eloisa, flourished in this and the next century. Name some distinguished events in the twelfth century. The srder of Knights Templars was instituted : their power speedily became excessive ; the Teutonic order of knighthood began in Germany ; and Ireland, without conquest, was annexed to the British crown. Name some events in the thirteenth century. The Tartars, who emigrated from the northern parts of Asia, overturned the Saracen empire ; the inquisition estabjfshed bv 1 74 FOURTEENTH TO SIXTEENTH CENTURY. the Dominicans, under pope Innocent Til. ; and the English ob- tained from John, their unamiable monarch, the famous Magna . Charta : at this time flourished Dante, the poet ; Bacon, the philosopher ; and Matthew Paris, the historian. Name some events in the fourteenth century. The popes, for seventy years, Clement V. having removed his throne to Avignon in France, made this place their residence ; the Swiss republic was found- ed ; gunpowder and the compass invented ; gold coined ; and the first symptoms of the reformation appeared in England, un- der the auspices of Wickliffe. Name the chief authors in the fourteenth century. Chaucer, Boccace, Gower, Petrarch, and Barbour, poets, and Alain Chartier, the historian. What were the most striking events in the fifteenth century ? Printing was introduced, and became general; Constantinople taken by the Turks ; civil wars in England between the houses of York and Lancaster, which continued thirty years, and de- stroyed 100,000 men; the Moors driven by the Spaniards back to Africa, their native country ; America discovered by Christo- pher Columbus ; and algebra, originally invented by the Arabs, brought into Europe. Name some great men in the fifteenth century. Leonardo Da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, painters; these three flourished also at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Machiavel, the political writer ; Caxton, the first English printer ; and the celebrated Erasmus of Rotterdam, the great restorer of learning. What were the principal events of the sixteenth century ? The reformation was begun in Ger- many, by Martin Luther, and spread through England, Scotland, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden ; the monasteries were dis- solved in England and Ireland by Henry VIIL, and the perse- cutions under the Papal See were extended over Spain and Italy ; the discoveries of the Portuguese ; learning revived and protected by the Medici, a Florentine f^imily ; the massacre of the Protestants by command of Charles IX. of France on St. Bartholomew's day ; the foundation of the Genevese republic ; the defeat of the Spanish Armada ; and the Swedish revolution effected by Gustavus Vasa. Name some celebrated characters in the sixteenth century. Luther, Calvin, Melancthon, and John Knox, a Scotchman, refonners; Bartholomew, Gosnold, and Sebastian Cabot, Englishmen, navigators ; Tycho Brahe and Copernicus, astronomers ; Shakspeare, Spencer, (English,) Tasso, (Itahan,) Camoens, (Portuguese,) Bonarelli, poets ; Palla- dio, the Italian architect ; Cervantes, the Spanish author of Doa Quixotte ; Socinus, the theologian ; the Scaligers, critics ; Titian, the painter; Bentivoglio, De Thou, and Buchanan, historians' SEVENTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 75 Montaigne and Lord Bacon, philosophers. Name some events in the seventeenth century. Great part of North America set- tled by the EngUsh ; massacre of Irish Protestants ; civil wars between king Charles and his parhament, who beheaded their sovereign, and abohshed royalty and episcopacy : but the tide of duty and allegiance returning, they were both restored ; the persecution of the Protestants by Louis XIV. of France ; abdi- cation of James II. of England, and subsequent revolution there. Name some great characters of the seventeenth century. Bal- zac, Corneille, the Daciers, Milton, Dryden, Racine, Moliere, and Boileau, poets ; Cassini, Galileo, Gassendi, Newton, and Halley, astronomers ; Boyle, Fontenelle, and Locke, philosophers ; Puf- fendorf, Grotius, and Leibnitz, civilians ; Bernini, the sculptor ; Guido, the painter ; Strada, the historian ; and Boerhaave, the medical writer and practitioner. What were the chief events in the beginning of the eighteenth century? Peter of Russia, and Charles XII. of Sweden, distinguished themselves by their military exploits; the victorious Marlborough raised the English name ; and Kouli Khan, after usurping the Per- sian throne, conquered the Mogul empire. Name some from the middle to the close of the eighteenth century. The new style introduced in Britain, in the year 1752, (the old style is still used in Russia ;) Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake ; the order of Jesuits suppressed by the pope ; dreadful hurri- canes in the West Indies, and earthquakes in Sicily ; Gibraltar sustained a siege of three years against the united powers of France and Spain, which the gallant General Elliott (Lord Heathfield) obliged them to raise ; the British colonies in North America threw off the British yoke, and declared themselves independent in 1776 ; the revolution in France, and its attend- ant horrors ; the rebellion in Ireland, and its happy termination. What remarkable man appeared in this century whose biography is identical with the history of Europe ? Napoleon Bonaparte, a great statesman and warrior, born 15th August, 1769, at Ajaccio, in Cor-sica, was the son of a Corsican nobleman, edu- cated for a military life from his boyhood, and entered the French army at an early age : the distracted situation of France was opportune for the display of such talents and fortune as Bonaparte possessed. In his first campaigns, of any import- ance, he issued proclamations to his soldiers calculated to excite their enthusiasm, pride, and feeling of honor ; and, like Fred- erick the Great, he surprised his enemies by a new system of tactics. In six successive days he obtained as many victories over a veteran Austrian army, took valuable spoils, and strongly 70 NINETEENTH CENTURY. fortified positions, and obliged tlie Sardinian king to sue fof peace. What rewards did France bestow upon him for his brilUant conquests ? He was appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Italy; first consul of France, in 1799; president of the Italian repubhc ; and finally elected emperor of the French — the dignity to be hereditary in his family — on the 18th of May, 1804. Name some of the occasions on which the British arms were opposed to those of France, during the government of Napoleon. The battles of Copenhagen, the Nile, and Traf- algar; in the last, which took place in 1805, the combined fleets of France and Spain were defeated by the English, under the conduct of the intrepid Admiral Lord Nelson, to whom fate presented, in the same instant, victory and death. In Egypt also the French were successfully opposed, and Napo- leon compelled ultimately to abandon his ambitious speculations on that country, by Sir Ealph Abercromby and Sir Sidney Smith ; the former died there of the wounds he received on the field of battle. Mention some of the extraordinary changes made by Napoleon in the dynasties of Europe. He united Bavaria'and Wurtemburg, and constituted them a kingdom ; his brother Joseph was proclaimed king of the two territories, Louis raised to the throne of Holland, and himself appointed protector of the confederation of the Rhine in 1806. Jerome Bonaparte was placed on the throne of Westphaha, and Joseph on that of Spain in 1808. Having divorced Josephine, and espoused Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria, he created his son, by that princess, king of Rome; and, in 1818, Bernadotte, one of his marshals, ascended the Swedish throne^ To what circumstances and individuals is the fall of Napoleon attnbuted ? Having invaded Russia with a powerful army, and entered Moscow, which was burned by the inhabitants, the severity of the climate in 1812 efiected for his enemies, that to which their vast numbers with such inferior discipline was unequal. From his Russian disasters Napoleon never entirely recovered ; and the continued successes of the Duke of Wel- lington in Spain, in 1811 and 1812, hastened the catastrophe of his life, which was then rapidly approaching. Russia, Prus- sia, Austria, and England, united in the common cause against the emperor of the French, at length compelled him to sign a formal abdication of his throne, permitted him to retire to the Island of Elba, in 1814, retaining the imperial title, and grant- ing him an income of 2,000,000 francs. vHow was the throne of France filled, upon the abdication of Napoleon ? The family of Bourbon, who had lived in exile since the revolution, re« NINETEENTH CENTURY. 77 turned, and Louis XVIII. tmtered Paris on the 3d of May, 1814. How long did Napoleon conform to the conditions of his abdication? Until the 1st of March, 1815, when he landed at Cannes, near Frejus, and, assembling a powerful army, en- tered Paris again on the 20th of the same month, Louis XVIII. and his court having previously fled. This violation of his formal compact led to the coalition of the four great powers before mentioned, for the total extinction of his power. The Prussians, however, early suffered a defeat, and it was reserved for the arms of Great Britain, guided by the genius of Welling- ton, to strike down the empire of Napoleon forever — which he did by the decisive victory of Waterloo, on the 18th of June, 1815. After the battle of Waterloo, Napoleon a second time abdicated his throne, embarked on board the Bellerophon, an English man-of-war, and, being denied the privilege of landing in England, was transmitted to the island of St. Helena, ac- companied by a few faithful adherents. His residence at St. Helena commenced on the 15th of October, 1815, and termi- nated with his death on the 5th of May, 1821; his remains were removed from that island to France just nineteen years after, and entombed in the church of the Invahds, in Paris : he was watched with unsparing rigor by the governor. Sir Hudson Lowe, and maintained his dignity of character in the miseries of exile and imprisonment. What important political changes took place in Europe after the deposition of Napoleon ? Louis XVIII. reascended the throne of France, and reigned without interrup- tion till his death in 1824. The independence of Brazil, in South America, was acknowledged in 1821 ; that vast country was constituted a separate empire. In 1822 the struggle for liberty in Greece terminated happily, in the separation of that ancient country from Turkish despotism; and in 1826 a constitutional monarchy was erected in Portugal; and, in 1828, the Test and Corporation Acts, which abridged the rights of dissenters in England, were repealed. What great public or political events occurred soon after ? A revolution in France, which ended in the expulsion of Charles X. for arbitrary conduct, exclusion of his family, and elevation of Louis Phihppe, Duke of Orleans, to th^'. throne in 1830 ; the exiled king died at Goritz, in Illyria, in 1836, at the age of eighty. A revolution among the Bel- gians, in 1830, who expelled the family of Orange from their government, and elected Leopold of Saxe-Coburg their king, in 1831. Don Miguel usurped the throne of Portugal, to the prejudice of his niece. Donna Maria, but, after a sanguinary conflict, was compelled to abandon it in 1833; in 1830 kiiu; 1* 78 NINETEENTPI CENTURY. George IV. of England died, and was succeeded by his brothel the Duke of Clarence, who took the title of William IV. ; the Poles in vain endeavored to release themselves from the power of Russia in 1831 ; the Reform Bill, which caused an extensive change in the elective franchise, passed the British Lords and Commons in 1832 ; and the Cholera Morbus devastated Europe during the years 1831 and 1832, carrying off, in Great Britain, France, and Hungaiy, during its continuance, 300,000 persons. About the same period Algiers was taken by the French, on the plea of abolishing piracy and Christian slavery, but with the secret object of having a port near the entrance of the Medi- terranean, to control the trade of that sea. Name some of the most remarkable occurrences of the following years. In 1834, Feth-AH-Khan, king of Persia, dying at Teheran, left his crown to his favorite son Mohammed, to the mortification of his fifty other sons ; three of the number took up arms, and aspired to the throne, but Mohammed, assisted by a loan of £20,000 from the English envoy at his court, maintained himself against his rivals. This latter event took place in 1835, in which year an attempt was made in Paris by Fieschi, a Corsican, to destroy Louis Philippe ; the infernal machine discharged a tempest of bullets at the king and his staff, as they passed along the Boule- vards, by which forty persons were severely wounded, and four- teen killed ; amongst the latter was Marshal Mortier. In 1835 died Francis II., emperor of Austria, whom his son Ferdinand quietly succeeded ; and in the same year Mehemet AH sent an army into Syria, under the command of his son Ibrahim Pacha, who completely reduced that country. For what is the year 1837 particularly remarkable? The ascent of the Princess Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, to the throne of the British empire, on the death of her uncle William IV. ; as the Salic law is still in force in Hanover, the princess could not succeed to that government, which devolved upon her uncle, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, he being the next in succession to her father, the Duke of Kent, who would have been king of England had he lived. A fatal influenza prevailed in London in this year, and an insurrection occurred in Canada, which was suppressed by the firmness of Sir John Colbome, (Lord Seaton.) Particularize some of the events of 1838. The destruction of the Royal Exchange, London, by fire, on the 10th of January ; the coronation of Queen Victoria, in Westminster Abbey, on the 28th of June ; the birth of the Duke of Oporto, heir-apparent to the Portuguese throne ; rupture between Eng- land and China, in consequence of the prohibition against im- NINETEENTH CENTURA. 79 porting opium into the latter country; and a violent riot at Canterbury, headed by one Thorn, under the assumed name of William Courtenay, in which Lieutenant Bennett was killed. Were there any very remarkable occurrences in the year 1839 ? Several ; — none, perhaps, more memorable than the decease of the Sultan Mahmoud II. ; he had put the janisaries to death, reformed Turkish institutions, and assimilated them to those of France and England. His son and successor Abdul Medjid possesses the reforming predilections of his father. Spain was relieved from the miseries of a civil war by the retirement of Don Carlos from the contest for the crown ; he took refuge in France, where he was received as a prisoner on his parole. What public occurrences took place in England in 1840 ? Queen Victoria was married to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg, in the Chapel Royal of St. James's, London, on the 10th of February ; a few months after her majesty was fired at by Edward Oxford, a pot-boy, as she rode in an open phaeton up Constitution hill ; the traitor was brought to trial, and convicted, but either from a suspicion that there was no bullet in the pistol, or a still stronger belief that he was not in his perfect mind, the queen was pleased to spare his life ; his sentence was commuted to confinement for life in a lunatic asylum. In the event of any ac- ciden\, befalhng the queen. Prince Albert had been named regent. On the 21st of November, 1840, her majesty gave birth to a princess, and on the 9 th of November in the following year, to a prince, who is heir-apparent to the throne. The destruction of the Houses of Parliament and of the Royal Exchange, Lon- don, by fire, and at brief intervals from^ each other, have been mentioned in this chapter ; the conflagration of the Armory of the Tower of London, on Saturday the 30th of October, 1841, is Also to be added ; — these three fires were attribated to ac- cident, 80 THE SEVEN ROMAN KINGS MISCELLANEOUS QUESTI0N8 KOMAN HISTOKY. Of rougher front a mighty people come, A race of heroes ! Fabricius, scomer of all-conquering gold, And Cincinnatus, awful from the plough. Thomson's Winter Who founded Rome ? Romulus, its first king. It was al first only an asylum for outlaws, who brought thither plunder, cattle, fi-uits, and other produce, and resembled the towns yet existing amongst the Grim Tartars. Romulus was engaged in perpetual predatory excursions, and the triumphs to which Rome afterwards owed its grandeur originated in the joyous re- ception given to him on his return home loaded with wheaten- sheaves and flocks. Having subdued the Sabines, the Romans laid aside the small buckler of Argos, and adopted the large Sabine shield. How did the idolatry of the Romans diflfer from that of surrounding nations ? In this respect : they worshipped their gods originally without statues or images. How many kings had Rome ? Seven : of these Numa Pompilius and Ser- vius Tullius are thought the most deserving, and Tarquin the Proud the least so. Who established the difference between the patricians and the plebeians ? Romulus : the former were the nobihty, the latter the common people. Who appointed lictors and fasces ? Romulus : lictors were twelve men who walked before the king, or one consul, within the city ; a pub- lic servant walked before the other ; and fasces were bundles of rods with an axe (securis) in the middle, carried by the lic- tors. What were the Celeres ? A guard of 300 young men, instituted by Romulus to defend his person. What were the Ancilia among the Romans ? Twelve sacred bucklers carried by priests called Salii, devoted to Mars, symbolical of the per- petuity of the empire, in the reign of Numa Pompilius. Who were the Duumviri? Two magistrates appointed by TuUus Hostilius to give judgment in criminal affairs — also the chief magistrates in the colonies. What was the occasion Qt the bat- tle between the Horatii and Curia tii ? There was a wv h^ MILITARY PUNISHMENTS. 81 tireen the Albans and the Romans, in the reign of Tullus Hos- tilius, king of Rome ; they agreed to decide it by a combat of three persons on each side ; the Albans chose three orothers called Curiatii, the Romans three called Horatii ; they fought, and the Horatii gained the victory. What was the Census ? A general survey of the Roman people and their estates, instituted by Servius Tullius ; it was first made by kings, then by consuls, and at length by magistrates called censors, whose office also extended to taxing estates and reforming the manners of the people. When did the Romans erect their temple to Faith ? In the reign of Numa Pompilius ; that dedicated to Fortune was built by the command of Servius Tullius. What was the Civic Crown ? One made of oak leaves, given by the Romans to him who had saved the life of a fellow-citizen in battle. Why was the orator's pulpit called Rostrum ? From the rostra or beaks of ships taken from the Antiates, with which this part of the forum was generally adorned. What was the Adytum ? The sanctuary in the pagan temples, into which none but the priests were admitted. What was the ancient naval crown? One made in the form of the ancient ships' beaks, and presented to him who first boarded an enemy. How were the ancient Romans trained up to war ? A place was appropriated for ex- ercise in the city, called the Field of Mars ; here they ran and leaped in ponderous armor, carried the heaviest weights, and performed all martial exercises ; war and agriculture were theii only professions ; their bodies were kept in continual activity ! and to this steady, unrelaxed discipUne, they owed much of their fame and military glory. How were the Roman soldiers punished for small deviations from duty ? They were always bled ; for as every ancient Roman entertained high ideas of his own prowess, this temporary deprivation of strength was to them the most sensible mortification. What rule was observed inviolably in the Roman armies ? This : he who abandoned his post, or quitted his arms in battle, suffered death. When were gladiators first publicly exhibited at Rome ? a. u. 490, by two brothers named Bruti, at the funeral of their father ; the custom seems to have arisen from the practice of slaying cap- tives at the tombs of those who fell in battle, to appease their spirits or manes. Why were the Romans entertained with gla* diators ? The policy of their rulers accustomed them to these exhibitions, that they might learn to look upon wounds and bloodshed without shrinking ; these shows were often prohibited by the merciful emperors, but never totally abolished till the reign of Honorius, who died a. d. 425. Which of the ancient 82 DIVISIONS OF TIME. nations paid the most sacred regard to an oath ? The Ro« mans : even during their greatest corruptions, this high sense of honor never entirely forsook them. What was the Mural Crown used by the Romans ? One indented at the top like the battlements of a wall, and bestowed upon him who first scaled the wall of an enemy's city. Into how many parts Avere the months divided by the Ro- mans ? Three : called calends, nones, and ides. The calends^ so designated because a priest called out to the people that it was new moon, was the first day of the month : the nones com- menced on the fifth day of the month, and were nine days from the ides, counting inclusively : the ides fell on the thirteenth day of every month, except March, May, July, and October, when the nones fell on the seventh and the ides on the fifteenth. What was a Lustrum ? A space of five years, at the end of which a general survey was taken of the Romans and their estates. What was an Indiction ? A space of fifteen years, observed among the Roman people, and estabHshed by the em- peror Constantine. Name the different forms of government in Rome. The establishment of the regal power ; then of the consulship, which continued till the first dictator (T. Lartius) was chosen — nine years after the expulsion of the kings — from fear of a domestic sedition, and of a dangerous war from the Latins : then succeeded the authority of the decemviri — ten magistrates selected from amongst the patricians, with supreme power, and from whose decision was no liberty of appeal. By a decree of the senate and order of the people, a. u. 299, three ambassadors were sent to Athens to copy the famous laws of Solon, and examine into the institutions of other Grecian states ; the result of whose labors was committed to the decemviri, by whom they were embodied into twelve tables, engraven on brass, fixed up in public, and continued ever after to be the foundation of public and private rights throughout the Roman world : after its abolition the perpetual dictatorship prevailed for a short time, till Augustus Caesar introduced the imperial power. What were Consuls ? Chief magistrates among the Romans ; two acted together, and their authority continued one year ; Brutus and CoUatinus were the first appointed to fill this high office. What was a Dictator ? A magistrate, who was invested with supreme power for six months ; never chosen during the earlier ages but when the commonwealth was thought in ex- treme danger ; this office at length was made perpetual ; Lartiua was the first dictator. What were Tribunes ? Magistrates, MILITARY TRIBUNES. 83 chosen to preserve the liberties an(? privileges of the people against the power and encroachments of the nobles ; at first two were appointed, then five ; at length their number was increased to ten ; they were at first chosen indiscriminately from amongst the plebeians, but afterwards none under senatorian rank were elected to the office : a tribune had no external mark of dignity except being preceded in pubhc by a beadle ; he had, however, ^i right of precedency, and all were obliged to rise in his pres- ence : he possessed a negative power, which proved useful at first, but was in time perverted to the worst purposes. What occasioned the institution of Military Tribunes ? The plebeian Romans being displeased with the consular government, three new magistrates were chosen in the year of the republic 310, called military tribunes, but their power was soon laid aside forever ; and Camillus, the dictator, dedicated a temple to Concord, to perpetuate the union then effected between the patricians and plebeians. When were the Decemviri appointed in Rome ? In the year of the repubHc 302 ; ten were chosen to write the twelve tables of the Roman law, but only one acted at a time as supreme magistrate ; their office was to continue a year, but they kept themselves in power much longer, under pretence of finishing the tables completely : they acted tyran- nically — were at length compelled to resign, and all perished either in prison or in banishment. What were the offices of Quaestor and -cEdile ? The Quaestors were two in number, and were to take care of the public money and contributions, sell plunder, &c. ; but in Julius Caesar's time they amounted tc forty : there were also two plebeian ^diles, who were to assist the tribunes, rectify weights and measures ; and two curule -^diles, who provided the public games. What rival states showed great antipathy to each other ? Rome and Carthage. What was meant by the Punic wars ? The wars between the Romans and the Carthaginians ; the words Punic Faith were afterwards proverbioily applied to the latter people, for their shameful breach of public faith. What gave rise to the Punic wars ? The oflfence which the Romans took at the assistance granted by the Carthaginians to the southern parts of Italy, then at war with Rome. How long did the Punic wars subsist ? The first, twenty-four years ; the second, seventeen years ; and the third and last, four years and some months. Who was Hannibal? A famous Carthaginian general, rival of Scipio Africanus : he was the son of Hamilcar Barcas, born 247 years before Christ ; and, at the age of nine years, his father made him swear at the altar eternal hatred to the Romans. Upon 84 HANNIBAL CORIOLANUS the murder of Asdrubal, the army conferred the chief command upon him by acclamation. At the age of twenty-six years, faithful to his early vow, he commenced a career of military glory by the taking of Saguntum ; he next assembled 90,000 infantry, forty elephants, and 12,000 horsemen, and traversing Gaul reached the Alps, in the depth of winter, and crossing either the Little St. Bernard or Genevre, entered Italy, which for sixteen years he held in spite of all the efforts of mighty Rome ; being recalled to oppose Scipio Africanus, who was advanced within five days' journey of Carthage, he suffered a defeat, and 20,000 of his soldiers were left dead upon the field. Name the four great battles in which Hannibal defeated the Romans. ^ Ticinus, Trebia, Thrasymene, and Cannae ; but Hannibal was himself defeated at the battle of Zama, in Africa, by Scipio, thence surnamed Africanus. What remarkable com- manders fell a sacrifice during these wars ? Regiilus, Flaminius, and two of the Scipios, on the Roman side ; Asdrubal, Hanno, Postar, and Hannibal, on the Carthaginian : Regiilus, being defeated under the walls of Carthage, where 20,000 Romans perished, was made prisoner, and was shortly after sent on an embassy to Rome, bound by an oath that he would return to Carthage if the senate should reject tile proposed terms of peace — arrived at Rome, he recommended to his countrymen the continuance of the war, and rejecting the prayers of rela- tions, and solicitations of friends, remained faithful to his ob- ligation, and returned to Carthage, where it is asserted he was deprived of life by the most cruel tortures. When did the Romans acquire a taste for the arts ? In the 270th year of the republic. For what W3re the Romans particularly famed ? For their perseverance, love of fame, and patriotism. Where did Hannibal and his army, infatuated with the seductions of luxury, forget their character as soldiers ? At Capua, in Ital} where they passed a winter. Who was Coriolanus ? A noble Roman, by name Caius Marius, but surnamed Coriolanus for his bravery at the siege of Corioli, the capital of the Volsci. Having placed himself at the head of the patricians, during the famine at Rome, 491 years B. c, and refused to distribute the SiciUan corn to the people unless they agreed to the abolition of the tribuneship, he was brought to trial before the whole people and banished. The more effectually to revenge himself upon his country, he applied to Attius, and those very Volsci whom he had subdued, and readily obtained the command of their forces destined against Eome. Making directly towards his native city, he encamped CAMILLUS FABIUS CUNCTATOR. 85 before its walls, and thence dismissed the envoys of the senate, until at last a mournful train, led by his mother Yeturia, his wife Volumnia, and his children, arrived at his camp, and Ve- turia prostrating herself at his feet, the hero raised her from the ground, exclaiming, " Mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son." He then- withdrew his army, and returning was as- sassinated in a tumult of the Volscians, excited by his enemy and rival, Attius. Who was Siccius Dentatus ? A Roman who fought 120 battles for his country, and gained fourteen civic and four mural crowns : he was, notwithstanding his services, never properly recompensed, and soon after basely assassinated by command of the decemviri. Who was Camillus ? A Roman general and dictator, memorable for taking the town of Veil, after it had been besieged ten years ; he then forbad the sol- diers to plunder, and they in revenge instigated the tribunes to accuse Camillus of fraudulent practices ; he was unjustly ban- ished ; but Rome being besieged by the Gauls, he nobly re • turned, completely defeated them, and once more enjoyed the highest offices : he afterwards fett a sacrifice to the plague which desolated the city. What Roman sacrificed himself io appease the fury of the gods ? Decius : Publius Decius Mus, the consul, in a war agauist the Latins, 340 years b. c, devoted himself for his country, and his example was followed by his son and his grandson. Such acts of self-devotion were not un- frequent at a time when patriotism and piety exerted a power- ful influence, and were performed with great solemnity. The wilhng victim, after performing certain religious rites, rushed into the midst of the enemy, clad in splendid armor, to show how a brave man ought to die for his country. Marcus Curtius, a Roman youth, clad in armor and mounted on horseback, leaped into a gulf in the Forum, which the oracle had declared would never close until what constituted the glory of Rome should be thrown into it — this Curtius interpreted to be valor. Which of the Romans beheaded his son for contempt of his consular authority? Manlius Torquatus. What Roman was most famed for his integrity ? Fabricius : king Pyrrhus, his enemy, declared publicly, that it was easier to turn the sun from its course, than Fabricius from the path of honor. Who was Fabius Maximus ? A dictator, who led the Roman armies against Hannibal ; his caution and experience were such, that without hazarding a battle he continued to keep the troops of Hannibal in perpetual alarm, whilst his own remained in security ; on this account he was termed the buckler of Rome and sur- named Cunctator. Who was Cato the Censor ? A philosopher. 8 86 PROSCRIPTIONS FIRST INTRODUCED. brave, just, and famed for the severity of his manners : he was the inveterate enemy of Carthage, and continually advising its destruction. Name the destroyer of Cartilage. Scipio -^mili- anus, surnamed the Younger Africanus ; after a siege of twenty days, he took the once powerful rival of Rome, his friend Laeliua being the first to ascend the walls, 146 years b. c, and by command of the senate, demoHshed and lurnt it : this hero and Julius Caesar are said to have best unite-d the military and liter-ary talents. What instance of determined resolution was shown by a Car- thaginian at this time ? When Carthage was destroyed, (which continued burning seventeen days,) the wife of Asdrubal, to avoid falling into the hands of the Romans, threw herself into the flames. Who afterwards rebuilt Carthage ? Augustus Caesar, and in some degree re-established its prosperity ; but the Arabs, in the seventh century, once more demolished it ; and Tunis now stands near its ruins. Name the four most am- bitious men in Rome. Marias, Sylla, Pompey, and Caesar. When happened the first important civil war in Rome ? In the y«ear of the repubhc QQ5, between Sylla and Marius. Name some of the most temperate Romans. Cincinnatus, Fabricius, Cato, and Cicero. Name the three most luxurious. LucuUus, Catiline, and Sylla. What is meant by proscriptions of the people ? Banishing them, confiscating their goods, setting them up for sale, and sometimes putting them to death. Who invented proscriptions ? Sylla, upon his return into the city, after conquering the faction of Marius : he wrote down (proscribed) the names of those whom he doomed to die, and ordered them to be fixed up on tablets in public places of the city, with a promise of a reward for the head of each proscribed person ; the first list included the names of forty senators and 1,600 knights. What Roman showed the greatest depravity of heart, and inchnation to betray his country ? Ctitiline : Cicero discovered his conspiracy. Who formed the first Roman Triumvirate ? Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar. The policy of Caesar effected this incongruous union, which should rather be termed a coalition than a triumvirate — that he might quietly enjoy the consulship, ingratiate himself with the plebeians, and after crushing the factions of his colleagues, unite them both in his interest. Caesar was born 10th July, 100 years before Christ, and became an able general, statesman, and historian ; he possessed deep penetration, tenacious memory, a lively imagination, indefatigable in business ; and Pliny says he could read, write, hear, and dictate, at the same time, from four THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. 87 to seven different letters. He escaped the proscription of Sylla, who declared " he saw many a Marius in the striphng Caesar." He afterwards defeated, captured, and crucified the ^gean pirates, who robbed him on his voyage to Rhodes to study un der Apollonius ; he was privy to Catiline's conspiracy, but obtaining a command in Spain, was heard to remark as he passed a wretched village there, " that he would rather be first in it than second in Rome." Upon his return he obtained the consulship, overran Gaul, Germany, Italy, and Britain, and reached the highest degree of popularity. Which of his col- leagues became his adversary ? Pompey the Great, who feared the increasing power of Caesar ; the senate and consuls foljowed Pompey 's standards, while Juhus relied upon the affection of his soldiers, and threatened to march to Rome unless they would grant him justice, or to resign his command in case Pompey would do so too. What decree did the Roman senate pass, when menaced by Caesar ? They enacted, that whoever should pass the river Rubicon, either with a cohort, legion, or army, should be deemed a sacrilegious man and a parricide, and be solemnly devoted to the infernal deities ; but decrees of this kind were ineffectual when the republic was convulsed to its centre ; and, calling on his soldiers to defend the honor of their leader, he passed the Rubicon, forty-nine years b. c, and made himself master of Italy without striking a blow, as Pompey, destitute of troops, had withdrawn from the city, together with the consuls, senators, and magistrates. When was the battle of Pharsalia fought ? Forty-seven years before Christ, between Pompey and Caesar ; when the latter proved victorious, and be- came master of the Roman liberties. In this decisive conflict Pompey is said to have shown himself unworthy of his renown- ed and venerated name ; perceiving his troops thrown into disorder, he retired to his tent, and remained in a state of stupefaction until the approach of the conquerors obliged him to consult for his safety. Escaping to the island of Lesbos, he took his faithful Cornelia on board — sailed for the court of Ptolemy of Egypt, but he scarcely set foot upon the shore when he was basely assassinated. When Caesar arrived in Egypt the head of his rival was presented to him, but he turned from the Bight with tears — punished the assassins — caused the remains to be interred, and erected a temple to Nemesis over the gi'f^e. Where did Cato die ? He killed himself at Utica, in Africa, be- cause he scorned to sur\dve the liberties of his country. What doctrine was introduced at Rome towards the end of the repubhc ? That called the Epicurean ; its tenets, evidently 88 THE DEATH OF C^SAR. favoring luxury and sensuality, are by many tliouglit to have had a powerful effect in corrupting the minds of the Romans, and extinguishing the noble spirit which one© animated them. Epicurus himself made pleasure to consist in virtue ; his fol- lowers shamefully perverted that doctrine, and were noted for the freedom of their lives. Who conspired the death of Ceesar ? Brutus and Cassius ; the former had been his intimate friend : he was assassinated on the 15th of March, forty-four years be- fore Christ, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, pierced by twenty- three wounds, which laid him lifeless at the pedestal of Pompey's statue : he was a merciful ruler, had been the victor in 500 battles, and the conqueror of 1000 cities. What caused the most frequent seditions among the Roman soldiers ? The great interest paid for money lent ; the laws made by the decemviri forbade raising interest above twelve per cent. ; but these laws were neglected, and the excessive usury practised at Rome caused most of the calamities which afterwards befell the em- pire. How were victorious commanders rewarded amongst the Romans ? By a triumph or solemn procession, which Avas the highest military honor, and the most splendid spectacle of ancient Rome. The enemy must have been foreign and free^ the war just, and the number slain must have reached 5000 at least, to entitle the general to this honor. How were the superior triumphs conducted ? On the day appointed, the oreneral, crowned with laurel, in after ages with gold, pro- nounced an oration to the soldiery and sun*ounding multitudcr relating his mihtary Achievements ; then the march began with a long procession, in which were carried inscriptions, containing the names of the nations, provinces, or cities, he had conquered ; the priests assisted, leading the beasts used for sacrifice. Who closed the procession ? The conqueror, in an ivory car, richly ornamented ; he was surrounded by his friends and relations, bearing branches of laurel : tlie procession stopped at the Capitol, where they sacrificed to Jupiter, and deposited part of the spoils. How was the lustre of the Roman conquests tarnished ? By their inhumanity to the conquered ; their prison- ers, if of high rank, were only reserved to suffer superior morti- fications ; the captive monarchs and generals were bound in chains, their heads closely shaven, (a mark of peculiar degrada- tion,) and they were thus presented a sad spectacle it the gazing multitude. What was an Ovation ? A kind of inferior triumph among the Romans, conferred upon those whose victories were not ?ery considerable ; Posthumius was the first honored with one : THE AUGUSTAM AGE 89 in the Ovation, the general walked on foot in his common habit, and was met by the knights and citizens ; he was not allowed a sceptre, and instead of drums and trumpets, fifes and tiutea were carried before him. How long did the custom of trmmph- ino- after a battle continue ? From Romulus to Augustus, when they were forbidden, with some few exceptions, till some ages after: then, Belisarius, having, under the Emperor Justinian, subjugated Africa, taken Rome, Carthage, and Ravenna from the hands of the Goths, was permitted by his sovereign to make his triumphal entry into Constantinople. When Avas the second great Roman Triumvirate formed ? After Julius Caesar's death, when Octavius Caesar, Marc Antony, and Lepidus shared the Roman power among them ; but Octavius was afterwards declared emperor by the title of Augustus Caesar. Between whom was the battle of Philippi ? It was fought by Brutus- and Cassius, on one side ; Marc Antony and Octavius Caesar, on the other ; its issue totally overturned the Roman republic, and estabhshed the imperial form of government. In what great battle was Marc Antony finally defeated ? At the battle of Actium, off the coast of Epirus, by Octavius Caesar. When did Egypt become a Roman province ? In the reign of Au- gustus : it continued in the hands of the Romans 700 years. What particular change did Augustus effect in the Roman con- stitution ? When declared emperor, he deprived the people of their ancient privilege to make laws and judge criminals ; but suffered them to retain that of electing magistrates : Tiberius, however, took this power also into his own hands. How many Roman emperors were there ? Sixty : Augustus was the first, and Augustulus the last. What period of time was called the Augustan age ? Augustus Caesar's reign : the distinguished writers were Cicero, Livy, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Varro. Vitruvius, the celebrated Roman architect, lived then. Which were the best Roman emperors ? Augustus, Vespasian, Titus, Nerva, Trajan, Adrian, Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, Pertinax, Alexander Severus, Claudius II., Tacitus, and Constantine the Great. What emperors were noted for their vices ? Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Otho, Vitellius, Domi- tian, Commodus, and Heliogabalus. Who was emperor when Christ was born ? Augustus Caesar. Who was emperor when Christ suffered death ? Tiberius, remarkable for the incon- sistency of his character, and his dissolute way of life. When was Christianity introduced in Rome ? Thirty years after the death of Christ. What emperors persecuted the Christians ? Kero, Domitian, Trajan, Adrian, Severus, Maximinus, Decius, 8* 90 THE JEWISH CAPTIVITY. Valerian, Aurelian, Diociesian, and Julian, surnamed the Apos- tate ; this prince was brought up in the Christian iaith, but at the age of twenty-four was induced by the sophist Libanus, at Athens, to renounce the religion of those who had massacred his family, and embrace paganism.. What Roman emperor ordered himself to be worshipped as- a god ? Cahgula ; but the Jews refused to obey the mandate : this was the monster who wished his people had but one neck, that he might destroy them at a blow. What Roman emperor set fire to his own capital, and afterwards laughed at the calamity he had caused ? Nero : this unaccountably cruel prince possessed splendid abilities, and received an accomphshed education. He poisoned Britannicus, put his own mother to death, and caused Seneca, Lucan, and others to be assassinated : he appeared publicly as a mounte- bank, played on the violin, sang, and contended in the chariot- race ; he was a persecutor of Christians also ; he destroyed himself a. d. 68. When was Jerusalem levelled with the ground ? In the reign of Vespasian, emperor of the Romans, by Titus, his son, a. d. 10. Why did God permit the destruc- tion of Jerusalem, his favored city ? On account of the great wickedness and repeated acts of impiety shown by the Jews, without the slightest symptoms of repentance. What occa- sioned the animosities between the Jews and Samaritans ? A difference in rehgious opinions respecting the place where God had appointed an altar to be erected : both Jews and Samaritans contested the point ; the Jews declaring that God would be worshipped only in Jerusalem ; the Samaritans, who were de- scended from the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, who had mingled with the Assyrian colonists, that in Samaria also he made his presence known ; and they worshipped on Mount Geri- zim. When the Jews, on their return from captivity^ were about to rebuild the temple, tlie Samaritans desired permission to aid in the pious labor, but their request was rejected by the Jews, Avho looked upon their issue as mixed with heathens ; and hence also the hatred between the Jews and Samaritans in the time of our Saviour. What has caused such frequent animosities between religious sects ? Their bigotry. What calamities have befallen the an- cient Jews ? Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in the reign of Zedekiah, and the Jews led captive thither ; after the expiration of the seventy years' captivity, Cyrus permitted them to rebuild their city, and restore it to its ancient splendor. It was forty years after the death of Christ W^hen lltus destroyed the city ; but he endeavored to save the CELEBRATED ROMANS. 91 temple, thougli without effect. How many Jews are computed to have perished during this siege, and its subsequent events ? 1,100,000 : those Jews who had been instrumental in the re- belHon were crucified by the emperor's command : 11,000 per- ished by hunger, 97,000 were taken prisoners, and many of them sent into Egypt as slaves ; some were devoured by .wild beasts, in the public diversions ; and it is not possible to con- ceive greater calamities than those this unfortunate people en- dured. Who was the last king of the Jews ? Agrippa II., being dethroned by the emperor Claudius ; he served in the army of Titus, against the very people over whom he had reigned. Who rebuilt Jerusalem ? The emperor Adrian ; and, in derision of the Jews, he caused a marble statue of a hog to be placed over the principal gate of the city, this animal being the one they have a particular antipathy to. The modern Je- rusalem has fallen successively into the hands of the Persians, the Saracens, the Christian powers engaged in the crusades, and the Turks, who still keep possession of it. Who was the fa- mous Jewish historian ? Josephus. Who was PHny the elder ? A famous naturalist, killed in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius : he was the friend of the emperor Titus. When were the greatest cruelties inflicted upon the Christians ? In the reigns of Do- mitian and Dioclesian. Who was Agricola ? The Roman gov- ernor of South Britain, in the time of Domitian ; he built a line of forts between the rivers Forth and Clyde, to defend the Britons from the inroads of the Scots, whom he defeated on the Grampian Mountains. Who was Tacitus ? A Roman historian, one of the greatest orators and statesmen of his time. Who was the first Christian emperor ? Constantine the Great ; fif- teen emperors, all professing Christianity, succeeded him. What city was anciently called Byzantium ? Constantinople ; the emperor Constantine the Great removed the seat of his govern- ment thither, that he might be nearer the Persians, whose power then began to be formidable to the Romans. What nations enslaved the Romans, after the time of the emperor Constantine ? The Goths and Vandals. Were the morals of the Romans better under the imperial, or republican form of government ? Under the latter. When was the imperial power in the most flourishing state ? In the reign of Trajan. Who was Justinian? A Roman emperor, famed for collecting the Roman laws into one body, called the Code, to which he gave his own name. Who was Belisarius ? A Roman general, who lived in the reign of Justinian, emperor of the east, a. d. 561 ; after performing the greatest services fo his country, he was unjustly deprived 92 ROMAN AUTHORS. of all liis dignities, and is said to have had his eyes put out. What occasioned the overthrow of the Roman power ? Its fall was owing to the luxury and corruption of the people, when the empire became too extensive. Who first laid the Roman power prostrate? Alaric, king of the Goths, 410 years after Christ. What prince was called the scourge of God, the destroyer of nations ? Attila, king of the Huns, because he ravaged and destroyed the Roman empire. Name the chief Italian curiosi- ties, natural and artificial. The amphitheatres, one at Rome, the other at Verona ; the triumphal arches of Yespasian, Sev- erus, and Constantino the Great; the pillars of Trajan and Antoninus ; the roads made by the consuls Appius, Flaminius, and ^milius ; the Pantheon, anciently a temple, dedicated to the heathen gods ; the catacombs ; mounts Etna and Vesuvius ; the ruins of the city of Herculaneum, almost destroyed in Nero's time by an earthquake, and totally covered by the lava, in the reign of Titus, and the city of Pompeii destroyed at the same time. Why are the fine arts neglected in Italy, which was famous for encouraging them ? Because the modern Italians are sunk in ecclesiastical slaveiy, and weakened by luxury and sensual pleasures. Name the most distinguished literary characters in the reign of Tiberius. Valerius Maximus, the compiler of memorable stories and events ; Velleius Paterculus, the writer of the Gre- cian and Roman history, from the defeat of Persius, king of Macedon, by the Romans, to the sixth year of Tiberius. What learned men flourished under the reign of Caligula ? Few : Caligula declared open war upon the Muses, banished the works of Virgil and Livy from the public hbraries, and would scarcely allow Homer better treatment ; Seneca, and in short, all men of eminent virtue and learning, were his aversion ; Apion, the grammarian, however, lived in his reign ; and Philo Juda3us, a Jewish writer upon moral philosophy. What great men flour- ished in the reign of Nero ? Seneca ; Lucan, the poet ; Per- sius, the satirist ; Epictetus, the moralist ; and Petroniua j^.rbiter, a Roman writer, whose opinions were openly Epicu- rean. Name some authors in the reign o» Domitian. Martial, the writer of epigrams ; Juvenal, the satirist ; Josephus, the Jewish historian and antiquarian ; and Quintilian, the celebrated in- structor of youth. Name some in the reign of Trajan. Plu- tarch, the biographer ; Pliny the Younger, who was raised to the dignity of consul ; Suetonius, who wrote the lives of the twelve Caesars ; and Tacitus, the historian. Name some great DECAY OF LEARNING. 93 men in the reign of Adrian. Ptolemy, the geographer and astronomer ; Arrian, the liistorian ; Aiilus Gelhus, the learned author of Attic Nights. Name some learned men in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Galen, the physician ; Justin, the histo- rian ; -^lian, the natural philosopher ; and Diogenes of Laertes, the Epicurean philosopher and biographer. Who flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius ? Justin Martyr, the Christian apologist, and Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna ; they both suffered martyrdom : Hermogenes, the rhetorician, and Lucian, the cele- brated Greek critic and satirist, flourished. Who flourished under the emperor Severus ? Clemens Alexandrinus, and Ter- tullian, celebrated fathers of the primitive Christian church, the latter also an elegant Latin writer ; and Minutius Felix, the Roman orator and writer in defence of Christianity. Name some writer in the reign of Hehogabalus. Origen of Alexandria, one of the fathers of the church, who defended the Christian reli- gion against the attacks of Celsus, the Epicurean philosopher. Name some in the reign of the emperor Alexander. Dion Cas- sius, the historian of the Roman History, written in Greek. Who flourished in the reign of the (jmperor Decius ? Plotinus, the celebrated Platonic philosopher, born in Egypt, but a resi- dent in Rome ; and Cyprian, the ornament of the Afiican church. Name some famous characters in the reign of Quin- tillus. Longinus, the celebrated critic and counsellor of the unhappy Zenobia, queen of Palmyra ; he was beheaded by order of the emperor Aurelian, a. d. 275 ; and Porphyry, the Jewish philosophical writer. Porphyry was originally a Chris- tian convert, but afterwards an apostate : from this period (the latter end of the third centurv) few writers of note appeared in the Roman empire, excepting the Christian fathers ; the con- tinual irruptions of tlie nortliern nations introduced new lan- guages, new customs ; these turbulent times were little calcu • lated for the cultivation of literary talents, and after the Goths and Vandals had overrun the empire, a night of mental dark- ness followed, from the tenth to the middle of the fifteentb century. ^•^ ENGLISH LINES OP KINGS. ENGLISH QUESTIONS, CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED, FROM THE INVASION OF CJISAR. TO THE PRESENT TIME. In statesmen thou. And patriots fertile. Thobikn. Name the six grand epochs in the history of England. The introduction of Christianity — the Norman conquest — the signing Magna Charta, (which laid the foundation of English hberty,) — the reformation — the restoration — and the revolution. To this enumeration may be added the enactment of the Reform Bill in 1832, by which the elective franchise was extended, many old boroughs disfranchised, and populous places admitted to a share in the representation. When was Christianity introduced into England ? Sixty-three years after the death of Christ ? What was the Reformation ? A change from the Catholic to the Protestant opinions, first set on foot in Germany, by Lu- ther, but had been previously begun in England by Wickliffe, and completed by Henry VIII., who assumed the title of Head of the Church. When was the reformation begun in Scotland and Ireland ? In Ireland, in the reign of Henry VIII. ; in Scot- land, in that of Mary, queen of Scots, by John Knox, the reformer. What gave rise to the reformation in this and foreign countries ? The general sale of indulgences, or pardons for sins, and the abandoned hves of the clergy. What was the Restoration ? Restoring the kingly power, in the person of Charles II., after the death of OUver Cromwell. What w^as the Revolution? A change in the constitution, which took place on the accession of William III. What two great ad- vantages did England gain by the revolution ? The present constitution was firmly established, and the famous bill of rights passed. What is meant by the constitution of England ? Its laws and government. What was the Bill of Rights ? A bill passed in the reign of William III., to confirm and secure the liberties of the people. Name the English lines of kings. Saxon, Danish, Norman, DRUIDICAL CEREMONIES. 95 Plantagenet, Tudor, Stuart, Orange or Nassau, and tliat of Hanover or Brunswick. How many princes Avere there of each hne ? Seventeen Saxons, three Danes, four Normans, fourteen Plantagenets, five Tudors, six Stuarts, one Orange or Nassau, and six of the line of Brunswick. What is the ancient name for England ? Albion or Britannia. For France ? Gallia or Gaul. For Scotland ? Caledonia. For Ireland ? Hibernia. For Wales ? Cambria. For Holland ? Batavia or Belgium. For Spain ? Iberia. For Portugal ? Lusitania. For Sweden and Denmark ? Scandinavia. For Poland ? Lithuania. For Switzerland ? Helvetia. By whom were the Britons first conquered ? By the Romans : Julius Caesar first attempted this conquest, and the succeeding emperors finally achieved it. Who were the Druids ? Priests of Britain, whose principal residence was in the Isle of Anglesea, where they performed their idolatrous worship, and were held in great veneration by the people. How were the Druids clothed when they sacri- ficed ? In long white garments ; they wore on their heads the tiara or sacred crown, their temples were encircled with a wreath of oak leaves, they waved in their hands a magic Avand, and also placed upon their heads a serpent's egg, as an ensign of their order. What plant did the Druids hold in high esti- mation, and what traces have we of their places of worship ? They reverenced the mistletoe, and their altars or temples called Cromlechs may still be seen, as well as the rude chairs of the arch-druid, the sacred circle, and the sacrificing stones, on which it is probable human victims were immolated. What became of the Druids ? Numbers of them were put to death by the emperor Nero's command, when Britain became a Ro- man province. How were public events transmitted to posterity, when the Britons were ignorant of printing and writing ? By their bards or poets, who were the only depositaries of the national events. What Roman emperor projected an invasion of Britain, gathered only shells upon the coast, and then re- turned to Rome in triumph ? Caligula. What British generals distinguished themselves before the Saxon heptarchy was form- ed ? Cassibellaunus, Vortigern, Caractacus, and prince Arthur, renowned in story. What was the exclamation of Caractacus, when led in triumph through Rome ? " How is it possible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home, should envy me an humble cottage in Britain ?" What queen poisoned herself, to avoid the insults of the Roman conqueror ? Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, in Britain. What two Saxon generals as- sisted in subduing England ? Hengist and Horsa ; they were CR5 Peter's pence. brothers : under their domination tlie ancient Britons wert compelled to retire within Cambria, or escape to Armorica, (Bretagne,) in France. How was the Saxon Heptarchy con- stituted ? By the union and mutual agreement of seven Saxon princes, to divide England into seven different parts, and each take a share. Who was the first Christian king in Britain ? Ethelbert, fifth king of Kent. Who raised the first sole mon- archy upon the ruins of the Saxon heptarchy ? Egbert, king of Wessex, about 800 years after the death of Christ. When did the clergy first collect tithes in England ? In the reign of Ethelwolf, successor to Egbert. What Saxon monarch erected a number of monasteries ? Ethelbald. What gave rise to monastic institutions in Christendom ? The persecutions which attended the first ages of the gospel obliged some Christians to retire into deserts and unfrequented places ; their example gave so much reputation and weight to retirement, that the practice was continued when the reason ceased to exist. Name the best Saxon king. Alfred the Great. What were the remarkable events of this reign ? He awoke anew the courage of his countrymen — attacked and expelled the Danes — defeated them fit sea, and maintained himself in possession of his kingdom ; he encouraged learning and learned men, founded the University of Oxford, and divided England into shires or counties : this prince first established a national militia, and put the English navy upon a respectable footing : houses were built of brick in this reign. What was Peter's Pence ? An annual tribute of a penny, (some say of a shilling,) paid by every family in Britain to the popes, on St. Peter's day, from the eighth century down to the reign of Henry VIII. ; it was at first granted for the purpose of repairing and preserving the 'tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul, in the city of Rome ; and in the thirteenth centmy it exceeded the revenue of the kings of England. When was this tribute abolished ? At the reformation, in the reign of Henry VIII. What was meant by excommunication ? A decree of the popes, by which they deprived the nation or person excommunicated of all reliojious rites, and solemnly gave them up to the devil's power. What Enghsh princes have the popes excommunicated ? John, Henry VIII., and Elizabeth. What is meant by laying a kingdom under an interdict ? By this the pope deprived the nation of all exterior rites of religion, except baptism and the communion to the dying ; the people were forbidden the use of all meats, pleasures, and entertainments. What was the trial by Ordeal ? This superstitious custom was anciently very GUY, EARL OF WARWICK. 07 prevalent in Britain : there were three kinds of Ordeal ; that by fire, that by cold water, and that by hot water. Describe them. In that by fire, the accused were to walk blindfolded and barefooted over nine red-hot ploughshares, placed at un- equal distances ; in that by cold water, the person accused was bound hands and feet, thrown into a pond or river, and was then to clear himself by escaping drowning ; in that by hot water, the hands and feet were plunged into scalding water : these ridiculous customs were totally laid aside in the reign of Henry III. Who founded the University of Cambridge ? Ed- ward the Elder. When did the famous Guy, Earl of Warw.'ck, live ? In the reign of Athelstan : his strength is said to have been matchless. He stood forth in single combat with Col- brand, the grand champion of the Danes, in a contest which was to determine the fate of the kingdom, at Memhill, near the walls of Winchester, when king Athelstan was besieged : many memorials are shown in Warwick castle and elsewhere of this remarkable person, but his history is so disfigured by fable, that it is almost rejected from our national records. What Saxon king w^as stabbed by an assassin ? Edmund, by Leolf the robber. Which of the English princes was stabbed by order of his mother-in-law, at Corfe Castle ? Edward, called the Martyr: Elfrida, who commanded the execution of this treacherous deed, was equally beautiful and wicked. When was the general massacre of the Danes ? In the reign of Ethelred II. Which of the Saxon monarchs, after Alfred, was the most valiant ? Edmund Ironside : on the death of Ethelred he took the field against Canute, the Danish king, and sustained a defeat at Assingham, in Essex, in consequence of the defection of Edric, Duke of Mercia. A compromise was then effected, which gave the midland and northern counties to Canute, while Edmund was to hold the southern. At the instigation of the traitor Edric he was shortly after murdered, by two of his ser- vants, at Oxford, whereby the Danish prince became master of the entire kingdom. Which of the kings, by a memorable speech, reproved the flattery of his courtiers ; and what was the substance of it ? Canute the Great, first of the Danish line : he ordered his chair to be placed upon the sea-shore, when the tide was coming in, and commanded the sea to retire ; he feigned to sit some time, expecting its submission, till the waves began to surround him, and then, turning to his courtiers, he exclaimed, " The titles of lord and master only belong to him whom earth and seas are ready to obey." When was paper first made ? In the reign of Harold, successor to Canute* 9o THE NORMAN CONQUEST. What is remarkable of Hardicanute ? He was a weak ami degenerate prince ; in him ended the Danish hne ; and he died by excess of drinking. What laws did Edward the Confessor collect ? Those of the Danes, Saxons, and Mercians, which he abridged and amended ; and till the twentieth year of the reign of William the Conqueror, they were considered as the common law of England. Name the principal events in the time of William the Con- queror. The battle of Hastings, fought between William and Harold, when the latter was killed ; Doomsday Book compiled ; the Curfew Bell established ; sheriffs appointed ; the New For- est in Hampshire enlarged, to effect which thirty-six parish churches were destroyed ; the feudal law introduced ; the juris- diction of the Archbishop of Canterbury over the see of York confirmed at a national synod ; Norman French introduced in all pleadings in the supreme courts, a custom continued until the reign of Edward III. ; and the foundation of the Tower of London laid by the king, who granted to the city of London their first charter. What was Doomsday Book ? An account of the value of every man's estate, the number of cattle and servants upon it : the Down survey in Ireland is analogous in its uses to this ancient record. What was the Curfew Bell ? A bell ordered to be rung every night at eight o'clock, when the English were to put out their fire and candle ; they were obhged also, in this reign, to give up their arms. What was meant by the Feudal Law ? Estates held by this law' were oc- cupied by men who were obliged to assist the master of the estate, engage in his quarrels, and do to him other actual ser- vices ; these men paid no rent : in process of time this law was so much abused, that when a gentleman sold his estate, the farmer who lived upon it, his children, and stock of cattle, were sold also. When was the custom of beheading intro- duced ? By Wilham the Conqueror. Musical notes were also invented in this reign, by a Frenchman. The English were in general at this time illiterate, rude, and barbarous ; but in this century began what is commonly termed the age of chivalry in Europe, when anarchy and barbarism were abolished, and civi- lization and politeness of manners first introduced. When was Westminster Hall built ? In the reign of William Rufus ; this king was noted for his oppressions and liis irreligion. When were the first crusades, or holy wars ? • In the reign of William Eufus ; they were undertaken by the Christian nations of the West, to rescue Jerusalem and the tomb of our Saviour from the hajida of the Saracens and Turks, who were infidels ; they FIRST OF THE FhAN'L'AGKSStj l b. 99 w*»re carried on from the end of the eleventh to the end of the thirteenth century. Who was the famous Saladin, or Salahed- din? A sultan of Egypt and Syria, successor of king Nou- reddin, born at Tecnib, in 1137. He besieged and took Jeru- salem, made Guy de Lusignan prisoner, and slew Chatillon with his own hand on the piams of Tiberias ; this famous victory, and his subsequent reduction of Jerusalem, were the immediate occasions of the first crusade : Saladin was magnificent in his public undertakings, frugal in his private expenses ; he was a fanatic in religion, but faithful to his promises : his hatred of the Christian name arose from the atrocious massacre of Mo- hammedan pilgrims by the French Lord Du Challon, which Saladin had pledged himself to revenge. At this period was founded the military order of Mamelukes, so called from the Arabic word memelik, a slave: at first 12,000 slaves were em- bodied in a corps, chiefly Turks from Chapchak, who gradually acquired power and influence until the year 1254, when they placed Ibegh, one of their number, on the throne of Egypt : their dominion was terminated by feelim I., in 15lT. The whole race was exterminated in one hour, by Mehemet Ali, Pacha of Egypt, in 1835. Who made the first king's speech upon record ? Henry I. ; he was surnamed Beau Clerc, on account of his great learning. What was meant by Knights Templars ? This was a military order of knighthood, instituted in the time of Henry I., to defend the temple and holy sepulchre at Jerusalem ; also Christian strangers from the assaults of infidels. Which of the English kings was Earl of Blois? Stephen, grandson to Wil- ham the Conqueror, by his daughter Adela ; his father Stephen, Earl of Blois, fell in the crusades against the Saracens : Stephen usurped the English throne. Which of them was Earl of An- jou ? Henry II., the first of the Plantagenets : the loadstone's attractive power, glass windows, and surnames, were first known in his reign. Who was prime minister to Henry II. ? Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury: Becket being murdered by king Henry's instigation, the king consented to perform penance at his tomb, to humor the superstition of the people, who believed him to be a saint, as he had been canonized by the church of Rome : the famous Earl of Pembroke lived in this reign. What king was crowned twice, and taken prisoner in Germany on his return from the Holy Land ? Richard I., surnamed Coeur de Lion on account of his valor : Richard first assumed the motto of " God and my right," and affixed it to his arms : a total 100 MAGNA CHARTA. eclipse of the sun happened in this reign, when the stars were visible at ten in the morning : wheat was sold at £6 per quar- ter : two suns appeared, which were only to be distinguished by the aid of instruments : sheriffs or bailiflfs were appointed : and companies or societies first estabHshed in this reign. When did Robin Hood and Little John Hve ? In the time of Richard [. ; Robin Hood was said to be the Earl of Huntingdon, and outlawed for some misdemeanors committed at court, upon which he and his attendant, Little John, concealed themselves in Sherwood Forest, in Nottinghamshire, and lived by plunder. What action of Richard I. does history record most in favor of his noble way of thinking ? The pardon of his brother John, after repeated treasons : he then said, " I forgive you, and wish I could as easily forget your injuries, as you will my pardon." Which of the Enghsh kings was called Sans Terre, or Lack- land? John: he put out the eyes of his nephew, Arthur, duke of Bretagne, who was the nearest in succession to the throne, and afterwards threw him down a precipice : astronomy, chemistry, and distillery, were first common in Europe in this reign. Who signed Magna Charta ? John : before he was prevailed upon to sign this he surrendered his crown to the pope, consenting to hold it afterwards tributary to Rome, on condition that the pope should accommodate a quarrel between John and Philip H., king of France. What was Magna Charta ? A bill, or act of parhament, granting the barons and citizens greater privileges than they had ever enjoyed before : by this act, which was passed a. d. 1205, the obligation of the fedual law was abolished, and English freedom restored. Who after- wards revoked Magna Charta ? John's son, Henry HI. ; but the people at length Dbliged him to confirm it in every point. When was the Court of Common Pleas first instituted, and when were aldermen appointed ? In the reign of Henry III. : the first regular parliaments were called by Henry ; this is one of the longest reigns recorded, extending to fifty-six years, and only exceeded by that of George III., which lasted fifty-nine years. When was marriage first solemnized in churches ? In the reign of Henry III. : magnifying glasses and magic lanterns were also invented by Roger Bacon, the monk. \Vhat other improvements were introduced in the reign of Henry III. ? Cidsr, linen, and tapestry were first made in England, and the seaman's compass said to be invented by the French ; but there Are such various opinions concerning the inventor, and the time aS. this discovery being made, that nothing conclusive can bo MASSACRE OF THE W,E1:^h; BAilt«.'! ; ' ' ] , '■ iQtp said upon it. When was the Inquisition established ? In the time of Henry III. What was the Inquisition ? A cruel court, composed of monks and friars, appointed to take cognizance of every thing supposed to be heretical, or contrary to the estab- lished religion, and to pronounce its dreadful sentence against the future honor and lives of individuals without appeal ; its plan was conceived by Pope Innocent III., and its courts were established in Italy, France, and Spain. In the year 1481, the Dominican monastery at Seville was insufficient to contain the numerous prisoners, and the king removed the court to the spacious castle of Triana. At the first Atito da fe, (act of faith,) seven apostate Christians were burnt by order of the Inquisition, and a number of penitents obtained by torture. Spanish writers relate that at one period, to avoid torture 17,000 persons surrendered themselves to the Inquisition, of which number 2,000 were condemned to the flames, and a greater number effected their escape to neighboring countries. This infamous tribunal continued to be a powerful obstacle to the progress of the human intellect, until the moment when it was abolished by Napoleon, 4th Dec, 1808. The total number of victims to the cruelty of the Inquisition, from the year 1481 to 1808, amounted to 341,021 ; of these, some were burnt, others strangled, the rest imprisoned for life. What best promotes a liberal way of thinking ? A thorough knowledge of ourselves, and a candid allowance for the faults of others. What were the discoveries and improvements in the reign of Edward I. ? Geography and the use of the globes were intro- duced ; tallow candles and coals were first common ; windmills invented ; and it is remarkable that wine was sold only as a cordial, in apothecaries' shops. What accident did Euward I. meet with, while m the Holy Land ? He Avas wounded there by a poisoned arrow ; but his faithful queen, Eleanora, is said to have suck3d th 3 poison from the wound, and restored him to health : at the death of this queen, many years after, Edward erected stone crosses at every place where her corpse rested on its way to interment; the remains of some of these are still visible — that at Waltham Cross, in Hertford, is the most beau- tiful as well as most perfect : this prince was surnamed Long- shanks, on account of the great length of his legs. What king is said to have inhumanly ordered a general massacre of the Welsh bards ? Edward I. : after the conquest of Wales, and the death of Llewellyn, its last prince of Welsh extraction ; he and David, his brother, were cruelly beheaded, and their bodies treated with the greatest indignity. Who was William Wal- 9* 3t,0& BATTIES OV.CRESSY AND POICTIERS lace ? A famous Scottish hero, wlio, in the time of Edward I., bravely endeavored to defend the hberties of his country against the Enghsh. What became of him ? He was defeated at the battle of Falkirk, in 1298, and shortly after being taken prisoner, through the treachery of Sir John Monteith, was conveyed to London, and there suffered the death of a traitor, 27th August, 1305. Who first bestowed the title of Prince of Wales upon his eldest son ? Edward I., to reconcile the Welsh to their subjection. When was the battle of Bannockburn fought with the Scots ? In the reign of Edward II. : the English lost it. Name the chief favorites of Edward II. Gaveston and the two De Spencers. When was tiie order of Knights Templars abol- ished? In the time of Edward II. Why? Because many of the knights were charged with high crimes and misdemean- ors; fifty-nine of them residing in France, with their grand- master, were arrested and burnt alive. Who was king of Scot- land in this reign ? Robert Bruce, celebrated for his valor and fortitude. What remarkable events afflicted England at this time ? A dreadful famine, which continued three years, and the most severe earthquake ever known in Britain. What death did Edward 11. suffer? He was dethroned, and afterwards cruelly murdered in Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire. Name the most remarkable events in the reign of EdAvard III. The battles of Cressy and Poictiers, (the former gained by the Black Prince alone, at the age of sixteen,) the siege of Calais, the institution of the Order of the Garter, and the battle of Neville's Cross, in which David Bruce, king of Scotland, was taken prisoner by Philippa, Edward's queen : the invention of gunpowder, by Swartz, a monk of Cologne, a. d. 1330: the art of weaving cloth brought into England from Flanders, and copper money first used in Scotland and Ireland, and painting in oil invented by John Van Eyck. What riband do the Knights of the Garter wear ? A blue riband : it is esteemed the most honorable order of any the English have. Name the great men in the reign of Edward III. The Black Prince, John, Duke of Lancaster, the Earl of Salisbury, and the Duke of York. What was the character and fate of the Black Prince ? He was valiant, prudent, and accomplished ; he died in the prime of life, of a consumption, regretted by all. It has been remarked, that John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, though so nearly allied to royalty, never ascended the throne, being the Bon of Edward III., the father of Henry IV., and the uncle of Richard II. ; so, also, Edward, Duke of Kent, son of George i.11., father of Queen Victoria, and brother of George and WU- HENRY IV. , 103 liam IV"., never ascended the throne. Upon ^^hat grounds did Edward III. assert his claims to the French monarchy? In right of his mother, Isabella, who was sister to the late king of France. What law destroyed this claim? The Salic Law. What gave rise to the Sahc Law in France ? The Sahi : the original inhabitants had a law which excluded females from the mheritance of any landed possession ; the Franks or French adopted this rule, and applied it to the succession of the throne, excluding women from sovereign power. Name some dis- coveries and improvements made in the time of Edward III. Gold was first coined, cannon used, turnpikes and clocks intro- duced, and the woollen manufacture first established, Windsor Castle built. Trinity Sunday first observed, the first speaker of the House of Commons chosen, and the title of esquire given to people of fortune. What king caused his uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, to be privately smothered at Calais ? Richard II. ; to rid himself of a monitor whom he feared. By whom was the Poll Tax first levied ? By Richard II. What was it ? A tax of one shilling, ordered to be paid by every person above fifteen ; it occasioned an insurrection of the people, because the rich paid no more than the poor. Who headed this insurrec- tion ? Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, two of the common people; it was with some difficulty quelled. What two great noblemen did Richard II. banish ? The Dukes of Hereford and Norfolk ; but Hereford returned with an army before the expiration of his banishment, and deprived Richard of his crown and life. Where did Richard end his days ? In Pontefract Castle, where he was starved, or, as some say, assassinated. What were the improvements in this reign ? The manufactory of woollen broad- cloth was carried to great perfection, side-saddles and spec- tacles first became common in England, and cards were invented in France. For whom were cards invented ? For Charles VI., king of France, called the Well-beloved ; he was insane the greatest part of his reign ; and during his intervals of reason, cards were produced as an amusement. When was the office of Champion of England first instituted ? In the reign of Richard II. What has the Champion to do ? On the king's coronation day, he rides up to Westminster Hall on a white horse, proclaiming the sovereign by his usual titles ; he then throws down a gauntlet, (or iron glove,) challenging any one to take it up and fight him, who does not believe the monarch then present to be lawful heir to the crown. This office is hereditary in the Dymock family. Who was the first king of the house of Lancaster ? Henry IV., surnamed of Bo" 104 HENRY V. — HENRY VI. lingbroke ; he was the eldest son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and bom in 1367. When was the battle of Otter- bourne ? In the reign of Henry IV. : Owen Glandwr and Harry Hotspur flourished at this period ; the former was a valiant Welshman — the latter, son to the earl of Northumber- land ; from his ardent valor he derived his name. What dis- tinguished characters lived in this reign ? Chaucer and Gower, both English poets ; and William of Wykeham, bishop of Win- chester. Who was Wickhffe ? A reformer, patronized by John of Gaunt ; he has the merit of being the first to protest openly against the errors of the Roman church, and was famed for his learning and piety. What order of knighthood did Henry IV. institute ? That of the Bath in 1399 : the knights wear a red riband. It was revived in 1815, in George III.'s reign, by the Prince Regent. The other British orders are, — of the Gar- ter, Grand Cross, of the Thistle, of St. Patrick : the decorations of knighthood are a collar and riband. Who gained the battles of Harfleur and Agincourt ? Henry V., sumamed of Monmouth : they were fought against the French ; Henry was afterwards, by the treaty of Troyes, declared heir to the French monarchy, and regent of France and Normandy. When were the followers of Wicklifie first severely persecuted ? In the reign of Henry V. ; Lord Cobham was one of the first martyrs to this cause : he excited the resentment of the clergy by transcribing and dis- tributing the works of WicklifFe amongst the people in St. Giles's fields ; and they in consequence circulated a report, which they caused to be made known to the king, that Lord Cobham, at the head of 20,000 Lollards, was marching to destroy him, upon which a bill of attainder was passed against him. What death did he suffer ? He was roasted before a slow fire, A. D. 1417, because he refused to subscribe to the Ro- man Catholic opinions. What happened to Henry V. when PriHce of Wales ? Sir William Gascoigne sent him to prison, for contempt of his authority. Relate the story. One of his dissolute companions being brought before this magistrate for some offence, Henry, who was present, was so provoked at the issue of the trial, that he struck the judge in open court. Sir William, fully sensible of the reverence due to his authority, committed the prince to prison. When the king heard it, he exclaimed, ** Happy is the king, who has a subject endowed with courage to execute the laws upon such an offender ; still more happy in having a son wiUing to submit to such chastise- ment." Kame the three principal events im the reign of Henry VI EDWARD IV. 105 The civil wars, the siege of Orleans, and the loss of France. Why were these civil wars engaged in ? Because the houses of York and Lancaster contended for the throne ; their divisions were occasioned by the claim which Richard, Duke of York, laid to the throne, in the reign of Henry VI. of Lancaster. What are civil wars ? They are wars between those people who live under the same government, and are more to be held in detest- ation than any other ; since they can be of no advantage to the nation, but, on the contrary, cause endless divisions, and totally put a stop to trade. Who was it obliged the Enghsh to raise the siege of Orleans ? A young Frenchwoman, named Joan of Arc, but called from that event the Maid of Orleans, who headed her countrymen against the generals of Henry VI., and gained great advantages over them. Charles VII., of France, ennobled the Maid of Orleans, her father, three brothers, and all their descendants, even by the female line — and her statue in bronze adorns one of the squares of the city she rescued from the enemy. What French countries did England formerly pos- sess ? Bretagne, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Normandy, Gascony, and Guienne. When was the battle of Wakefield fought ? In Henry VI. 's reign, between the Yorkists and Lancastrians : in this engagement Richard, Duke of York, and his son were slain. What other celebrated battles were fought in this reign? Those of Towton and Tewkesbury ; after the latter, Edward, son of Henry VI., was murdered in cold blood by Richard, Duke of Gloucester. Who was Henry VL's wife ? Margaret of Anjou, a woman of keen penetration, undaunted spirit, and exquisite beauty ; she fought twelve pitched battles in her hus- band's cause, but ambition, not affection, guided her actions :• and wanting principle, she may engage our pity, but has no title to our esteem and reverence. What were the discoveries and improvements in this reign ? The Azores and Cape Verd Islands were discovered : the Vatican library founded in Rome : caps and jewels were first worn, and pumps invented. In Henry's time the first national debt was incurred. What is the national debt ? Money borrowed, from year to year, by govern- ment, of the nation, for which they pay legal interest to the lenders. Name the first king of the house of York. Edward IV. : in the reign of this prince printing was introduced, and polite literature encouraged among the English : Angola was settled by the Portuguese, violins were invented, and the first idea of electricity given. How did Edward IV, recompense the services of his brother, the Duke of Clarence ? He caused Clarence, upon some slight accusation, to be drowned in a butt 106 HENRY VII. of Malmsey wine. What king married Lady Elizabetli Grey ^ Edward IV. Name the most famous warrior at this period. The Earl of Warwick, commonly called the king-maker, because he deposed and reinstated Henry VI. and Edward IV. Name some other distinguished Enghsh generals. The Earls of Talbot and Sahsbury ; the Dukes of York, Bedford, and Mortimer. What king was smothered in the Tower by his uncle's order ? Edward V. Who was his uncle ? Richard III., D uke of Glouces- ter, last of the line of Plantagenet, who succeeded him upon the throne. What were the improvements in this reign ? Post- horses and stages were established. The Earl of Rivers and Lord Hastings were beheaded in this reign. What were Richard IIL's best public actions ? The strictness with which he en- forced the laws, and the establishment of the hardware manu- facture, by the prohibition against the importation of such as were not made in England. When w^as the Herald's Office in- stituted ? In the reign of Richard HI. : this king was killed at the battle of Bosworth field, in defence of his crown, when engaged against Henry, Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII. : Richard was the first king who established English con- suls abroad : Horace Walpole (in a work called " Historic Doubts") has endeavored wdth much ingenuity to rescue the memory of Richard III. from the ignominy uniformly attached to it, and from the imputation of having caused the death of Edward V. and his brother ; how successfully, must be left to the judgment of his readers. Wten was America discovered ? In Henry VII.'s reign, by Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa ; Sebastian Cabot, another famous navigator, hved at this period ; he was bom at Bristol about the year 1477, entered the service of Spain, and discovered or revisited Newfoundland, as well as the most important places in South America ; he re- turned to England, obtained a pension from the crown, and died, leaving a high character as a skilful navigator and man of shining abihties : he was author of a large map of the world, and was the first who noticed the variations of the compass. When was the rebellion headed by Perkin ? In the reign of Henry VII. Who was Perkin ? An impostor, who pretended to be the son of Edward IV. ; the prudence and sagacity of Henry defeated this, and many other plots against his govern- ment. What were the discoveries and improvements in this reign ? Shillings were first coined in England ; Greek generally taught in schools ; passage to the East Indies discovered by the Portuguese ; trade and commerce were greatly encouraged with foreign nations ; and maps and sci charts now began lo be THE REFORMATION. 107 commonly used in England. What king first assumed the title of Majesty ? Henry VIII. : till his reign the English kings were styled Your Grace, or Your Highness : Henry also re- ceived the title of Defender of the Faith, from the pope. Why ? On account of a book which he published against the opinions of Luther ; this title the kings of England still retain. In whose person were the houses of York and Lancaster united ? In that of Henry VIII. ; his claims on both sides were equal, as his mother was of the house of York, his father of the line of Lan- caster. Name the most remarkable events in the reign of Henry VIII. The reformation was begun ; the battle of the spurs fought between the English and the French : and the battle of Flodden Field, in which James IV. king of Scotland, with the flower of his nobility, fell. When did Luther and Calvin live ? In the reign of Henry VIII. ; they were two celebrated reformers ; Luther was a German, and Calvin a native of Picardy. What was meant by a reformer? One who protested against the errors of the Roman church. In what great points do Catho- hcs and Protestants differ ? The Catholics worship images, the saints, and the Virgin Mary ; they believe in seven sacra- ments, and when they commemorate our Lord's supper, they think they eat the real body and drink the actual blood of Christ ; they also acknowledge the pope as supreme head of the church. Who was the first pope that decreed the infalhbility of the popes in general ? Gregory VII., contemporary with William the Conqueror ; he said, in council, that the church of Rome neither ever had erred, nor ever could err: and this- doctrine of infallibihty was estabhshed by Leo X. as a defence against the opinions of Luther. Who was prime minister to Henry VIII. ? Cardinal Wolsey. Who were his two great contemporaries ? Francis L, king of France ; and Charles V., emperor of Germany. Name the discoveries and improvements at this period. The Bermuda, Japan, Ladrone, and Philippine Isles were discovered : soap, hats, and needles were first made in England : Peru was discovered and settled : the articles of religion and the Bible first printed in an English edition. What great men suffered death in this reign ? Su* Thomas More, the lord chancellor ; Fisher, bishop of Rochester, (tutor to Henry;) Lord Surrey, famed for his love of literature; and Edward Bohun, Duke of Buckingham ; Wolsey, too, was impeached, but died of a broken heart before his trial ; this prelate is said to have intrigued for the papal chair. When were the knights of Rhodes first called by the title of 108 ORDEB OP JESUITS. Kniglits of Malta? In the reign of Henry VIII. Why? Be- cause the emperor Charles V. gave the island of Malta to tlio knights of St. John of Jerusalem, when they were expelled the isle of Rhodes by the Turks, under Soliman II. Upon what conditions were these knights admitted ? They were to be of noble blood, to be unmanied, 500 to reside upon the island, and the rest to appear when called upon : they took a vow to defend Malta from the invasions of the Turks ; and were governed by thirty superior knights and a grand-master, chosen from their body: in 1*798 Bonaparte made himself master of this island, on his expedition to Egypt, through the treachery of one of the order, which he totally abolished, but the French garrison at Valetta were compelled, by famine, to capitulate to the English, who were confirmed in the possession by the treaty of Paris in 1814. What act passed in Henry VIII.'s reign showed the servile adulation of his people, and his own contempt of justice ? It was enacted, that the same obedience should be paid to the king's proclamation as to an act of parhament ; that the king should not pay his debts, and that those who had already been paid by him should refund the money. What order of knight- hood was instituted in the time of Henry VIII. ? That of the Thistle, by James V. king of Scotland ; the knights wear a green riband. Who were the Jesuits ? A religious order, founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, in the reign of Henry VIII. They rose to power and influence above all other reli- gious orders, though their rules strictly prohibit its members to accept any office in the church. On account of their busy, intriguing spirit, their admission into France was long resisted by its monarchs ; Peter the Great of Russia expelled them from his empire in 1719. The order had acquired the inveterate hatred ol the French people, from the day on which Henri Quatre was assassinated by the Jesuit, Ravaillac, and in 1773 the order was finally dissolved at Rome, but their influence was such, that individually they continued rich and independent. In 1780 there were 9,000 Jesuits out of Italy, supposed to be secretly under the guidance of a superior. The order was silently restored in Sicily in 1804, a novitiate solemnly opened at Rome, in 1814, a college granted them at Modena, in 1815, and they took possession of the Collegium Romanum in that city in 1824. They have always maintained the reputation of learning, and seminaries for the education of youth are con- ducted by members of the order in England and Ireland, but the order has outlived its political power. QUEEN MARY 109 CONTINUATION QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH HISTORJT. FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME Fair thy renown, In awful sages, and in noble bards. Thomson. When was tlie battle of Pinkey, or Musselburgh, fougbt with the' Scots? In the reign of Edward YI. Who was protector during the minority of Edward ? Seymour, Duke of Somerset. Name Edward VI. 's best pubHc action. Promoting and estab- lishing the reformation, by act of parliament. He ordered that a Bible should be kept in every church ; that evening prayers should be read in EngHsh in the king's chapel, and that popish images should be burnt. What insurrection was there during this reign ? One headed by Ket, a tanner, a discontented, se- ditious fellow ; he raised an army in Norfolk, but was defeated by Dudley, Earl of Warwick, who slew 2,000 of his followers, and afterwards hanged Ket, in chains, on the top of Norwich Castle. To whom did Edward VI. leave the crown ? To Lady Jand Grey, his cousin : the council proclaimed her queen, but she reigned only ten days, and was then deposed by Mary, Ed- ward's sister, and only daughter of Henry VIII. and Catharine of Arragon. Name the discoveries and improvements in this reign. Engraving, and knitting stockings, were invented ; the Common Prayer Book was compiled, and published in English ; the Psalms of David were translated into verse ; half-crowns were first coined in England ; and the study of anatomy was revived. When were Lord Guilford Dudley and Lady Jane Grey beheaded ? In the reign of Mary. Why ? Because Jane, the wife of Dudley, stood in Mary's way to the throne. To whom was Mary married ? To Philip II., king of Spain : Mary was a zealous advocate for the Cathohc faith, and repeal- ed all the acts of her brother Edward, passed in favor of the reformation ; she caused the Protestants to be burnt in Smith • field, as heretics; the Bishops Gardiner and Bonner assisted 10 110 QUEEN ELIZABETH, her in the execution of these barbarities: Cranmer, Ridley. Latimer, Hooper, and Farrar, with near 300 others, perished al the stake in this reign. When did the English lose Calais ? In the reign of Mary : the celebrated Duke of Guise recon- quered it. What improvements were made in the arts in Mary's time ? Hemp and flax were first planted in England ; and the Horse Guards instituted ; coaches first used ; starch was also invented. Name the principal events in the reign of Elizabeth. Sii Francis Drake's voyage round the world ; the Spanish Armada defeated ; the Irish rebellion suppresse i ; and the execution of Mary, queen of Scots. What was the Spanish Armada ? A fieel of ships, sent out by Phihp II., of Spain, to invade Eng- land How did Elizabeth evince her modesty, and trust in God, after the defeat of the Spanish Armada ? By ascribing the victory less to English bravery alone, than to the merciful mterposition of Providence ; and she ordered a medal to* be struck, which represented a fleet beaten by a tempest, and fall- ing foul of each other, with this inscription, " He blew "vvith his wind, and they were scattered." Many of the Spanish men-of- war, and of which no mention is made in history, were lost on the western coast of Ireland. Who was Mary, queen of Scots ? Daughter to James V., king of Scotland, and cousin to Eliza- beth : she was famed for her beauty and misfortunes. Who was Mary's chief counsellor ? David Rizzio, an Italian. Name Mary's husbands. Francis II., king of France ; Henry, Lord Damley, and Duke of Albany, in Scotland; and the Earl of Bothwell, afterwards Duke of the Orkneys : Mary was eighteen years a prisoner in England, and was at length executed at Fotheringay Castle, in Northamptonshire. Name some men of genius in Elizabeth's reign. Shakspeare and Spenser. For what are Shakspeare's works particularly famed ? For the wit, variety, and genius displayed throughout, no two characters being alike. Of wha ; do Shakspeare's works consist ? Of plays, both tragic and comic, he excelled in both, and poems. When did the Scots first openly declare themselves Protestants ? In the reign of their queen Mary. What is the estabhshed re- ligion of the Scots now? Calvinism; which takes its name from Calvin, whose opinions they follow : the reformation in Scotland was effected by John Knox, who resembled Luther in personal intrepidity and popular eloquence, and approached Calvin in his rehgious sentiments and the severity of his man- ners. Who were the most distinguished naval oflicers in EUza- beth's reign ? Drake, Howard, Hawkins, Frobisher, and Ila* MASSACRE OF PROTESTANTS IN FRANCE. 111. leigh. Name some great men in Elizabeth's reign. Sir Philip Sydney, Lord Burleigh, the Earl of Leicester, the Earl of Essex, and Sir Francis Walsingham. Sir Philip Sydney aimed at the crown of Poland, but Elizabeth was unwilling to promote his advancement, lest she should lose so bright an ornament to her court. When happened the dreadful massacre of Protestants at Paris ? On St. Bartholomew's day, in the reign of Charles IX., of France, and Ehzabeth, queen of England. What memorable answer did the Viscount D'Ortez, one of Charles's nobihty, give him when he sent a circular letter to command the execution of the Protestants ? This : " Your majesty has many faithful subjects in this city of Bayonne, but not one executioner." , Name the chief leaders on the Catholic and Protestant sides in France, during the civil wars there. On the Catholic vere Charles IX,, the two Dukes of Guise, and Catherine de Medicis, the chief instigator of the wars ; on the Protestant, the Prince of Conde, Admiral Coligni, and Henry the Great, then king of Navan-e. When was the slave-trade first practised in England ? In the reign of Elizabeth : it was introduced by Sir John Haw- kins. What young Englishman was at the head of a conspiracy against Elizabeth, to place her rival upon the throne ? Anthony Babington, who was afterwards executed. Name the discov- eries, inventions, and improvements, in Elizabeth's reign. Stops were introduced in reading and writing ; coaches and watches first common in England ; the study of botany was revived ; knives first made in England ; Holland declared a republic ; and criminals first sentenced to transportation. Name the first prince of the Stuart line who reigned in England. James I. of England, and YI. of Scotland ; he was called Solomon. What remarkable event happened to James, before he ascended the English throne? Earl Gowrie's conspiracy against him, who invited James to his house, and took him prisoner ; but the king was afterwards rescued by his attendants. What were the most remarkable occurrences in this reign ? The gunpowder plot was discovered and defeated ; and the celebrated Sir Wal- ter Raleigh beheaded. What was the gunpowder plot ? A scheme of the Roman Catholics, to blow up both houses of par- liament by laying a train of gunpowder under them. Who was Sir Walter Raleigh ? A famous historian and navigator. When was the first general assembly of the church of Scotland ? In the reign of James I. Name the improvements in the time of James I. The circulation of the blood was discovered ; tel- escopes were invented ; the satellites round the planet Saturn 112 CHARLES I. CROMWELL. were first perceived ; baronets created ; mulberry trees first planted in England, and potatoes brought thitter. What is meant by Highland Clans ? Tribes of Scotch High- landers : each of these clans bears a different name, and anciently lived upon the lands of their respective chieftains, to whom they showed every mark of attachment, and cheerfully shed their blood in their defence ; these chieftains, in return, bestowed a . protection upon their clans, equally founded on gratitude and a sense of their own interest. Name the characteristic traits of the ancient Scotch Highlanders. Fidelity, hospitality, and great family pride. What were their dress and character ? They wore a plaid made of woollen stuff, or tartan, which either hung down from their shoulders, or was fastened with a belt ; from this belt hung their sword, dagger, knives, and pistol : a large leathern purse, hanging before, adorned with silver, was always a part of the chieftain's dress : their patience was unwearied, their courage undaunted, and their honor unsullied. Name the most striking events in the reign of Charles I. The wars be- tween Charles and his parliament ; the Irish massacre ; and the execution of Lord Strafford and Archbishop Laud : this unfor- tunate king was taken prisoner by the parliament, confined at Carisbrook Castle in the Isle of Wight, and at last beheaded. When did Clarendon and Hampden live? In the reign of Charles I. : the former was a statesman and historian, the latter a celebrated patriot. What was the Irish massacre ? A con- spiracy of the Roman Catholics in Ireland, to murder all the . English and Irish Protestants residing there. What were the discoveries and inventions in this reign? The Bahama Isles were discovered ; barometers and thermometers invented ; news- papers first published ; sawing-mills erected ; and coffee brought to England. When did the Lords Falkland and Fairfax live ? In Charles I.'s time : they were of opposite parties ; Falkland was attached to the king. When was England declared a commonwealth ? In Crom- well's time, protector of England. Name the most remarkable events in the protectorship of Cromwell. A war with the Dutch, who were defeated ; and the island of Jamaica conquered: Cromwell made Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ; landed in that king- dom, took Drogheda by storm, and put all the inhabitants to the sword : the sect called Quakers appeared, and the parlia- ment contemptuously dismissed by Cromwell, who ordered the doors to be forthwith locked: several Spanish galleons taken and destroyed by the English fleet near Cadiz, one of which had treasure on board amounting to two millions, all silver, CHARLES II. 113 After the publication of a pamphlet entitled, " Killing no Mur der," Cromwell never considered his life secure ; he wore armor under his clothes, carried pistols, and changed his bed-chamber almost every night. Name the two distinguishing traits in Cromwell's character. Hypocrisy and ambition. When did Milton Uve? In Cromwell's time, to whom he was Latin secretary : Cromwell, however, in general, was by no means an encourager of learning ; but the nation, under his adminis- tration, improved both in riches and power. Why did Richard Cromwell resign the protectorship ? Because he did not possess those great qualities which were necessary to support the views of his father, Oliver Cromwell. What were the improvements made about this time ? St. Helena was settled ; air-pumps and speaking-trumpets were invented. When was Charles 11. restored to the throne of his ancestors ? He embarked at the Hague on the 23d of May, 1660, for Eng- land, and arrived at Dover the 25th, where he was met by General Monck, afterwards Duke of Albemarle, on whom lie conferred the order of the Garter; on the 29th, being his birth- day, he made a triumphant entry into the city of London, and proceeded to Whitehall. Name some of the most remarkable events in the reign of Charles II. Dunkirk sold to the French for 400,000 crowns; the great fire and plague in London; apd the Royal Society estabhshed for the improvement of phi- losophy, mathematics, physics, and all useful knowledge : Mr. Boyle and Sir William Petty were amongst the firsi members and promoters. When was the bill of exclusion attempted to be passed ? In the reign of Charles II., to prevent the Duke of York, brother to Charles, from ascending the throne, as he was a papist ; this bill passed the house of commons, but the lords threw it out : in this reign also many of the corporations in England were induced to surrender their charters. What is meant by the charter of a corporation ? Its right to elect a mayor and aldermen. When were Algernon Sydney and Lord Russell beheaded ? In the reign of Charles II. Name some men of genius in this reign. Milton, Boyle, Dryden, Ot- way, Butler, Temple, Waller, Cowley, Wycherley, and Halley ; the Earl of Arundel, also, the great patron of learning and ge- nius, obtained the title of the English Maecenas. What were the chief works of these authors ? Milton wrote two epic poems, called Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained; several minor pieces, the most celebrated of which are L' Allegro, II Pense- roso, Comus, and Lysidas. Boyle, treatises upon Natural and Exp'jrmental Philosophy. Dryden translated Virgil, Plutarch, 10* 1 14 JAMES II. Juvenax, and Persius ; wrote twenty-seven plays, and numerous pieces of poetry. Otwa)% plays. Butler, Hudibras. Temple^ polite literature. Waller, poems. Cowley, miscellaneous poe- try. Wyclierley, poems and plays ; and Halley, on astronomi- cal subjects. Name some inventions and improvements in the reign of Charles II. Hydraulic fire-engines were invented; buckles introduced; gazettes first published; and the penny- post set up. Name the most memorable actions in the reign of James II. The duke of Monmouth's rebellion ; seven bishops sent to the Tower for refusing to read the decrees of James, for liberty of conscience in the Protestant churches, intended to bring the Papists into civil and ecclesiastical employments ; and his en- deavors to reconcile the church of England to the see of Rome : the Duke of Monmouth was defeated by the Earl of Faversham and Lord Churchill, at Sedgmore, near Bridgewater, in Somer- setshire on the fifth of July, 1685, when 1,300 of his adherents were slain, and an equal number taken prisoners : Lord Grey fell into the king's power the next day, and the Duke on the 8th of the same month : he was beheaded on Tower-hill, in the thirty-sixth year of his age ; and those concerned in his rebel- lion were convicted, and sentenced by Judge Jeffries, noted for severity in the execution of his office. What became of James ? He engaged King William III. in Ireland, where he suSered a complete overthrow ; was obliged to abdicate the throne, on account of his religious principles and arbitrary conduct ; he fled to France, and died at Saint Germain's ; this king intro- duced the use of sea-signals. When was the battle of the Boyne ? In the reign of William III., between William and James ; the former was T'ictorious. What renowned generals fought under the banners of William ? The Duke of Schomberg, Baron de Ginkle, Count de Solmnes, and Prince George of Denmark. What great men shed lustre on this reign ? Newton, Locke, Tillotson, Prior, and Burnet. Name their chief works. Newton wrote on astronomy and the mathematics ; Locke, on philosophical subjects ; Prior, poems ; Burnet, history and divinity ; and Tillotson, sermons. What Russian monarch travelled through Europe, in the reign of William and Mary, to obtain instruction in the arts of com- merce and the mechanics ? Peter the Great : this prince evinced that nobility of mind is superior to the advantages of birth, by his marriage with Catharine I., who, having a grea* soul, was raised from the lowest condition to share his throne. What remarkable expression of Peter the Great proves the ANNE. 115 weakness of human reason ? This : " I can reform my people, but how shall I reform myself ?" Peter knew not the blessings of being early taught the lessons of morality ; his sublime genius had not been sufficiently cultivated, nor his passions accustomed to the restraints of reason ; his virtues were all his own, his defects those of his education and country. Name the chief improvements in the reign of William. Reflecting telescopes were made, and bayonets first used, made at Bayonne, in France ; the bank of England was also established, and public lotteries appointed by government ; from which period till 1824 no session passed without a lottery bill. Whom did queen Anne marry ? Prince George of Denmark ; she had six children by him, but they all died in infancy. What general, in her reign, was famed for his military talents and courtly accomplishments? The Duke of Marlborough: his victories at Blenheim, Oudenarde, Ramillies, and Malplaquet, will transmit his name to the most distant posterity ; he was created Prince of Mindleheim, by Joseph I., emperor of Ger- many, in consideration of his signal services to the house of Austria, When was the act of union between England and Scotland passed ? In the reign of Anne : the Scotch nation is represented in the British parliament by sixteen peers and fifty- three commoners. When was the Hanoverian succession es- tablished ? In Anne's time ; and the line of Stuart was set aside, to place that of Brunswick upon the throne : because, after the death of Anne, there being no Protestant heir to the crown of her line, the house of Hanover then stood the nearest in succession. What is meant by the terms Whig and Tory ? Whig was a name given in queen Anne's time to those who were for liberty without abandoning monarchy, and friends to the house of Hanover : and Tory was a title by which those were distinguished who were for absolute monarchy, and friends to the house of Stv^^rt. When did the English take the town and fortification of Gibraltar from Spain ? In the reign of Anne : it has continued ever since in their possession. When were the British and French Augustan ages ? The French, in the reign of Louis XIV. ; the Enghsh in that of queen Anne. Name some men of talents in the reign of Louis XIV. Descartes, an astronomer ; Fontaine, Moliere, Boileau, and Comeille, poets : Bossuet and Rapin, historians ; Fenelon, Archbishop of Cam- bray, the author of Telemachus : the two Daciers, critics and translators : and Madame Sevigne, who shone in the belles- lettres. Name some men of genius in Anne's reign. Pope and Swift, Congreve and Rowe, poets ; Bolingbroke and Shaftesbury, 116 STUARTS. GEORGE 1. philosophers ; Steele and Addison, celebrated for their excellen, periodical pubhcations ; and Arbuthnot, who wrote on medrcaj subjects. Which Hne of kings has been the most uninterruptedly un- fortunate ? The line of Stuart. Name some of the vicissitudes it has experienced ? James I., king of Scotland, was assassin- ated ; James 11. was killed by the sphnter of a cannon which burst near him at the siege of Roxburgh ; James III. was killed in battle, while endeavoring to crush a rebellion of his subjects ; James IV. fell at the battle of Flodden Field ; James V. died of grief for the loss of a fine army ; Mary, queen of Scotland,* was beheaded ; Charles I., king of Scotland and England, shared the same fate ; Charles II. wandered many years as an exile ; James II. was compelled to abdicate the throne. Louis XIV. received the exiled family with great hospitahty, assigned the palace of St. Germain as their residence, and settled a pen- sion on them of 6000 livres. Who were the two Pretenders ? The son and grandson of James 11. : after experiencing innu- merable hardships in their fruitless attempts to recover the crown, they were proclaimed as traitors, and had a price of £40,000 set upon their heads, but they escaped to France, and both died there. Name the three most remarkable events in the reign of George I. The rebellion in Scotland, in 1*715, in favor of the Pretender; the South-sea scheme, and its ruinous termination ; and the act passed for septennial parhaments. The electorate of Hanover was annexed to the British crown in this reign ; and the battles of Preston Pans and Sheriff Muir were fought with the rebels. What Wire the improvements and discoveries in this reign ? The northern lights were observed ; inoculation used ; the East India House built, and the commerce of the company greatly extended ; and the Scots attained the art of making thread. When were the battles of Dettingen and Culloden fought ? In the reign of George II. ; the former was gained by the king in person, in favor of the queen of Hungary ; in the latter, Wil- liam, Duke of Cumberland, was victorious over the Pretender, whom he finally defeated. When was the battle of Minden ? In George II. 's time ; gained by the English against the French. In what part of the globe did the English forces, during this reign, extend their conquests ? Through the greater part of North America, headed by Townshend and the gallant Wolfe, who gained immortal glory. When did Lord Anson sail round the world ? In the reign of George II. What remarkable inaprovements mark this reign ? The new style was introduced GEORGE III. 117 into England ; the British museum established ; and the Latin language abolished in the courts of law. What Englishman signalized himself at this time by his victories in the East Indies ? Colonel Clive, afterwards Lord Clive : in this reign happened that disastrous ajQfair at Calcutta, when 146 Enghshmen, con- fined in a sma.l room called the Black Hole, by command of the nabob, were in such want of space and air, that 123 were found dead the next morning. Name some remarkable events in the reign of George III. In the early part of this king's reign Captain Cook sailed round the world ; New Holland was discovered ; the Isle of Man was annexed to the British crown ; the order of Jesuits suppressed by the pope ; war with the American colonies ; the riots in London, (1780;) and after a contest of eight years, the inde- pendence of America acknowledged by the British government n 1783, and peace declared between the United States and England on the 15th Sept. Name some other interesting events. The severe indisposition and recovery of the monarch ; the revo- lution in France, (1789;) that ancient monarchy declared a republic ; war with the French ; rebellion in Ireland ; the great naval victories of Howe, Vincent, Duncan, Nelson, and Colling- wood ; and the brilliant conquests of Seringapatam and the Mysore country, by Lieutenant- General Harris; the directory was abolished in France, and the consular government appointed in 1799. What great events mark the opening of the nineteenth cen- tury ? The union between Great Britain and Ireland : General Bonaparte, afterwards Napoleon I. of France, was chosen chief consul for life ; the battles of Copenhagen and Alexandria ; after the latter, the French were compelled to eVacuate Egypt. In 1802, peace iv^as signed between England and France, and th3 Catholic religion publicly restored in the French dominions. The treaty of Amiens was dissatisfactory to the English, who, in consequence, revived the war again in 1803, and acquired alliances on the continent ; but these arrangements only led to the aggrandizement of Bonaparte, extension of the French em- pire, and ruin of the allies. Nelson asserted the claim of Britain to the empire of the seas, and destroyed the French and Spanish fleets, off Trafalgar, in 1805 ; the death of Mr. Pitt, the uncompromising enemy of Napoleon, gave a mo- mentary prospect of peace, which the ambition of the con- queror obstructed ; the English fleet bombarded Copenhagen, and seized the whole of the Danish fleet, while her army imder Wellington, already landed in Portugal, defeated Junot, the 118 GEORGE III. French general, and obliged the Russian fleet in the Tagus to capitulate, in 1808 ; the Spaniards also had risen against tlie French, and received supplies of money and troops from Eng- land ; the victories of Wellington in Spain shook the throne of Kapoleon, and the accession of the European powers to the coalition completed its fall; the return of the emperor from Elba afiforded the British hero an opportunity of gaining ad- ditional glory in the memorable battle of Waterloo, 1815: after twenty-three years of almost uninten-upted war, a universal peace ensued. What consequences of the protracted war con- tinue still to affect the prosperity of England ? The national debt, which now amounts to upwards of £800,000,000. Who succeeded Mr. Fox in the premiership of England ? Spencer Perceval; he was assassinated in the lobby of the House of Commons, in 1812, by Bellingham, a lunatic: Lord Castlereagh, who succeeded him, in a fit of temporary derangement com- mitted suicide ; and Mr. Canning died of a broken heart shortly after his elevation to the same high but anxious office : in 1819, the distresses of the manufacturers w^ere manifested in different places, particularly at Manchester, where many thousands as- sembled, 16th of August, 1819, and were not dispersed without the sacrifice of lives : the last convulsion of this disease was Thistlewood's Cato-street conspiracy to assassinate the min- isters, for which he and four of his accomplices suffered death. What have been the chief improvements in the reign of George III. ? Electricity, by the discoveries of Doctors Frank- lin and Priestley, brought to great perfection ; academy of painting established : .air balloons invented ; and telegraphs used, though known in the time of Ptolemy : the arts and sciences received ef ery possible encouragement from this iing, and the many improvements in them under this reign are too numerous to parti :ularize in a work of this nature. Name a few of the most distinguished authors since the accession of the line of Hanover. Bentley, the critic ; Thomson, Shenstone, Young, Akenside, Chatterton, Gray, Goldsmith, Mickle, Whar- ton, Bums, Cowper,and Byron, poets; Watts, Sherlock, Hoadley, liCland, Lardner, Jortin, Warburton, Newton, Kennicott, Lowth, Price, Kippis, and Blair, divines ; Fielding, Richardson, Sterne, Smollett, and Scott, novelists ; Lyttleton, Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon, historians ; Ramsey, Chesterfield, Johnson, Hawkes- worth, Burke, and Melmoth, wrote chiefly on miscellaneous sub- jects ; Johnson excelled also as a poet and biographer. Name some other great characters. Keill, Saunderson, and Robins, mathematicians ; Heame and Baker, antiquaries ; Sir Hans GEORGE IV. 119 Sloane and Hales, naturalists ; Graham, Brindley, and Harrison, mechanics ; Flamstead, Kradley, Ferguson, and Herschell, as- tronomers; West, an American by birth, Lawrence, and Wilkie, painters. When did George IV. ascend the throne ? In the year 1820, having previously governed as Regent for nine years. What remarkable events took place in the reign of this king? The trial of Queen Caroline ; and the passing of the Relief Bill, admitting Roman Cathohcs into parliament. By whom was George IV. succeeded? By his brother, the Duke of Clarence, who as- sumed the title of William IV. : in the beginning of his reign, an act was passed for "reforming the representation of the United Kingdom." By whom was this king succeeded ? By Queen Victoria, who ascended the throne in 1837, at the age of only eighteen years. Which four of the British queens have given the greatest proofs of courage and intrepidity ? Boadicea, queen of tho Iceni ; Philippa, wife to Edward III. ; Margaret of Anjou, wife to Henry VI. ; and Elizabeth, who reigned ifi her own right. What English monarchs, since the conquest, have ascended the throne when minors ? Henry III., Edward III., Richard II., Henry VI., Edward V., Edward VI., and Queen Victoria. What English kings have been most noted for their love of war and conquest ? Richard I., Edward I., Edward III., and Henry V. What is true glory ? Active benevolence, fortitude to support the frowns of fortune, evenness of temper in pros- perity, patience in afflictions, contempt of unmerited injuries : this is virtue, and the fame of virtuous actions can alone be call- ed true glory. Name some of the antiquities in England. Picts' Wall, between Northumberland and Cumberland ; Stonehenge, in Wiltshire, (or circles of stones forming an enclosed space on Salisbury Plain, near the city of Salisbury, where the Druids worshipped ;) Joseph's chapel at Glastonbury ; York Minster ; Westminster Abbey and Hall ; and many Roman monuments, altars, and roads. Name the six greatest philosophers Great Britain has produced. Roger Bacon, Sir Francis Bacon, the Honorable Robert Boyle, Sir Isaac Newton, James Usher, and John Locke. Name the weak kings who have filled the Eng- lish throne since the conquest. John, Henry III., Edward 11. , Richard II., Henry VI., Charles I., and James II. What is meant by a patriot king ? One who has his country's welfare particularly at heart, and studies the benefit of his subjects more than his own private interest. What is the government of England ? Limited monarchy ; 120 IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. the crown is hereditary, and females have the right of succes- sion. What power has the king of England ? He alone de- clares war, and makes peace ; receives and appoints ambassa- dors ; disposes of the several governments in the kingdom, and of all civil, mihtary, and naval employments ; he is heir to all estates when no other heir can be found ; the law is constantly administered in his name, and he has a power to pardon all offences committed against it. What other powers has the king ? He nominates all the great officers of the state and household ; disposes of all the vacant bishoprics ; no money can be lawfully coined without his command, and he can refuse his assent to any bill, though it should have passed both houses of parliament ; but this branch of theu* prerogative the kings of England have seldom asserted. Of whom is the imperial parhament composed ? Of the king, the lords spiritual (or bishops and archbishops, of whom the archbishop of Canterbury is the chief, or primate of England) and temporal, and the commons, who debate in a separate house ; they are all assembled by the king's writ, and the power of dissolving them rests with him. What is the jurisdiction of parliament ? It has uncontrollable authority in making, abro- gating, repealing, and revising laws : it can regulate, and new model, the succession to the crown ; alter or establish the re- ligion of the land; and even change the constitution of the kingdom, and of parliaments themselves. Who are the Lords Spiritual ? Two Archbishops, and twenty-four Bishops, as representatives of the Enghsh church ; and one Archbishop, and five Bishops, for Ireland. Who are the Lords Temporal ? All Peers of the Realm are members of the upper house : some of these sit by descent, some by creation ; but the sixteen Peers for Scotland are elected at the opening of every new parhament, and twenty-eight Irish Peers are elected for life. What is the number of persons in the House of Lords ? It is not fixed, as it may be increased at will by the power of the crown. Of whom are the Commons composed ? They are in general men of independent property ; every candidate for a county is re- quired to possess an estate of £600 per annum ; for a city or borough, £300 ; this qualification is not required in Scotland : the counties are represented by knights, the cities and boroughs \j gentlemen, citizens, or merchants; the number of Enghsh representatives is 471 ; of Welsh, 29; of Scotch, 53; and of Irish, 105, making a total of 658. What are the quahfications of an elector ? In cities and boroughs the privilege of voting for the election of members extends to every male person of HOUSE OF COMMONS. 121 full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity, who occupies a building within the prescribed boundary of the clear annual value of £10, provided he shall have paid the poor rates and taxes. What is meant by the Chiltern Hundreds ? They are hundreds, or divisions of counties parcelled out by the wise Alfred, and now annexed to the crown ; they still retain their peculiar courts. What are the stewards of the Chiltern Hundreds? The stewards of these courts are appointed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer; their salary is twenty shilHngs a year. As the laws enact that a member of parliament who accepts a place under the crown may not sit unless re-elected, accepting the stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds is merely a formal man- ner of resigning a seat, when the member wishes to be rechosen, or to retire altogether. What is meant by a Call of the House ? This, in parliamen- tary proceedings, is calling the names of the Commons over, each member answering to his own, and leaving the house in the order he is called in: this plan is adopted to discover whether any member be absent, or any person present who is not a member : if only forty members are present, the house may in general proceed to business : when very important questions are agitated, a Call of the House takes place. What is a Committee of t-he whole House ? It is said to be a Committee of the whole House, when each member may speak as often as he pleases ; when the house is not in a com- mittee, no member may speak more than once, unless to explain himself. What are the oaths taken by electors ? They take the oath of abjuration, and likewise swear that they have not polled (or voted) before, during that election ; and that they have not, either directly or indirectly, received any sums of money, place or employment, gift or reward ; nor any promises of such money, place, or employment, in order to induce them to give their vote. What are the requisites for an English, Scotch, and Irish member of parliament ? In order to prevent the mischiefs arising from placing authority in improper hands, the laws enact, that no one shall sit or vote in parhament who is under age ; that all members shall take the proper oaths, except quakers, who are permitted to sit upon making an affir- mation ; and no alien, born out of the dominions of the British crown, is capable of being a member in the House of Commons. What is meant by an adjournment, prorogation, and dissolu- tion of Parliament? An adjournment is a continuation of the ses- sion from one day to another then named ; sometimes the house 11 122 TRIAL BY JURY. adjourns for a fortnight or month together: a prorogation is the continuance of the parhament from one session to another, notified generally by the royal proclamation : a dissolution is the total end of the parhament, which takes place by order of the new monarch after the death of the last, or at the sove- reign's pleasure, or at the expiration of the time granted by law for its continuance. What is the substance of the monarch's coronation oath ? He, or she, solemnly promises to govern ac- cording to law, to execute judgment in mercy, to maintain the established religion in England and Ireland, also the Protestant Presbyterian form of worship established in Scotland. How are English laws made ? By the mutual agreement of King, Lords, and Commons. Have the great " law'^ Lords a seat in the House of Peers ? The twelve judges and the twelve masters in Chancery, sit in the House, and their opinion is re- ferred to occasionally, but they have no vote ; the Lord Chan- cellor is commonly Speaker of the House of Lords. In what respect is the law favorable to suspected persons ? They are always furnished with a list of the jury ; and should any be proposed as such, whom they have reason to believe prejudiced against them, the prisoners may object in open court to twenty men successively ; they can even challenge thirty-five in cases of high treason, till twelve men are pitched upon, supposed to be competent and impartial judges. What form is used on these occasions ? After the evidence is given on both sides, the judge repeats its substance to the jury, who, if the affair appears clear, give their verdict immediately ; should doubts arise, the jury retire into another room, where they remain till they are unanimous in opinion ; but in case any of these twelve men should die while they are consulting, the prisoner would be set at hberty. The same form of trial by jury exists in the United States of America ; the laws of this country being founded upon the English, and in many things exactly the same. What are the customs ? Taxes paid to government on goods exported and imported. What is a bill of entry ? An account of gooda entered at the custom-house. What is a bill of stores ? A .icense granted at the custom-house for merchants to take such articles, free of custom dues, as are necessary for their voyage. FICTS AND SCOTS. 123 AN ABSTRACT BRITISH HISTORY. FROM THE TERMINATION OF THE INVASION OF JULIUS C^SAR, TO THE ARRIVAL OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. Julius C^sar, having subdued most of the nations of Gaul, resolved on extending his conquests to the other side of the channel, by the reduction of Britain. His real motive for this unjust aggression was a desire of enriching himself by the British pearls, then much esteemed ; but his pretended plea was to punish the Britons for having sent assistance to the Gauls during his wars with them. The first invasion of Britain by the Romans took place, b. c. 55, and having with difficulty maintained themselves against the half- civilized natives for two years, Caesar withdrew his legions. Not subdued, although often defeated, the Britons contended with the Romans until the military genius of Agricola completely vanquished them ; — he completed the conquest of the Silures, begun by Fontinus, added North Wales also to the Roman province, and reduced seventeen different petty states of Britain to subjection. Agri- cola lived in the reign of the Emperor Domitian : his expedi- tion occupied six years, and was completed, a. d. 84. When Julian the Apostate was emperor, the Picts and Scots committed ravages on the British frontier, and menaced the freedom of the inhabitants. Their violence was not checked until the arrival of Theodosius, who committed dreadful havoc amongst them, deprived them of their booty, and drove them beyond the friths of Forth and Clyde. The Picts, recovering from this disaster, resumed their predatory incursions, upon which the Britons senit ambassadors to Rome, with their gar- ments rent, and' dust on their heads, to supplicate assistance. Touched by their sufferings, Honorius yielded, and the force which was landed in Britain again repulsed the Picts effectively. But the great Roman empire itself, having declined through the luxury, indolence, and crimes of its emperors, was now overrun by the Goths and other fierce tribes from the north of Europe, — so that the Britons were told that they must in future defend 124 SAXON HEPTARCHY themselves ; at all events, no longer look to Rome for aid. In this extremity they had recourse to the Saxons, a hardy race, inhabiting a part of Denmark and the adjacent tract in North- ern Germany ; their invitation was accepted by two brothers, Hengist and Horsa, chieftains of great valor, and supposed to be descended from tlie Saxon god Woden. Received with respect, they were assigned the Isle of Thanet for their quar- ters, with which, at first, they appeared content ; but observing, in their campaigns against the Picts, the fertiUty and beauty of ihe country, they formed the ambitious project of making them- selves masters of Britain. With this view they secretly and dishonestly entered into a treaty of amity with their former enemies, the Picts, a union which proved fatal to British lib- erty, and ended in placing the Saxon heroes in the undisputed government of Britain. Many battles were fought between the Saxons and Britons, before the former were enabled to parti- tion the conquered into seven petty kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptarchy, and in the battle of Aylesford Horsa was slain. After the death of his brother, and in the year 488, Hengist, although aided by the Picts and Scots, was completely de- feated by Ambrosius. Two years after his defeat he died in Kent, of which he was king, and was succeeded by his son Esk, v/ho reigned for twenty-four years in perfect tranquillity. At this time Ireland was denominated the Island of Saints, and was conspicuous for its seminaries of learning. In 477 -^lla the Saxon effected a landing in Britain, and having obtained many victories over the natives, founded tlie kingdom of Sussex, in 491. Another tribe of Saxons, conducted by Cedric and his son Kenric, landed in the West of Britain, in the year 495 ; they were called West Saxons, from the place of landing, and founded the kingdom which they called Wessex ; it included Hants, Dorset, Wilts, Bucks, and the Isle of Wight : Arthur, king of the Silures, marched against these intruders, and acquired by his victories over them that vast renown which subse- quently entitled him to become the hero of romance he is now known as. In the year 511 died Cedric the Saxon, after a residence in Britain of twenty years, and having acquired extensive territories, and finally established the kingdom of the West Saxons, which endured for 547 years. He was succeeded by the valiant and wise Arthur, king of Britain, who was at last slain at the battle of Camlan, in the year 542. Erchenwin founded the kingdom of Essex, (the East Saxons,) whioh included the present counties WARS OF THE SAXONS. 125 nf Essex, Middlesex, and part of Hertfordshire. This was the fourth kingdom of the Heptarchy. In the year 547, Ida, the Saxon, landed at Flamborough, and subdued the country from the Humber to the Forth. He was founder of the fifth Saxon kingdom in Britain, under the name of Northumberland, which endured for 245 years. The sixth Saxon kingdom in Britain is conjectured to hav< been founded about the year 575, by Uflfa, and called the king- dom of the East Angles : it included Cambridge, Suffolk, and Norfolk. His successors were called Uffingae, and the kingdom which he established lasted for 218 years. About twenty years after this period, Augustine, the monk, with forty of his order, landed in Britain, and commenced their pious labors of convert- ing the Saxons to Christianity. Ethelbert, king of Kent, was amongst the number of those who embraced the Christian faith, and Augustine himself was raised to the see of Canterbury, in the year 598, and consecrated its Archbishop, by Eutherius, Archbishop of Aries. He died in possession of that see, a. d. 604-5. In 585, Creda formed the kingdom of Mercia, in which were comprehended the midland coimties of Britain, east of the Severn. The Saxon Heptarchy was established in the beginning of the seventh century ; and St. Paul's cathedral in London founded by Ethelbert, when London and Rochester were con- stituted episcopal sees ; seven years after which, Sebert, king of the West Saxons, founded St. Peter's and the Abbey at Westminster. In the reign of Eadbald, the son of Ethelbert, the kingdom of Kent was invaded by the Mercian princes, and became trib- utary to the kings of Mercia and Wessex, about the year 685. Edwin, assisted by the king of the East Angles, defeated and killed Ethelfred, king of Northumberland, and possessed himself of his kingdom : Edwin was afterwards slain by Penda, king of Mercia, and the kingdom of Northumberland divided between the heirs of the two last monarchs : but in the year following, 634, both these princes were slain by Cadwallon, prince of Wales, who usurped their kingdom ; Penda had called him in to his assistance in the invasion of Northumberland. Penda was one of the crudest tyrants that disgraced the early annals of Britain ; he slew three kings of the East Angles. Edwin, of Northumberland, assisted in the overthrow and death of Oswald, drove out the king of Wessex from his territory, slew Amias, king of Essex, and cut his army in pieces, but was at length 11* 126 ABDICATION OF INA. killed by Oswy, at the head of a powerful army of Northum- brians. In the year 635, York was raised to an archiepiscopal see, and palls sent there and to Canterbury by Pope Honorios and eight years afterwards the University of Cambridge is said to have been founded by Sigebert, king of the East Angles. Ethelred, the youngest son of the sanguinary tyrant Penda, succeeded his brother Wulphere, on the throne of Mercia, and after a dreadful conflict with the king of Northumberland, be- came reconciled to that monarch, and governed peacefully to the end of his reign, which was occasioned by his voluntary ab- dication in the year 704, in order to embrace a monastic life. About the year 680, Egfrid, the son of Oswy, ascended the throne of the Northumbrians, and after sustaining a bloody war against Ethelred, king of Mercia, turned his arms against the Scots and Picts. Having gained some advantages over the former, he pressed his conquests too far, and was defeated and slain by Bredei, the Pictish king, and his army cut to pieces : this occurred in the year 684. The following year Ceod walla, who ruled in Wessex, extended his territories by the reduction of Sussex and part of Kent, but being conscience-stricken, by reflection upon the cruelties he had committed, he made a journey to Rome, where he died in 689, and was succeeded by his cousin Ina. This last prince possessed courage, abilities, and fortune. He defeated the Welsh, conquered Cornwall and Somersetshire, which he annexed to his dominions ; spent the latter end of his reign in the estabhshment of peace, and finally withdrawing to Rome, accompanied by his queen, expired in a monastery there, bequeathing his crown to Ethelred, his brother- in-law, and the tax called Peter's Pence to the pope, for the maintenance of a college at Rome. The venerable Bede, of Wearmouth, in Durham, flourished at this period ; the fame of his learning had reached Pope Sergius, who invited him to Rome, but he declined the invitation. A fit of devotion, not imcommon in those ages, seized Cenred, the successor of Ethelred, king of Mercia, who, in consequence, repaired to Rome, and embraced a monkish life. Eadbert, king of Northumberland, was the last prince of that race, who distinguished himself by the spirited defence of his southern territories against Ethelbald, king of Mercia. He ultimately retired to a monastery, and lived long to regret the folly of his religious phrensy. In 755, Cynewlf, king of the West Saxons, was defeated by the famous Offa, king of Mercia, and afterwards slain by Cyneheard, who pretended a right to his THE FIRST KING OF ENGLAND. 127 throne. Offa, a spirited prince, had been elected to the throne of Mercia by universal consent ; he reduced Kent, conquered the king of Wessex, and added the kingdom of the East Angles to his dominions by an act of the basest treachery. The prince of this last-mentioned country having demanded the daughter of Offa in marriage, was invited to the court of Mercia, and his proposal accepted ; but upon his arrival was cruelly assassinated, and his territories usurped by the inhuman Offa. Amongst the different events of this king's reign, which lasted thirty-nine years, was the separation of England from Wales by a fosse, still called Offa's dyke, and a confirmatiom of the grant of Pe- ter's Pence to the pope. Brithric, a prince of the royal line, ascended the throne of the West Saxons, to the prejudice of Egbert, whom he endeav- ored to get into his power, but that prince wisely withdrew to the court of Charlemagne, and sought an asylum there until the death of his rival, in the year 800 ; when he was recalled by the nobility. Brithric was cut off by a poisoned draught, prepared by his queen for one of the court favorites, which the king accidentally tasted. Egbert, seventh and last king of Wessex, united all the oth- er Saxon provinces with his own, under the title of the kingdom of England, and thus extinguished the heptarchy, or seven governments, established by the East Angles, in the year 827, after they had existed 387 years. He reigned twenty-six years over Wessex, ten years over the united kingdom, and was the first king of England : his death occurred in 838. In the year 838, Egbert was succeeded by his son Ethel wolf, a prince of inferior abilities, and better calculated to rule a mon- astery than a nation. He made a pilgrimage to Rome with his favorite son Alfred ; imposed the tribute of Peter's Pence ; shared his kingdom with his rebellious son Ethelbald ; which last event he did not long survive, dying on the 13th of Janu- ary, 857, after a reign of twenty years. Ethelbald was a profligate character, and had been an un- dutiful son ; he ruled in conjunction with his brothei Ethelbert for a short period only, leaving him the undisputed occupancy of the throne of his father. In 866 Ethelbert died, having survived h'« brother only five years, and was succeeded by his brother Ethelred. Ethelred, after a short reign, was slain, bravely fighting against the Danes, in the year 871, and was succeeded by Alfred his brother ; his children being excluded from the suc- cession by the will of Ethel wc If. This wise, merciful, and brave 128 REIGN OP ALFRED. prince, grandson of Egbert, and deservedly sumamed the Great, overthrew the Danes in eight pitched battles in one year ; but by a fresh invasion of barbarians was reduced to the utmost difficulties, and obliged to take shelter, in disguise, in a remote quarter of his dominions, until the disorder among the Danish forces gave him an opportunity of completing the conquests he had so nobly begun. Alfred deserves to be ranked among the best and greatest monarchs. He established a regular mihtia throughout England ; founded the University of Oxford ; es- tablished schools throughout his dominions ; and, although he was the hero of sixty-five battles, was the best Saxon poet of his age ; translated Orosius and Bede's Histories, and also ^sop's Fables from the Greek. He composed a famous code of laws, and divided the kingdom into counties, hundreds, and tithings : his survey of England was the model of King William's Doomsday Book. He died, aged sixty-one, after a reign of twenty-nine years, in the year 901, and was interred at Win- chester. Alfred was succeeded by Edward the Elder ; after crushing a violent burst of rebellion, excited by Ethelwald, son of Ethel- bert, Alfred's brother, he reigned in peace ; and is considered to have been one of the ablest and most active of the Saxon kings. Athelstan, the eighth king from the Saxon Heptarchy, suc- ceeded Edward. He was the natural son of that monarch, by Egwena, a peasant's daughter ; and elected to the throne by the nobility and clergy. Having distinguished himself in war, promoted commerce, and conipleted the translation of the scriptures begun under Alfred, he died at Gloucester, in the year 941, having reigned sixteen years. In this reign flourished the famous Guy, Earl of Warwick. Edmund, " the pious," 941 : this prince, who succeeded his half-brother, at the age of eighteen years, was cut off by the hand of an assassin, named Leolf, who had the assurance to sit down at a banquet where the king was present ; and Edred, his brother, was called to the vacant throne : he was the first monarch styled king of Great Britain. The Abbot Dunstan ruled the monarch in this reign, but was banished in the follow- ing reign : not, however, until his unkindness had broken the king's heart. Edwy, nephew of the last monarch, became his successor, and is conspicuous for being made the victim of the hierarchy. In 958 Edgar, "the peaceable," ascended the throne at the age of fifteen years, through monkish influence, and was in consequence represented as a great monarch. Ed- WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 129 ward "the Martyr" was crowned in 975, at the age of fourteen, and was the first king to whom the coronation oath was ad- ministered ; he was stabbed by a servant of queen Elfrida, his step-mother, at the gate of Corfe Castle, and was sumamed the Martyr. His half-brother, Ethelred, succeeded him at the early age of twelve years, who proved unequal to a contest with the Danes, and fled to Normandy. Having caused Gu- nilda, sister of Sweyn, king of Denmark, to be assassinated, that prince took possession of his throne, to which Ethelred only re- turned upon Sweyn's death, in 1014. Edmund Ironside succeeded to his father's throne and mis- fortunes at the same time, 1016; he divided his kingdom with Canute the Dane, son of Sweyn, after which he was assassina- ted. Canute left Nonvay to his natural son Sweyn, Denmark to Hardicanute, and England to Harold : this prince, sumamed Harefoot, reigned four years, and died in 1039, little regretted. The throne was left open to Hardicanute, brother of the last king : he was odious to the nation, and died of intemperance at Lambeth in 1041. The Danish line, consisting of Canute, Harold Harefoot, and Hardicanute, becoming extinct, the' Saxon line offered two candidates for the throne, Edward, son of that Ethelred whom Sweyn deposed, and Edward son of Edmund Ironside, who had shared the kingdom with Canute the Great. The former was chosen, the latter consigned to exile in Hun- gary. Edward was controlled by the priesthood, from whom he obtained the surname of Confessor ; after a peaceful reign, he died in the year 1066. He was the last of the Saxon line that ruled in England. Harold II., son of Godwin, Earl of Kent, succeeded to the exclusion of Edgar Atheling, the right- ful heir, but he suffered for his ambition, being slain at the battle of Hastings, upwards of 600 years after the foundation of the Saxon monarchy, which was terminated there, upon which William the Norman ascended the throne witi. the sur- name of Conqueror. 1 30 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR —HENRY 1 ABSTRACT OF THE ENGLISH REIGNS, FROM THE CONQUEST, WITH THE CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. Happy Britannia ! Rich is thy soil, and merciful thy clime, Uimiatched thy guardian oaks. Thomson's Summer. William the Conqueror, 1066 : he caused a general survey of the lands to be made, and entered in the Doomsday Book, in imitation of the Roll of Winton, made by order of king Alfred ; in his reign began the first wars with France ; the Norman laws and language were introduced ; many forts built. He reigned with arbitrary sway ; dispeopled Hampshire for thirty-six miles, to extend the New Forest ; and instituted the curfew bell ; died 1087. Contemporary sovereigns : — Philip I. of France ; Henry IV. emperor of Germany ; Malcolm III. and Donald VII. of Scotland. WilHam Rufus, 1087, was cruel and irreligious : he invaded Normandy, his brother's dukedom ; engaged in the crusades ; and was killed by an arrow, shot at a stag by his bow-bearer. Sir Walter Tyrrel, a Norman knight, in the New Forest, Hamp- shire. Contemporaries to William Rufus, Henry I., and Stephen : — Louis VI. and Louis VII. of France ; Lothaire II., Conrad III. and Frederick I. of Germany ; Alexander and David of Scot- land. Reigned from 1087 to 1100. Henry I., sumamed Beauclerc, youngest son of William I., having seized the royal treasures at Winchester, procured him- self to be recognised king of England ; he restored to the Eng- lish the privilege of using fire and candle by night ; recalled Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, and reinstated the church in its possessions ; he made war, in person, upon his brother Robert, duke of Normandy ; possessed himself of his dukedom, and confined the duke in Caerdifi" Castle, where he died after an imprisonment of twenty-eight years, and was interred at Glouces- ter : he levied a tax of three shillings on every hide of land, md raised in this manner £824,000, as a portion for he STEPHEN TO RICHARD I. 131 daughter Matilda. In this reign the institution of the order of Knights Templars took place, A. d. 1118: Henry's abilities were shining, but his conduct exceptionable. Reigned from 1100 to 1135. Stephen of Blois, earl of Boulogne and Montaign, and grand- son of William I., in 1135 seized upon the throne, in the absence of the Empress Matilda, or Maude, daughter and heiress to Henry 1. : he seized the late king's treasure, amounting to £100,000 ; reduced Normandy ; quarrelled with the clergy ; carried on a war with Matilda, with various success. In 1141 he was defeated and taken prisoner, and thrown into Gloucester Castle, from which being liberated, he renewed the war. Ma- tilda's son, Henry, at length concluded a peace with Stephen, when it was agreed that the latter should retain the crown during his hfe, and that Henry Plantagenet should be his suc- cessor, and that the castles built by Stephen's permission, amounting to 1,100, should all be demolished. Stephen and Matilda reigned from 1135 to 1155. Henry II., surnamed Plantagenet, a wise and great prince, ascended the throne in 1154 : he demohshed the castles erected by the nobles, and endeavored to restrain the exorbitant power of the clergy, but was opposed by Thomas a Becket, who had first been his favorite, afterwards his tormentor. He subdued the Welsh, who did homage, and swore allegiance to him ; landed in Ireland, and received the submission and oaths of several Irish princes ; did penance at Becket's tomb, and re- ceived forty lashes from the monks of Canterbury; divided England into six circuits, and appointed for each three judges, A. D. 1176 ; he died uttering imprecations against his own chil- dren, which the bishops present could not persuade him to revoke : the well-known fair Rosamond lived in this reign. Contemporaries of Henry II. : — Frederick I. of Germany ; Louis VII. and Phihp III. of France ; David, Malcolm IV.; and William, kings of Scotland. Reigned from 1155 to^lQO. Richard I., surnamed Cceur de Lion, 1189 : engaged in the holy wars ; conquered the Island of Cyprus ; obtained a victory over Saladin, and repaired the dismantled cities of Ascalon, /oppa, and Ccesarea ; took 3,000 loaded camels and 4,000 mules, with other valuable spoils, which he distributed amongst his soldiers. In returning to England he was shipwrecked near Aquileia, but taking the way of Vienna was imprisoned by Leopold, duke of Austria, who delivered him to the avaricious emperor, by whom he was detained until ransomed by his sub- jects. He defeated the French repeatedly, but was at length 132 JOHN 10 EDWARD II. slain by a poisoned arrow discharged by Bertrand de Gourdon, while engaged in besieging the castle of Chains, in 1199. The castle belonged to Vidomar, lord of Limoges, and a vassal of Richard's : having retained a treasure which belonged of right to the feudal lord, Richard undertook his chastisement, and perished in the attempt. Contemporaries of Richard I. : — Henry VI. and Phihp I. of Germany ; Philip II. of France ; Sancho I. of Portugal ; Canute V. of Denmark ; and Wil- liam, surnamed the lion, of Scotland. Reigned from 1190 to 1199. John, 1199 : he murdered his nephew; quarrelled with the pope, and was excommunicated; signed Magna Charta, the bulwark of English liberty ; entered into a war with France, and his barons ; and died deservedly detested. Contemporaries of John : — ^The Popes Innocent III. and Honorius III. ; Otho IV. and Frederick II. of Germany ; Wilham and Alexander of Scotland. From 1199 to 1216. Henry III., 1216, was weak and irresolute : his was a long minority : he was prevailed upon to violate Magna Charta, his barons rebelled, a civil war followed, but an accommodation took place : Magna Charta was solemnly confirmed, and they returned to their -allegiance. The famous Earl of Leicester was his chief opponent. Contemporaries of Henry III. : — Frederick II. of Germany; Louis VIIL, Louis IX., and Philip III. of France ; Alexander II. and Alexander III. of Scotland. From 1216 to 1272. Edward L, 1272 : he conquered Wales, is said to have mas- sacred the Welsh bards, enacted useful laws, and was called the English Justinian : he granted the cinque ports their privi- leges. The renowned William Wallace and the celebrated Roger Bacon flourished. Edward's heart was buried in the Holy Land. Contemporaries of Edward L : — Rodolph L, Adolphus, and Al- bert, of Germany ; Phihp HI. and Philip IV. of France ; Alex- ander III^ John Baliol, &nd Robert Bruc-e, of Scotland. From 1272 to 1307. Edward IL, surnamed Caernarvon, 1307 ; encouraged Piers Gaveston and other favorites, and lost the affection of his peo- ple : he wanted his father's strength of mind to keep the barons in obedience ; his queen, at their head, made war upon him ; he was compelled to abdicate the throne, and was afterwards mur- dered in Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire. Contemporaries of Edward II. : — Henry VIIL and Louis IV., emperors of Ger- many ; Philip IV., Louis X., Philip V., and Charles IV. of France , Robert Bruce of Scotland. " From 1307 to 1327. EDWARD III. TO HENRY VI. 133 Edward III., surnamed Windsor, 1327 : he subdued Scotland, and defeated the French in the battles of Cressy and Poictiers ; had tvY'O kings (John of France, and David of Scotland) pris- oners in his court ; encouraged the various manufactures : his conquests added more to the glory than the real happiness of his subjects, and he left his kingdom in an impoverished condi- tion. Gunpowder was invented in this reign, by Swartz, a monk of Cologne. Contemporaries of Edward III.: — Louis IV. and Charles IV. of Germany; Charles IV., Phihp VI., John I., and Charles V. of France ; Robert Bruce, David II., and Robert II., (the first of the Stuarts,) of Scotland. From 1327 to 1377. Richard 11. , 1377, was thoughtless and prodigal : the insur- rection headed by Wat Tyler, on account of the poll-tax, was in his reign ; the king suppressed it in person. The Earl of Hereford, son of the Duke of Lancaster, was banished, but returned before the expiration of the time, seized upon the throne, and confined Richard in the castle of Pontefract, where he was starved. Contemporaries of Richard 11. : — Charles IV. and Wenceslaus of Germany ; Charles V. and Charles VI. of France ; Margaret of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden ; Robert II. and Robert III. of Scotland. From 1377 to 1399. Henry IV., 1399, reigned with wisdom and prudence ; the Earl of Northumberland, who had assisted him in gaining the throne, rebelled, but was defeated ; and his son, Henry Hotspur, slain. The English marine was greatly increased, but learning in general was at a very low ebb. Contemporaries of Henry IV. : — Robert Le Pit, and Sigismund of Germany ; Charles VI. of France ; Margaret and Eric XIII. of Denmark and Sweden ; and Robert IIL of Scotland. From 1399 to 1413. Henry V., 1413, was powerful and victorious ; his conquests in France were numerous and splendid ; he gained the battles of Harfleur and Agincourt, and was declared next heir to the French monarchy. In his reign the followers of Wickliflfe were severely persecuted. Henry died in the midst of victory. Con- temporaries of Henry V. : — Sigismund of Germany ; Charles VI. of France ; Eric XIII. of Sweden and Denmark ; Robert III. of Scotland. From 1413 to 1422. Henry VI., 1422 : he was crowned king of France and Eng- land. During his minority France was lost by the misconduct of his generals ; the Maid of Orleans lived, who pretended to be divinely commissioned to rescue her country from the English. The first quarrels occurred between the houses of York and Lancaster ; civil wars followed ; and Henry became the tool of 12 134 EDWARD IV. TO HENRY VIII. each party in turn, till he was at ler^th murdered in the Tower by Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who was afterwards Richard III. Contemporaries to Henry VI. : — Sigismund, Albert IT. and Frederick III. of Germany ; Charles VII. and Louis XI. of •France ; Eric XIV. of Denmark and Sweden ; Robert I., James I., James II., and James III. of Scotland. From 1422 to 1471. Edward IV., 1471. The civil wars continued, which de- stroyed the flower of the English nobility ; trade and manufac- tures, however, notwithstanding these disadvantages, gradually increased ; Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., died in extreme misery ; her son. Prince Edward, was killed ; and Ed- ward IV.'s claim to the throne remained undisputed. Contem- poraries of Edward IV. : — Frederick II. of Germany ; Mahomet II., first emperor of the Turks ; Louis XL of France ; Christian I. of Denmark; and James HI. of Scotland. From 1471 to 1483. Edward V., 1483, succeeded. Being a child, his uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, was chosen protector ; he murdered the young king, and his brother, the Duke of York, in the Tower • and seized upon the vacant throne, six months after the death of Edward IV., his brother. Contemporaries to Edward V., the same as Edward IV. 1483. Richard HI., 1483 : he waded to the throne through the blood of his nearest relations ; his private character was detestable ; but, as a king, he managed the helm with success, being valiant and prudent. The Earl of Richmond asserted his superior right to the throne ; Richard was killed at the battle of Bosworth, and Richmond proclaimed king. Contemporaries to Richard III., the same, the two last kings reigned so short a time. From 1483 to 1485. Henry VII., 1485 : he was prudent and avaricious. One quarter of the gl ^be was discovered in his reign, by Columbus. Henry suppressed the insurrections occasioned by Perkin War- beck and Lambert Symnel ; protected the people ; humbled the power of his barons ; and left his kingdom in a flourishing condition. Contemporaries to Henry VII. : — Frederick HI. and Maximilian of Germany ; Bajazet II. of the Turks ; Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain ; Charles VIII. and Louis XII. of France ; John of Denmark and Sweden ; and James HI. and James IV. of Scotland. From 1485 to 1509. Henry VIII., 1509 : he separated from the Romish church, and was excommunicated -took the title of supreme head oi the church of England, and dissolved the religious foimdations. EDWARD VI. TO JAMES I. 135 Calvin and Luther, the reformers, lived; the famous Wolsey exercised unlimited power, as prime minister. Henry encouraged the arts and sciences ; was cruel and tyrannical : married six wives, and beheaded two. Contemporaries to Henry VIII :— Charles V. of Germany and Spain ; Louis XII. and Francis I. of France ; Gustavus Vasa of Sweden ; James IV. and James V. of Scotland. From 1509 to 1547. Edward VL, 1547, had great natural abilities : Seymour, duke of Somerset, governed the kingdom during Edward's minority. He encouraged the Reformation, and died very young, leaving the crown to the accomplished Lady Jane Grey, his cousin, she being a Protestant. Contemporaries to Edward VL : — Charles V. of Germany ; Henry II. of France ; and Mary of Scotland. From 1547 to 1553. Mary, 1553, succeeded, after deposing ^'ane Grey, who reigned only ten days, and was afterwards beheaded by Mary's order. Her reign was cruel, and stained with blood : she restored the Catholic religion ; persecuted and burnt the Protestants ; mar- ried Phihp, king of Spain, son of the famous Charles V. ; and died, after a short reign, stained with every kind of barbarity : Cardinal Pole and twelve bishops died of the same distemper that carried off this cruel queen. Contemporaries of Mary were the same. From 1553 to 1558. Elizabeth, half-sister to Mary, and daughter of Anne Boleyn, 1558 : she was prudent, accomplished, and skilled in the art of governing a mighty empire. The Spanish Armada was de- feated by her admirals : she established the reformed religion ; supported the Protestant interest abroad ; and founded a uni- versity in Dublin. In her reign the East India Company was established ; but her glory was tarnished by the unjust im- prisonment and execution of her rival, the unfortunate Mary, queen of Scots. Contemporaries to Elizabeth : — Ferdinand I., Maximilian II., Rodolphus II., of Germany ; Henry II., Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV., of France ; Philip II. and Philip III., of Spain ; Mary and James VI. of Scotland. From 1558 to 1603. James I., of England, and VI. of Scotland, 1603, had high notions of kingly power ; he was a learned pedant, and particu- larly attached to peace. The famous gunpowder plot was dis- covered by him. His reign was inglorious; stained with the death of Sir Walter Raleigh ; and his favorites managed the affairs of the state with little reputation. Contemporary with James I. of England and Scotland : — Rodolphus II., Matthias I.; Ferdinand II. of Germany ; Henry IV.' and Louis XII. of France 156 CHARLES I. TO WILLIAM III. Philip III. and Philip IV. of Spain and Portugal. From 1603 to 1625. Charles I., 1625, received from his father the same unconsti- tutional ideas of royal prerogative: his people began to feel their own weight in the scale of empire, and refused to pay the taxes he imposed ; a civil war ensued, Charles was defeated, taken prisoner, and beheaded by the parliament, in the year 1649. Contemporary to Charles: — Ferdinand II. and Ferdi- nand III. of Germany ; Louis XIII. and Louis XIV. of France ; Philip IV. of Spain; and John IV. of Portugal. From 1625 to 1649. Oliver Cromwell then usurped the regal power, under the specious title of Protector of the Realm. He rose from a low station to the high office he at last attained ; defeated the wan- dering son of Charles I. ; reduced Ireland to obedience ; regu- lated the jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery; raised the English name among foreign nations ; and at his death ordered £is son Richard to be declared the Protector : he died on the 3d of September, a day on which he had twice triumphed over his enemies, and was interred in Henry VII.'s chapel ; his re- mains were exhumed, hung in chains at Tyburn, and buried un- der the gallows, but removed secretly, and supposed to have been again interred in the centre of Red Lion Square, London. From 1654 to 1658. Charles 11. restored, through the instrumentality of Monk, and from Richard Cromwell's inefficiency, 1660. He was profli- gate and capricious, but reigned absolutely : his brother James, a Roman Catholic, was appointed his successor : many imagin- ary plots distinguish this reign, in which Algernon Sydney and Lord Russell were executed. Contemporary with Charles II. : — Leopold of Germany ; Louis XIV. of France ; Philip IV. and Charles II. of Spain ; and Charles XI. of Sweden. From 1661 to 1685. James IL, 1685, determined to abolish the Protestant reli- gion, and substitute his own will for the law of the land : he was reconciled to the pope ; but the nation resisted his attempts, called the Prince of Orange to the throne, and compelled James to abdicate. He died at St. Germain-en-Laye, in France. Con- temporary with James IL, the same as Charles IL From 1685 to 1688. William III., and Mary, (daughter of James IL,) 1688. In this reign France was humbled : the Bill of Rights sanctioned by parUament ; the laws generally revised ; and the Court of Marches, in Wales, abolished. Contemporary with William III. : ANNE TO GEORGE III. 137 — ^Leopold of Germany ; Louis XIV. of France ; Charles II. and Philip V. of Spain ; Charles XII. of Sweden; and Peter the Great of Russia. From 1688 to 1Y02. Anne, daughter of James II., ascended the throne in 1*702; her reign was brief but brilhant ; the victories gained by her army, under Marlborough, at Blenheim, Oudenard, Malplaquet, and Ramillies, humbled the pride of Louis XIV., but added little more than miUtary renown to British interests. In this reign took place the legislative union of England and Scotland : now also arose the political distinction of Tory and Whig ; and from the number of elegant writers who were contemporaries with queen Anne, her reign is called the Augustan age of literature. Contemporaries of Anne: — Leopold, Joseph I., and Charles VI. of Germany ; Louis XIV. of France ; Phihp V. of Spain ; Charles XII. of Sweden ; and Frederick I. of Prussia, Reigned from 1702 to 1Y14. George I., elector of Hanover, 1714. He was wise, prudent, and cautious in choosing his ministers. In 1715, the Pretender's rebellion broke out ; and the South Sea Scheme, which ruined thousands, occurred in this reign. Contemporaries with George I., the same as Anne. From 1714 to 1727. George II., 1727. Another rebellion, 1745, ended in the total defeat of the Pretender at Culloden. North America be- came dependent on Britain; English arms everywhere victo- rious ; Walpole and Chatham successively prime ministers. He was succeeded by his grandson. Contemporaries of George II. : — Charles VII. and Francis I. of Germany; Louis XV. of France ; Philip v., Ferdinand VL, and Charles III. of Spain; Frederick II. and Frederick III. of Prussia ; and Catharine of Russia. From 1727 to 1760. George III., 1760. He was the son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and grandson of George II. In this reign the American war broke out, and ended in the separation of those countries called " the United States" from England. In th3 East Indies vast accessions of territory were acquired, greater in extent than those lost in America. In 1800 the legislative union of Ireland with Great Britain was effected, by which the Irish parhament was closed, and the Irish representatives allowed seats in the imperial parliament. The victories of the Nile and Trafalgar, in the latter of which the gallant Nelson fell, completely destroyed the naval resources of Napoleon, and saved England from invasion. In 1811, owing to the mental infirmity of the king, his son the Prince of Wales was appointed regent, and his regency has been rendered one of the most 12* 138 GEORGE IV. TO WILLIAM IV. memorable eras in Britisli history, by the battle of Waterloo, fought on the 18th of June, 1815, in which Napoleon the Great was completely defeated by Arthur, Duke of WeUington. George III. died on the 29th of January, 1820, having reigned just sixty years. Contemporaries of George III. : — Francis I. and Francis II. of Germany; Louis XV. and Louis XVI. of France ; the overthrow of the French monarchy, and other events mentioned elsewhere ; Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. of Spain ; Paul and Alexander of Russia ; Washington, Jefferson, Adams, and Monroe, presidents of the United States. From 1760 to 1820. George IV. succeeded his father in 1820, his regency having lasted nine years. Both his regency and reign owe all their lustre to the Duke of Wellington, all their blemishes to the king's selfish character. His daughter and only child, the Prin- cess Charlotte, was married to Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, (after- wards king of Belgium,) but died in giving birth to a first child. When he had attained an advanced age, he caused his consort, (who was also his cousin,) queen Caroline, to be impeached of high crimes, &c., but, after a long and disreputable trial before the Lords, she was acquitted. This unhappy princess soon after died of grief. In this reign the ex-emperor Napoleon died in exile at St. Helena, and was interred on the island, from which, however, his remains were removed, nineteen years after his de- cease, and entombed in the church of the Hospital of Invalids in Paris. It was in George IV. 's reign that the Roman Catho- lics were emancipated by the recommendation and by the influence of the Duke of Wellington. Contemporaries of George IV. : — Louis XVIII. and Charles X. of France ; Alexander of Russia ; Frederick IV. of Prussia ; Ferdinand VII. of Spain. The war between the Carlists and the queen's party, to place the daughter of Ferdinand on the throne; Adams, (John Quincy,) and Jack- son, presidents of the United States ; Pope Pius VII. From 1820 to 1830. William IV., the third son of George III., succeeded his eldest brother in 1830. This short reign was disturbed by po- litical dissensions between Whigs and Tories, in which he acted with impartiality. It was during this reign that the grant of twenty millions sterling was made by parliament, for the total abohtion of the slave-trade; and in the year 1832, Lord Grey, then prime minister, succeeded, after a violent struggle of par- ties, in carrying the Reform Bill : the object of this measure was the extension of the elective franchise, and opening the House of Commons to what was then called the popular party. Con- VICTORIA. 139 lemporaries of William IV. : — Alexander and Nicholas I. of Russia; Frederick IV. of Prussia; Charles X. and Louis Philippe I. ul the house of Orleans, of France ; Jackson and Van Buren, presidents of the United States; Pope Gregory X. From 1830 to 1837. Victoria, 1837, only child of the Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III., succeeded her uncle William IV., at the early age of. eighteen years. Excluded by the Sahc law from the throne of Hanover, that trust devolved upon her uncle Ernest, Duke of Cumberland. Her majesty espoused Prince Albert of Saxe- Coburg on the 10th of February, 1840, and in 1841 gave birth to a prince, her second child, who is Duke of Cornwall by in- heritance, and Prince of Wales by creation. In this reign Whig and Tory distinctions were revived; the two Canadas were united ; poor-laws introduced into Ireland ; the first stone laid or a new Parliament House, and of a Royal Exchange in London, which had both been destroyed by fire ; the dockyards of Devonport and Woolwich discovered to be on fire, and the ar- mory of the Tower of London burned down. Her majesty's naval forces were employed, in conjunction with the allied Eu- ropean sovereigns, in rescuing Syria from Mehemet Ali, the pacha of Egypt, and in making war upon the Chinese for having excluded British vessels from their ports. The English brought the Chinese government to terms, and secured to Christians many privileges, which until that time they had not enjoyed in China. Contemporary with Victoria : — Pope Gregory X. ; Louis Philippe of France; Isabella of Spain; Nicholas of Russia; Frederick IV. of Prussia ; Harrison, Tvler, and Polk, presidents of the United States. 140 FERGUS I TO FFRGUS II. AN ABSTRACT SCOTTISH REIGNS. FROM FERG7S THE FIRST, THE FOUNDER OF THE SCOTTISH THRONJ!, TO MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. A manly race. Of unsubmitting spirit, wise, and brave, Trained up to hardy deeds, soon visited By learning, when before the Gothic rage She took her western flight. Thomson's Autumn. When are the Scots and Picts first spoken of in history ? In the fifth century : the former inhabited the eastern shores of Scotland, as far south as the Frith of Forth, and as far north as the island extended. The name of Picts seems to have been given them by the Romans, from the habit of staining their bodies when going to battle : the term picti signifies painted. They were probably of Gothic origin, though some think they were descendants of the ancient Caledonians, who were Celts mingled with Gothic settlers. The Scots were of Irish origin : a colony of this pie, from Ulster, the northern province of Ireland, settled on the coast of Argyleshire, under Fergus, who had been called over to assist the Scots against the Picts and Britons, about the year 330 b. c, and gradually occupied the whole of the western coast of Scotland. This prince was lost at sea, off Carrickfergus in Ireland, which bears his name. Twenty-five pagan kings ruled Scotland from the death of Fergus to the reign of Donald the First, a. d. 199, who was the first Scottish king converted to Christianity, and it was he also who made his subjects first acquainted with money coined from precious metals. During this reign Caledonia was invaded by Severus, who built a boundary wall to the Roman provinces from the Frith of Forth to that of Clyde. Fergus II. succeeded Eugenius, in the year 404. Having lived abroad and in retirement during twenty-seven years, (ac- cording to the Black-book of Paisley,) he returned to aid in expelling the Romans, ajcompanied by Dunstan, king of the KENNETH II. TO MALCOLM III. 141 Picts, and Dionethus a Briton. He long and successfully op- posed the enemy, but was at last slain fighting against Max- imianus : Dunstan his friend shared his fate, but Dionethus effected his escape, not however before he had received a grievous wound. Fergus II., founder of the kingdom of the Scots, possessed piety, courage, and abilities : he reigned honor- ably for sixteen years, and was a benefactor of his coimtry. After a long and sanguinary struggle between these two people, in which Drushenus, the Pictish king, was slain, Ken- neth II., king of the Scots, finally ascended the Pictish throne in 833, and united both states into one kingdom, comprising the whole country north of the wall of Antonine : the routed Picts found an asylum in England. Gregory, the seventy-third king, ascended the- throne in 875. He was justly entitled to his surname "the Great." He sub- dued the Picts, vanquished the Danes, putting Hardicanute, their king, to flight, in Northumberland : defeated and slew Constantino king of the Britons, in the battle of Lochmaben ; chastised the Irish, who had invaded Galloway, and added Cumberland and Westmoreland to his dominions. He died in 892, after a glorious and most exemplary reign of eighteen years. It was not for his military abiUties alone that he was admired by foreign princes, for it was his reputation for learn- ing, wisdom, and justice that led Alfred the Great to court his friendship. Malcolm II., " the victorious," eighty-third king, ascended the throne in 1004 : he repelled the Danes, improved the laws, and formed a titled aristocracy. After a splendid reign of thirty years, he became suddenly sordid and unjust, and was assassinated by his attendants as he slept. Duncan, 1033. A prince of pacific temper, and great vir- tues : he was treacherously murdered by Macbeth, his general, and iistinguished friend. Macbeth, 1040. This tyrant usurped the throne to the pre- judice of Malcolm, son of Duncan, who, with his younger brother Donaldblain, took refuge in England. Macbeth's reign was short as cruel, being killed in a war with the Enghsh, who armed in favor of Duncan's children. Malcolm III., 1057, long an exile in England, ascended the tlirone of his ancestors upon the death of Macbeth : he intro- duced among the Scots the custom of giving surnames ; and, during the crusades, assisted Godfrey, Earl of Boulogne, in the reduction of Jerusalem. This wise and valiant monarch was killed, with one of his sons, at the siege of Alnwick. 142 DONALD VII. TQ ALEXANDER III. Donaldblain, or Donald VII., 1092, uncle to Malcolm III.; his reign was short, being dethroned by Duncan, natural son of Malcolm. Duncan IL, 1094. The transient authority which this prince possessed was marked chiefly by his vices : he died without children. Edgar, 1096, son of Malcolm III., was a good king, and cherished the interests of his subjects. On the death of Edgar, his brother Alexander I., surnamed Acer, the Sharp, succeeded 1107. The early years of his life and reign were marked by rude and boisterous conduct, but re- penting of his folly and ferocity he turned his thoughts to works of peace. Under this new feehng he built the church of St. Michael at Scone, and founded a monastery there : driven by a tempest to ^mona Isle, in gratitude for his preservation, and for his maintenance by the hermits, he dedicated a church there to St. Columb : he also enriclied the monks of St. Andrew's, and completed Dunfermline church, which his father had begun. He had espoused the princess Sibylla, daughter of William the Norman, but left no issue. Pavid I., contemporary with Stephen, king of England, 1124. His valor was unquestioned, and his liberality to churchmen great : he compiled a code of Scottish laws, built many rehgious edifices, and reigned gloriously. Malcolm IV., 1153, grandson of David. His actions are httle celebrated, and his reign is chiefly memorable for the origin of the power engrossed by the Stuart family ; Walter, one of the king's courtiers, being appointed seneschal, or stew- ard of Scotland, from which employment his descendants de- rived their family name. William, surnamed the Lion, 1165, was frequently at war with Engl^«id ; and being taken prisoner at the battle of Aln- wick, by Henry II., that monarch refused to release him till he had done homage in his own name, and those of his suc- cessors. Alexander II., 1214, son of William the Lion : he was often at war with the Norwegians, who invaded the Scottish isles. Alexander III., 1249 : a prince of great virtues. In this reign the Norwegians were completely defeated, and obliged to retire from the isles. Alexander's issue failing, the crown was claimed by the descendants of David, Earl of Himtingdon, brother to William the Lion. 1285. An interregnum of some years succeeded, whilst the rival candidates asserted their claims, all descended from David THE BRUGES. 143 in different degrees of affinity. Of twelve competitors, the most distinguished were John Baliol, great-grandson to David, by his eldest daughter ; and Robert Bruce, grandson by the young- est. The nobles agreeing to refer the decision of this question to Edward I., of England, he adjudged the throne to Baliol, as his vassal, and treacherously asserted English supremacy. John Baliol, 1299, was more the creature of Edward than a monarch possessing uncontrollable authority. Gilbert de Um- phraville, Earl of Angus, and William Wallace, were the fore- most of the few who ventured still to assert the independence of Scotland, refusing subjection to Baliol, as the deputy of Edward. Soon after this, Baliol, upon the most frivolous pre- tences, was dethroned by the Enghsh king, and, retiring into England, lived in obscurity upon a pension. Robert Bruce, 1306. On the death of his ancestor (one of the candidates for the throne) Robert entertained jealous fears of William Wallace, but the forces of William engaging with Edward I.'s army, at Falkirk, were defeated, and their leader suffered death. Robert, upon this, engaged the Scots in his own interest, the nobles seated him upon the throne, and he was afterwards known as the Bruce of Bannockburn, by his signal defeat of Edward II. ; a victory still remembered by the Scots with triumph. The remainder of Robert's reign was a series of uninterrupted successes. David Bruce, or David II., 1329, son of Robert; his minority was disturbed by Edward, son of John Baliol, who, assisted by Edward III., seized the throne, and compelled David to retire into France. The nobles, however, disgusted with the conduct of young Baliol, remstated David, Some years after the Scot- tish king invaded England, in the absence of its prince ; he was made prisoner at the battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham, and detained eleven years in captivity in the castle of Odiham, but afterwards ransomed. Leaving no issue, the crown was claimed by the Stuart family. Robert Stuart, 1370, the descendant of Walter, seneschal of Scotland, claimed in right of his affinity by marriage to the daughter of David Bruce, being then only Baron of Renfrew. He was a prince of uncommon abilities and prudence. Robert III., 1390, son of Robert Stuart, was weak in intel- lect, and deficient in courage. He committed the toils of gov- ernment to his brother, the Duke of Albany, who took every method to aggrandize his own family. Robert's second son, James, was detained prisoner in England, on his way to France ; during the nmeteen years he soent in that country, his father's 144 JAMES I. TC JAMES V, dominions were subject to repeated commotions, and his eldest brother was assassinated by tlie Duke of Albany's command. Robert soon after died, oppressed with age and misfortunes. James I., 1423. This prince had seen in foreign courts the different systemsof jurisprudence, and endeavored, by abridging the power of the nobles, to assert the just prerogatives of the crown : but though he understood the principles of government admirably, the nation was not prepared to receive them : and in the struggle for power, he was assassinated by some of the nobility, in a monastesy near Perth, whither he had retired. James instituted the office of lords of session. James II., 1437, pursued his father's plan of humbhng the nobility; and seconded by his ministers, aimed at restoring tranquilUty and justice ; but himself the slave of turbulent pas- sions, he stabbed William, Earl of Douglas, to the heart, in a sudden fit of anger ; and taking advantage of the weakness be- trayed by the next earl, he proceeded to the ruin of his family, and declared his intention to subvert the feudal law ; but the splinter of a cannon-ball, at the siege of Roxburgh castle, put an end to his schemes and life, at the early age of thirty. James III., 1460 : he, with inferior abihties, embraced the same object, neglecting those of high birth, and lavishing his favors and affection upon a few court sycophants. The exas- perated nobles flew to arms ; James met them in battle, his army was routed, and himself slain. James IV., 1488, was generous, accomplished, and brave : war was his passion ; and, adored by a people who wished, by attachment to his person, to expiate their offences to his father, he led a gallant army on to the invasion of England : the battle of Flodden Field proved the superior skill of the English ; and James, with thirty noblemen of the highest rank, and an infinite number of barons, fell in the contest; leaving an infant of a year old to wield the Scottish sceptre. James V., 1513. The Duke of Albany, his near relation, was declared regent ; but the king, at thirteen, assumed the reins of government ; he had a great but uncultivated mind, and while he repressed the consequence of the nobles, he pro- tected commerce, and reformed the courts of justice. The re- formed clergy in Scotland now first launched their thunders against the papal see, though without the concurrence of James. Quarrelling with Henry VIII., he assembled an army ; the barons, piqued at his contempt of them, reluctantly complied with his summons ; and, more intent upon retaliating their in- juries than anxious for their own glory, suffered themselves to MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. 145 be shamefully defeated. James felt this affront so keenly, that he died of grief. Mary, queen of Scots, daughter of James V. and Mary of Guise, succeeded in 1542, when only a few days old. She was educated in France ; and in her minority, the Earl of Arran and Mary of Guise were successively regents. Mary, who had espoused Francis II. of France, upon his death returned to govern her native country: she then married the Earl of Darn- ley, but soon disgusted with his conduct, was privy to his vio- lent death, and immediately affianced to Both well, his murderer : the nobles, incensed to the highest degree, rose against her, and being taken prisoner, she was compelled to sign a resigna- tion of the crown, in favor of her son. Escaping from custody, she fled into England, where EHzabeth, betraying the confi- dence reposed in her by Mary, unjustly sentenced her to death. The beauty, misfortunes, and we may add the crimes, of this celebrated woman, have rendered the annals of her reign pe- culiarly interesting. James VI., 1567, only son of Mary, by the Earl of Daniley ; he reigned long before his mother's death. In this period he diminished the power of the church, now declared Protestant by act of parliament, and married the daughter of the Danish king. Upon the death of his relation, Elizabeth of England, he ascended her throne ; and the histories of Scotland and England have siiLce been inseparable. 13 146 PHARAMOND TO CLOVIg I. AN ABSTRACT EEIGNS OF THE FRENCH KINGS, FROM PHARAMOND, FOUNDER OF THE MONARCHY, TO PHIIJP I., CONTEMPORARY WITH "WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. Turn we, To vigorons soils, £ind climes of fair extent, Where by the potent sun, elated high. The vineyard swells refulgent to the day. TH0M30N. A CONFEDERACY of German tribes, having conquered the Lombards, assumed the name of Franks, (the Free.) Pharamond, first king of the French, in the year of our Lord 420 : he was famed as a wanior and politician. Clodion, son of Pharamond, 428, was continually at war with the Romans, and lost several battles. Merovee, first of the Merovingians, 447. The annals of his reign are lost in clouds of mist and obscurity, and history says little about him. The name of Gaul was now finally exchanged for that of France. Childeric L, son of Msrovee, 458 ; he abandoned himself en- tirely to his pleasures, and the French lords uniting to dethrone him. Count Giles was chosen king in his stead ; but upon his promise of better conduct, he was recalled, and again seated upon the throne. Clovis I., of the Merovingian race, 481. In his reign Christi- anity became the religion of the state ; he performed many great exploits ; founded seyeral churches and monasteries ; and pub- lished the Sahc laws : he was famed for his valor, but it was tinctured with inhumanity. He extinguished the Roman do- minion in Gaul by the victory of Soissons, in 486, over the Roman general Syagrius ; reduced the Alemanni, Bretons, and Visigoths ; extended his dominions from the mouth of the Rhine to Toulouse ; and made Lutetia, or Paris, his capital. He had been converted to Christianity by his wife Clotilda, daughter of Childeric, whom he married in 493 ; and he crowned himself at Rheims, when he was anointed with the miraculous oil, said to CHILDEBERT I. TO CLOVIS III. 147 have be>3n brought down from heaven hj a dove^ whence hia successors received from the pope the title of " Most Christian King," and " eldest son of the church." He died in 511, and is interred in the church of St. Genevieve, in Paris. Childebert I., son of Clovis, 511. He laid the foundation of Notre Dame, a celebrated church at Paris ; reigned with wisdom and moderation, and was universally regretted by hia people. Clotaire I. succeeded his brother Childebert, 558, having before shared in the government. He was a cruel barbarian, killed two of his nephews, and aimed at the life of the third : his reign was one continued scene of horrors and murders. Caribert, son of Clotaire, 562. This prince having raised, successively, to a share in his throne, two females of the lowest birth, the Bishop of Paris thought proper to excommunicate him. Caribert had a taste for hterature, and some historians represent him as a good king. Chilperic I., brother of Caribert, 567. This prince, for his repeated cruelties, was called the Nero of France : he loaded his subjects with taxes, and many on this account were com- pelled to quit their native soil. He at last met with the just recompense of his crimes, and was assassinated. Clotaire II., 584. He was victorious over the Saxons, and reigned successfully. Dagobert I., 628, succeeded his father Clotaire. He was enslaved by superstition, and bestowed great part of his revenues upon the monks, who, as a recompense, loaded him with flattery. Clovis II., son of Dagobert, 638. In this reign France was afflicted with a great famine, and the king, to remove the ne- cessities of the poor, caused the gold and silver ornaments, with which the tombs of the nobility were decorated, to be sold, and the money distributed among them. Clotaire III., 660. In this reign, and the two preceding it, the power assumed by the mayors of the palace (or chief ministers) was so excessive, that the kings were merely the tools of profligate and ambitious men, who, under this title, bore the supreme sway. Childeric II , 668. A weak and irresolute prince : his coun- sels quickly fell into contempt. Thiery I., 673. The mayors of the palace, in this reign, usurped the regal power, and the only shadow of royalty he possessed was tlie title of king, Cl6vis III., son of Thiery, 690. This prince died at the age of fourteen, and performed no action worth recording. 148 CHILDEBERT II. TO CHARLEMAGNE. Childebert II., 695. He was surnamed the Just, and exer^ cised the confined authority allowed him by the mayors, in such a manner as to gain the hearts of his people. Dagobert IL, Til. He was twelve years of age when he ascended the throne, and died at the age of seventeen, leaving only one son, who was judged by the mayors of the palace un- fit to sxjtpport the weight of government, and therefore set aside by them. Clotaire IV., 718, reigned only one year ; his indolence was such tnat he never interfered in the affairs of state, but left all to his ministers. Chiiperic IL, 719. He emerged from that indolence in which the former Merovingian kings had been plunged ; and asserted his right to govern alone, against Charles Martel, a famous mayor of the palace, but with little success. I'niery IL, 721. During his minority Charles Martel contin- ued to hold the sovereign authority, (while Thiery bore the name of king,) and distinguished himself by his wisdom and valor. Childeric IH., 743, surnamed the Simple, was the last of the Merovingian race. Charles, surnamed Martel, or the Hammer, from an iron mace which he bore in battle, died in this reign. He was mayor of the palace, and routed the Saracens with great slaughter at Poictiers. Pepin and Carloman, the sons of Charles, shared the supreme authority, and dethroned Childeric, who died in the monastery where he was confined. Pepin, the Little, or Short, 760, son of Charles Martel, suc- ceeded to the undivided authority, and was particularly dis- tinguished in the history of the second or Carlovingian race. He abohshed the office of mayor of the palace, and governed alone. Pepin was a celebrated hero, and defeated the Saxons, Sclavonians, and Bavarians. Charlemagne and Carloman, the sons of Pepin, 768. Carlo- man soon quitted the throne, and assumed the Benedictine habit ; Charlemagne then reigned alone. This great prince trod in the steps of his father ; literature and the sciences now dawned upon the nation ; and Roland, or Orlando, the celebrated French hero, flourished at this period. He extended his dominions from the Ebro to the Lower Elbe, the Soale, and the Raab ; from the North Sea and the Eyder to the Garigliano, in Naples. He was master of France, Germany, and Italy ; and wrested Spain from the Saracens. The emperors of Turkey and Persia sought his friendship ; the latter conferring upon him the lieutenancy of the Holy Land. In 800 he was proclaimed em- peror of the West, and solemnly crowned by the pope. LOUIS I. TO CHARLES THE SIMPLE. 149 Louis I., surnamed the Deboilnaire, 814, the son of Charle- raagne. He was weak and superstitious in the highest degree, was twice deposed and taken prisoner by his children ; yet, upon being restored to the throne, he pardoned their offences. Soon after this he died ; and his children, contending for empire, fought the first famous battle of Fontenoy, in which 100,000 French were killed. Under this prince the empire of Charlemagne fell to pieces. Charles the Bald, grandson of Louis I., 840. By the treaty of Verdun, the separation of the German and Italian crowns from the French was completed, when Charles obtained France. The history of the kingdom of France, properly speaking, be- gins, therefore, with the treaty in 843. In this reign the Normans invaded and plundered France. Charles was hated by his subjects, had few virtues and many vices. He was poisoned by a Jewish physician, named Ledecias, in whom he placed great confidence. Louis II., surnamed the Stammerer, 877. From this reign the kings of France ceased to possess the empire of Germany, acquired in that of Charlemagne. Louis lavished the honors and estates of the crown ; and his abilities were by no means adequate to his high station. Louis III., and Carloman, the children of Louis the Stam- merer, 879 ; they reigned jointly with great harmony. The No'Tnans again ravaged the French provinces, but were attacked and defeated by the brothers. Louis died first, and Carloman did not long survive, being mortally wounded by one of his servants, who was aiming a javelin at a boar. Charles the Fat, 884, emperor of Germany, was invited to accept the French monarchy. He was pious and devout ; but wanting ^biliti3s and resolution, incurred the contempt of his people, and was declared incapable of holding the reins of government. He reunited, for a short time, the dominions of Charlemagne, but his subjects unanimously revolted, and a few months of disease and misery (in which he was compelled to beg his bread) were followed by his death. Eudes, 888, was elected after the death of Charles : his reign was short, turbulent, and glorious. He resigned the throne to Charles the Simple, son of Louis the Stammerer; and died shortly after, beloved and regretted. Charles the Simple, 898 : he obtained this degrading name from the little improvement he made of the victories he gained over the Duke of Lorraine. Rollo, the famous Norman chief, took the city of Rouen. Charles's people deserted Lim, and 13* 150 RODOLPH TO PHILIP 1 set up a new king, called Rodolph, or Randolph. Charles died in captivity. Rodolph, who had been crowned before the death of Charles, succeeded 924. He defeated the Nomians and Hungarians. After his death Fmnce was again divided by rival claimants. Louis IV., son of Charles the Simple, 936 ; he seized upon Normandy, and promised Hugh, Count of Paris, to share it with him, but having broken his word, Hugh became his enemy. His anny was afterwards routed by the Danes ; Louis was carried prisoner to Rouen, and committed to the custody of Hugh, who obliged him to enter Normandy, and restore it again to Richard, the lawful possessor. Lothaire, son of Louis, 964 : he possessed courage, activity, and vigilance. Hugh, Count of Paris, having ceded his rights to the throne, Lothaire gratefully acknowledged the favor, by bestowing upon him the province of Aquitaine. Hugh died in this reign, leaving a son, who was afterwards the renowned Hugh Capet. Lothaire is said to have been poisoned by his queen. Louis v., surnamed the Slothful, 986 : he reigned only one year, and was poisoned. Hugh Capet had been appointed his governor, but the wise counsels of Hugh were totally thrown away upon this headstrong prince, who was hated for his vices, and despised for his folly. He was the last of the Carlovingian race. Hugh Capet, the powerful duke of the Isle of France, Count of Paris and Orleans, was raised by the nobihty to the throne, 987. His reign was happy and glorious. His people felt and admired his virtues ; and he transmitted to his son a peaceful and undivided inheritance. Robert, the son of Hugh Capet, succeeded 996. France ex- perienced the sad eflfects of a dreadful famine in this reign. The pope threatened to excommunicate Robert for marrying Bertha, who was related to his father. His sons rebelled, instigated by their mother, but he compromised matters with them, and died highly regretted. Henry L, son of Robert, 1031 : he was brave, pious, and had many other good qualities. The custom of duelling was so prevalent in this reign, that Henry enacted a severe law to put a stop to it. His people were frequently led out to war ; for as he was jealous of the Normans, he tried every method to check their conquests. Phihp L, contemporary with William the Conqueror, 1060. Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was regent in his muiority. Ava- LOUrS VI. AND LOUIS VII. 161 rice, perfidy, and ingratitude were the striking features in tliig king's character. The crusades for the recovery of the Holy Land from the Saracens were preached up in this reign, by Peter the Hermit. Philip's quarrels with William of England were frequent, and their issue bloody. In the latter part of his life, Phihp abandoned himself wholly to voluptuous pleasures ; and, guided by his queen, an ambitious and wicked woman, incurred the just hatred of his subjects. CONTmUATION OF THE FRENCH REIGNS, FROM LOUIS VI. TO THE PRESENT TIME. Louis VL, surnamed the Gross, assumed the government in 1108, on the death of his father, Philip. He had all the quali- ties necessary to form a good king. He granted charters of mcorporation to large towns, as a counterbalance to the feudal lords : he caused schools to be opened in all convents, and estabhshed local militia. He challenged Henry I. of England to single combat, to save greater effusion of blood, but his in- vitation being declined, he encountered and defeated the English in the field of battle. Henry now sought the aid of his son-in- law, the emperor of Germany, but Louis displayed the oriflamme, or banner of St. Denis, round which the nation rallied, and deterred the invaders. On his death-bed he is said to have delivered his ring to his son, with these words : " May the power with which you will shortly be invested be considered as a sacred trust, committed to you by Providence, and for which you must be accountable in a future state." In this reign the free cities arose, bondage gradually disappeared, and prepared the way for the civil existence of the people. Louis VII., surnamed the Young, to distinguish him from his father, whose authority he had shared, ascended the throne, 1137. He commanded a fine army, the flower of France, in the Holy Land ; but disease, and the calamities of war, had so decreased it, that on his return, only the shattered remains 152 PHILIP II. TO PHILIP in accompanied him. During the absence of Louis, his kingdom suffered all the miseries of depopulation. He was continually embroiled with England, and his own barons. In this reign the troubadours, a kind of wandering French poets, resembling the Welsh bards, first appeared. Philip II., surnamed Augustus, 1180. He engaged in the crusades with Richard I. of England. The monarchs quarrelled ; and on his return home, Phihp attacked Richard's French do- minions. He defeated the Emperor Otho, and the Earl of Flan- ders, at Bouvines, banished the Jews from France, and curbed the influence of the clergy. He then endeavored to reform the manners of his people, protected and embellished those cities that acknowledged his sway, and released the people from the oppression of the soldiery. The orders of Dominicans and Franciscans were established, and this was the Philip who en- gaged in the cause of Arthur, Duke of Bretagne, against John, king of England. Louis VIIL, son of Phihp, 1223. He reigned only three years, and in that time dispossessed the English of some lands in France. He is said to have died by poison ; and left in his will legacies to 2,000 leprous persons, as that disorder then raged dreadfully. Louis IX., the Saint, son of Louis VIIL, 1226. He was a good but unfortunate prince. Undertaking an expedition to the Holy Land, he was defeated, and made prisoner by the Saracens : he might have escaped, but nobly disdained to for- sake his subjects in their distress. On his return, after being ransomed, he foohshly resolved to engage in another crusade ; and, besieging Tunis in person, fell a victim to the plague. His confessor, Robert de Sorbon, instituted the University at Paris, called the Sorbonne, which afterwards became the most famous theological school in Europe. By the introduction of a new administration of justice, he gave new power to the crown. Philip III., surnamed the Hardy, 1270. He continued the wars against the infidels, till he compelled the king of Tunis to sue for peace. Thus ended the crusades, in which 2,000,000 men had been at different times engaged. In this reign was perpetrated that massacre of the French called the Sicilian Vespers : Philip conciliated the friendship of the English Ed- ward I., and engaged in frequent wars with the Sicilians, in order to support-the claims of his son to that throne. A gen- eral corruption of manners scandalously prevailed at this period ; and the Albigenses, who dwelt in the south of France, were now most inhumanly persecuted : the introduction of letters of HILIP IV. TO PHILIP VI. 153 nobility in this reign, was another blow to the already declining power of the nobles. Philip ly., (Le Bel,) 1285. This prince continued the war with England, and joined Baliol, king of Scotland, against Ed- ward. Philip was perpetually embroiled with Pope Boniface VIII., and Guy, Count of Flanders ; he gained a decisive vic- tory over the latter. The introduction of the Third Estate, a deputation of the cities, in the general assemblies of the clergy and nobility, was an important measure of this king ; with the assistance of these feudal estates, Philip resisted the interdict of Boniface and the clergy. In this reign many of the Knights Templars, with their grand-master, were burnt alive at Paris, in presence of the king ; an act characteristic of an age in which justice was the victim of power : and the Swiss asserted their independence, by the three cantons of Switz, Uri, and Under- wald, throwing off the Austrian yoke. Louis X., surnamed Hutin, 1314. He strangled his queen, on account of her repeated enormities, and espoused Clemence, daughter of the king of Hungary. On his accession, finding the treasury in an exhausted state, he accused Marigni, who had been his father's minister, as the source of the national ne- cessities, and Louis seized upon his fortune to defray the expenses of the coronation : this unfortunate nobleman in vain endeavored to vindicate his honor ; he was condemned to expire on a gibbet ; and the king, after a short reign of two years, died by poison, given him by the friends of Marigni. Philip v., surnamed the Young, succeeded his brother, by virtue of the Salic law, which excluded the daughter of Louis, in 1316. A contagious disorder raged in France, and the su- perstitious people imputed it to the Jews having poisoned the waters. Philip 's kingdom was torn by faction ; and he died, after a short reign of six years. Charles IV., 1322. This prince was the last of the Capetine line. He expelled the Lombards and Italians from his do- minions, for their extortion ; and countenanced Isabella, of England, the queen of Edward IL, (and the sister of Charles,) in her opposition to her husband and his favorites. Charles tried unsuccessfully to reunite the kingdoms of France and Germany. He had xieither shining talents nor great vices. Philip VI., the first of the line of Valois, 1328. Edward IIL, of England, asserted his claim to the French -crown ; Phihp, however, succeeded, by the Salic law, and called upon Edward to do him homage ; but receiving no satisfactory reply, he seized upon Ed Award's French territories, who, to recover his dominions. 154 JOHN TO HENRY VI. performed the subjection required. Biscontants were again re» newed, and the Enghsh, in a naval engagement, took- 230 of the French ships: Philip also lost 30,000 seamen, and two admirals. Four years after was fought the memorable battle of Cressy ; and Hugh, Count of Dauphine, annexed his dominions to the French crown, on condition that the king's eldest son should bear the title of Dauphin. John, surnamed the Good, succeeded his father, 1350. This prince was very unfortunate in his wars with England : in the battle of Poictiers he and his son Philip were taken prisoners, and the French army totally routed. On promise of paying a ransom, amounting to 4,000,000 of gold crowns, resigning Guienne and other provinces, he was permitted, after four years' captivity, to revisit his native soil ; when he found that the miseries of his people had been heightened by civil commo- tions, the consequence of his son's inexperience ; France was plundered by banditti, and the Jacquerie, a mass of furious peasantry, in 1358, satiated their spirit of vengeance in the blood of the nobility. A pestilence carried oflF 30,000 of hi? subjects ; and bowed down by calamity, he returned to expire in England. Charles V., the Wise, son of John, 1364. Du Guesclin, his constable, the celebrated French commander, lived in this reign, and after the death of Edward, and the Black Prince, retook most of the English possessions in France, and restored order for a short period. Charles died in the prime of life, from the effects of poison. Charles VI., 1380, son of the late king. He labored under an unfortunate imbecihty of mind, caused by a fright he re- ceived. The war with England was renewed : the gallant De Courcy fought on the French side ; but the battle of Agin- court gave the English a decided supeiiority. Henry V., their king, gave his hand to Catharine, the French king's daughter. Charles shortly after died, in 1422, abandoned by his subjects, who directed their attention to Henry of England, his expected successor. This was the epoch of the Armagners : a civil war of the crown vassals, conducted by Orleans and Burgundy, was sustained by assassination, and the succession settled upon Henrv V., of England, to the exclusion of the Dauphin, after- wards king Charles VII. Henry VI. of England, upon the death of his father was pro- claimed king of France, when only nine months old, 1422 ; but at this time, amidst the licentiousness of war, of factions, and of manners, a peasant girl animated the French in the cause of the CHARLES VII. TO LOUIS XII 155 Dauphin ; this was the famous Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans, who, assisting and heading the dispirited troops of Charles the Dauphin, by which the English were defeated, obliged Henry to rehnquish his claim ; and Charles, the Dauphin, ascended the throne of his ancestors, by the title of Charles VII. Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, 1436. When the rage of civil war had abated, he endeavored to regulate the disordered finances, and restore commerce. He deprived the English of their dominions in France ; but experienced a series of domestic calamities, occasioned by the intrigues and daring spirit of his son, (afterwards Louis XI.,) who proceeded to acts of open rebellion against him. Charles, suspecting Louis of in- tentions to poison him, refused all nourishment for some days ; he fell a victim to his distrust, and died in that deplorable situ- ation. Charles was the first king who instituted a standing army, 1444. Louis XI. succeeded, 1461. The title of Most Christian King was given him by the pope, though little suited to his character ; as he was dreaded by all his subjects, and hated by his neigh- bors. This prince assisted the famous Earl of Warwick with a fleet and army, to restore Henry VI., of England, to his throne. After Henry's death Louis ransomed Margaret of Anjou from Edward IV. The French monarchy became absolute in this reign. Charles, Duke of Burgundy, was the constant opposep of this ambitious king, whose oppression and barbarities must shock every heart not dead to the feehngs of humanity. The motto, a maxim of this cruel prince, was Dissimuler c'est regner. The 280 years' quarr3l with the house of Strasburg, which ob- tained the inheritance of Burgundy, on the death of Charles the Bald, originated in this reign. Charles VIII., 1483, being in his minority, Anne, eldest daughter of Louis XL, was chosen regent : she possessed strong powers of mind and great prudence. Charles on his marriage with Anne of Bretagne, which accomplished the union of that duchy with Nantes, took the cares of state upon him ; and complying with the entreaties of the ambitious Ludovico Sforza, he attempted the conquest of Naples, whose king was op- pressed by age and infirmities, as heir of Anjou. The French king besieged that city in person, defeated the Ncapohtans, and obliged their monarch (Ferdinand II.) to fly : he soon, however, by force of arms, regained liis throne, and Charles died not long after. He was the last king of the house of Valois. Louis XII., surnamed the Father of his People, 1498. He engaged in wars with the Venetians and Milanese. Ludovico 156 FRANCIS I. TO FRANCIS II. Sforza having usurped the government of Milan, Louis de- feated and sentenced him to perpetual imprisonment. Ihia king was beloved by his subjects, as he showed his clemency on many remarkable occasions, and repealed some severe taxes. He married the princess Mary of England, sister to Henry Francis I., Count of Angouleme, who had married the daugh- ter of the late king, ascended the throne, 1515. This is tho era of French literature : Francis loved and encouraged the arts : he was brave to excess, in his own person, but his valor and ambition endangered the safety of his kingdom. He con- tended unsuccessfully for the German empire. The Duke of Bourbon, a powerful lord, who resented the indignities he had received from the king and his mother, joined Charles V., of Germany, and Henry VIII., of England, in a confederacy to place Charles V. upon the French throne. Francis, by his valor and address, delivered his kingdom from the threatened danger ; but, being unable to perform the conditions insisted upon by Charles, after the fatal battle of Pavia, in which he said " he had lost every thing but his honor," he was engaged in a war with the emperor till his death. Henry II., son of Francis, 1547. The reign of this prince was chiefly distinguished by his wars with Pope Julius II. and the emperor. Henry married Catherine de Medicis, daughter of the Duke of Urbino. The battle of Saint Quentin, fought with the Spaniards, was lost by the French ; but Henry's cele- brated general, the Duke of Guise, preserved the lustre of the French arms against the united powers of England, Spain, and Flanders. He took Calais from the English. Henry was un- fortunately killed at a tournament, while celebrating the nup- tials of the princess Elizabeth with Philip, king of Spain. Francis II., son of Henry, 1559. The government of the kingdom, during this reign, was intrusted to Catherine de Medicis. The king married Mary, queen of Scots ; and wholly guided by his mother, and his uncles the Guises, persecuted the Protestants, now known by the name of Huguenots. Worn out by the oppressions of the Catholic party, they at length took up arms ; and this was the era of those dreadful civil, falsely termed religious wars, which desolated France, and stain with indehble infamy the rulers of the French nation. Francis died, after a short reign of two years. So little had the refinement of man- ners and the cultivation wk'ch flourished under Francis I., soft- ened the ferocity of fanaticism, that Calvinists were burned at the stake. The foundation of the national debt, the weight of CHARLES IX. TO LOUIS XIII. 157 which broke down the throne 250 years after, was laid at this period. Charles IX., second son of Henry II., succeeded in his mi- nority, 1560. Catherine de Medicis governed him ; and, joining to great abilities boundless ambition and keen revenge, she prevailed upon the king to arm against the Protestants, whose growing numbers she dreaded. Civil wars followed : after which (on the memorable 24th August, 1572) began that horrid massacre, which extended through Paris, Lyons, Orleans, Rouen, Angers, and Toulouse. Thus, merely for difference in opinion, 30,000 Frenchmen were inhumanly put to death by their vin- dictive enemies. Charles, after this, concluded a peace with the Huguenots ; and, a prey to severe remorse, and the effects of a dreadful disorder, he expired, being only twenty -three years of age. Henry III., brother of Charles, 1574. He had been elected king of Poland ; but on the death of Charles, the Poles chose another king. Henry, fond of pleasure, fickle, and irresolute, was governea by Catherine de Medicis. The civil wars were renewed between the Catholics and Protestants, one of which was called the Holy League, and headed by the Duke of Guise. Henry, fearing this nobleman had designs upon the crown, basely caused him to be assassinated, with his brother, the car- dinal of Guise ; and the king, shortly after, experienced the same fate, from the hands of Clement, the monk. The de- testable Catherine de Medicis died just before her son, aged seventy. Henry the Great, first of the house of Bourbon, 1589. He was bred a Protestant, and gallantly defended that cause when king of Navarre ; but wishing to heal disturbances, and con- ciliate the affections of his people, in 1593 he went openly to mass, though he was always supposed to be attached to his old opinions. Soon after this he pubhshed the edict of Nantes, which granted to the Protestants the exercise of their religion, the enjoyment of their estates, and made them eligible to public offices. After a glorious reign, Henry was assassinated by Ravaillac, a monk of the order of Jesuits, in the streets of Paris. Louis XIII. succeeded his father, 1610, when only nine years of age. Mary of Medicis, his mother, was appointed regent ; Cardinal de Retz, his minister : they renewed the civil wars, which had continued during the reigns of five princes, and de- stroyed nine cities, 400 villages, and 2,000 monasteries, by their horrid ravages. Upon the death of De Retz, Richelieu became 14 158 LOUIS XIV. TO LOUIS XVI. minister ; he humbled Spain, and the spirit of the French no* biUty, defeated the Huguenots, and checked the ambitious views of Austria ; to him Louis owed his authority, for on his own account the king wm. ittle feared or loved by his people. Louis XIV. succeeded his father when only five years old, 1643. His mother, Anne of Austria, with Cardinal Mazarin, conducted pubKc affairs. This reign was the longest, and in its first part the most splendid of any iii the French annals. Turenne, and the Prince of Conde, multiplied the conquests of Louis, and obtained the most brilliant victories. Louis revoked the edict of Nantes, and granted protection to James IL, king of England. After the death of Mazarin, Colbert became prime minister, whose exertions in his country's service are never to be forgotten. Louis was the munificent patron of the arts, and twice defeated William IIL, but Marlborough tore the laurels from his brow, and humbled his pride: He lived to i>ee the Enghsh government in the hands of Charles L, Cromwell, Charles II., James H., William and Mary, Anne, and George I. Louis XV. succeeded his great-grandfather, 1715. The Duke of Orleans was appointed regent, who endeavored to relieve the miseries of war, and restore commerce and agriculture. When the king became of age, the Duke of Bourbon and Cardinal Fleury w^ere successively ministers. When Fleury died, Louis reigned alone, and, at the head of his army, obtained some signal victories in Flanders : a peace succeeded, and for seven years the arts and literature flourished in France. This king assisted the Pretender in his schemes upon England. The conclusion of his reign was unfortunate ; his people, exhausted by war, loudly murmured, but Louis was deaf to their com- plaints, and pursued his arbitrary measures till his death. Louis XVL, 1774, grandson of the last king. Upon him fell the weight of those miseries which his predecessors had caused. At the commencement of his reign he endeavored to alleviate the distresses of his subjects ; but, guided by the suggestions of his queen, Marie Antoinette, his anxiety to pre- serve his absolute authority was the rock upon which he was shipwrecked. His people rebelled ; an ardent and active spirit pervaded all ranks ; Louis was compelled to submit to the conditions imposed by the National Assembly, who, not content with abohshing royalty, beheaded their king, January 2 1st, 1793 : his queen shared the same fate, October 16th, 1703. These executions, contrary to existing laws framed by the Convention themselves, cast an eternal stigma upon tlie French nation, and caused the friends of 1 3al liberty to mourn the barbarities and NAPOLEON BONAPARTE TO CHARLES X. 15d excesses which have been committed by the abusers of that sacred name. An era succeeded, marked by a political fanaticism, of which history affords no other example, and by crimes, the recital of which fills the mind with horror. The powers of Europe raised a crusade against revolutionary France ; but though anarchy ruled witliin, France repelled foreign armies, Avhile the different parties in the National Con- vention proscribed, banished, and massacred each other. The government of the Directory succeeded, but was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte, who was elected consul for life in 1802. This extraordinary person so far won the affections of the na- tion, by the number and splendor of his Victories in Italy, Spain, Holland, Belgium, that he converted the republic into an hereditary monarchy in 1804. When consul he reduced em- pires into republics ; when emperor he elevated republics into empires : in 1812, he marched with an army of 400,000 men into Russia, and reached Moscow, the ancient capital of the Czars, only to witness its conflagration. A severe winter de- stroyed his army, but a few months saw him again at the head of 300,000 men, when he resisted the combined efforts of Eu- rope. In 1814 Paris was occupied by the European powers, Louis XVIII. placed on the throne, and Napoleon withdrew, an exile, to the Island of Elba. In 1815, he again returned to Paris, (from which Louis XVIII. and his court fled with great precipitation,) at the head of the very army that had been sent to take him prisoner, and levying a new army, gained a victory over the Prussians, but lost the memorable battle of Waterloo on the following day, upon which he again abdicated the throne, threw himself upon the generosity of the English nation, and was sent a prisoner to the Island of St. Helena, where he died on the 5th May, 1821. Having no children by his empress Josephine, he unfeelingly divorced her, and married Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria. By this princess he had a son who took the title of Duke of Reichstadt ; he died young. Louis XVII. never reigned : he died at the age of ten years from cruel treatment. Louis XVIII. reigned ten years. Charles X., of the house of Bourbon, ascended the throne in 1824, but attempting to obtain absolute power, and having annihilated the charter, the people rose en masse ; and after a sanguinary conflict in the streets of Paris for three days, in the month of July, 1830, lie Avas obliged to abdicate the throne, from which he and his family are excluded by a decree of the Chamber of Deputies, in August, 1830. Prince Polignac, his T60 LOUIS PHILIPPE- -GENERAL SUMMARY minister, was brought to trial and condemned to solitary im« prisonment for life, first at St. Michael's, afterwards in Ham Castle; but he was released on an appeal from the British people. Louis Philippe, of the branch of Orleans, descended from a brother of Louis XIV., was elected king of the French, 9th of Auorust, 1830. He is the eldest son of Egalite, who so heart- lessly voted for the death of Louis XVI. ; was educated by Madame de Genlis , wandered, as an outlaw, over the north of Europe, and the states of America ; and the vicissitudes of uh life have been more extraordinary than those of any monarch in modern history. He has led armies to victory ; taught the rudiments of literature for his support ; and being restored to his rank, and elevated still further to wear the crown of that kingdom in which he was once a criminal, he has survived the attempts of seven different assassins on as many different oc- casions. At this time, March 18th, 1848, the news has just been received of another revolution in France, of which the chief instigators were M. Odillon Barrot, and Thiers. Louis Philippe has been dethroned and left Paris. The people have declared for a Republic, but the result has not yet reached us. The French lines of kings were, the Franks, the Merovingians, the Carlo vingians, the line of Capet, of Valois, and of Bourbon. And the four French kings most famed in history were, Charle- magne, contemporary with Egbert, of England ; Philip II., with jRichard I. ; Francis I., with Henry VIII. ; and Henry IV., or the Great, with queen Elizabeth. The best French historians are, Philip de Comines, Davila, De Thou, and Mezerai. The grand epochs in the history of France are, the introduction of Christianity ; France almost entirely conquered by Henry V., of England ; the massacre of the Protestants, on Saint Bartholo- mew's day ; revolution in 1792, when Louis XVI. was beheaded ; abdication of Napoleon, 1814 ; revolution in 1830, A\hen Charles X. was deposed ; election of Louis Phihppe to the throne ; and revolution of 1848 CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 161 QUESTIONS RELATING TO THE HIST^ORY OF AMERICA, FROM ITS DISCOVERY TO THE PRESENT TIME. When was Airerica discovered? In the year 1492. By whom ? Christopher Columbus, or Columbo, a native of Genoa, born in 1441. He was the son of a woolcomber, and studied at the university- at Pavia, until he was fourteen years of age, when he left it for a seafaring life. Between thirty and forty years were spent by him in voyages to various parts of the then known world. At length he settled at Lisbon, and married the daughter of Palestrollo, an Italian navigator. He was well versed in the sciences of geography, astronomy, and geometry ; and his observations during his voyages, supported by the evidence of pieces of wood carved with unknown figures, trunks of trees, and canes, drifted across the Atlantic, induced him to believe that by stretching across the ocean in a westerly direction, the shores of eastern Asia might be reached ; and in the retirement subsequent to his marriage he resolved to obtain from some sovereign the means of making the attempt. To whom did he apply ? First to his own countrymen, at Genoa ; then to the king of Portugal, whose son. Prince Henry, gave him some en- couragement ; but this young prince dying early, Columbus, being no longer supported, carried his plans, &c., to England, and applied to Henry VII. ; but this monarch, whose well- known parsimony prevented his expending money on a doubtful cause, refused his aid, and Columbus, nothing daunted, repaired to Spain, where Ferdinand and Isabella then reigned. What was his success with them ? Isabella encouraged, but Ferdinand ■was opposed to him, and after many vexatious delays he was at length supplied with three small vessels, and sailed from the port of Palos, in Spain, on the 2d of August, 1492. To what islands did he first direct his course ? To the Canary Islands ; where, having refitted, he continued his voyage on the 6th of Septeml)er, passing into seas which had never before been ex- plored. What had he then to contend with ? The superstitious fears of his crew ; for when, after having sailed 200 leagues 14* 162 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. from the Canaries, the variation of the magnetic needlt from its direction to the polar star was observed for the first tin.ie, they became alarmed, and refused to continue the voyage. How did he overcome these scruples ? By his firmness and presence of mind. He explained this phenomenon, which he did not then understand himself, in such a way as to quiet the fears of his crew ; and after 30 days, continuing the voyage in a state of the utmost anxiety of mind and fatigue of body, for he never left the deck, he promised if land were not discovered in three days he would instantly return. On the second night, the night of the 11th of October, 1492, a light was discovered ahead of the vessel, and the next morning Columbus, who had been all night matching the light, gave the joyful cry of " Land ! !" and all loined in his hyffln of thanksgiving to Almighty God. The whole crew united in ardent expressions of admiration for their commander, with acknowledgments of their own rashness and disobedience, and vows of future good conduct. Was this land the continent of America ? No. It was a small island ; one of the Bahama group, which form part of the British West India Islands, and is now called Cat Island, )at. 24° 37^ long. 75° 50^ Columbus gave it the name of St. Salvador, which signifies being saved. What islands did he next discover ? Cuba, and Hayti, or St. Domingo, to which he gave the name of Hispaniola, and landing there, left some of his men to form a colony. Did Columbus, then, know that these islands belonged to a new world ? No ; he imagined them connected with India, accord- ing to his theory, that India could be reached by a western passage ; and he therefore gave them the name of West India, and the natives he called Indians. What did he obtain before he returned to Spain ? A quantity of gold from the mines of Hispaniola, and several of the natives, whom he persuaded to accompany him. What occurred on his voyage to Spain ? A violent tempest arose which continued fifteen days, and Colum- bus, fearing that by the destruction of his vessels the benefit of his discoveries would be lost to the world, had the presence of mind to write a short account of his voyage, which he wrapped in an oiled cloth, and enclosed in a cake of wax, and putting this in an empty cask, threw it into the sea, with the hope that it might fall into the hands of some other navigator, or be washed ashore and found. What then occurred ? The storm abated, and a few days after, Columbus entered the port of Palos, after an absence of seven months, amidst the acclamations and wonder of the multitude at the sight of the strange beings who accompanied him, and the gold with which they were DEATH OF COLUxMBUS. 163 laden. What did he tlien do ? He hastened to the court, where Ferdinand and Isabella received him with respect and admiration, and loaded him with favors and honors. When did Columbus discover the continent of South America ? In 1498 ; on his third voyage. What did his success give rise to ? Envy and in- trigues against him in the court of Spain. What course was pursued towards him ? He was at Hispaniola, the government of which island had been conferred on him ; when, in consequence of false accusations, he was arrested by order of Ferdinand and Isabella, and sent home in chains. What did the captain of the vessel in which he was offer to do ? To release him from his chains. What was his reply ? "I wear these fetters in obe- dience to the orders c f their majesties the rulers of Spain ; they shall find me as obedient to this as to their other injunctions ; by their command I have been confined, and their command alone shall set me at liberty." When released from his fetters, what did he do with them ? He hung them in his chamber, and gave orders that they should be buried with him. Did Ferdinand express any regret at the treatment which Columbus received ? No ; after detaining him for some time about the court in fatiguing and vexatious attendance, he appointed another governor to Hispaniola, and Columbus retired in disgust. Did Columbus then give up all future discoveries ? No ; still intent on finding a passage to India by the western course, he made a fourth voyage, examined the coast of Darien, and was ship- wrecked on the island of Jamaica, where the cave in which he took refuge is still shown on the eastern coast of the island. How did he obtain great influence and command over the natives of this island, who were a more warlike race than those formerly discovered ? By predicting an eclipse of the moon, which led them to look upon him as a deity. Did this belief continue ? No ; they soon overcame this feeling and attacked his troops ; his men mutinied, and at length worn out by fatigue, scarcity of provision, and sickness, he returned to Spain. Did he live long after this ? He died soon after his return to Spain, at Valladolid, the 20th of May, 1506, aged 65 years. Who ordered a magnificent funeral for him ? Philip I., king of Spain, who had recently ascended the throne. He also desired the following inscription to be engraved on his tomb, " To Castile and Leon, Columbus has given a new world." What was the character of Columbus? He was patient and persevering, fer- tile in expedients, grave and dignified in his manners, master of himself, and skilful in the government of other men. Why was not the name of Columbus given to this continent ? He "waa 164 FERDINAND CORTEZ. deprived of this honor by Americus Vespucius, an Italiaix native of Florence, who accompanied Ojida on a voyage in 1499, and discovered a part of the coast of South America the year after it had been discovered by Columbus. How did he effect this purpose ? He wrote an account of his voyage, claim- ing the honor of being the first to discover the main land ; and from him the continent was named " America." Who discovered the continent of North America ? John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, but a resident of Bristol in England. He received a commission from Henry VII., and sailed in May, 1497, on a voyage of discovery, accompanied by his son Sebas- tian, and one, or both of them, discovered the contment of North America, the year before the main land of So\jth America had been discovered by Columbus, and fwo years before it had been seen by Americus. What was the land first seen called, and what is it supposed to have been ? It was called Prima Vista, (first view,) and is supposed to have been a part of Newfound- land. What course did the Cabots then take ? They pro- ceeded further north, still in pursuit of the passage to India, but finding no appearance of one, they put about and sailed as far as Florida. How did they take possession of the country ? By erecting crosses along the coast, and taking formal posses- sion of it in behalf of the crown of England. What must be particularly remarked of this event ? That it was the founda- tion of the English claim to North America ; though no settle- ments were formed for many years after. Who at length dis- covered the western passage to the East Indies ? Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, first discovered the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, by pursuing a southwesterly course from Lisbon. Did many years pass after the discovery of America by Columbus, before any considerable settlement was made by the Spaniards on the continent? Yes; it was not until 1519, that Ferdinand Cortez, a young Spanish adventurer, sai'ed from Cuba for the invasion of Mexico, and landed at a seaport to which he gave the name of Vera Cruz, i. e. the true cross. Had Cortez a large armament ? He had only a fleet of 1 1 small vessels, having on board 617 men, and as fire-arms were not in general use, only 13 of the men had muskets. He had also 10 small pieces of artillery and 16 horses ; the first of these ani- mals ever seen in that country, whose prairies now abound in wild horses. How were the rest of the men armed ? With crossbows, swords, and spears, but they were all clothed in armor. /Did Cortez advance at once to Mexico ? He advanced RS rapidly as possible, but was opposed, at different places on MONTEZUMA AND GUATIMOZIN. 165 the route, by the natives, who were much averse to his entering their country ; but, naked and ill-armed, they had only numbers to oppose to the well-trained Spaniards with their cannon and muskets, which they regarded with superstitious fear. What person was most opposed to the advance of Cortez ? The em* peror or chief of the whole country, to whom all the other cities and provinces were tributary. Who was this ? Montezuma ; at once the wisest, the most powerful, and wealthy of all the Indian monarchs, who resided at the far-famed capital of Mexico. Why was Montezuma so violently opposed to the Spaniards before he knew their avarice and treachery ? Chiefly from a tradition existing among the Mexicans, that a strange people from the east should conquer them. What was Montezuma's conduct when he found Cortez, in spite of all opposition, deter- mined on advancing to Mexico ? He appeared to resign himself to his fate and the force of circumstances ; and from the time of Cortez's entry into Mexico, until the hour of his death, con- tinued to treat Cortez with the utmost generosity, hospitality, and apparent confidence, and loaded him with gifts and honors. What was the return of Cortez for all this kindness ? Deceit and treachery.^ He ordered Montezuma to be seized and placed in irons, accusing him of a conspiracy against the SjMniards ; deprived him of all power, and robbed him of a vast amount of treasure. What was the consequence of this conduct ? The Mexicans flew to arms, and after a violent contest the Spaniards were defeated : Montezuma was killed in the conflict, but his nephew, Guatimozin, who had placed himself at the head of the Mexicans, continued to encourage them by his bravery, and they pursued the Spaniards without mercy, kilUng many, and driving others into the canals by which the city was intersected, where numbers perished, laden with the gold and precious stones of which they had robbed the Mexicans. How is the recollection of this event preserved ? It is called by the Span- ish Mexicans to this day " La noche triste, or dolorosa — the night of misery ;" on the anniversary of which they go in procession to the churches, and off"er up prayers for the souls of those .who perished at that time. What course did Cortez then pursue ? Undismayed by this reverse, Cortez, with the aid of a nation of Indians who had joined him on his first entrance into Mexico, called * Tlascalans," and with a reinforcement of Spaniards, who joined him from Vera Cruz, besieged and took the city, seized Guatimozin and his family, and became master of the country in 1521. j-What was the fate of Guatimozin? He was put to death, after having been most cruelly tortured by 166 PERU PIZARR6. the Spaniards ; several of liis most distinguished captains were tortured with bim, and on hearing one of them cry out witt anguish, while he had not uttered a groan, he turned to him and said : " Do you think I am on a bed of roses ?" When did the Spaniards form a settlement at Panama? In 1518. Where is Panama situated ? On the west coast of the Gulf of Darien. Who sailed from this place to explore the regions of South America ? A Spanish adventurer, named " Pizarro," in the year 1525. W^hat country did he discover? The rich and flourishing kingdom of Peru. How did he obtain posses- sion of it ? lie procured from Charles Y., then king of Spain and emperor of Germany, a commission as governor of the country, with a military force to subdue it; anci for this purpose he sailed from Panama, in 1531, with three small vessels and 180 men. How did he proceed ? He landed with his forces, marched with little opposition to the residence of the Inca, or king, Atahualpa, and having invited him to a friendly interview, tried to persuade him to embrace the Christian faith. Did Atahualpa consent to this ? He refused, and Pizarro imme- diately ordered his men to seize the defenceless monarch, whom they detained a prisoner, and slew upwards of 4,000 of hb attendants. \ What did Atahualpa offer to procure his release ? To fill the room in which he was confined, which was 22 feet in length and 16 in breadth, with vessels of gold and silver as high as he could reach. What was the value of this treasure ? It was valued at upwards of £1,500,000, and was collected from different parts of the empire by the Peruvians for their monarch's ransom. Did Pizarro release him when he performed this promise ? The perfidious Spaniard still held the Inca prisoner, and being joined by his friend Diego Almagro, an adventurer like himself, with a reinforcement of troops, they brought Ata- hualpa to trial, on a charge of being an usurper and idolater, condemned and executed him. What was the subseqmmt fate of these two men ? They soon after quarrelled among them- selves, Almagro was taken prisoner by the troops of Pizarro, condemned and executed by his order ; and soon after Pizarrc was assassinated. Did the Peruvians take advantage of these contentions ? Yes ; they rose against the Spaniards, headed by their new Inca, Huanca Capac, but they were at length sub- dued, and Peru became a province of Spain. What was the state of the arts among the Mexicans and Peruvians at the time of the invasion by the Spaniards ? Both nations under- stood the arts of architecture, sculpture, and working the precious metals ; but knew little of mining, d'^pending chiefly for MEXICAN AND PERUVIAN WORSHIP. 167 them, on that which was washed down by the streams of water from the mountains containing the mines.* Were they ac- quainted with agriculture ? In some degree, but the Indians raised only sufficient for their own use, not knowing any thing of foreign countries. They also understood weaving and em- broidery, and excelled in an art now entirely lost, of forming a fabric composed of the feathers of the beautiful birds of the country. ^JWhich had the superiority in architecture? The Peruvians: they had some magnificent temples and palaces. What deity did the Mexicans worship ? They had many gods, of which the chief were named Xacacataptl and Mejitl, who were worshipped with human sacrifices. What was the Peru- vian religion ? They adored the sun, as the supreme Deity, though they had inferior gods ; and their worship was unat- tended by the sanguinary traits of the Mexican faith. They regarded their Incas as divine. What were the discoveries of 1524 ? Francis I., king of France, wishing to have a share of the new world, sent Verrazano on a voyage of discovery ; he explored a great part of the coast of North America, When was the Gulf of St. Lawrence discovered, and by whom ? In 1534, by James Cartier, who also sailed under orders from Francis I. What was his further course ? He entered the gulf, and sailed up the river, taking possession of the country in the name of the king of France, to which he gave the name of New France, but it was afterwards changed to Canada. What commission did Elizabeth, queen of England, give to Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584 ? She gave him a commission, "to discover, occupy and govern, remote, heathen, and barbarous countries, not previously possessed by any Christian prince or people." To what part of the new world did Sir Walter direct his course? To the shores of North America ; he arrived off the coast of what is now called North Carolina, entered Pamlico Sound, and proceeded to Roanoke Island, near the mouth of Albemarle * The Peruvians excelled in the workmanship of gold and silver articles, the beauty of which far exceeded any thing which the Spaniards had ever beheld. Among the articles given for the ransom of Atahualpa to Pizarro, " were," says Mr. Prescott in his admirable work, the Conquest of Peru, " goblets, ewers, salvers, vases of every shape and size, ornaments and utensils for the temples and the royal palaces, tiles and plates for the decora- tion of the public edifices, curious imitations of different plants, and animals. Among the plants, the most beautiful was the Indian corn, in which the golden ear was sheathed in its broad leaves of silver, from which hung a rich tassel of threads of the same precious metal. A fountain was also much admired, which sent up a sparkling jet of gold, while birds and ani- mals of the same material, played in the waters at its base." 168 SIR WALTER RALEIGH. Sound, taking possession of the country in tlie name of the Queen of England, and gave it the name of Virginia, in compliment to the Virffin Queen. Did he attempt to form settlements there ? On Raleigh's return to England the glowing descriptions he gave of the country induced many adventurers to oflfer their services, and in 1585, he fitted out a squadron of seven ships, which he placed under the command of Sir Richard Grenville, who followed the same course which Sir Walter had pursued the last year, and left a colony at Roanoke under the command of Captain Jane. What was the fate of the colo- ny? The following year, the colonists were reduced to the utmost distress for want of provisions, and on Sir Francis Drake's stopping there, on his return from a successful ex- pedition against the Spaniards, in the West Indies, they all embarked with him for England. What was the fate of the next colony ? Raleigh had sent out a vessel for the relief of the distressed settlers at Roanoke, which arrived shortly after they left ; and Sir Richard Grenville arriving soon after, and seeing nothing of them, left fifteen of his crew well provided with provisions, to keep possession of the island, and returned to England ; but they were never heard of after, having been most probably murdered by the Indians. How did the tribes of Indians who inhabited that country receive Sir Weaker Raleigh and the other adventurers ? With the utmost kindness and hospitality ; but they met with only cruelty and ingratitude from the colonists, which no doubt roused their savage passions and induced them to defend themselves, and war against the usurping foreigners. When was the next colony sent out ? In 1587. Sir Walter sent out one hundred and fifty adventur- ers to the same island under Captain White, who remained but a short time, and returned to England for pro\isions, as they could obtain none from the natives. Who was the first child of English parents bom in America ? The daughter of Captain White, a Mrs. Dare, accompanied her father to the island; her daughter was bora there, and named Virginia Dare. What was the fate of this colony? In consequence of the threatened invasion of England by the famous Spanish Armada, it was three years before Raleigh could send relief to the colony by Captain White, who, when he arrived there, found not one to tell their fate ; and fearing for himself, returned at once to England, leaving not a single English settler on the shores of America. How did this unfortunate issue aflfect Raleigh ? He was so much distressed and annoyed by these repeated failures, that he was easily induced to sell his patent BARTHOLOMEW GOSNOLD 169 to a company of merchants in London in the year 1589. Did they attempt to colonize ? No ; they were satisfied with a paltry traffic with the natives, and made no attempt to penetrate far- ther into the country, or form a settlement. When did the next expedition set forth? In 1602. Bartholomew Gosnold, with thirty- two men, sailed from Falmouth on the western coast of England, and steering due west, was the first English com- mander who reached this country by this shorter and more direct course. tWhere did he land ? He made the coast near Nahant, but failing to find a good harbor, he bore to the south, dis- covered and gave the name to Cape Cod, which was the first ground in New England ever trod by Englishmen. Saihng thence round Nantucket, he discovered and named Martha's Vineyard, entered Buzzard's bay, and finding a fertile island, he gave it the name of Elizabeth, in honor of the queen. Did he leave a colony there ? He built a fort and storehouse, and prepared to leave a colony, but the natives appearing hostile, the men refused to remain, and he returned to England, making the passage in five weeks, the shortest then known. When did the French again send a company to this continent ? In 1603. Henry IV. of France granted by letters patent, to the Sieur de Monts, the country called Acadia, extending from the 40th to the 46 th degree of north latitude. The next year de Monts sailed, taking Samuel Champlain as his pilot, and having doubled Cape Sable or Sandy Cape, entered an extensive bay, which they called " La baye Francaise," now the bay of Fun- dy ; on whose eastern side he founded Port Royal. , What further discoveries did they make ? Proceeding to explore this bay, they discovered and named the rivers St. John and St. Croix, and sailed along the coast to Cape Cod. What measures did the English adopt, at this encroachment on their claims ? James the First, of England, divided that portion of North America which lies between the 34th and 45th degrees of north latitude into two divisions ; granting the southern part or first colony of Virginia, lying between the 34th and 41st de- grees, to the London company of merchants, and the northern portion to the Plymouth company. . What measures did the Ply- mouth company take? In 1607, they sent out admirals Raleigh and Gilbert, with a hundred planters, under Capt. George Popham, their president. They landed at the mouth of the Kennebec river, where they built and fortified a store- house ; but in two or three months the ships returned to Eng- land, leaving only forty-five men behind them. What was the fate of this small colony ? Their sufferings during the winter 15 170 SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN were most severe ; the president died, they lost their stoie* house by fire, and tlie next year they returned to England much dispirited ; and this was the first and only attempt made to settle that northern portion of the country until 1620. How long a period had now elapsed since the discovery of North America by the Cabots ? One hundred and ten years ; and twenty-four since Raleigh planted his first colony on the island of Roanoke; and yet there was not in 1607 one Englishman settled in America. When and by whom was the first effectual attempt made to settle the country? In 1607, an armament consisting of 105 men, in a small vessel of 105 tons, and t\vj barks, sailed from England under the command of Capt. New- port, and were four months in making the voyage. What land did they first discover ? A promontory which they called Cape Henry, the southern boundary of Chesapeake Bay ; and keeping along the southern shore, they sailed up a river called by the natives Powhattan, to which they gave the name of James river, i What was their first step ? They built a fort and commenced a toAvn, to which, in honor of King James, they gave the name of Jamestown, which, although it has never become a place of much importance, boasts of being the first permanent English settlement in America. How was the col- ony governed ? By a council of seven persons, with a president chosen from among their number, their form of government having been drawn up by King James. Whom did the} choose for their first president ? Edward Wingfield, the most unsuit- able among them ; Capt. John Smith, the man appointed by the king, having been excluded by envy from even having a seat in the council. How did the colonists prosper ? They were soon involved in contests with the Indians, the result of their cruelty towards them, and under their gathering misfortunes were obliged to depose Wingfield and appoint Capt. Smith, a man of grea!; ability and undaunted courage, in his place. What romantic incident is connected with Capt. Smith's his- tory ? While engaged in hunting, he was taken prisoner by the Indians, who carried him before their chief, Powhattan ; he was condemned to death, and it was on the point of being carried into execution, when Pocahontas, the favorite daughter of their chief, having in vain implored mercy for him, rushed forward, and placing her head on that of the captive, seemed determined to share his fate. ^What was the result of her interference ? Powhattan relented and set the prisoner free ; Pocahontas was frequently afterwards of great service to the eolonists in giving them information of the hostile designs of DEATH OF POCAHONTAS. 171 the Indians. What was her ultimate fate ? She married Mr. Rolfe, a planter, and accompanied him to England, where she was baptized and instructed in the Christian religion ; she died at the age of 22, leaving one son, from whom are descended some of the most respectable families in Virginia. What was the state of the colony in 1608 ? Disease and famine had greatly diminished their numbers, but new arrivals occurring, they increased to 200. What became of Capt. Smith ? Hav- ing been severely injured by the explosion of gunpowder, he returned to England in 1609 ; the colonists being reduced to the number of 60 persons, formed the same resolution. Did they fulfil their intention ? No : meeting Lord Delaware, the appointed governor, they were induced to return, and in 1619 their numbers were increased by the arrival of 1216 new set- tlers, principally adventurers in search of gold. What expe- dient was adopted to induce them to settle permanently ? Young women were sent from England, and sold to them for wives. What was the price of a wife ? At first 100 pounds of tobacco, but as their numbers decreased they brought 150 pounds.*,i What was the tobacco valued at ? Three shillings a pound. 'What was the commencement of slavery in English America? In 1620 twenty negroes were carried to Virginia, in a Dutch vessel, and sold as slaves. What did the colonists now turn their attention to ? Agricultural pursuits, particu- larly the cultivation of tobacco. What kind of persons did King James send to the colony at this time ? Convicts, and all idle and disorderly persons then in custody for their offences. What happened to the French colony in Virginia at this pe- riod ? Capt. Argall was sent from Jamestown to dispossess them. Did he succeed ? Yes ; he destroyed Port Royal, and all the French settlements in Acadia. What did he do on his way back ? He visited the Dutch settlement of Manhattan, and took possession of the country in the name of King James, and the Dutch traders immediately acknowledged his suprema- cy, and under him, that of th2 governor of Virginia. How did the colonists succeed ? They enjoyed great prosperity till the year 1622. What occurred then? The Indians under Ope- cancanough attempted a general massacre, and although the plot was discovered, they succeeded in killing about 347 persons. -f" What was the result of this attempt ? A war of extermination followed, then a famine, and in 1624, out of 9,000 persons only 1,800 remained. How were these losses repaired ? By the arrival of new settlers ; but the colony suffered much by re- Btrictions on its trade, and by the arbitrary government of Sit 172 LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. John Harvey. What did the population amount to in 1660? About 30,000 ; and in the succeeding 28 years their number wag doubled. Who was Henry Hudson ? An Enghshman in the Dutch service, who, when in search of a northwest passage to In- dia discovered the noble river that bears his name. Who made the fii*st permanent settlements on the Hudson ? The Dutch, who in 1614 erected two forts, one at Albany and the other on Man- hattan Island. What name did the Dutch give to their settle- ment on Manhattan Island ? New Amsterdam, which it retained till it was taken by the English", who called it New York. What were the names of the Dutch governors ? Van T wilier, Kieft, and Stuyvesant. What happened to the Dutch colony in 1664 ? Charles II., of England, being at war with the Dutch, granted the country to his brother the Duke of York, and Governor Stuyvesant was compelled to capitulate to an English force under Colonel Nicholls. Who were the Pilgrim Fathers? They were English puritans, who were compelled to leave their country by the persecutions that sect labored undoi-. When did they arrive in America ? They landed at Plymouth on tiie 22d of December, 1620, and founded the first permanent settle- ment in New England. How did the New England colony succeed ? Their suflferings and difl&culties were extreme, but by perseverance they were enabled to overcome the rigors of their situation.> What were the names of their first governors ? John Carver was the first, and he was succeeded in 1621 by William Bradford. What did they do to protect themselves from the Indians ? They organized a military force, the com- mand of which was given to Miles Standish. Were the Indians disposed to be hostile ? No, they entered into a treaty with them, which Avas confirmed by their principal chief. What was the name of this chief? Massasoit, from whom Massa- chusetts takes its name. How long was this treaty observed ? For a period of fifty-four years. When was the colony of Massachusetts Bay founded? In 1628, by John Endicott, who formed a settlement a!: Naumkeag, now Salem. When and b\ whom was Boston first settled ? In 1630, by 1,500 persons, under John Winthrop. When was New Hampsliire settled ? In 1623, at Dover and Portsmouth, by persons sent out by John Mason and Ftrdinando Gorges, to whom the country had been granted. When were these settlements annexed to Massa- chusetts ? In 1641, and so continued till 1679, when a separate government Avtls instituted for New Hampshire. When and where was the settlement of Connecticut commenced ? In 1635, at Windsor and Weathersfield. When and by whom was the WARS WITH THE INDIANS. 173 colony of New Haven founded ? In 1638, by Theophilus Eaton, John Davenport, and others. When was the settlement of Rhode Island commenced ? In 1636, at Providence, by Roger Williams, a minister of the gospel, who had been banished from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions. .^-When was the first college founded in America ? In two years after the settlement of Massachusetts Bay, Harvard College was founded at Cambridge ; it takes its name from Mr. John Harvard, who, dying at Charleston, in 1638, bequeathed £800 for the purpose of erecting a college. What were the principal characteristics of the New England colonists ? They were enterprising and industrious, strongly attached to liberty, piety, and justice ; they were not, however, free from vices and follies, some peculiar to themselves, and others to the age in which they lived. What troubles had the colony of Connecticut to contend with at this period ? They were involved in i war with the Pequods, a tribe of Indians inhabiting the southeast part of the state ; the Indians suffered a severe defeat from the colonists under Captain Mason, losing from six to seven hundred of their number, and most of their wigwams burnt. What measures did the New England colonies adopt for the general security and welfare '^ In 1643, the four colonies of Massachusetts Bay, New Ht^ven. Plymouth, and Connecticut, formed themselves into a con- federacy, called the united colonies of New England. How were they governed ? Each sent two delegates, to assemble in the different colonies once a year, or oftener if necessary JlHow long did this union subsist ? A little more than forty years, when the colonies were deprived of their charters by James II. What was, the most g-3neral and destructive war in which the New England colonists were ever involved ? A war with Philip, chief of the Wampanoags, son of Massasoit, whose principal residence was at Mount Hope, in Rhode Island. What was the character of Philip ? He was a man of great abilities, un- daunted courage, and the most uncompromising enemy the whites ever had. Were there other tribes engaged in this war ? Yes ; all the surrounding tribes, fearing the loss of their hunting- grounds from the gradual encroachments of the settlers, formed a combination, of which PhiHp was the leader. Give some further particulars of the war. It was carried on with great fury on both sides, but finally, in a severe engagement, called the swamp fight, v/hich took place in December, 16Y5, the colonists under Josiah Winslow obtained a complete victory over the Indians, about 1,000 of whom perished, besides many women and children. Did the Indians ever recover from the effects of this 15* 174 SETTLEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA, defeat ? Ko ; they however continued their depredations, mas- sacring the inhabitants and burning their villages, till the death of Philip, who was shot in 1676, by an Indian attached to the band of the famous Captain Benjamin Church^ Did this ter- minate the troubles of the New England colonists with the Indians ? Yes, until the wars with the French, who employed the Indians as auxiliaries. What was the amount of the English population of the colonies at this period ? About 60,000, of whom nearly 600 fell during the Indian war, besides the destruc- tion of several towns. Who was the founder of Maryland ? Sir George Calvert, afterwards Lord Baltimore, secretary to James I. Being repulsed in his endeavor to settle in Virginia, he turned his attention to a tract of land north of the Potomac, and ob- tained a grant of it from Charles I., but before the patent was made out he died, and the grant was given to his eldest son, Cecil Calvert. Whence does Maryland takes its name ? From Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. Who was the first governor of Mar}^land ? Leonard Calvert, brother of Cecil, who with 200 persons commenced the settlement of St. Mary's in 1634. When and by whom was Pennsylvania settled ? In 1682, by William Penn, from whom it takes its name. How did he obtain a grant of the land ? In payment of a debt due to his father, Admiral Penn, by the British government. By whom was he accompanied ? By 2,000 persons, principally of the sect called Quakers, or Friends, to which he also belonged. When was Philadelphia founded ? In 1683. Who were the Quakers ? A religious sect founded by George Fox, the son of an English weaver, in 1648.4-For what was the government of William Penn remarkable ? Religious toleration, kindness and humanity in his intercourse with the Indians, from whom he obtained by fair purchase as much land as he required. Was this course pursued by his successors ? Yes, the treaty with the Indians was preserved inviolate for more than seventy years. What was the effect Df this policy ? The rapid increase of the colony, the enjoyment of civil and religious liberty, holding out inducements to all oppressed persons in Europe, to seek an asylum in Pennsylvania. Which were the first colonies in which ihe principles of religious toleration were acted upon ? Rhode Island, Maryland, and Pennsylvania ; all the other colonies in the early stage of their history having persecuted those who differed from them in religion. What tended to increase the emigration from England to America ? The arbitrary measures of the Stuart family, who had occupied the throne since the first per- manent English settlement in North America. How did they SIR EDMUND ANDROS. 17S conduct themselves towards the colonies ? They took their charters from them, and gave them governors whose oppressive measures gave great dissatisfaction. In what year were their charters taken from them, and by whose influence was it accom- plished ? In 1683, by Edward Randolph and others, who prejudiced the king and council against them. Who was the governor of New York at this period ? Sir Edmund Andros, who was also appointed governor of New England in 1686. What steps did Sir E. Andros take on his arrival in Boston ? He commanded the colonies to surrender their charters. That of Massachusetts was given up, but Captain Wadsworth concealed the charter of Connecticut in a hollow oak in Hartford. What occurred at this period in England ? The revciution of 1688, which resulted in the expulsion of James XL, and the accession of William and Mary to the British throne. What was thought of this in America ? It gave the greatest satisfaction to the colonists ; they immediately seized Sir E. Andros, Randolph, and other obnoxious persons, and kept them in confinement till they were sent to England for trial. Connecticut and Rhode Island also resumed their charters and former mode of government. What was done with regard to the charter of Massachusetts Bay ? The -old charter was refused, but a new one less favor- able to liberty was granted to them in 1692, uniting the colonies of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth under the name of Massa- chusetts, and annexing to it the provinces of Maine and Nova Scotia. What were the principal features in the new charter ? The appointments to the principal offices were taken from the people and vested in the crown : the only privilege which was allowed to them was the right of choosing their own representa- tives. What was done in order to render this charter more acceptable to the people ? Sir William Phipps, a native of Maine, was appointed governor. How did the revolution in England affect the colonists ? It partially restored their liberties, but subjected them to the evils of a war with the French and Indians. How long did these wars continue? From 1690 to the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, and again during the reign of Queen Anne, from 1V02 to the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. What were the effects of this war on the colonies ? It materially checked their growth, large tracts of land were desolated, several towns burnt, and nearly 8,000 young men are computed to have perished. For how long a period after this were they at peace ? For thirty-one years, when they were again involved in a war that occurred between Great Britain and France, in 1744. What was the principal occurrence of this war in 176 CAPTURE OF LOUISBURG. America ? The capture of Louisburg from the French, by troops from New England under Sir William Pepperell, aided by Commodore Warren with four ships from England. Give some account of Louisburg. Louisburg is situated on Cape Breton, and having been fortified at great expense, was called the Gibraltar of America; it surrendered on the 16t'n of June, 1745. What was the result of the reduction of this fortress? It encouraged the colonists to attempt the conquest of all the French possessions in North America, and so exasperated the French, that in 1746 they sent an armament under the Duke d'Anville to recapture Louisburg and harass the colonists as much as possible. What was the force of this armament ? It consisted of eleven ships of the line, thirty small vessels of war, and three transports, with 3,000 regular troops, and 40,000 stand of arms, for the use of the Canadians and Indians, and altogether was the largest expedition that had ever been sent to America. What was the result of this expedition ? A long and disastrous passage, great mortality among the troops, and the death of both commanders, so disheartened the French that they returned without having accomplished any thing but alann- ing the colonists ; but, by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, in 1748, Louisburg, to the great mortification of the colonists, was restored to the French. What part of the country did the French claim ? From the discoveries of Champlain, Marquette, La Salle, and others, they claimed all the country watered by the Mississippi and its branches, and that occupied by the St. Lawrence and the tributaries of the lakes. By what right did the British claim this land ? By the discoveries of Cabot, to whom they had granted the whole country from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and also by a title they had bought from the chiefs of the Iroquois. What was the Ohio Company ? It was an association of gentlemen, principally Virginians, who obtained a grant of 600,000 acres on the Ohio for the purpose of carry- ing on a fur trade with the Indians. How did this company succeed ? They surveyed the land and built a few trading houses, but the French, who considered this an encroachment on their rights, after complaining to the governors of New York and Pennsylvania, seized some of the traders and imprisoned them at Presque Isle: 1750. What was the result of this hostile measure on the part of the French ? Robert Dinwiddle, the governor of Virginia, having laid the matter before tlie as- sembly of that state, they determined to send a messenger to St. Pierre, the French commandant, requiring him to withdraw from the territory. Who was the person chosen for this pur- DEFEAT AND DEATH OF BRADDOCK. 177 pose ? George Washington, then in his twenty-second year : 1752. What was St. Pierre's answer to Dinwiddie ? He re- phed that lie had no authority to discuss treaties, that he acted under the authority of the Governor-general, Marquis du Quesne. How did the British government act under these circumstances ? They determined on four expeditions against the French, for which purpose, troops were raised in the different colonies, and forces sent from England ; Washington was appointed Lieut. Colonel of the Virginian troops. Name the commanders and points of attack of these expeditions. General Braddock was to attack Fort Du Quesne with two English regiments and the troops under Washington, Governor Shirley was to lead the American regu- lars and Indians against Niagara, the militia of the northern colonies, commanded by General Johnston, were to attack Crown Point, and Nova Scotia was to be invaded by 3,000 men under generals Monckton and Winslow. How did the expedition against Du Quesne terminate ? General Braddock being sur- prised by a party of Indians, was entirely defeated, and he him- self slain ; of eighty-eight officers, sixty-four were killed or wounded ; Washington remained unhurt, although he had four balls through his coat and two horses shot under him, and succeeded in leading off the remaining troops. What was the result of that against Crown Point ? Gen. Johnston with 5,000 men entirely defeated Baron Dieskau, but nothing was done to- wards taking Crown Point. In this battle. Baron Dieskau was killed, together with 700 or 800 men. How was Johnston re- warded for this action ? He received a baronetcy and £5,000, but it was thought at the time that the credit belonged equally to Gen. Lyman. What Avas the result of the expedition against Niagara ? The troops under Shirley were delayed at Oswego waiting for supplies, till it was too late in the season to effect any thing. When was war formally declared between the two countries ? In 1756, after having been carried on for two years. What generals wer3 appointed to the command of the opposing armies ? The French were com.manded by the Marquis de Montcalm, and the English at first by the Earl of Loudon and afterwards by General Abercrombie. For what was the cam- paign of 1757 chiefly memorable ? For the cold-blooded mas- Bacre of the garrison of Fort William Henry, by the Indian auxiliaries of the French. Give some account of the massacre. Montcalm, the French commander, attacked Fort William Henry, commanded by Col. Munroe, with 9,000 regulars, Canadians and Indians ; on the capitulation of the fort, the Indians, roused by the hope of plunder, attacked the unarmed garrison, who had 178 BRITISH DEFEATED AT TICCNDEROGA. been promised an escort of French troops to protect them from these outrages, and destroyed the greater part of them, inchiding all the women and children ; and the few survivors were met by some forces under General Webb, and conducted into his camp. What was the issue of the expedition to Nova Scotia ? Tliey arrived in the Bay of Fundy on the 1st of June ; they were then joined by 300 British troops, and proceeding against Beau Sejour, took possession of it in five days, and the French evacuated the country ; thus Nova Scotia was taken with the loss of only three men. What dispute arose at this time between the governor and the assembly of Virginia ? The proprietors wished to exempt their own lands from the payment of taxes, which were raised for the defence of those lands ; to settle this dispute, Benjamin Franklin was sent to England, and the business was soon arranged, the proprietors submitting, provided the taxes were fan* and equitable. What change took place in the English ministry at this period ? William Pitt, afterwards Lord Chatham, was created prime minister, and his assurances that the colonists should choose the officers for their own troops induced them to increase their army to 20,000. What further measures did Pitt employ to assist the colonists, and terminate the war. He sent 12,000 men under General Am- herst, an armament was sent out under Admiral Boscawen, and he appointed Abercrombie commander-in-chief of the British forces in America. What was the number of the British and colonial troops at this time ? The colonial troops amounted to 20,000, the British to 30,000 ; three expedi- tions were resolved on — against Louisburg, Ticonderoga, and Fort Du Quesne. Who were the commanders of the expe- dition aofainst Louisburo^ ? General Amherst, and under him. General Wolfe, with a force of 14,000 men, and a large naval armament under Boscawen. What was the result of this expedition ? After a desperate resistance the fortress surren- dered, and a quantity of military stores fell into the hands of the British, on the 6th of July, 1*758 : with Louisburg, the whole island of Cape Breton and that of St. Johns became subject to the British. What was the result of that against Ticonderoga ? Through the unskilful management of General Abercrombie, who attacked the fort without artillery, the British were entirely defeated, with the loss of nearly 2,000 killed and wounded ; here also fell Lord Howe, a young noble- man much beloved by the colonists. What did Abercrombie then do ? He detached Col. Bradstreet, with 5,000 provincial troops, against Frontenac, which was taken, and with it large DEATH OF WOLFE AND MONTCALM. 179 quantities of supplies intended for the French army and their Indian allies. By whom was the expedition against Fort Du Quesne commanded ? By General Forbes, who, contrary to the advice of Washington, insisted on opening a new road from Raystown to the Ohio. What were the consequences of this measure ? The army suffered so much from toil and the severity of the weather, that they were on the point of aban- doning the expedition ; but receiving intelligence of the weak- aess of the French, they continued their route, and reached Ou Quesne to find it in ruins, the French having abandoned ind set fire to it the previous night. What were the further /esults of this expedition ? The death of General Forbes from tatigue, and peace with the Indians, who found it more advan- tageous to side with the British than the French ; a new fort was erected by the British on the ruins of Du Quesne, called Fort Pitt, now Pittsburg. What was the object of the cam- paign of 1759 ? The reduction of Canada, for which purpose the army was divided into three divisions. By whom were they commanded, and what were the points of attack ? Gen. Amherst, who superseded Gen. Abercrombie in the chief command after the disaster at Ticonderoga, was ordered to take Ticonderoga and Crown Point, Gen. Wolfe was to make an attempt on Quebec, and the third division under Gen. Prideaux was to reduce the stronghold of Niagara. How did the divis- ions under Amherst and Prideaux succeed ? On reaching Ticonderoga and Crown Point, Amherst found them deserted ; and Niagara surrendered after a severe resistance, during which Gen. Prideaux lost his life by the bursting of a shell. Give some account of Gen. Wolfe's expedition against Quebec. This celebrated general, with a force of 8,000 men, landed on the L-land of Orleans, and made some unsuccessful attempts to reduce the city. He then determined to scale the precipice on which the fortifications were built, and thus reach the level plain called the Heights of Abraham. How did he succeed in this daring attempt ? He gained the Heights during the night, and in the morning Montcalm learning with surprise of this achievement, prepared to give him battle. Give some account of this battle. The French were entirely defeated, with the loss of many men and their general, Montcalm ; the heroic Wolfe also perished in this contest. Relate some particulars of the deaths of these generals. Wolfe received three wounds, the last proving fatal ; faint with the loss of blood, he was roused by the cry, They fly ! they fly ! " Who fly ?" he ex- claimed. " The enemy," was the reply. " Then," said he, 180 PONTIAC, CHIEF OF THE OTTAWAS. ** I die content," and expired. Not less heroic was the death of Montcalm ; on being told his wound was mortal, he rejoiced. ** for," said he, " I shall not live to see the surrender of Que- bec." What were the results of this battle ? The French, panic-struck, signed the capitulation of Quebec five days after- wards, and retired to Montreal. What further steps did the contending armies take ? The French under Monsieur de Levi attacked Quebec in the spring of 1760, but were unable to effect any thing, and Gen. Murray being reinforced. Monsieur de Levi abandoned the siege. What did Gen. Amherst now do ? He assembled all the Br tish forces and invested Mon- treal, and the governor, Vaudriel, unable to resist hjm, surren- dered all the French possessions in Canada, the island of Cape Breton, and Nova Scotia. What further troubles had the colonists at this period ? They were involved in constant wars with the Indians on the w^estern and southern frontiers. What great Indian chief distinguished himself in these wars ? Pon- tiac, chief of the Ottawas. What bold plan did he resolve on ? Having by his great influence united all the northwestern tribes under his command, he resolved on a simultaneous attack on all the British posts on the lakes. How did he succeed ? He captured nine of the British forts ; among others, Maumee and Mackinaw. What stratagem did he employ against Mack- inaw ? He pretended to be playing ball with his warriors outside the fort, and threw the ball over the enclosure. The Indians climbed over after it, and surprising the unprepared garrison, took the fort with great slaughter. Major Henry, the commandant, being one of the few that escaped. What was the cause of the failure of his attack on Detroit ? An Indian squaw who had been kindly treated by the whites betrayed his designs, and when Pontiac and his warriors entered the fort under pretence of holding a council, they were immediately surrounded, and arms being found concealed under their blan- kets, they were turned out, without having been able to effect their design. What put an end to these wars ? The peace of Paris, signed in 1763, which gave to the British all the north- ern possessions of the French in America. When did the Moravians come to America, and who were they? In 1740; they were Germans wb? were driven from their native country by religious persecution. What were they celebrated for ? Their success as missionaries among the Indians. What great events do we now come to in the history of America ? The causes which led America to declare her independence of the mother country. What were the first of these causes ? The THE STAMP ACT. 181 stamp duty and other taxes, proposed to be laid on the colonies by Lord Grenville, in 1764. What reasons did England give for imposing such taxes ? The great expenses incurred by the wars in America, which had increased her national ^ebt to a great amount. What was the "reply of the colonists to this reasoning ? That they had already contributed more in pro- portion to their means than Great Britain had, and that by the advantages she would derive from the monopoly of their com- merce, she was equally interested in their defence ; they also insisted that they could not legally be taxed, except through their own representatives. When was the stamp act passed ? On the 2d of March, 1765, by an almost unanimous vote in both houses of parliament, and the royal assent was also freely given. How was this received in America ? It roused the colonies of Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York to a deter- mined opposition. What was done in Boston and New York ? In Boston the bells tolled as for a funeral, the houses of the stamp officers were broken into, their persons insulted, and their property destroyed. In New York they hawked the Act through the streets, under the title of the " Folly of England and Ruin of America ;" the merchants also agreed not to im- port any more goods from England, till the act was repealed. What was done in Virginia ? Patrick Henry, a high-spirited and eloquent young lawyer, a member of the house of Bur- gesses, introduced five resolutions asserting their rights and privileges, and declaring that they were not bound to obey any laws taxing the colonists, save such as were passed by them- selves. What was his celebrated speech on this occasion ? Alluding to George III. taxing the colonists, he said, " Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, and George III. — " he was here interrupted by the cry of " treason !" Pausing for a moment he continued, " and George III. may profit by their example." What brought about the repeal of the Stamp Act ? A change in the British ministry and the exertions of Mr. Pitt, Lord Camden, and others. When was the first continental congress held? On the 7th of October, 1765: nine of the colonies seift delegates to New York, the others, afraid of committing themselves, refused. Name the nine colonies who sent delegates. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and South Carolina. What measures did they adopt a^ this meet- ing ? They asserted their privileges as free subjects of Great Britain ; the most important of which were, their exclusive right to tax themselves, and the trial by jury. What further meas- 16 182 DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES ures did ths Congress resolve on ? They forwarded petitiona to the king and parHament, declaring that the late acts of par- liament had a tendency to subvert their rights, and praying for redress. The other colonies also sent petitions. What act did parliament pass, that further inflamed the minds of the colo- nists ? An act was passed in 1*767 imposing duties on tea, glass, paper, and painters' colors, and the authority of the Assembly of New York suspended till they should comply with the requisition to quarter troops, and another appointing a naval officer to enforce these acts. How did the colonists re- ceive these arbitrary measures of the British "i The Assembly of Massachusetts presented a petition to the king, and requested the other colonies to co-operate to seek redress for their griev- ances. How did the British ministry receive these petitions ? They were highly offended, and ordered Gov. Bernard to re- quire the Assembly to rescind the vote by which the circulars w^ere sent to the other colonies, and in case of their refusal, to dissolve the Assembly. Did the Assembly of Massachusetts comply with this requisition ? No ; 92 out of 109 refused to comply, and the governor in consequence dissolved the Assem- bly. Did this proceeding restore peace and quiet ? No ; it exasperated the people, and in June the custom-house officers having seized a sloop belonging to John Hancock, they assem- bled and beat the officers, compelling them to leave the town. What further offensive measures did the British ministry resolve on ? In September, 1768, they sent two regiments to Boston, who were quartered in the State House, the to^vnspeople having refused to receive them. What occurred in the follow- ing year ? The proceedings in Massachusetts were declared illegal and iinconstitutional by the British parliament, and a strict inquiry was directed to be made into all treasonable acts committed since 1767, in order that the offenders might be sent to England for trial. How were these declarations received in Virginia and the other colonies ? The Virginians denied the right of the king to remove the offender from the colony, and voted an address to the crown, which, though loyal, declared their conviction of ill-treatment from the British government ; and the Assembly having been dissolved by the governor, they met at a private mansion, and passed non-importation acts, which were agreed to by the other colonists. What occurred in Boston at this time ? The Assembly of Massachusetts con- vened, and expressed their belief that a standing army, in a time of peace, was an invasion of their rights, and they refused to make any of the appropriations the governor proposed, and THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 183 he again prorogued them. What occurred in this city in 1770 ? On the fifth of March, some of the inhabitants insulted the troops while under arms, and an affray occurred in which three of the townspeople were killed, and five wounded. What was the consequence of this affray ? Captain Preston and his soldiers were tried for murder, and all save two acquitted. They had for their counsel John Adams, and Josiah Quincy, two of the leading opposers of British aggression. What occurred in the following year ? Lord North being appointed to the ministry, introduced a bill removing the taxes on every thing except the tea, but the colonists were dissatisfied while the parhament claimed the right of taxation. What were the principal events of the two succeeding years ? Meetings were held in several towns, and in 17 73, the people of New York and Philadelphia sent back the tea ships to England. How did the Bos- tonians behave at this crisis ? Being apprehensive that the tea would be landed in small quantities, in spite of their opposition, they boarded the ships disguised as Indians, and threw their cargoes over the side, destroying in this man- ner three hundred and forty chests of tea. How did par- liament act on receiving an account of these transactions ? They passed a bill called the "Boston port hill,'' shutting up the ports of that city. What effect had this act on the Bostonians and colonists generally ? A great number of the former were deprived of the means of subsistence, but supplies were sent to them from all parts of the country, and the colonists were more nrmly united than ever. What took place in May, 1774? General Gage, commander-in-chief of the British forces in Ameri- ca, arrived in Boston as governor of Massachusetts ; and soon after, two more regiments with artillery and stores were landed, which showed a determination on the part of the British gov- ernment to enforce its decrees by arms. What effect had these proceedings on the Americans ? Finding that nothing more was to be expected from the kindness of Great Britain, they resolved tc defend themselves, and a plan for assembling a general congress originating in Massachusetts, was soon followed by all the colonies except Georgia. When and where did this congress assemble ? On the 7th of September, 1774, at Phila- delphia, under the name of the Continental Congiess, and Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, was chosen president. What did they do ? They published a declaration of their riglits, agreed to suspend all commercial operations with Great Britain, and drew up an address to the king, another to the people, and a thiid to the colonists. When did the first engagement take place 184 ARRIVAL OF BRITISH TROOPS. between the British and colonists, and what was the occasion of it? On the 19th April, 1715, a detachment of 800 troops under Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, were ordered to take possession of some military stores at Concord. In passing through Lexington they found some of the mihtia of that town drawn up imder arms. Major Pitcairn riding up, exclaimed, " Disperse, you rebels !" Not being immediately obeyed, he discharged his pistol and ordered his men to fire, which they did, killing eight men. Did this affair end here ? No ; the British having pro- ceeded to Concord, and destroyed the stores, were attacked on their return, and although reinforced by Lord Percy with 900 men, were continually harassed by a destructive fire from the Americans, who were concealed behind stone-walls, hedges, etc. At last they reached Bunker's Hill almost exhausted, and the next morning entered Boston under cover of a fire from a frigate in the harbor. What was the number of killed and wounded in this affray ? The British lost 2*73 men, the Americans only 84. How was the news of this engagement received by the other colonies ? It was the signal for a general rising, troops were enrolled, and the forts and arsenals seized by the Ameri- cans. How many troops were soon collected in the vicinity of Boston ? 20,000 men under Colonel Putnam ; and expeditions were immediately sent against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which secured those important posts. Who commanded these expeditions ? Colonels Ethan Allen and Seth Warner. What measures did the provincial congress of Massachusetts take ? They sent an account of the Lexington affair to England, proving that the British troops were the aggressors, declared their loyalty to the crown, but protested against the tyranny of the British ministry, and added that they were determined to be free or die. What were the proceedings of the second Continental Congress ? They assumed the appellation of the " United Colo- nies," and estabhshed a mail-route from Maine to Georgia, Benjamin Frankhn being appointed Postmaster-general. What occurred in May ? Large reinforcements of British troops ar- rived in Boston, under generals Burgoyne, Howe, and Clinton, officers of high reputation, and martial law was proclaimed. What offers did General Gage make ? A full pardon for all who returned to their allegiance, with the exception of John Hancock and Samuel Adams. What was the next step of the Americans ? General Prescott with 1,000 men was ordered to throw up a breastwork on Bunker's Hill, on the night of the 16th June, in order to dislodge the British troops if possible. How did he succeed ? He had nearly completed it, when at BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. 185 dawn the British perceiving what he was about, opened a fire on the work from their ships, and at noon the Americans having received a reinforcement of 500 men, were attacked by 3,000 British under General Howe ; these they twice repulsed, but their ammunition failing, they were obliged to retire. This affair has received the name of the battle of " Bunker's Hill." What was the loss on both sides ? The British lost 1,054, the Americans 453, among whom was the gallant Major-general Warren ; the town of Charlestown, consisting of 400 houses, was also wantonly burnt by the British soldiery. What further measures did Congress adopt ? They drew up a second peti- tion to the king, and addresses to the people of Great Britain and Canada, stating their reasons for taking up arms ; they also organized a regular army, appointirf^ George Washington com- mander-in-chief. Whom did they appoint major-generals at the same time ? Artemas Ward, of Massachusetts, Colonel Lee, formerly a British officer, Philip Schuyler, of New York, Israel Putnam, of Connecticut; and Horatio Gates was appointed adjutant-general. What expedition was resolved on by the Americans ? The invasion of Canada ; and two forces were accordingly sent, one under generals Schuyler and Montgomery, by the way of Champlain, another by the river Kennebec, under Arnold. How did this expedition succeed ? General Schuyler, from illness, was unable to proceed, and the command devolved on Montgomery, who took Fort Chamblee and St. Johns, then Montreal surrendered, and proceeding to Quebec, he was joined by Arnold with 1,000 men. How did the siege of Quebec terminate ? Having in vain attacked the city, the Americans were obliged to retire; General Montgomery was killed, with 400 of the troops, and early in the next season the Americans evacuated Canada. What took place in Virginia at this period ? The hasty measures of their governor. Lord* Dun- more, roused the Virginians to more determined opposition, and advanced the cause which he wished to overthrow, and at last he and his family were forced to take refuge on board a man-of- war. What steps did he take to revenge himself on the colo- nists ? He carried on a predatory warfare, by landing troops from the ships to ravage the country, and reduced the town of Norfolk to ashes, but was ultimately compelled to leave the American coast. How did affairs stand between the British and colonists at the close of the year 1775.? The Americans gen- erally were successful, all tlie royal governors were expelled from the colonies, and Boston was closely invested by the American miUtia; Congress fitted out 13 ships, and Massachusetts 16* 186 DECLARATION OF INDEPEXDENCE. granted letters of marque and reprisal. What were the firs! important steps taken in 1776 ? Washington, who had con« tinued the blockade of Boston during the winter, resolved upon erecting a battery on " Dorchester Heights" for the purpose of annoying the British, whom he resolved to expel. How did he succeed ? On the night of the 4th of March, a redoubt was constructed, which menaced the British shipping with destruc- tion, and General Howe perceiving in the morning the advantage the Americans had gained, saw no alternative but to dislodge them, or evacuate the place. How did the British soldiery succeed in their attempt to reduce the battery ? A storm of wind and rain prevented the attack until too late, and ac- cordingly, on the l7th of March, the British were compelled to evacuate Boston, and Washington entered in triumph. How was the news of the battle of Bunker's Hill received in England. With the greatest astonishment, proving as it did, that the Americans were more formidable than they had supposed. What measures did they take to subdue the colonies effectually ? They took into their pay 16,000 Germans, and sent over in addition 25,000 British troops, and authorized the capture of American vessels wherever they should be found. What fur- ther steps did the British take ? They sent Sir Peter Parker with a large fleet to reduce the southern colonies ; for which purpose he sailed in June, and soon arrived at Charleston, which he tried to take possession of. How did he succeed ? Having attacked a fort on Sullivan's Island, which commanded the entrance to Charleston, the British were repulsed with con- siderable loss by the 400 Americans under Colonel Moultrie, who defended it, and soon after the fleet sailed for New York, where the British forces were ordered to assemble. What motion was made in Congress on the 7th of June, 1776 ? Richard Henry Lee (a Virginian) made a motion for declaring the colon'.es free and independent states. How was it acted upon? A committee, consisting of Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Sher- man, and Livingston, was appointed to draw up a Declara- tion of Independence. When was this signed ? On the 4th of July, 1776. Who is said to have contributed very much to bring about this declaration ? Thomas Paine, author ot a pamphlet called " Common Sense." What force had the British now collected in the neighborhood of New York ? An army of nearly 35,000 excellent troops under Sir William Howe, and a fleet under his brother Lord Howe. What was the American force ? About 17,000 men, but very inferior in point of arms and equipments. What did the British commanders determine BATTLE OF BROOKLYN. 187 on ? The capture of New York ; but previous to the attack Lord Howe wrote a letter to " George Washington, Esq.," offer- ing terms of accommodation to the Americans. "What was "Washington's dignified behavior on this occasion ? He returned the letter unopened, saying, that it did not express his public character, and that as a private individual he had no right to receive any communications from an agent of the king. What offers were made by the British ? Pardon to all for past offences ; but Washington replied, they had committed no offences, and therefore did not require any pardon ; they were in arms to de- fend their rights. Give some account of the battle of Brook- lyn. The British having landed their army on Long Island, attacked the Americans, who were commanded Dy generals Putnam and SulUvan, on the 27th of August ; the Americans, taken unawares, were defeated, with a loss of 1,500 men; and three of their generals, Sullivan, Lord Stirling, and Woodhull, were taken prisoners. Washington with the remainder of the army withdrew to White Plains. What were the effects of this battle ? The British took possession of New York : Long Island and Staten Island also fell into their hands. Who was Captain Hale, and what was his fate ? He was an American officer of great promise, from Connecticut, and having volunteered for the dangerous service of a spy, he was taken by the British and exe- cuted. What was the state of American affairs in the winter of 1776? Most gloomy; in addition to the severe defeat at Brooklyn, the British had seized upon Rhode Island, and General Lee was taken prisoner at Baskenridge ; the American army on the Delaware was reduced to about 3,000 men, and insufficiently equipped. What bold enterprise did Washington resolve upon at this period to revive the drooping spirits of the Americans ? On the night of the 25th of December, 1776, he crossed the Delaware, attacked the enemy at Trenton, and took their whole force prisoners, consisting of 1,000 Hessians; their leader, Colonel Rahl, was slain. How was this successful attempt followed up ? Washington hearing of the approach of Lord Corn- wallis, marched to Princeton, and on the 3d of January, 1777, defeated a party of British troops and forced 300 to surrender. What effect had these victories on the contending armies? The Americans were animated to further efforts, although General Mercer and several other officers had been killed in these battles ; the English, on the contrary, were alarmed and dis- pirited. What measures had Congress taken for prosecuting the war ? They invested Washington with unlimited powers, raised an army for three years, or during the war, and sent 188 BATTLE OF THE BRANDY WINE agents to Europe to solicit assistance. Who were tlie agents sent to France ? Silas Deane and Arthur Lee. What was the result of this mission to France ? Several individuals era- barked in the American cause ; among these was the young Marquis de La Fayette, whose arrival was hailed with joy by the people, and Congress appointed him a Major-general in the army ; but although the French government wished success to the Americans, they were afraid openly to acknowledge it. What proceedings did Gen. Howe adopt in the spring of 17Y7 ? He sent a detachment up the Hudson to destroy some stores at Peekskill, and in April, another force of 2,000 men under Gen. Tryon to Danbury, in Connecticut, who destroyed the stores, and burnt the town ; some skirmishes took place, in which the American general, Wooster, was killed. What was the number of the American army in the spring of 1*777 ? It consisted of 7,000 men. What steps did Gen. Howe take on finding his efforts to draw the Americans into a general engagement fail ? He retired from New Jersey to Staten Island, and afterwards embarked with 16,000 men, entered the Chesapeake, and landed at the head of Elk river. What was Howe's object in this pro- ceeding, and what measures did Washington take to prevent its completion ? Gen. Howe intended to capture Philadelphia, and Washington, with generals Greene, Sullivan, Wayne, and Stir- ling, marched to oppose him. What was the result of this raanoeu\Te ? On the 11th of September a battle was fought on the Brandywine, in which the Americans were obliged to yield to the superior force of the British, with a loss of nearly 1,000 men in killed and wounded ; among the latter was the young La Fayette. What were the immediate consequences of this battle ? Gen. Howe took possession of Philadelphia, and deem- ing it necessary to open a communication with the Atlantic, attacked the forts on the Delaware, and after being repulsed once or twice, effected their capture, but with a loss of 300 men. What were Washington's movements while the British troops were absent on this service ? He attacked Germantown on the 4th of October, l^ut was repulsed with a loss of 1,200 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners ; the British loss was comparatively trifling. What important events were taking place in the north during these proceedings in the middle states? The British determined to invade the states through Canada, and in June an army of 7,000 men, besides Canadians and Indians, command- ed by Gen. Burgoyne, passed up Lake Champlain and attacked Ticonderoga, which was abandoned by the Americans under S Clair. Give some further particulars of Burgoyne's move- SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE. 189 ments. Having proceeded to Skeensborougb, (now Whitehall,) he destroyed the American flotilla and stores there, and from thence led his army to Fort Edward on the Hudson. What ex- pedition did he send out while remaining here ? A detachment of 500 English and 100 Indians under Colonel Baum, to destroy the stores at Bennington, in Vermont. What was the result of this expedition ? They were defeated by Gen. Stark with 800 militia from Vermont and New Hampshire, on the 16 th of August, and the next day a reinforcement of 500 Germans un- der Colonel Breyman was also defeated by Stark. What was the number of killed and wounded on the part of the British ? About 600 men ; but a few days previous the American general, Herkimer, was defeated by Colonel St. Leger with coiisiderable loss. What were the final proceedings of Burgoyne ? Having crossed the Hudson and encamped at Saratoga, he was attacked on the l7th of September by Gen. Gates at Stillwater : both sides claimed the victory, but the Americans had the advantage, and on the lib. of October the battle of Saratoga was fought. What was the result of these battles ? On the l7th of October, the British army, amounting to 5,752 men, exclusive of sick and wounded, surrendered to Gen. Gates at Saratoga, as prisoners of war. What effect had the surrender of Burgoyne on the British, Americans, and French ? The British were much alarmed, while the Americans were inspired with fresh hopes of success; and the French, in February, 1778, decided the negotiation that was set on foot in 1776, by signing treaties of alliance, amity, and commerce with the Americans. What steps did the British ministry take on receiving intelligence of these treaties ? They resolved to conciliate America, and com- missioners arrived in June bringing proposals for accommoda- tion. How were these propositions received by the Americans ? Congress refused to listen to any terms short of an acknowledg- ment of independence, although the English might have effected their object a few years before had they proposed the same terms they were now willing to make. What change took place in the British army in 1778 ? Gen. Howe returned to England, and Gen. Sir Henry Clinton was appointed commander-in-chief of the royal forces in America. What did the British com- mander resolve on doing ? He evacuated Philadelphia on the 18th of June, intending to concentrate his forces at New York. How did he succeed in this measure, and what steps did Washington take to interrupt their advance ? Gen. Washington Immediately put his troops in motion and followed the British army to Momnouth, where a battle was fought, in which the 190 ARRIVAL OF A FRENCH FLEET. Americans had the advantage ; but night suspending the conflict, Clinton silently decamped, and succeeded in reaching New York, where he remained inactive during the greater part of the summer. What eflforts did the French make at this period to assist the Americans ? They sent a fleet of twelve ships of the line and four frigates, under the command of Count d'Estaing they arrived at the entrance of the Delaware in July, and shortly afterwards attacked the British troops at Newport, but were repulsed. What took place on Rhode Island between the British and American troops ? On the 20th of August a battle was fought, in which both armies lost about 200 men ; the British were commanded by Gen. Pigot, the Americans by Gen. Sullivan : on the succeeding morning the Americans left the Island. Give some account of the close of this campaign. The French fleet sailed to the West Indies without having accomplished any thing of importance. The British sent an expedition to Georgia, and on the 29th of De- cember, Savannah was taken from the Americans. Where was the war principally carried on in the beginning of 1*779 ? In the south, but nothing of great importance occurred there ; and at this time the exertions of the Americans were enfeebled from the depreciation of their bills of credit. What expeditions were sent out by the British in the early part of the season ? One under Sir George Collier and Gen. Matthews, to Virginia, and another under Gen. Tryon, against the maritime ports of Con- necticut. How did they succeed ? That against Virginia landed at Portsmouth, and destroyed the shipping and valuable stores there, while the other, under Gen. Tryon, plundered ^New Haven, and burnt Fairfield and Norwalk. What expeditions were sent forth by the Americans in the middle of the season V Three ; the first against Stony Point, an eminence on the Hudson, which had been taken and fortified by the British ; but the Americans under Gen. Wayne compelled the garrison to sur- render. What were the second and third expeditions directed against ? A British port at Penobscot, and the invasion of the country of the Six Nations ; the first, commanded by General Lovell, was unsuccessful, but the other, under Gen. Sullivan, ravaged the Indian villages and destroyed their corn and fruit- a-ees. What w^as the cause of this expedition against the Indians ? The recent enormities they had committed in con- junction with the royalists ; the most conspicuous of these were the massacre of Wyoming, and that of Cherry Valley. Who were the leaders of this party ? Johnson, Butler, and Brandt. Who held the chief command of the American army during this BOMBARDMENT OF SAVANNAH. 191 campaign in the south ? Oen. Lincoln ; he sent a detachment of 1,500 men under Gen. Ash to cross the Savannah and take a station on Briar Creek, but he was surprised and defeated by the British under Gen. Provost, on the 3d of March. What were Provost's movements after this affair ? He invested, and attempted to take Charleston, but was repulsed, and on the approach of Gen. Lincoln retired with the main army to Sa- vannah. What measures were concerted between the Ameri- cans and the French ? The bombardment of Savannah, which they invested in September ; and on the 9th of October they made an assault, and were repulsed with considerable loss. What was the amount of the killed and wounded of the allies ? The French lost '700, the Americans 400 ; the Count d'Estaing was wounded, and Count Pulaski killed. On the 18th of Oc- tober the siege was raised, and the French fleet set sail for Europe. What great sea-fight occurred at the close of this year ? That between the celebrated Paul Jones, with a flotilla of five vessels, and Captain Pearson of the frigate Serapis. What was the result of this engagement ? The Americans suc- ceeded in capturing the English vessel, after a bloody battle which lasted several hours : tliis engagement took place off" the coast of Scotland, and is one of the most desperate on record. Where were the principal operations of the war carried on in the succeeding year of 1V80 ? In South Carolina : Sir Henry Clin- ton having arrived at Savannah from New York, proceeded to Charleston, and laid siege to that city in April. What was the result of this siege ? Gen. Clinton being unable to continue the defence, capitulated on the I7th of May, the garrison and male inhabitants of the city surrendering as prisoners of war. Did Sir Henry Clinton continue to command the army in South Carolina ? jN"o ; leaving 4,000 men under Lord Corn- wallis, he returned to New York : a proclamation was issued inviting the Carohnians to join the British, and was partly suc- cessful. What measures were taken by the British to secure the interior of the country ? A large force under Lord Raw- don was sent to Camden : several skirmishes took place, in one of which the American general, Burford, was defeated by the Britisli under Col. Tarleton ; in others, Sumter, also an Ameri- can, was highly distinguished. Who was appointed to the command of the American forces in the south in the place of Gen. Lincoln ? Gen. Gates, who arrived at the American camp in July, and collected troops to oppose the progress of the British. What was the eff"ect of this movement on Lord Corn- wallis? He repaired to Camden to reinforce Lord Rawdon, 192 THE TREACHERY OF ARNOLD. and on the 16tli of August a battle was fought, in which the Americans were defeated with the loss of nearly 2,000 men, in- cluding Gen. Gregory and Baron de Kalb. What were the consequences of this battle ? Gen. Gates was obliged to retreat to Hillsborough, in North Carolina, and Sumter was pursued and defeated by Col. Tarleton. What further assistance did the French render to the Americans ? In July, M. de Ternay, with a fleet of seven ships of the line and several frigates, and a force of 6,000 troops under Count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode Island ; the fleet returned, but the land forces remained, and co-operated in the final reduction of the British army. What flagrant act of treachery occurred in this year ? The plot of Gen. Benedict Arnold to deUver West Point into the hands of the British. What was the immediate cause of Arnold's treachery ? His extravagance, together with a determination to be revenged for having been reprimanded by Gen. Washing- ton. How did the plot succeed ? It was discovered on the eve of success by the capture of the British agent in the trans- action. Major Andre, an amiable and heroic officer. How was Andre captured ? He was seized just as he was leaving the American lines by three soldiers, named John Paulding,* Isaac Van Wert, and David Williams, who, although tempted by a large bribe, refused to let him go. What was Andre's fate ? Being taken as a spy, his life was forfeited by the laws of war, and he was executed, much to the regret of both English and Americans. What was the further history of Arnold ? He escaped to a British man-of-war, and received as the reward of his treachery £10,000 and the rank of Brigadier-general in the British army ; but though rewarded, he was despised. What occurred in the autumn of 1Y80? Gen. Greene Avas appointed to the chief command of the army in the south, and shortly after the battle of the Cow Pens was fought, between the Americans under Col. Morgan and the British under Col. Tarleton, in which the latter were defeated with" great loss, while that of the Americans was trifling. Give some account of the campaign of 1781. It was chiefly carried on in the south; Gen. Arnold made a descent on Virginia, and committed great depredations on the unprotected coast. Give some account of the proceed- ings in North Carolina. The opposing armies under Greene and Cornwallis met near Guilford courthouse, and on the 15th of March an engagement took place, in which the Americans were defeated, although the British lost 400 men. What steps • Grandfather of the celebrated author of that name SURRENDER OF THE BRIIISII AT YORKTOWN. 193 did Gen. Greene take after the loss of this battle ? He marched to Camden, where he was attacked and defeated by Lord Raw- don with 900 men. What were the effects of this battle on the British ? Rawdon had sustained such severe losses that he became apprehensive lest the surrounding inhabitants, who were rising in all directions, should attack and destroy the post; he therefore on the 10th of May evacuated Camden and retreated to Charleston. Whom did the British appoint to the command of their army in August ? Colonel Stuart, who, being attacked by General Greene, fell back upon Eu- taw Springs, where he was attacked and defeated, with a loss in killed, wounded, and taken prisoners, of 1,000 men, while the American loss was only 600. How did Lord Cornwallis pro- ceed after the battle of Guilford ? He marched towards Virginia, and arriving at Petersburg in May, took command of the united forces there, and then fortified himself at Yorktown in the best manner he was able. What plan of combined operations had been concerted by Generals Washington, Knox, tnd Rochambeau ? To invest the British army at Yorktown, (vhile Washington, giving out that New York was the destined point of attack, deceived and baffled Sir Henry Clinton. How did this measure succeed ? Washington having crossed the Hudson and passed rapidly through New Jersey and Pennsyl- vania, effected a junction with Lafayette at Elk river, whence he despatched his forces for Virginia, Sir Henry being unaware of his manoeuvre till it was too late to pursue him. What gave further confidence to the Americans ? The arrival of 24 French ships of the line under Count de Grasse, from which a large body of troops was landed, and the combined army to the number of 16,000 invested Yorktown. Give some account of the siege. The Americans opened their batteries upon the enemy early in October; by the 11th they had silenced the British fire, and on the 17 th Lord Cornwallis proposed a cessa- tion of hostilities. How was it received? On the i9th the capitulation was signed, by which the British stores and army to the number of 7,073 men were surrendered to Washington. How was the success of this expedition received ? It was looked upon as deciding the war, and securing the Independence of the United States ; divine service was performed throughout the whole army, and a day of thanksgiving set apart by Con- gress and observed in all the states : Gen. Washington also liberated all those who were under arrest for their offences. What occurred in 1782 ? In March, Lord North resigned, and a new cabinet was formed, who advised the king to discontinue 17 194 WASHINGTON RESIGNS HIS COMMISSION the war. What took place in the autumn of this year ? Qea Carleton was appointed to the command of the British forces in America, and on the 30th of November provisional articles of peace were signed, by which the Independence of the United States was acknowledged. What were some of the events of 1783 ? The recognition of American Independence by Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and Russia ; and on the 2oth of November the British troops evacuated New York. When was the definitive treaty of peace signed between Great Britain and America ? On the 3d of September, 1*783, at Ver- sailles, by Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens, on the part of the Americans, and Oswald, on the part of the British. What difl5culties arose when the American army was about to be disbanded ? The want of money rendered the payment of their arrears very difficult. Congress had been driven to the expedient of emitting bills of credit, and the depreciated cur- rency deprived the soldiers of their due. How did the officers generally act under these circumstances ? They kept quiet till the close of the war, but then great excitement prevailed, and the army at Newbury was agitated by an address, privately circulated, advising them to take violent measures. How did Washington behave at this crisis ? He assembled the officers, and exhorted them to moderation in demanding their arrears, assuring them, that he would exert himself to the utmost in securing the payment of their just demands, and begged them not to listen to those who would sow discord between them and their representatives. How was this advice received by the officers ? They voted Washington an address of thanks, and resolved to have unshaken confidence in the justice of Con- gress. How did Congress act with regard to the settlement of these claims ? They put the army account in train to be set- tled, and decreed that the officers should receive after the close of the war five years' additional pay, and each soldier $80, in addition to his wages. What day was fixed on for disbanding the troops ? The 3d of November, on the day before which, Washington delivered his farewell address to the troops, and took leave of his officers. What was Washington's after con- duct ? He repaired to Annapolis, where Congress was sitting, delivered to the president his military commission, and then retired to his farm at Mount Vernon. What was the state of the government at this period ? It was found to be so weak and inefficient, that commissioners were appointed to meet at Annapolis, in 1786, to form a general system of commercial regulations. What did these commissioners do? Finding "WASHINGTON CHOSEN PRESIDENT. 195 their powers insufficient to eflFect any thing of importance, they advised the states to elect delegates with ampler powers to meet at Philadelphia, which was done in May, 1787. What did these new delegates do ? Having appointed Washington their president, they, after four months' deliberation, formed the Federal Constitution, which was presented to Congress and transmitted by that body to the severax states for their ap- proval. Was this form of government accepted by the states ? Yes ; it was accepted and ratified by all the states except North Carolina and Rhode Island, and in 1788 became the Constitution of the United States. When did the two dis- senting states adopt it? North Carolina in 1789, Rhode Island in 1790; by this constitution the several states sent delegates to Congress. Who was chosen the first President ? George Washington, who, although averse to entering on public affairs again, yielded to the unanimous voice of his country, and proceeded to New York, where Congress was then assembled, where he was received with the greatest enthusiasm by all classes. When was he inaugurated ? On the 30tli of April, 1789. How was this government and president received by the people generally ? With unbounded joy ; its beneficial effects were soon felt, public confidence was restored, commerce revived, and the national debt was funded and brought at once to its par value. Who was chosen Vice-President ? John Adams, who had borne a distinguished part in the revolution Name the other principal officers, Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State ; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury ; Henry Knox, Secretary of War ; Edmund Randolph, Attorney-Gen- eral ; and John Jay, Chief-Justice. In what war were the United States involved in 1790 ? A war with the Indian tribes north of the Ohio : they obtained a victory over Gen. Harmer, and in 1791 another over St. Clair; but Gen. Wayne, who succeeded him, completely defeated them, and negotiated a treaty of peace at Greenville, in 1795. What other difficulties were the states involved in, at this period ? The French revo- lution had commenced, and that nation, under the rule of the Directory, claimed assistance from America ; but Washington was disposed to remain neutral, although a large portion of the community would have urged the nation into hostilities with England. What efiect had Washington's resolution of pre- serving a strict neutrality on the difierent parties in the states ? The country was already divided between opposing parties, and this neutral policy widened the breach. Who was Wash- ington's successor as president ? This great man having de- 196 DEATH OF WASJlliNG'ItfN. clined a re-election was succeeded by John Adams, in 1797 What means did France take to revenge herself on the Ameri- cans, for refusing to assist her ? They began a course of insult and aggression, that ended in open hostilities ; the Americans adopted means of defence, increased their navy and army, appointing General Washington commander-in-chief. How did these disputes terminate ? After the lapse of a few months, the Directory government of France was overthrown, and the hostiUties between the countries were amicably settled. In what year did Washington die? In 1799, on the 14th of December, in the 68th year of his age. What effect had the news of his death on the people ? It produced an impression ^;hat is without a parallel in America ; the people, in accordance ;vith the recommendation of Congress, wore crape on the left irm thirty days, as a token of grief ; eulogies were delivered, and funeral processions celebrated throughout the country, for the loss of one whom they had been accustomed to regard as the " father of his country." By what names were the two parties designated at this time ? Those in favor of the Constitution were styled FederaUsts ; the others. Democrats, or Republi- cans : they differed on various subjects, both with regard to the foreign and domestic policy. What act of the federalist party was severely censured by the republicans ? A com- mercial treaty with Great Britain, negotiated by Mr. Jay in 1794. What acts were passed during Mr. Adams' adminis- tration, that excited dissatisfaction ? Raising a standing army, imposing a direct tax, and enacting the alien and sedition laws. What occurred in 1801 ? A change in the administration : the republican party being in the majority, elected their candidate, Thomas Jefferson, to the presidency, in opposition to Mr. Adams. What was the state of the country at the time Mr. Jeffarson was elected ? Very prosperous, and continued so dunng the first term of his official career ; at the expiration of which, he was re-elected almost unanimously. What effect had the war between Great Britain and France on America ? Being almost the only country that was not involved in this war, she endeavored to preserve her neutrality, in order to cairy on her commerce with them, but they were inclined to contract its limits. What occurred in May, 1806 ? The Britisli government declared all the ports from the Elbe in Germany to Brest in France, to be blockaded ; and that all American vessels trading with those ports, were liable to seizure and condemnation. What occurred in the following November 1 The emperor of France issued the Berlin decreo, declaring thfc ATTACK ON THE FRIGATE CHESAPEAKE. 197 British islands in a state of blockade, and prohibiting all inter- course with them. What further orders were issued by the British in November, 1807 ? The " British orders in council," by which all neutral vessels trading with France, were com- pelled to stop at a British port and pay a duty. What decree was issued by Bonaparte, in consequence of this order ? The " Milan decree," by which every vessel was confiscated that submitted to British search and pecuniary exactions. What course did Congress adopt on the recommendation of Mr. Jef- ferson ? They laid an embargo on all the shipping of the United States ; which was removed in March, 1809, and "non- intercourse with Great Britain and France," was substituted. What new causes of provocation were continually occurring ? The trade of the United States Avas harassed by both nations, the government was accused by the British of partiality for France, and in France, of submitting to the insults of Great Britain. Wliat provocation did America receive exclusively from the British*? TJie impressment of her seamen, whom they either could not, or loould not distinguish from Englishmen ; and thus American seamen were compelled to fight for the British. What did the British complain of in the Americans ? That they concealed runaway British seamen on board American merchant vessels ; and declared they had a right to search for them. To what description of vessels had this search been confined hitherto ? To merchant vessels; but in 1807 the British ascertained that four seamen had deserted from their vessels to the Chesapeake, an American frigate of 36 guns, commanded by Commodore Barron. What steps did the British take to recover these seamen ? By the orders of Admiral Berkeley, the Chesapeake was followed beyond the Capes of Virginia, by the Leopard, of 50 guns. Captain Humphreys commanding, and after in vain demanding the deserters, they fired a broadside upon the Chesa- peake, killing and wounding about 20 men. What was the result? The Chesapeake struck her colors, and gave up the four seamen ; but the American government considered this outrage a sufficient ground for declaring war. What proclama- tion was issued by the president? One ordering all British vessels of war to quit the waters of the United States, and forbidding all intercourse between them and the inhabitants How did the British government act with regard to the attack on the Chesapeake ? They disavowed any participation in it, but took no measures with regard to it at all satisfactory to the Americans. Who succeeded Thomas Jefi'erson as president? James Madison, in 1809. Mr. Erskine, the Biitish minister, 17* 198 INVASION OF CANADA. made an aiTangement with the government at the beginning of this administration, which induced them to renew their trade with England, but it was afterwards disavowed by the British government. What served to increase the angry feehngs be- tween the countries ? A rencounter between the ship of war President, and an Enghsh ship, the Little Belt. What message did the president send to Congress on the 1st of June, 1812 ? A message strongly recommending a declaration of war : the principal grounds for it were, impressing the American seamen, the orders in council, and a suspicion that the Indians had been instigated to hostilities by the British. What was the result of this message ? The bill for declaring war passed both houses, and the next day was signed by the president. How was this declaration of war received by the people ? With less unanimity than the previous war with Great Britain, and it was conse- quently prosecuted with less vigor : five days after this declara- tion had been issued, the British orders in council were repealed, in consequence of the decrees of Berlin and Milan having been revoked. How were the operations of the war carried on by the Americans ? Owing to their imperfect preparations, they were wholly unsuccessful during the first campaign. What occurred on the 12th of July? General Hull invaded Canada with 2,000 men, but on the 16th of August he was compelled to surrender, with his whole force. Who made a second at- tempt to invade Canada ? General Van Rensselaer, who crossed the Niagara with 1,000 men in November, and attacked the British at Queenstown : after an obstinate engagement, in which the British general. Brock, was killed. Van Rensselaer sur- rendered, with all his troops. Did the Americans meet with more success in their naval engagements ? Yes : in August the frigate Constitution, Captain Hull, captured the Britisli frigate Guerriere ; in October, the United States, commanded by Cap- tain Decatur, took the Macedonian, an English frigate ; and in November the British sloop Frolic was taken by the Wasp, Captain Jones. Give some further account of the naval en- gagements. The Wasp and her prize was retaken by a British 74, the Poictiers ; but in December, the Constitution, Captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate Java : in all these en- gagements the total loss of the British was 423, of the Ameri- cans only 73. Give some account of the war during 1813. In January a detachment of 800 men, under General Win- chester, was surprised and defeated by a party of British and Indians under General Proctor, at Frenchtown. What was the '^ie of the prisoners ? They were left by General Proctoi BATTLE ON LAKE ERIE 199 without a sufficient guard to protect them from the Indians, who cruelly murdered a great number of them. What oc- curred in April ? General Pike, with 1,Y00 Americans, took possession of York, in Upper Canada, but by the explosion of a mine, Pike, with about 100 Americans and 40 British, was killed. What happened to Colonel Dudley about this time ? He was detached from Fort Meigs to take possession of a British battery, in which he was partially successful, when he fell into an ambuscade prepared by Tecumseh, and of 800 men, only 150 escaped. What occurred in May, 1813 ? 1,000 British troops under Sir George Provost attacked Sackett's Harbor, but were repulsed by the Americans under General Brown. What fort did the Americans take from the British ? Fort George, in Canada, which was defended by General Vincent : the Americans were commanded by General Boyd and Colonel Miller. Which was the most brilliant victory of this year? That of Commodore Perry, on Lake Erie, on the 10th Septem- ber. Give some account of this engagement. The British fleet, under Commodore Barclay, consisted of six vessels, mount- ing in all 63 guns — the American fleet of nine vessels, and 56 guns; the firing commenced at 12 o'clock: in three hours the Americans gained a complete victory, and became masters of the lake. What did General Harrison do after this victory ? He crossed over to the Canadian shore, and on the 5th October fought the battle of the Thames. Give some particulars of this battle. The British army under Proctor consisted of 2,000 men, more than half of whom were Indians, under Tecumseh ; these being charged by Colonel Johnson, with the Kentucky cavalry, were routed, and Tecumseh slain, which in a great measure decided the fate of the day ; the British were entirely defeated. What was the result of the action at Williamsburg ? 1,200 Americans under General Boyd were defeated by 2,000 British under Lieutenant-colonel Morrison. What did the British do at Buffalo ? They burnt Bufialo, and some other villages, in retaliation for the burning of Newark, in Canada, by the Ameri- cans. What was going on in the south at this period? The British fleet under Admiral Cockburn committed great depreda- tions on the shores of the Chesapeake ; but in an attack on Craney's Island, they were repulsed by the Virginia militia. Give some account of the engagement between the Hornet and tho Peacock. Captain Lawrence'in the U. S. ship Hornet, attacked the British sloop Peacock, and in fifteen minutes gained a complete victory : unfortunately, the Peacock sunk before all her wounded could be removed. What naval engagement took 200 ATTACK ON WASHINGTON. place in June ? That between the U. S. ship Chesapeake^ Captain Lawrence, and the British ship Shannon, Captain Brooke, in which the Chesapeake was taken, and Captain Lawrence killed : the last words of this brave officer were, " Don't give up the ship." What other engagements took place in this year ? The Argus was captured by the British sloop Pelican, and the Enterprise captured the British brig Boxer. What occurred in July, 1814 ? On the 2d July, General Brown took Fort Erie from the British, and on the 6th attacked' and defeated them under General Riall, at Chippewa : in this battle General Scott, who commanded one brigade of the American army, highly distinguished himself. When was the battle of Lundy's Lane fought ? On the 25th July ; the Americans were commanded by generals Scott and Ripley, and the British by generals Drum- mond and Riall. What was the result of this engagement? In favor of the Americans, though the loss was about equal on both sides. What was the last action of importance on this frontier? The attack of the British on Fort Erie, in which they were repulsed with great loss. What expedition did the British resolve on in August ? An attack on Washington, by a fleet of 60 sail, and an army of 5,000 men, under General Ross. What did they do on their way thither ? Having landed in the Patuxet, 40 miles from Washington, they defeated the American militia, under General Winder, at Bladensburg. What did they do at Washington ? They burned the capitol, with the records, etc., the president's house, public offices, and many private dwellings, and then retreated to their ships. What did the British do in September ? They made a similar attempt on Baltimore, but were finally repulsed without having been able to effect much ; in this attack General Ross fell. What occurred at Plattsburg in the same month ? Sir Geoi*ge Provost with 14,000 men, aided by Commodore Downie with a fleet mounting 95 guns, attacked that place. What was tlie result of this attack ? Commodore Downie was defeated by Commodore McDonough, with a fleet mounting 86 guns ; and Sir George Provost having attacked the forts was driven off by General Macomb. How were the naval engagements conducted ? The Americans were generally successful ; they captured many English merchant vessels, besides several men-of-war, among these the Epervier, Swan, Reindeer, Cyane, Levant, and Penguin, while the British victories were few in comparison ; they how- ever took, among others, the Essex and the President, Ameri- can frigates. When was the treaty between England and tha United States commenced, and when was it finally settled ? In DEATH OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 201 April, 1813, commissioners Avere appointed to meet at Gotten- burg, but afterwards the place of meeting was changed tc Ghent ; and there the treaty was concluded on the 24tli De cember, 1814. Give the names of the American commissioners who signed this treaty. John Quincy Adams, Albert Gallatin, and James A. Bayard : Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell wev added to the three first mentioned. What was the last import- ant operation of the war ? The battle of New Orleans, which occurred on the 8 th of January, 1815 : the English, under Sir Edward Packenham, were totally defeated by the Americans, who w ere commanded by Gen. Andrew Jackson ; the British loss amounted to 2,000 men, and their commander also was killed. What war was America engaged in shortly after the pea-ce was ratified with Great Britain ? With Algiers, the Algerines having violated the treaty of 1795, and committed depredations on the commerce of the United States. What measures did Congress take to intimidate the Dey of Algiers ? They fitted out two squadrons under commodores Decatur and Bainbridge ; they set sail in June, captured some Algerine vessels off Cape Palos, and then sailed for Algiers. Give some further account of this expedition. Decatur obliged the Dey to sign a treaty of peace highly advantageous to the Americans ; he then pro- ceeded to Tunis and Tripoli, where he obtained satisfaction for their unprovoked aggression. When w^as the national bank established ? In April, 1816, an act was passed by Congress, establishing a national bank, with a capital of $35,000,000. When was the territory of Indiana admitted into the Union as a state ? In December, 1816 ; in the same year James Monroe was elected President, and entered on his official duties the following March. When were the territories of Mississippi, Illi- nois, and Alabama admitted into the Union ? In the years 1817, 1818, and 1819. What treaty was negotiated in 1819, and finally settled in 1820 ? That by which Spain ceded East and West Florida and the adjacent islands to the United States, as indemnity for spoliations committed on the property of Amer- ican citizens. Who succeeded James Monroe as President? John Quincy Adams, in 1825. What remarkable event occurred on the 4th July, 1826 ? The death of John Adams and Tho- mas Jefferson, two of the principal contributors to American Independence ; and on the following anniversary died another ex-preside^t, James Monroe. Who succeeded John Q. Adams in the presidential chair ? Andrew Jackson, the hero of New Orleans, in 1829. What difficulties occurred with the Indiana in 1832 ? In April some of the Indian tribes undsr their chief, 202 THE SEMINOLE WAR Black Hawk, ravaged the northern part of Illinois, murdering the settlers and burning their dwellings: generals Scott and Atkinson were sent to suppress them. What dreadful epidemic prevailed throughout America m this year ? The Asiatic chol- era; it broke out among the troops destined for the Indian frontier, and added greatly to Gen. Scott's toil and sufferings. What was the result of this war ? Black Hawk and his son were taken prisoners, and after some months' detention, allowed to return to their people, satisfied of the^folly of contending with the United States. What other Indian disturbances oc- curred in 1834? The Seminoles, a warlike tribe inhabiting East Florida, refused to remove west of the Mississippi, accord- ing to the terms of a treaty which they had signed ; General Jackson, however, insisted on their removal, and a sanguinary war was the consequence. Who was the principal Indian chief? Osceola, or Powell : his father was an Englishman, his mother a Seminole : at his instigation Charley Amathla, a chief favorable to the removal, was killed ; this w^as the first outbreak. Give some account of the war. From the favorable nature of the country, the Indians, although few in number, were enabled to baffle the pursuit of the troops, and kept up a succession of devastations and massacres ; often surprising small bodies of troops and committing great slaughter among them. Which were the most bloody of these rencounters ? That in which Major Dade and his command of 117 men were killed, but one escaping to tell the tale ; and the surprise of Camp King, the same day, 23d December, 1835. What was the fate of Osceola? He came into the American camp, with 10 warriors, under the protection of a flag ; General Jesup suspecting him of treacher}^, caused him to be imprisoned at Fort Moultrie, where he died a few months after : it was generally supposed this event would put an end to the war, but the Seminoles refused to make any treaty, and the war continued for some years. Wliat is gener- ally thought of the Florida war ? That it was one of the great- est danger and hardship that America had been engaged in ; numbers of brave men and officers perished on the battle-field, or in the fatal swamps of the country. What outbreak occur- red in Alabama among the Creek Indians ? In 1836, Osceola sent the war-belt to the Creeks, and they rose upon the de- fenceless inhabitants, murdering their families, and burning their houses ; thsy were soon defeated and dispersed by Gen. Scott, who restored peace early in the summer. Who suc- ceeded Andrew Jackson as President ? Martin Yan Buren, in 183'Z. During his administration, the revolt m Canada occur- WAR WITH MXXICO. 203 red, and it was sympathized with by the neighboring Ameri- cans. What steps were taken by those Americans who were friendly to the Canadian insurgents ? These adventurers took possession of Navy Island, situated in Niagara river, and fortified it against the British, whom they contrived to annoy by firing upon the Canada shore, and destroying their boats. What proclamation did Martin Van Buren and Governor Marcy issue ? One ordering and enjoining the American people to preserve a strict neutrality ; nevertheless these adventurers purchased arms and ammunition, and carried on the war with the British. Give some further account of their proceedings. They hired the steam- boat Caroline to ply between the Island and American shore; she began to run on the 29th of December, and on the evening of the same day, a party of armed men crossed from the Cana- dian to the American shore, drove the men on board the Carohne ashore, set her on fire, and cutting her adrift, let her float over the falls ; an American of the name of Durfee was killed, and the American government had a British subject (McLeod) tried for the murder, but he was eventually released. Who was elected to the presidential chair in 1841? William Henry Harrison ; but dying a month after, the vice-president, John Tyler, became president. What difficulties occurred with the British government during Mr. Tyler's administration ? Diffi- culties growing out of the Northeastern boundary question. Gen. Scott was stationed there by the American government to preserve the peace between the inhabitants on either side of the line ; these difficulties were, however, amicably adjusted. Who succeeded John Tyler? James K. Polk of Tennessee, who was elected by the Democratic party in 1845. What difficulties arose between England and the United States in the early part of Mr. Polk's administration ? Difficulties rel- ative to the Oregon question, which it was feared at one time would lead to war between the two nations ; but these were also amicably settled. What large tract of country was an- nexed to the United States while Mr. Polk was president ? The Republic of Texas, at their own earnest desire, became part of the Union. What war was the United States involved in, in consequence of this annexation ? A war with Mexico, of which Texas formerly constituted a part. What led to the first out- break in this war ? A part of the American forces under Gen. Taylor, stationed on the Rio Grande, were ordered by the Mex- icans to retire from that section of country, and on their refu- sing to do so, were attacked by the Mexicans. Were the Amer- icans generally successful in this war ? Their progress through 204 DEATH OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. the country up to tlie time of their entering the Mexican capi- tal, was one series of brilHant victories against overwhelming odds ; neither their superior numbers nor better knowledge of the country, enabled the Mexicans to stay for a moment the onward march of the Americans. What oflicer particularly distinguished himself? Gen. Zachary Taylor, who at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and particularly at Buena Vista, covered himself with unfading glory. What other officer fully sustained his former high reputation ? Gen. Winfield Scott, the hero of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, who, after the cap- ture of Vera Cruz, marched to the capital, gaining many bril- liant victories by the way. A treaty between the two nations is now being negotiated, which it is to be hoped will soon lead to peace. What great man died in this year, 1848 ? John Quincy Adams, who was struck down while in his seat as a Representative from Massachusetts, and after lingering a few days, died ; the whole population of the different cities through which his body passed on its way to Boston, turned out to do honor to the remains of this pure patriot and great statesman. aUESTIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION. 205 QUESTIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. INTRODUCTIO]Sr. We pass by the causes which led to a confederation cf the American colonies, the chief object of which ivas to secure union and strength in their eflForts to throw off the British yoke, as that has been fully explained in the foregoing History ; and in this introduction to the Questions on the Constitution of the United States, will merely state the nature of the resolutions then formed, the adoption of them, and the formation of the first and second Constitutions. In 1774, the assembling of a Conti- nental Congress was first recommended ; and in accordance with this, a Congress met at Philadelphia on the Vth September of that year, in the course of whose deliberations a Declaration of Rights was adopted. This was followed, in the year 1*776, by a resolution asserting their independence ; and on the 4th July, 1776, The Declaration of Independence was formally adopted, proclaiming to the world that the American colonies " were, and ought to be, free and independent states," and absolving them from all allegianse to the government of Great Britain. The articles of confederation, however, did not receive the assent of Congress until the latter end of 1777 ; and were not attended to by the state of Maryland until 1781, when, having been duly ratified by all the states, the fact, was announced by Congress. Their adoption was attended by many obstacles, as various con- flicting interests had to be reconciled, whose force had not been diminished by the crippled condition in which the resources of the country were left after the Revolutionary struggle. The chief cause of the downfall was the want of due authority and power over the states, and an absence, in consequence, of that strict allegiance and obedience on the part of the latter to the general government, so essential to the union in its infancy. Daily experience called loudly for some substitute, to exercise the functions necessary to control the several members ; and the subject having been duly considered and discussed, delegates weri sent to a convention of all the states, and on the 21st of February, 1787, the present Constitution was adopted, and sub- sequently ratified by the states, with the exception of North Carolina and Rhode Island. By the accession to it oi nine 18 206 auESTioNs on the states, it became, in 1788, the Constitution of the United States. The two dissenting states acceded to it in the course of the twa following years. On the 30th of April, 1789, George Wash- ington, the Father of the country, was unanimously elected President of the Federal Repubhc. A Republic is that form of government, where the executive and legislative powers are vested by the people in their agents or representatives ; an Aristocracy is where these powers are confined to a portion only of the people ; and a Democracy, where it is exercised directly by the people themselves. To the first class belongs the Re- public of the United States of America, and the code of its principles forms the subject of the present chapter. QUESTIONS. What is the government of the United States ? A Federal Republic. What constitutes the Repubhc ? At this time, (1849,) thirty states ; the original number, in 1789, was thirteen : these states have exclusive jurisdiction within their own borders of all matters pertaining to their domestic or local affairs, while those of an external or national character are vested in the general government. Part of the public domain is also divided into territories, which are also under the control of the general government. What do we mean by the general government ? The federal power created by the union of the states, and the people thereof, in their collective capacity. Of what parts, or branches, is that government composed ? Of three, the legisla- tive, executive, and judicial powers. What are the powers of the legislative branch ? To the legislative branch is confided the duty of apportioning moneys for the support of the govern- ment ; appropriations, which are limited in duration to two years ; of raising and maintaining the army and supporting the navy ; collecting taxes, and other means of revenue ; regulating commerce ; declaring war, including the grant of letters of re- prisal and marque ; punishing all offences against the law of nations ; pror.ding for the disciplining and arming the militia ; and of making, abrogating, and repealing all laws necessary for effecting these purposes, or any others vested by the Constitution or laws in any department of the government. Of what is the legislature composed? Of a House of Representatives, and Senate. How is the number of the representatives regulated ? By the aggregate of inhabitants : each member representing the number which Congress may decree. In those states where slavery exists, in estimating the population, five slaves are CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 207 counted as three whites. How is the number determined ? By a census, taken every ten years. What are the quahfications necessary for a representative ? To have attained the age of twenty-five years, to have been a citizen of the United States for seven years, and an inhabitant, when chosen, of the state from which elected. What provision is there for vacancies, by resignation, or otherwise ? The executive of the state issues a ivrit for an election to fill the same. What are the particular powers of this branch of the legislature ? The originating of all bills involving the expenditure of money ; the sole right of im- peachment, with the power of deciding on the election of its own members. For what length of time are the members chosen ? The term of two years. How are they chosen ? By a direct vote of the people, whose privileges are controlled by the state laws, with the express provision, however, that no person shall vote for a national representative, who is not entitled to vote for a member of the house of delegates of his own state. What constitutes a quorum ? A majority : though a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and compel the presence of absent members. May a member be expelled ? Yes, by a vote of two-thirds. What peculiar privilege have the members of Congress? They are exempt from arrest during their attendance at, and passage to and from either house, except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace. Have they, or can they grant, any titles ? They have not, and cannot grant them : the Constitution allows no grant of titles from any source. What is the compensation to the members ? An allowance of eight dollars per diem, and a certain sum per mile when travelling on the public service. Who is the presiding officer of the House of Representatives ? The Speaker. How is he chosen ? By a vote of ;;he members. Of what is the Senate composed ? Of two members from each state in the union, each of whom is entitled to one vote. For what time are they chosen ? For the term of six years. By whom are they chosen ? By the legisla- tures of their respective states. What are they considered to represent ? The states, as sovereignties. By concession, each member of the federal union was considered in such capacity, by the framers of the Constitution, as entitled to equal repre- sentation. In what particulars do the two houses of Congress differ ? The Senate may be called the conservative, while the House is denominated the popular branch. Wlience arises this distinction ? From the mode of their election : the Senate checks a too partial and hasty, as well as uncalled for legisla- tion, by those in immediate contact with popular caprice ; while 208 auESTioNs on the the experience and superior wisdom of matured deliberation affords an opportunity for correcting errors, proceeding from faction, or designed for partisan objects. Has either house the power of passing laws independent of the other ? No law can pass from the legislative to the executive branch before receiving the assent of both houses ; and the Senate may defeat, by amend- ments, or refusal to act, money bills, which must originate in the House of Representatives, and thus check the exercise, by the latter, of this prerogative confided to them, from their presumed superior knowledge of the wants of the country, they being fresh from the people. Does the term of office of all the senators ex- pire at the same time ? No : it was provided that immediately after assembling, after the first election, they should be divided as equally as possible into three classes ; the seats of the first to be vacated after the expiration of the second year; those of the second, after the expiration of the fourth year; of the third, after the expiration of the sixth year, in order that one-third might be chosen every year. In case of the admission of a new state into the union, how is this decided ? By ballot : one sen- ator taking the four, the other the six years term. What are the qualifications of a senator ? A citizenship of nine years, to have attained the age of thirty, and to be an inhabitant of the state from which chosen. What provision is there for vacancies by resignation, or otherwise ? The executive of the state makes temporary appointments, until the next meeting of the legisla- ture, which fills the vacancy. Who is the presiding officer of the Senate ? The Vice-President of the United States ; or, in his absence, a president pro tern., chosen by a vote of the senators. Has the Vice-President a vote? Only in cases of equal division, when he gives a casting vote. Does the Senate choose the other officers ? Yes, Can the Senate originate an impeachment ? No : they can only try the accused, under their oath, for the conviction of whom a vote of two-thirds is requisite. If the President of the United States be the accused, the Chief- Justice presides What is the extent of the penalty they can impose ? Removal f'-om, and disqualification to hold any place of profit, trust, or emolument under the government of the United States. The party may afterwards be tried, convicted, and punished, as provided by law for any criminal. What are considered the grounds for impeachment ? Treason, bribery, and other like crimes and misdemeanors. Has the Senate any other peculiar powers ? Yes : executive restraints, which will be mentioned in connection with the executive branch of the government. How often, and when, does Congress meet ? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 209 Once every year, in the city of Washington, on the first Monday in December, unless convened at some other period by procla- mation of the Pif'sident of the United States, to decide on matters of immediate importance. Wkat constitutes a quorum of the Senate ? The rules are the same as those of the House of Representatives. What .6 meant by "a" Congress? A period of two years, comprising two sessions of that body. Does Congress keep a record of its proceedings ? Regular journals are kept and published of the proceedings of both houses, with the exception of those which it may be deemed important to keep secret. How is a vote of the Senate taken ? The vote is invariably taken viva voce, but a division and count may be had, if called for. A vote of one-fifth of the members present may also secure the " ayes" and " nays^' on any question. What is meant by a " calV of the house ? A call of the house is the calling by the clerk of the names of all the members, to ascertain who are the absentees, and the sergeant-at-arms may compel their presence. Can either house adjourn ? Neither house can adjourn without the consent of the other for more than three days, or to any other place than that in which the session may be held at the time of adjournment. Is a member of Congress eligible for any other office ? None which has been created, or enlarged in its emoluments, during the period foi which he was elected. The reverse of this applies to persons, holding civil offices, with regard to eligibility to Congress. How arc the laws made ? Laws are required to pass the two houses of Congress, after which they are presented for signature to the President, without whose consent they cannot go into force. Can the President prevent the passage of any bill ? If the Pres- ident does not approve any bill he may return it to the house of Congress in which it originated, and his objections will defeat its operation, unless overcome by a vote of two-thirds, in both houses. In the latter case, however, his " veto" has no influence. In the reconsideration of a bill, how must the vote be taken ? By the "ayes" and "nays," and entered in full on the journals of both houses. Can the President retain a bill without his wgnature ? He may for a period not exceeding ten days, (ex- clusive of Sundays :) if he fails to return it at the expiration of this time, the bill becomes a law, unless Congress shall have adjourned in the mean time. Does this comprise all submitted to the President for his signature ? No : every order, resolution, or vote, with the exception of one of adjournment, is subject to his approval, under the same restrictions. Are the teriitories represented in Congress? Each territory under an organized 18* 210 aUESTIONS ON THE territorial government is entitled to one delegate in the House ol Representatives, who has the right of speaking, but not of voting. Wliere does Congress meet ? In the city of Washington, in the " Capitol,'' a building erected for the legislative and judicial branches to hold their meetings. The District of Columbia, in which Washington is situated, possesses no state jurisdiction, being entirely under the control of Congress, having been ceded to the general government by the states of Maryland and Virginia Can Congress tax, or lay a duty, upon any articles exported from one state to another ? No tax or duty can be laid on articles transported from state to state ; nor can any preference be given in a regulation of commerce or revenue to any particular state ; nor can the cargoes of vessels trading between the ports of dif- ferent states be charged with duties. Can any officer of this government be rewarded by any other government, either by title or profit ? Not without the consent of Congress. This provision is to secure additional purity in public officers. Are the rights of the states defined ? Those powers extended to the general government which are denied the states, are expressly defined. To a certain extent, however, the states have complete jurisdiction over those state affairs not conflicting with the gen- eral government. Can any state enter into compact with, or declare war against, another state or foreign power ? Only in case of actual invasion, or where the imminence of the danger precludes delay. How is the executive power vested ? In one presiding officer, termed the President of the United States of America. There is also a Vice-President, whose duty it is to preside over the Senate, and, in case of accident or death to the President, discharges his duties. For how long a period are the President and Vice-President chosen ? For a term of four years. How are they elected? By electors. How are the electors chosen ? By a direct vote of the people in every state, in such manner as its own legislature may direct. In case of more than two candidates for the presidency, are those electors chosen having the highest number of votes ? This matter is under the control of the states ; a majority of all the votes cast being requisite in some, and plurahty only in others. Is there a direct vote of the people for electors in every state ? In all, with the exception of South Carolina, where the legislature elects. Arc people residing in the territories entitled to a presidential vote ? They are not. How with regard to the District of Columbia ? The citizens of the District of Columbia do not participate in the election ; being to a great extent composed of those connected with the government, they are thus removed from all party CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 211 influences. Can any representative, senator, or person holding office under the government, be an elector ? No, he cannot. Where, and hoTV, do the electors vote? In the capitol of each state, by ballot, and on the same day throughout the union. Ccin the President and Vice-President be an inhabitant of the same state ? They cannot. Where are the electoral votes finally counted ? In the Senate of the United States, by the President of that body, the vote of each state having been sealed and transmitted to him. The candidate for each office who has the majority of electoral votes, is then declared, by the president of the Senate, duly elected. How are the sealed votes conveyed to the Senate ? By one of the electors of each state, chosen from their body for that purpose. Should there be no m&jority, what is then done ? The three candidates having the highest number of votes are then selected, and one of them must be chosen by a vote of the House of Representatives, by ballot. How does the House of Representatives vote ? By states, the representation from each having one vote. In case of equal party division in the representation, how is the choice made ? The vote of the state thus equally divided is lost, the choice being made by the remaining states. What number is required for this purpose ? Two-thirds of the states of the union, a ma- jority of the whole number being necessary to a choice. Should the House not be able to choose a President, what is done then ? The Vice-President acts as President. Should the people fail to elect a Vice-President, how is he chosen ? By the Senate, from the two candidates having the highest number of votes ; with the same restrictions as to the requisite number of senators as those enforced with regard to representatives in the House, in the choice of a President. How, and when, is the day of election for President and Vice-President appointed ? By Congress, which, by a recent law, has enacted that the election throughout the Union shall be on the first Tuesday in November, next pre- ceding the expiration of a presidential term. On what day does this term expire ? On the third day of March, every fourth year. May the President be chosen for a second term ? He may. Is the same person again eligible as President ? Eight years has hitherto been the extent that any one person has filled the presidential chair, although the Constitution does not define the time. _ What are the qualifications of a President ? He must have ^attained the age of thirty-five years, be horn a citizen of the United States, and have been for fourteen years a resident of the same. Do the same restrictions apply to the Vice-Presi- dent ? They do. In what case do the duties devolve upon 212 QUESTIONS ON THE the Vice-President ? In case of the removal of the President, by death, resignation, or inabihty to discharge his duties. Should both be incapacitated by any of these causes, what must be done ? Congress must declare what officer shall act as President, and he shall continue in such capacity during the continuance of such disability. Does the President receive a compensation ? Yes : $25,000 per annum, which can neither be increased nor dimin- ished during his term, nor enlarged by extra allowance from the government, or any state or states. What is the compensation of the Vice-President ? $6,000 per annum, subject to the same restrictions. AVhat is the oath of the President of the United States ? " I do solemnly swear, (or affirm,) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Consti- tution of the United States." By whom is it administered ? By the Chief- Justice. What mihtary power has the President ? He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia, when called into actual semce. Has he the power of pardoning offences ? In all cases coming under United States jurisdiction, except those of impeachment. What other powers has he ? He makes treaties, appoints ambassadors, consuls, and other public ministers, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States established by law, and whose appointment are not otherwise provided for by the Constitution Is there any limitation to his powers ? Yes : all treaties, to bs vahd, require the concurrence of two-thirds of the members of the Senate present when action is had on the same. A majority of this body must also approve his selection of all the officers we have named. During the recess of the Senate, can the President grant commissions, or make appointments ? He may : but if not approved by the Senate during its ensuing session, the same are null and void. What is the course of proceeding by the Senate on executive nominations? It has what is termed an executive session, deliberating with closed doors ; proceedings of this character are not divulged until the injunction of secrecy be removed by its own will. By whom is the President assisted in the government ? ' By his Cabinet. Of whom is the Cabinet composed ? Of a Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Nav}% Attorney- General, and Postmaster- General, who take precedence in the order recited. What are their duties ? To each is intrusted that department of executive business signified by his title, all being separate and distinct, to a certain extent. How does the President commu- nicate with Congress ? Always in writing. At their annual CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 213 meeting lie transmits a message regarding the state of the union, and suggesting such measures as he may deem essential for the pubUc weal ; also whenever he thinks it necessary or expedient during their session. Can the President convene or adjourn Congress ? Yes : on extraordinary occasions he may call an extra session of both houses, or either of them ; or if they shall disagree in regard to the adjournment, he may adjourn them for such a period as he may deem proper. What other special powers has he ? He receives ambassadors and other public ministers, sees that the laws are faithfully executed, and com- missions all officers of the United States. Can he be removed from office ? He may, on impeachment for conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. The same applies to the Vice-President, and all civil officers. What do we mean by the judicial department? The judicial is that power which interprets and pronounces the laws, and which, by deciding controversies and enforcing rights, prevents the exercise of absolute and despotic will. How is this power vested ? In one Supreme Court, and such inferior courts as may be estab- lished or ordained by Congress. How are the judges appointed ? By the President, with the concurrence of the Senate. How long do they hold office ? For hfe, or during their good behavior. Do they receive a compensation ? They do ; and the same cannot be diminished while they continue in office. To what does their power extend ? To all criminal and civil cases in law or equity arising under the Constitution, or the treaties, or laws of the United States, embracing those affecting ' public ministers and consuls, and all questions demanding legal investigation of a maritime nature. What is meant by maritime offences ? This embraces acts or offences on the high seas, where, in the absence of jurisdiction of any particular nation, the rights are common. What other powers has the judiciary ? The decision of controversies between two or more states, or one state and citizens of another, and in certain contingencies between citizens of the same state. What is the form of trial for crimes ? ^y j^n^» except in cases of impeachment, and in that state wherte the offence may have been committed. What is treason against the United States ? Carrying on war against them, or giving aid and comfort to their enemies. What is necessary to convict a person of treason? Two witnesses to the same overt act, or a con- fession in open court. What is the punishment for treason ? It is regulated by Congress. In what does this differ from the Enghsh law ? No attainder of treason affects the children or heirs, nor does the forfeiture extend beyond the life of the party convicted- CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. BOVEREIONl. Bpftia. France. •8 1- "o ci5 s ~ S H S^ ^3 00 Ih h-l V E^ .2 o i^ § ^ "S^ JS O HH >-. M i-( Ej HH e> .&• w "5 S ^ .&• b g X n J 15 Charles III. Ferdinand VI. 80VEREIGN& England. 1G43. Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven unite in a confrderacy. 1664. 1665. 1682. 1686. 1688 1689. 1692. 1697. 1740. 1744. 1745. 1748. 1750. 1752. 1755. 1756. 1757. 1758. 1760. 1763. 1764. 1765. 1766. 1767. 1768. 1770. 1773. 1774. Patent granted to the Duke of York. War with Philip, son of Massasoit. William Penn settles in Pennsylvania. Founds Philadelphia. Charter of Massachusetts annulled. Sir Edmund Andros appointed governor-gen- eral. Revolution in England. Imprisonment of Andros and Randolph. Connecticut and Massachusetts resume their charters. Massachusetts obtains a new charter. Peace of Ryswick. Moravians settle in Pennsylvania. War between England and France. Capture of Louisburg and Cape Breton. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Difficulties of the Ohio Company with the French. Washington sent to remonstrate with the French. Braddock defeated and slain. Dieskau defeated at Lake George War formally declared between England and France. Massacre at Fort William Henry. General Amherst takes Louisburg. Defeat of Abcrcrombie at Ticonderoga. Colonel Bradstreet takes Frontenac. English take Fort Du Quesne. Victory and death of General Wolfe. Surrender of Canada to the English. Peace of Paris. War with the combined Indians under Pou- tiac. Duties imposed on sugar, molasses, &c. Parliament passes the Stamp-act. Patrick Henry introduces his five resolutions into the House of Burgesses. First meeting of the Continental Congress. Repeal of the Stamp-act. Duties laid on tea, painters' colors, &c. Non-importation agreement entered into by the merchants of Boston, New York, &c. Affray with British troops at Boston. Cargoes of tea destroyed at Boston. Boston Port-bill. Meeting of Congress at Philadelphia. SS S3 si *? 3 216 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. SOVEREIGNS Spain. France. 80VFREIGN& Enftand. 1775. Battle of Lexington. " Americans take Ticonderoga and Crown Point. " Second meeting of Congress at Philadelphia. " Royal governors driven out of the southern colonies. " George Washington appointed commander- * in-chief. « Battle of Bunker's Hill. " Benjamin Franklin appointed postmaster- general. " Defeat and death of General Montgomery at Quebec. British evacuate Boston. 1776. 1777. 1778. 1779. 1780. 1781. 1782. Declaration of Independence. Aug. 27. Americans defeated at Long Island. Dec. 26. British defeated at Trenton. British defeated at Princeton. General Herkimer defeated. Battles of Bennington, Brandywine, and Stillwater. British enter Philadelphia. Battles of Germantown and Saratoga. Surrender of General Burgoyne. Treaty of alliance with France. British evacuate Philadelphia. Battle of Monmouth. Arrival of a French fleet under D'Estaing Savannah taken by the British. Sunbury taken by the British. General Provost surprises the Americans at Briar Creek. Capture of Stony Point by General Wayne. Repulse of the J'rench and Americans at Sa- vannah. Surrender of Charleston to the British. Arrival of a French squadron under Rocham- beau. Lord Rawdon defeats General Gates near Camden. Arnold endeavors to deliver West Point into the hands of the British. Execution of Major Andre as a spy. Robert Morris appointed treasurer. Morgan defeats Tarleton at the Cowpens, South Carolina. Battle of Guilford. British evacuate Camden. Surrender of Cornwallis to the allies at York- town. Disturbances among the officers at Newburg. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE rnnce. U. Stat«». ^ U •-^ > "^ S X "c £ .ss J '^ s o 'g h] © bo bcS . 11 2 , it ®S aS m fl s ^ (3 , to . -1 S o (C »li 84 s i £ g 1^ g Si w j3 t a ^ ^ .1 '3 d s ID g cd •-1 .srf 5^ •sa i-Si CD ^ K^£ i^l7 SOVEREIGNS Englam], 1783 Acknowledgment of the Independence of the U. S. by Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and Russia. " Definitive treaty of peace signed, and the army disbanded. " British evacuate New York. 1786. Meeting of delegates at Annapolis. 1787. Convention at Philadelphia to frame a con- stitution. 1789. Federal constitution adopted by eleven States. " Washington inaugurated as President of the United States. 1794. General Wayne defeats the Indians in Ohio. " Treaty concluded with Great Britain. 1797. John Adams inaugurated. 1799. Death of Washington. 1801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated. « War with Tripoli. 1806. Great Britain searches American vessels and impresses American seamen. 1807. Outrage committed on U. S. frigate Chesa- peake. " An embargo laid by the American govern- ment. 1809. James Madison inaugurated. " Embargo repealed and non-intercourse sub- stituted. 1811. Attack on U. S. frigate President. 1812. War declared with Great Britain. " General Hull invades Canada. " Hull surrenders Detroit to the British. " U. S. vessels Wasp, United States, and Con- stitution capture the British vessels Frolic, Macedonian, and Java. 1813. Battle and massacre of Frenchtown. " Capture of York by the Americans. " Devastations of the British on the shores of the Chesapeake. " The Chesapeake captured by the Shannon. " Perry's victory on Lake Erie. " Battle of the Thames. 1814. Battles of Chippewa and Limdy's Lane. " British enter Washington. " Battle of Plattsburg. 1815. Battle of New Orleans. " Peace with Great Britain. 1816. National Bank established. 19 218 Fnmee. U. Statei. II 03 g ^1 s dg r ^ s 2 § ro^ o s " & <:^^ j3 P^ e« ^ ^ >M CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1817 James Monroe inaugurated. 1818. Illinois admitted into the Union. 1819. Alabama " " " 1 825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated. 1826. Death of Adams and Jefl'erson. 1827. Death of Monroe. 1829. Andrew Jackson inaugMrated. 1832. Cholera breaks out. " Black Hawk war. 1835. Major Dade's massacre. 1837 Martin Van Buren inaugurated. 1841 William Henry Harrison inaugurated " Death of Harrison. " John Tyler becomes President BOVEREIGNSl England. t-H O ROMAN KINGS 219 AN ABSTRACT OF THE ROMAN KINGS AND MOST DISTIN GUISHED HEROES. Romulus, founder of tlie Roman state; he instituted the senate, which at first consisted of 100 counsellors, and he di- vided the people into three tribes. Numa Pompilius, the institutor of religious ceremonies. This amiable man was with difficulty persuaded to accept of the kingdom : he calmed the dissensions amongst the citizens ; mod- erated the warlike iardor of the Romans by the impressions of religion ; made a goddess of honesty or good faith ; introduced Termini, or gods of boundaries; and distributed the citizens into companies, according to their trades : the temple of Janus was not opened during his reign. Tullus Hostihus. In his reign was fought the battle between the Horatii and the Curiatii. Tullus became superstitious, studied magic, and was burnt to death in his palace, or, accord- ing to other accounts, was assassinated. Ancus Martins, grandson of Numa. He built many fortifica- tions, and greatly improved tlie city. He vanquished the Latins, and other neighboring states, in several battles ; and built the city of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. Tarquinius Priscus. He increased the number of the senate, and built a magnificent temple to Jupiter. Servius Tullius : he enlarged Rome, and added a fourth-tribe ; divided the citiaans into six classes ; instituted the census or valuation of estates ; the lustrum, or expiatory sacrifice, every fifth year, and coined money : he was slain by order of Tarquin the Proud, after a useful reign. Tarquinius Superbus, the last of the kings : he was dethroned, and expelled Rome, on account of his enormous vices. He subdued the Volsci and Sabines, and became master of Gabii by a cruel stratagem. In this reign the Sibylline books were purchased ; the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus built ; the Circus Maximus completed, and the city adorned with public bmldings. Lucius Junius Brutus, the first consul : he brought his own sons to justice for a conspiracy in favor of Tarquin, 220 TITUS LARTIUS — CURIUS DENTATUS. Titus Lartius, the first dictator : 'this officer enjoyed absolute power, and was only created on emergencies. Menenius Agrippa. In his time the first tribunes were chosen He was famed for his eloquence. Caius Marcius Coriolanus : he was unjustly banished Rome, and returned with an army of Volscians to besiege it, but his mother's entreaties prevailed upon him to spare the city ; after which he was assassmated by the Volsci. In his time the first ediles were chosen. Terentius Arsa : he was a famous tribune, and active friend of the people. Lucius Quintius Cincinnatus ; a celebrated dictator, taken from the plough to command the Roman armies. In his time the decemviri were appointed. Virginius, a centurion in the Roman army. In his time the unjust and abused authority of the decemviri was abolished. He killed his own daughter, Virginia, to prevent her falUng a sacrifice to the villany of Appius Claudius. Marcus Manlius, the brave defender and saviour of the capitol, in the war with Brennus, king of the Gauls. The enemy were attempting to scale the ramparts, but were discovered by the sentinel hearing the cackling of some geese, and repulsed by Manlius. This patriot was at last unpopular, and condemned to be thrown from the Tarpeian rock. Camillus, a renowned general, three times dictator : he led the Romans on to victory, and compelled the Gauls to raise the siege of Rome. Marcus Curtius, a young patrician, famed for throVing him- self down the gulf; he was urged to this act by an obscure answer of the augurs, which declared " that the gulf would not close until the most precious thing in Rome was thrown into it ;" Curtius supposing military virtue to be alluded to, cast himself all armed into it, upon which the chasm is said to have closed. Manlius Torquatus ; he put his son to death for contempt of his consular authority, and as an example of military justice. The great Earl of Pembroke displayed a similar rigid conduct in the Irish wars. Fabricius, one of the poorest and most virtuous of the Ro- mans : his integrity was unshaken amidst every attempt of King Pyrrhus to bribe him; and his noble spirit will transmit his name and merits to the latest ages. Curius Dentatus : a hero who reduced the Samnites, Sa- bmes, and others : he is remarkable for leading a life of voluntary poverty. REGULUS AUGUSTUS CiESAR. 221 Regulus. In his time the first Punic wars began. He was defeated and taken prisoner by Xantippus, the Lacedemonian ; and sent to Rome by the Carthaginians to obtain peace for them; resolutely refusing to compromise his country, he re- turned a prisoner, and was doomed by the Carthaginians to suflfer the most cruel tortures. Marcellus. He vanquished the Gauls in their war with Rome ; and, for his valor, was called his country's sword. Fabius Maximus ; famed for his wisdom, prudence, and con- duct ; he has been styled the buckler of Rome. Scipio Africanus, the great conqueror of Spain and Africa ; and the successful opposer of Hannibal, the Carthaginian gen- eral, whom he defeated at Zama. Scipio JEmilianus, the destroyer of Carthage. He shone equally in learning as in arms. The Gracchi, the friends of liberty and virtue; they en deavored to stem the rising torrent of corruption, but fell a sacrifice to the attempt; they revived the Agrarian law of Licinius Stolo, forbidding any Roman to possess more than 500 acres of public lands. Metellus Numidius; famous in battle, and a man of strict integrity. Caius Marius ; famed for his msatiable pride and ambition ; he brought great calamities upon his native city in his qiiarre with Sylla. He subdued the Numidians, the Cimbri, and the Teutones. Sylla, a great conqueror, tyrannical in command ; but he had at last the moderation to resign all his dignities, and retire to a private station. He was the implacable enemy of Marius. Marcus Tullius Cicero ; the great Roman orator and philoso- pher, and the distinguished friend of libert}'-. Pompey the Great, a brave general, but whose ambition led to his country's slavery and his own premature fall. Julius Caesar : the greatest hero of his time. He was chosen perpetual dictator of Rome ; but trampling upon the liberties of the Roman people, fell by the hands of assassins led by his friend Brutus. ISIarc Antony ; the friend of Caesar, famed as a general, but still more noted for his attachment to Cleopatra; queen of Egypt. Augustus Caesar; the first Roman emperor, and the nephew of Julius. In his reign the Romans enjoyed peace ; ind JESUS the long promised Messiah, appeared in Galilee. 19* 222 THE MOST CELEBRATED GRECIANS. AN ABSTRACT OF THE BIOGRAPHY OF THE MOST CELEBRATED GRECIANS. Cecrops, the first king of Athens. Theseus, contemporary with Romulus, and a king of Athens i memorable for his courage and conduct ; he killed the Mino- taur, a monster kept by Minos, and achieved many other great exploits. Jason, a noble Thessalian, who is said to have sailed with forty-nine companions to Colchis, in search of the golden fleece : this expedition is, however, more properly in the region of fable than true history, as also that of Theseus. Agamemnon, generalissimo of the Grecian armies at the siege of Troy, and king of Argos and Mycenae, in the Morea. Codrus, the last king of Athens ; he devoted himself to death for the benefit of his country, which was immediately after gov- erned by archons, the Athenians conceiving that none could be found sufficiently worthy of his throne. Cadmus, a king of Thebes, and the inventor of letters. Ulysses, king of Ithaca and Dulichium, and one of the wisest among the Greeks : Ajax and Achilles joined him, and the col- lective force of the Greeks, in the Trojan war. Lycurgus, the celebrated Spartan lawgiver ; he totally new- modelled the constitution, and composed a code of jurispru- dence, selected from the best laws made by Minos and others. Homer, the prince of poets : supposed to have been bom at Smyrna ; Hesiod was his contemporary. Thales, a Grecian philosopher, Rstronomer, geographer, and geometrician. Draco, the rigid legislator of Athens ; he punished all of- fences indiscriminately ; his laws are said to have been written in characters of blood, from their great severity. Solon, the wis6 reformer and improver of the Athenian laws iiis principle was contrary to that of Draco. Alcseus, and Sappho ; a Greek poet and poetess who wrote chiefly in lyric numbers. Simonides, a famous Grecian poet. Pisistratus, an aspiring Athenian, who, while Solon travelled THE MOST CELEBRATED GRECIANS. 223 into Egypt, took advantage of his absence to usurp the govern- ment of Athens. ^schylus, a Greek tragic poet. Clisthenes, the introducer of the Ostracism : he was endued with great penetration and abiHties, which were seldom prop- erly directed, Miltiades, an Athenian general, who gained the battle of Marathon, fought against the Persians. Harmodius and Aristogeiton : two young Athenians, who de- livered their countiy from the tyranny of the sons of Pisistra- tus, and were honored with high marks of esteem and admi- ration. Anacreon, of Teos, a celebrated poet : his works are distin- guished by their elegance and simplicity of expression. Leonidas, the Spartan king, who fell at the battle of Ther- mopylae, in defence of his country's dearest rights, fighting against the Persians. Themistocles, an Athenian general, famed for his valor and address ; he gained the signal victory at Salamis ; but being afterwards banished by his ungrateful countrymen, he sought refuge at the court of Xerxes, king of Persia ; and soon after, to avoid bearing arms against the Athenians, poisoned himself. Sophocles, and Euripides, two Grecian poets. Cimon, son of Miltiades, a famous general : he too was ban- ished, but at the expiration of five years returned to Athens, and his gallant spirit forgetting former injuries, he once more animated the Greeks to fame and conquest. Pericles, an Athenian general, celebrated for his love of the fine arts ; the age in which he flourished is called that of lux- ury, as he introduced a taste for expensive pleasures at Athens. In his time began the famous Peloponnesian war. Lysander, the renowned Spartan conqueror of Athens ; the treasures which he then brought to Lacedsemon insensibly cor- rupted the pure morals of its citizens. Alcibiades, a brave Athenian, who had some splendid dr- tues, counterbalanced by great vices ; his character was pecu- liarly magnificent and ostentatious. He was killed by command of the thirty tyrants. He took arms for the first time at the battle of Potidaea, where Socrates fought at his side, defended him, and led him out of danger after being wounded. Thrasybulus, the Athenian who overturned the power of the thirty tyrants, and restored peace to his bleeding country. Xenophon, a warrior and historian. He wrote the biography of Cyrus the Great, and has left an account of the retreat of the 224 THE MOST CELEBRATED GRECIANS ten thousand Greeks from Asia, which himself conducted. Tho first of these -works is called the Cyropede, the second, the Anabasis. Socrates, an Athenian philosopher, whose mind being too enlightened for the times in which he lived, the Athenians falsely accused him of disrespect to their gods, and he soon fell a martyr to their suspicion and vengoance, being condemned to take a draught of hemlock. Agesilaus, a Spartan king, who gained many important vic- tories: he defeated the Persians under Artaxerxes, and op- posed Pelopidas and Epaminondas in the Theban war. He perished by shipwreck on the coast of Libya. Pelopidas, a Theban general, who rescued his country from the Spartan yoke, assisted by the valor of his friend Epami- nondas. Epaminondas, a Theban warrior, who joined to the duties of his station a taste for philosophy and the sciences. He gained two celebrated victories, Leuctra and Mantinea ; at the latter of which he fell. Philip, king of Macedon, and father of Alexander the Great. He gained the famous battle of Chseronea, and obtained various successes against the Thebans and Athenians : he was the in- ventor of the Macedonian Phalanx, and united the highest tal- ents with the most intrepid bravery. The Greeks chose him their general, against the Persian force. He was soon after killed by one of his own guards, Pausanias, a young Macedo- dian, whom the Persians hired to commit the act. Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, and son of Philip, a renowned conqueror. He ran a rapid career of what the world calls glory ; and, after defeating the Persians, and destroying their empire, he died at Babylon, as is supposed from the effects of a fit of intemperance. Aristotle, the celebrated philosopher, the tutor of Alexander. He has left treatises on natural history and metaphysics. Demosthenes, the Grecian orator, ^schines was his con- temporary and rival. Pyrrhus, a king of Epirus. He conquered Macedonia from the successors of Alexander. His life was one continued scene of war and tumult. MYTHOLOGY. 225 OF MYTHOLOGY IN GENERAL. What is mythology ? Mythology is the fabulous history of the pagan divinities ; it takes its name from two Greek words, {inythos and logos,) which signify fabulous history. How can you divide fabulous history ? It can be divided into historical, philosophical, allegorical, and moral fables. What do you understand by historical fables ? Ancient history, mingled with fiction, where tradition informs us of the events which have occurred in the earhest ages. It is probable that Jupiter, Apollo, Bacchus, Hercules, &c., have existed, and that their histories are founded on facts. Give some examples. The deluge of Deucalion is evidently taken from the Noacian deluge ; the fable of the giants who wished to climb to Heaven, brings to our minds the sacrilegious plan formed by man, in building the tower of Babel, &c. What do you understand by philosophical fables ? They were invented by the poets ; and present us with many fables, under which are hidden useful truths. This kind of fable is most frequently the method of speaking figura- tively and metaphysically, and which, by insensible degrees, was taken in a literal sense. Give some examples. Ocean, says the fable, was the father of streams ; the moon espoused the air, and became the mother of the dew. What can be more philosophical than the sublime idea of the Furies having sprung from the blood of a father shed by his son, of Coelus murdered by Saturn ? What are allegorical fables ? They are a species of parable concealing some mystic idea, or offering an ingenious emblem Give an example. Ceyx and Alcyon, changed into the birds called Halcyons, is a touching image of conjugal love. Th