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Ibeatb's flDctoern language Series 
 
 ELEMENTS OF 
 
 GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 FOR REVIEW 
 
 BY 
 
 M. H.\HAERTEL 
 
 WHILE ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF GERMAN IN THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF WISCONSIN 
 
 AND 
 
 G. C. CAST 
 
 WHILE INSTRUCTOR IN GERMAN IN THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF WISCONSIN 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 
 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 
 
R££lacinc 
 
 Copyright, 1917, 
 By D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 2 K I 
 
 PRINTED IN U. S. A. 
 

 
 PREFACE 
 
 The present volume is not intended to be a complete 
 German grammar or to replace the many excellent grammars 
 or books for beginners now on the market. Its primary 
 object is to serve as a guide to the student in reviewing the 
 grammar during the second year, to focus his attention upon 
 the essentials, and to impress these firmly upon his, mind. 
 Hence all unnecessary details have been omitted, and 
 matter of secondary importance has been put in small type 
 or in the notes. The introductory chapter on definitions of 
 grammatical terms has been inserted in the hope that it 
 may relieve the teacher of German of the time-consuming 
 task of teaching the first elements of English grammar. 
 It is hoped that the questions on the various topics may 
 prove a valuable aid in impressing all important points upon 
 the student's mind. The suggested exercises can and ought 
 to be multiplied and varied by the teacher, to give the stu- 
 dent not merely a theoretical but also a practical knowledge 
 of German grammar. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 G. C. C. 
 The University of Wisconsin, 
 July, 1916. 
 
 682 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2008 with funding from 
 
 Microsoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofgermanOOhaerrich 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Definitions of Grammatical Terms i 
 
 The parts of speech 4 i 
 
 Modifications of the parts of speech *4 
 
 The sentence 8 
 
 The Article 10 
 
 The Noun 12 
 
 Gender of nouns 12 
 
 Declension 13 
 
 Strong declension 14 
 
 Weak declension 17 
 
 Mixed declension 17 
 
 Proper nouns 19 
 
 The Adjective 19 
 
 Weak declension 20 
 
 Strong declension 21 
 
 Comparison 23 
 
 The Numerals 26 
 
 The Pronoun 28 
 
 Personal 28 
 
 Possessive 29 
 
 Relative 30 
 
 Interrogative 32 
 
 Demonstrative ^ 
 
 Indefinite 34 
 
vi CONTENTS 
 
 The Verb 35 
 
 Tense auxiliaries fyaben, fein, toerben 38 
 
 Weak and irregular weak verbs 43 
 
 Strong verbs 46 
 
 Compound and reflexive verbs 49 
 
 Passive voice 52 
 
 Modal auxiliaries 56 
 
 Impersonal verbs 58 
 
 Use of moods 60 
 
 Use of tenses 66 
 
 Verbs governing dative 67 
 
 Prepositions 70 
 
 Conjunctions 71 
 
 Word Order 72 
 
 Suggestions for Translation 76 
 
 Syllabication 80 
 
 Capitals and Punctuation 81 
 
 Questions and Suggestions for Exercises 82 
 
DEFINITIONS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS 
 
 1. Grammar 
 Grammar is the study of the forms, uses, and structure 
 of language. 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 2. Nouns 
 i. A Noun is the name of a person, place, idea, or thing: 
 man, Berlin, truth, hat. 
 
 2. A Common Noun is a name that may be applied to 
 any one of a class of persons, places, things: man, city, 
 month. 
 
 3. A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person, 
 place, or thing: Lincoln, Boston, May. 
 
 4. A Collective Noun is the name of a number of persons 
 or things taken together: army, herd, class. 
 
 5. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, action, or 
 state of being: beauty, reading, life. 
 
 3. Pronouns 
 
 1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun: he, you, 
 they, it, who, this. 
 
 2. A Personal Pronoun is one that denotes 
 
 (a) the speaker (First Person, /, me, we, us). 
 
 (b) the one spoken to (Second Person, thou, you). 
 
 (c) the person or thing spoken of (Third Person, 
 
 he, him, she, it, they). 
 
2 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 3. A Relative Pronoun is one that refers to some preced- 
 ing noun or pronoun (its Antecedent) and connects clauses: 
 who, which, what, that. The book which lies on the table is 
 mine. 
 
 4. An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used to ask a 
 question: who, which, what. 
 
 5. A Demonstrative Pronoun is one that is used to desig- 
 nate or point out an object definitely: this, that, these, those. 
 
 6. An Indefinite Pronoun is one that designates or refers 
 to an object or person in a more general or indefinite way: 
 one, many, few, several, etc. 
 
 7. A Reflexive Pronoun is one that refers back to the 
 subject: myself, himself, etc. 
 
 4. Adjectives 
 
 1. An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a 
 pronoun: old house, this table. Adjectives are of two kinds: 
 Descriptive, old, white, and Limiting, this, that. 
 
 2. The term Limiting Adjectives includes the following: 
 
 (a) the definite article, the; 
 
 (b) the indefinite article, a or an; 
 
 (c) the demonstrative adjectives, this, that, these, 
 
 those; 
 
 (d) the interrogative adjectives, which, what; 
 
 (e) the possessive adjectives, my, your, his, etc.; 
 
 (f) the indefinite adjectives, some, all, much, etc.; 
 
 (g) the numerals, both cardinals, one, two, three, 
 
 etc., and ordinals, first, second, third, etc. 
 
 5. Verbs 
 
 1. A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of 
 being: He runs. I am. The dog sleeps. 
 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH 3 
 
 2. A Transitive Verb is one that in the active voice re- 
 quires an object: He writes a letter. 
 
 3. An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an 
 
 object: I go. Birds fly. 
 
 Note. — Some verbs may be used either transitively or intransi- 
 tively: He writes well. 
 
 4. A Regular Verb is one that forms its imperfect tense 
 and past participle by adding -d or -ed: praise, praised, 
 praised. 
 
 5. An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its imper- 
 fect tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed: see, saw, 
 seen. 
 
 6. An Auxiliary Verb is one that is used in the conjuga- 
 tion of other verbs: I have seen. We shall go. 
 
 7. An Impersonal Verb is one that is used only in the 
 third person singular, having it for a subject: It rains. 
 It thunders. 
 
 6. Adverbs 
 
 1. An Adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a 
 verb, an adjective, or an adverb: She sings well. The tree 
 is very tall. Don't run so fast. 
 
 2. Adverbs of Place answer the question " where? " — 
 there, yonder, above, etc. 
 
 3. Adverbs of Time answer the question " when? " — 
 to-day, now, never, etc. 
 
 4. Adverbs of Manner answer the question " how? " — 
 fast, well, badly, etc. 
 
 5. Adverbs of Degree answer the question "how much?" 
 or "to what extent? " — much, little, very. 
 
 7. Conjunctions 
 
 1. Conjunctions are words used to connect words, phrases, 
 and clauses: The day was cold and dreary. The nations pray 
 
4 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 for peace and work for war. Philosophers are not men of 
 action, but of contemplation. 
 
 2. A Coordinating Conjunction is one that connects ele- 
 ments of equal rank. For illustrations see 7, i. 
 
 3. A Subordinating Conjunction is one that connects a 
 dependent clause with an independent clause: We arrived 
 on the mountain top when the sun rose. 
 
 8. Prepositions 
 
 A Preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, 
 and shows the relation of its principal word (a noun or pro- 
 noun) to the word modified: The Gulf Stream can be traced 
 along the shores of the United States by the blueness of the 
 water. 
 
 9. Interjections 
 
 An Interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden 
 feeling: oh! ah! alas! 
 
 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 10. Modifications of the parts of speech are changes in 
 form to denote changes in meaning and use: man, men; 
 long, longer; go, went. These changes are called Inflection. 
 
 11. Modifications of the Noun 
 
 The modifications of the noun and pronoun are Person, 
 Number, Gender, Case. 
 
 Note. — Nouns have no distinct forms to show person, and in 
 English only few have forms to show gender. A noun is usually in the 
 third person, unless it is in apposition with a pronoun of the first or 
 second person. 
 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH 5 
 
 1. Person. A pronoun or noun is in the First Person 
 when it denotes the speaker: /, we; in the Second Person 
 when it denotes the one spoken to: thou, you; in the Third 
 Person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of: he, 
 she, it. 
 
 2. Number. A noun or pronoun is in the Singular Num- 
 ber when it denotes one person or thing: man, book, I, he; 
 in the Plural Number when it denotes more than one: men, 
 books, we, they. 
 
 3. Gender. 
 
 (a) The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex: 
 
 man, boy, he. 
 
 (b) The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex: 
 
 woman, girl, she. 
 
 (c) The Neuter Gender denotes want of sex: house, 
 
 book, it. 
 
 (d) A noun or pronoun denoting either male or 
 
 female is said to be of the Common Gender: 
 parent, child, I, we. 
 
 4. Case. The Case of a noun depends on its use in the 
 sentence. 
 
 There are three cases in English: 
 
 (a) The Nominative Case, used in the subject 
 
 and predicate: His brother is a soldier. 
 
 (b) The Possessive Case, used to denote possession: 
 
 Shakespeare's plays are more frequently per- 
 formed in Germany than in England. 
 
 (c) The Objective Case, used as object of a 
 
 transitive verb or of a preposition: I met 
 the man at his house. 
 
 Note. — In English the noun has special forms to denote case only 
 for the possessive case. 
 
6 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 12. Modification of the Adjective 
 
 i. Comparison. Adjectives and adverbs are compared 
 to show the relative degree of the quality or quantity 
 in the things compared. 
 
 2. The Positive Degree denotes the simple quality or 
 quantity: large, much, small. 
 
 3. The Comparative Degree denotes a greater or less 
 degree: larger, more, smaller. 
 
 4. The Superlative Degree denotes the greatest or least 
 degree: largest, most, smallest. 
 
 5. In English adjectives and adverbs are regularly com- 
 pared by adding to the positive -er or -r to form the com- 
 parative, and -est or -st to form the superlative. Adjectives 
 of more than two syllables are usually compared by means 
 of the adverbs more, most; less, least. 
 
 13. Modifications of the Verb 
 
 1. The Modifications of the verb are Person, Number, 
 Tense, Voice, and Mood. The inflection of the verb to 
 show these modifications is called Conjugation. 
 
 2. The Person and Number of a verb correspond to the 
 person and number of its subject. 
 
 3. There are six Tenses; as follows: 
 
 (a) The Present tense denotes present time: I go; 
 
 (b) The Past (also called Imperfect or Preterit) 
 
 denotes past time: I went; 
 
 (c) The Present Perfect (or simply Perfect) denotes 
 
 action completed in the present time: I have 
 gone; 
 
 (d) The Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) denotes action 
 
 completed in past time: I had gone; 
 
 (e) The Future denotes future time: I shall go; 
 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH 7 
 
 (f) The Future Perfect denotes action completed 
 in future time: I shall have gone. 
 
 4. Voice is that modification of the verb which shows 
 whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted 
 upon. 
 
 (a) The Active Voice shows that the subject names 
 
 the actor: The boy strikes the dog. 
 
 (b) The Passive Voice shows that the subject de- 
 
 notes the thing or person acted upon: The 
 dog was struck by the boy. 
 
 5. Mood, or Mode, is that modification of the verb which 
 denotes the manner of asserting or stating the action or being. 
 
 (a) The Indicative Mood states the action as a 
 
 fact : The earth is round. Is the earth round? 
 
 (b) The Subjunctive Mood asserts the action as 
 
 conditioned, possible, desired, doubted, un- 
 real: Oh, that the war were over! If he knew 
 more, he would speak less. 
 
 Note. — In colloquial English of to-day the subjunctive is almost 
 extinct. In German it is much used. 
 
 (c) The Imperative Mood is used to express a com- 
 
 mand or an entreaty: Listen to me. Sing 
 for us, please. 
 
 6. The Infinitive merely names the action or being. It 
 may be either Present, to sing, to ride; or Perfect, to have 
 sung, to have ridden. In either form it may be used sub- 
 stantively or verbally: To ride is pleasant. I saw them ride 
 home. 
 
 7. The Participle is a verbal adjective. It may be either 
 Present, Past, or Past Perfect. 
 
 (a) The Present Participle denotes the action as 
 going on: going, singing. 
 
8 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 (b) The Past Participle denotes the action as com- 
 
 pleted: gone, sung. 
 
 (c) The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or 
 
 being as completed at a time previous to 
 that indicated by the predicate: Having sent 
 him a letter, I resumed my work. 
 
 THE SENTENCE 
 
 14. A Sentence is a group of words expressing a com- 
 plete thought: It is cold. Dogs bark. 
 
 i. A Declarative Sentence is one that asserts something 
 as a fact: The sun shines. 
 
 2. An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a question: 
 Did the bell ring? 
 
 3. An Imperative Sentence expresses a command or 
 request: Go home. Please tell me the time. 
 
 4. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses strong 
 feeling or emotion: "How are the mighty J alien! ,: 
 
 15. A sentence consists of two parts, Subject and Predicate. 
 
 1. The Subject denotes the person or thing about which 
 something is said: Dogs bark. He is tall. 
 
 2. The Predicate asserts something about the subject: 
 Dogs bark. He is tall. 
 
 Note. — Both subject and predicate may have modifiers: Some 
 small dogs bark very loudly. 
 
 16. The Object of a transitive verb completes the meaning 
 of the verb and denotes that which receives the action: He 
 struck the ball. I saw him. 
 
 1. The Direct Object denotes that which is directly af- 
 fected by the action: He brought me a letter. 
 
 2. The Indirect Object denotes that to or for which the 
 action is done: He brought me a letter. 
 
THE SENTENCE 9 
 
 3. Certain intransitive verbs and also certain verbs in 
 the passive require a Predicate Noun or Predicate Adjective 
 to complete their meaning by defining or describing the 
 subject: He is an old soldier. This cat is black. Our friend 
 was chosen chairman. 
 
 17. 1. A Simple Sentence is one that expresses one 
 thought and has but one subject and predicate, either of 
 which may, however, be compound: The weather is fair. 
 Man and beast alike suffered from cold and longed for spring. 
 
 2. A Compound Sentence is one that contains two or 
 more statements of the same rank: The sun is 93,000,000 
 miles from the earth, but the stars are much more distant. 
 
 3. A Complex Sentence is one that contains at least one 
 independent clause (statement) and one or more dependent 
 clauses: His friends went home when the moon rose. 
 
 4. An Independent Clause is one that can stand alone and 
 does not qualify or limit another statement: His friends went 
 home. 
 
 5. A Dependent or Subordinate Clause is one that cannot 
 stand alone; it qualifies or limits some other statement: 
 This is the place where the deed was done. 
 
 6. Dependent clauses are, according to their use, desig- 
 nated as: 
 
 (a) Adverbial Clauses, It was raining when we 
 
 arrived; 
 
 (b) Adjective Clauses, I do not recall the day on 
 
 which I saw him; 
 
 (c) Noun Clauses, We saw that night was falling. 
 
 * 
 
GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 THE ARTICLE 
 The Definite Article 
 
 18. 
 
 Declension. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 Nom. ber 
 
 bte 
 
 ba3 
 
 bte 
 
 Gen. beS 
 
 ber 
 
 beS 
 
 ber 
 
 Dat. bent 
 
 ber 
 
 bent 
 
 ben 
 
 Ace. ben 
 
 bte 
 
 bag 
 
 bte 
 
 19. Contractions. The most common contractions of the 
 definite article with prepositions are the following: 
 
 am = an bent tnt = in bent 
 
 an$ = an bag in$ = in ba& 
 
 auf$ = auf bag bom = Don bem 
 
 betm = bet bem gum = gu bem 
 
 burd)8 = burd) ba8 gur = gu ber 
 furs = fur ba$ 
 
 20. Use of the Definite Article. The use of the definite 
 article closely resembles the use of the definite article in 
 English. The following exceptions to this should, however, 
 be noted. In German the article is used: 
 
 i. With nouns used in the generic or general sense: 
 £)er Sftenfdj tft fterbltdj, Man is mortal. 
 
 2. With names of the seasons, months, days of the week, 
 the points of the compass : ber Winter, ber 9M, ber Sftontao,, 
 ber •iftorben. 
 
THE ARTICLE 
 
 ii 
 
 3. With names of streets, proper names preceded by an 
 adjective, and masculine and feminine names of places: 
 in ber grtebridjftrafee, ba% fcereinte ©eutfdjlanb, bie ©djtoets, 
 gretburg tm 33ret3a.au. 
 
 21. The definite article is often used instead of the pos- 
 sessive adjective. But this is only done when the possessive 
 relation is quite clear: (gr ftecfte bie &anb in bie £afdje, He 
 put his hand in his pocket. £)er 53ater toar ifmt geftorben, 
 His father had died, ©ie Derbanb tf)m ben Singer, She ban- 
 daged his finger. 
 
 The Indefinite Article 
 
 22. 
 
 Declension. 
 
 
 
 Plural of fetn 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 
 em 
 
 cine 
 
 etn 
 
 feme 
 
 
 eme3 
 
 einer 
 
 emeS 
 
 feiner 
 
 
 einem 
 
 enter 
 
 einem 
 
 feinen 
 
 
 einen 
 
 cine 
 
 etn 
 
 feine 
 
 Note. — (Sin has no plural. $ein, the negative indefinite article, is 
 declined like etn in the singular; in the plural it is declined as shown 
 above. 
 
 23. Use of the Indefinite Article. The use of the indefinite 
 article closely resembles that of the English indefinite ar- 
 ticle. However, it is omitted after at£ and ofyne, and gener- 
 ally also before an unmodified predicate noun denoting a 
 profession, calling, rank, party, or sect: 2113 $iinftler tear 
 er nodj unbefannt, As an artist he was still unknown. (Sr ift 
 £ef)rer, unb fetn SBruber ift 2Ir$t, He is a teacher and his brother 
 is a physician, (gr ift ^roteftant, <So$taIbemofrat, He is a 
 Protestant, a Social Democrat, ©ie ift erne ante $atf)olifm, 
 She is a good Catholic. (£m $bmg ofme $6ntgretcf), A king 
 without a kingdom. 
 
12 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 THE NOUN 
 
 24. It is necessary to know the gender of a noun be- 
 fore one can decline it. In English the natural gender 
 determines the grammatical gender; in German this is not 
 ordinarily the case. There are no absolutely definite rules 
 for determining the gender of a German noun; therefore 
 the student should learn each noun with its proper defi- 
 nite article. The German for boy is not $nabe, but ber 
 £nabe. 
 
 25. Rules for the Determination of Gender, 
 i. The following are Masculine: 
 
 (a) Nouns ending in -er denoting the agent: ber 
 
 2lr better, ber (Partner. 
 
 (b) Names of days, months, seasons, and points of 
 
 the compass: ber SD?ontag, ber 3unt, ber @om= 
 mcr, ber 9corben. 
 
 (c) Nouns ending in -tg, -tdj, -ling: ber ^>ontg, ber 
 
 Xcpptd), ber grueling. 
 
 2. The following are Feminine: 
 
 (a) Nouns ending in -ct, -fyett, -in, -fett, -fdjaft, 
 
 -ung; -te, -if, -ton, -ur, -tat: Me £ef)rerm, Me 
 (5tnf)ett, Me greimbfd)aft, Me SDhtftf, Me 9catur, Me 
 Nation, Me Cualttat. 
 
 (b) Most nouns ending in -e and not masculine by 
 
 natural gender, nor beginning with ©e-: Me 
 2£od)e, Me ©rbfee, Me SBhime, Me (Stdje, Me 
 £tebe. 
 
 3. The following are Neuter: 
 
 (a) All infinitives used as nouns: ba& £efen, ba§ 
 ©tngen. 
 
DECLENSION OF NOUNS 13 
 
 (b) Diminutives in -djen and -kin: bag 9D?cibd)en, bag 
 
 grciulctn, bag ^mugdjen. 
 
 (c) Collective nouns beginning with ©e- and end- 
 
 • ing in -e: bag ©ebirge, bag ©etretbe, bag 
 ©ebaube. 
 
 (d) Most nouns in -ntg, -fal, -fel, -turn: bag ©efang.- 
 
 ntg, bag 9?atfel, bag (Sbriftentum ; but toe ^enntntg, 
 bte £ritbfal, ber 3rrtum, ber SKeidjtiim. 
 
 (e) Names of cities and most names of countries: 
 
 bag alte Slom, bag fiibltcfje granfreidj; but bte 
 ©d&toets, bte Xiixtd. 
 
 (f) Names of minerals: bag (Sifen, bag 93fei; but ber 
 
 ©ta&l. 
 
 DECLENSION OF NOUNS 
 
 . 26. There are three noun declensions in German: the 
 Strong, the Weak, and the Mixed. 
 
 27. The Strong Declension falls into three classes, ac- 
 cording to the ending of the nominative plural. Class I 
 takes no ending, Class II takes -e, and Class III takes -er. 
 
 28. The genitive singular of masculine and neuter nouns 
 of the strong declension is formed by adding -g or -eg to the 
 nominative singular. 
 
 29. No feminine noun takes an ending in the singular. 
 
 30. The dative plural of all nouns ends in -tt. 
 
 31. Weak nouns add -en or -n to the nominative singular 
 to form all other cases. 
 
 32. Mixed nouns are strong in the singular and weak in 
 the plural. 
 
 Note i . — The nominative and genitive singular and the nominative 
 plural are called the principal parts of a noun. 
 
 Note 2. — The last member of a compound noun determines its 
 gender and inflection. 
 
14 
 
 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 33. 
 
 General Scheme of Noun Declension. 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Strong 
 Class I Class II 
 
 Class III 
 Singular 
 
 Weak 
 
 Mixed 
 
 Gen. 
 
 — g — 8 or eg 
 
 — g or eg 
 
 — en or n — g or eg 
 
 Dat. 
 
 — — e 
 
 — e 
 
 — en or n — 
 
 Ace. 
 
 — — 
 
 — 
 
 — en or n — 
 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 LI * LA t * 
 
 — er 
 
 — en or n — en or n 
 
 Gen. 
 
 (..) (••)- 
 
 — er 
 
 — en or n — en or n 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Hi % 
 
 — ern 
 
 — en or n — en or n 
 
 Ace. 
 
 (•■) (-) c 
 
 — er 
 
 — en or n — en or n 
 
 34. 
 
 Strong Declension, 
 
 Class I. 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 
 Nom. 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 Ace. 
 
 ber ©arten 
 beg ©arteng 
 bem ©arten 
 ben ©arten 
 
 bie £od)ter 
 ber £od)ter 
 ber Jotter 
 bie £od)ter 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 bag ©ebaube 
 beg ©ebaubeg 
 bem ©ebaube 
 bag ©ebaube 
 
 Nom. 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 Ace. 
 
 bie ©arten 
 ber ©arten 
 ben ©arten 
 bie ©arten 
 
 bie £otf)ter 
 ber £od)ter 
 ben £od)tern 
 bie £od()ter 
 
 bie ©ebaube 
 ber ©ebaube 
 ben (Stbaubm 
 bie ©ebaube 
 
 i. The genitive singular of masculine and neuter nouns 
 of this class is formed by adding -g (never -eg) to the nomina- 
 tive singular. 
 
 35. Membership. To this class belong: 
 
 i. Masculines and neuters in -el, -en, -er. Exceptions: 
 ber SBauer, ber better, which belong to the mixed declension. 
 
 * (••) denotes that the umlaut is not used in all of the nouns belong- 
 ing to this class. 
 
bag ©efyetmnig 
 beg ©efjeimmffeg 
 bent ©efyeimnig 
 bag ®ef)ehnntg 
 
 DECLENSION OF NOUNS 15 
 
 2. The feminines Me Gutter and bie £odjter. 
 
 3. The diminutives in -djen and -lein. 
 
 4. The neuters beginning with ©e- and ending in -e, and 
 the masculine ber $cife. 
 
 36. Strong Declension, Class II. 
 
 Singular | 
 
 Nom. ber©tiu)l bag ^ferb bie ©anb 
 
 Gen. beg©tiu)l(e)g beg <!Pferb(e)g ber £anb 
 
 Dat. bem@tuf)l(e) bem ^3f erb (e) ber^kmb 
 
 Ace. ben <Stuf)l bag ^ferb bie £>anb 
 
 Plural 
 
 Nom. bie ©tiifjle bie $ferbe bie §cinbe bte ©efyehnntffe 
 
 Gen. ber ©tiifyte ber ^ferbe ber £>anbe ber ©efyeimniffe 
 
 Dat. ben ©tiifylen ben "i)3ferben ben £>anben ^>en ©eftetmntffen 
 
 Ace. bie ©tiifjle bie ^ferbe bie ^anbe bk ©efjeimniffe 
 
 1. The -e in the genitive singular is optional, except 
 when the noun ends in a sibilant: ber £if(f), beg £ifd)eg; 
 ber Slufe, beg Stuff eg. Words of more than one syllable 
 usually take only -g. The dative of monosyllables usually 
 has -e, especially when the following word begins with a 
 consonant. 
 
 2. Nouns ending in -nig double the g before the case 
 ending : bag SSerfyaltntg, bie 53ert)dltntffe. 
 
 3. The majority of the masculines and all feminines take 
 umlaut when the vowel permits. 
 
 37. Membership. To this class belong: 
 
 1. Most monosyllabic masculines. 
 
 2. Nouns in -id), -to,, -ling (all these are masculine), 
 -funft, -nig, -fat. 
 
 3. Many monosyllabic neuters and feminines. 
 
i6 
 
 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 4. List of feminine nouns belonging to this class: 
 
 Me 2lngft anxiety 
 
 biefluft cleft 
 
 bie 9todjt night 
 
 bie 2lrt ' ax 
 
 bie $rctft strength 
 
 bie 91af)t seam 
 
 bie 53cmf bench 
 
 bte $tut) cow 
 
 bie 9lot weed 
 
 bte 33ruft breast V 
 
 bie $unft art 
 
 bie Sftufj ww/ 
 
 bie gcmft fist 
 
 bie Saug louse 
 
 bie ©cm saw 
 
 bie grud)ty>w^ V 
 
 bie £uft air 
 
 bie ©djnur string 
 
 bie ©cm$ goose ^ 
 
 bie Suft pleasure 
 
 bie ©tabt «7y 
 
 bie ©ruft vault 
 
 bie SD^ac^t wig/?/ 
 
 bie SBBcmb wall 
 
 bie £>cmb kwd 
 
 bie SOMgb waia 7 
 
 bie 2Burft sausage 
 
 bie §aut foVfc, s&iw 
 
 bie 9D?aug w0w.se 
 
 bie 3imft gwi/a 7 
 
 38. Strong Declension, Class III. 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Norn. ba& £orf 
 
 ber 2Mb 
 
 ber $tod)titm 
 
 Gen. beg £orfeg 
 
 beg 2Balbeg 
 
 • beg 9?eid)tumg 
 
 Dat. bem £orfe 
 
 bem 2Balbe 
 
 bem $eid)tum 
 
 Ace. ba% £)orf 
 
 ben 83alb 
 
 Plural 
 
 ben SRetdjtum 
 
 Nom. bie 3)orfer 
 
 bie 2Balber 
 
 bie 9tocf)tiimer 
 
 Gen. ber £)orfer 
 
 ber SBalber 
 
 ber 3todjrumer 
 
 Dat. ben £)orfern 
 
 ben 2Bdlbern 
 
 ben Sttetdjritment 
 
 Ace. bie £orfer 
 
 bie SBalber 
 
 bie 9to$tiimer 
 
 1. In the singular these nouns are declined like those of 
 class II. 
 
 2. All nouns of this class take umlaut in the plural, when 
 possible. 
 
 39. Membership. To this class belong: 
 
 1. Most monosyllabic neuters. 
 
 2. All nouns in -turn. 
 
 3. A small number of monosyllabic masculines. 
 
 Note. — No feminine nouns belong to this class. 
 
DECLENSION OF NOUNS 
 
 17 
 
 40. Weak Declension. 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 ber $nabe 
 
 bte SBlume 
 
 bte Sefyrertn 
 
 Gen. 
 
 beg $naben 
 
 ber SBlume 
 
 ber £ef)rertn 
 
 Dat. 
 
 bem toaben 
 
 ber 931ume 
 
 ber £efyrertn 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ben $naben 
 
 bte SBIume 
 
 Plural 
 
 bte £ef)rerm 
 
 Nom. 
 
 bte $naben 
 
 bte 33 lumen 
 
 bte £ef)rertnnen 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ber $naben 
 
 ber 331umen 
 
 ber £e()rertnnen 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ben $naben 
 
 ben SBlumen 
 
 ben £ef)rermnen 
 
 Ace. 
 
 bte $nabcn 
 
 bte 93tumen 
 
 bte £efyrertnnen 
 
 1. Masculine nouns add -en or -n to the nominative 
 singular to form all other cases; feminines add -en or -n 
 only in the plural. Nouns ending in -e, -el, -er add -n, 
 others -en. Feminines in -in double the n before the case 
 ending. 
 
 Note i . — No weak noun takes umlaut to form the plural. 
 Note 2. — SDer £>err takes only -n in the singular, but -en in the 
 plural : be3 £errn, bie ^errcn. 
 
 41. Membership. To this declension belong: 
 
 1. All feminines, except those listed under 35, 2 and 37. 
 
 2. Many masculines that denote living beings, a number 
 of which end in -e: ber 93urfd)e, ber £otr>e, ber SDtafd). 
 
 3. A number of masculine nouns of foreign origin accented 
 on the last syllable : ber ©tubent, ber ©olbat, ber $anbtbat. 
 
 Note. — This declension contains no neuter nouns. 
 
 42. Mixed Declension. 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 ber £)oftor 
 
 bag Huge 
 
 bag ©tubtum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 beg £:oftorg 
 
 beg Hugeg 
 
 beg ©tubtumg 
 
 Dat. 
 
 bent £oftor 
 
 bem 2luge 
 
 bem ©tubtum 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ben 2>oftor 
 
 bag 2luge 
 
 bag ©tubtum 
 
i8 
 
 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Me 2)oftoren 
 
 bte 2Iugen 
 
 bte ©tubten 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ber £>oftoren 
 
 ber 2lugen 
 
 ber ©tubten 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ben 3)o!toren 
 
 ben 2Iugen 
 
 ben ©tubten 
 
 Ace. 
 
 bte 3)oFtoren 
 
 bte 2lugen 
 
 bte (Stubten 
 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 ber ^cemte (teamen) 
 
 ba3 §erg 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 be3 yiammd 
 
 
 be3 £>ergen$ 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 bem Harnett 
 
 
 bem £>eqen 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ben 9carrten 
 
 Plural 
 
 ba$ £er$ 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 bte Dtanten 
 
 
 bte §er$en 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ber Stamen 
 
 
 ber Bergen 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ben 9tamen 
 
 
 ben £)ergen 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 bie 9?amen 
 
 
 bte §ergen 
 
 i. Nouns of the mixed declension are strong in the 
 singular and weak in the plural. 
 
 2. Neuter foreign nouns in -al, -il form the plural by- 
 adding -ten, those in -turn drop the -um before adding -tn. 
 
 3. About ten masculine nouns whose nominative singular 
 may end either in -e or -en have -en$ in the genitive singular 
 and -en in all other cases. 
 
 43. Membership. As no really helpful rules for member- 
 ship can be given, a partial list of the nouns belonging to 
 this class is given below. The nouns in -or, -turn, -al, -tl, 
 are not included in the list. 
 
 bct3 2luge eye 
 ber 93auer peasant 
 baSSBett bed 
 ber £orn thorn 
 ba3 (Snbe end 
 ba& ^ernb shirt 
 
 ber 3ftaft mast 
 ber 9Q?u3fel muscle 
 ber yiatfybav neighbor 
 ba& £)f)r ear 
 ber @ee lake 
 ber ©taat state 
 
 ber <Stad)el goad 
 ber <Stra()l ray 
 ber Untertan subject 
 ber better cousin 
 ber 53orfaf)r ancestor 
 ber 3u\% interest 
 
THE ADJECTIVE 19 
 
 1. The masculines having -en£ in the genitive are: 
 
 ber grteben peace ber (befallen favor ber ^ame name 
 
 ber gunfen spark ber ©laube faith ber ©ame seed- 
 
 ber ©ebanfe thought ber §aufen heap ber SBtlle wi// 
 
 Note. — This class contains no feminine nouns. 
 
 44. General Statement Covering Use of Umlaut. Weak 
 and mixed nouns never take umlaut in the plural. Nouns of 
 the third class always take it. In class II monosyllabic mas- 
 culines usually and feminines always take umlaut. In class 
 I the feminines and about twenty masculines take umlaut. 
 
 45. Declension of Proper Names. Proper names form 
 the genitive singular by adding -3 without apostrophe: 
 ®axl$, Partes, £>eutfd)lanb3. When preceded by the definite 
 article, they take no ending: bie 2Berfe be$ jungen ©djttler. 
 When preceded by an adjective, the definite article must 
 always be used with proper names. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 46. There are two kinds of adjectives: 
 
 The definite article, the indefinite article, the 
 
 1. Limiting 
 
 possessive, the demonstrative, interroga- 
 tive, and indefinite adjectives, and the 
 numerals. See 4, 2. 
 2. Descriptive; as gut, fang, fdjon. 
 
 Declension of Adjectives 
 
 47. When we speak of adjective declension or comparison, 
 we refer to descriptive adjectives only. Limiting adjectives 
 have their own declension. 
 
 48. Adjectives are not inflected when used as predicate 
 
20 
 
 ELEMENTS OF 'GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 adjectives: Qa.% i8ud) tft rot, or when used appositively, as 
 „9t"o3lein, 9?b3lein, 9?o3letn rot." 
 
 49. Adjectives are inflected when they precede the noun 
 they modify (this noun may be expressed or understood), 
 and when used as nouns: ba% rote 23ud), bie gelbe SBlume unb 
 bie loetfee, (Sin ©djtoarger toar fjter. 
 
 50. A qualifying adjective can be inflected either weak 
 or strong. Whether an adjective should be inflected weak or 
 strong in any given instance depends entirely on what 
 precedes it. 
 
 Rule. If a limiting adjective with a " distinctive end- 
 ing " precedes a descriptive adjective, the latter is inflected 
 weak, otherwise it is inflected strong. 
 
 Note. — A Distinctive ending is one that shows the gender, number, 
 
 and case of the following noun 
 
 . See 53 and 55 note. 
 
 
 51. Weak Declension 
 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 ber lange SBletfttft 
 
 bie alte geber 
 
 ba$ neue $letb 
 
 Gen. 
 
 be3 langen SBletfttfteS 
 
 ber alten geber 
 
 be6 neuen JHetbeS 
 
 Dat. 
 
 bent langen SBleifttft 
 
 ber alten geber 
 
 bent neuen $leib(e) 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ben langen SBletftift 
 
 bie alte geber 
 
 Plural 
 
 ba3 neue $letb 
 
 Nom. 
 
 bie langen SBleifttfte 
 
 bie alten gebern 
 
 bie neuen £letber 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ber langen SBletfrifte 
 
 ber alten gebern 
 
 ber neuen $Ietber 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ben langen SBletftiften 
 
 ben alten gebern 
 
 ben neuen $leibern 
 
 Ace. 
 
 bie langen SBletftifte 
 
 bie alten getern 
 
 bie neuen $leiber 
 
 52. 
 
 Weak Endings. 
 
 
 
 
 -e -c 
 
 -e 
 
 -en 
 
 
 -en -en 
 
 -en 
 
 -en 
 
 
 -en -en 
 
 -en 
 
 -en 
 
 
 -en -e 
 
 -e 
 
 -en 
 
THE ADJECTIVE' 
 
 21 
 
 53. According to rule given in 50, the weak endings must 
 be used: 
 
 (a) After all forms of ber, btefer, jener, jeber, ft)eld)er 
 
 (when inflected), ctlte, berfelbe, berjemge; 
 
 (b) After ein, fetn, and all the possessive adjectives 
 
 (metn, betrt, fetn, unfer, euer, iljr, 3br), except 
 where these have no distinctive ending; viz., 
 in the nominative singular masculine and 
 neuter, and the accusative singular neuter. 
 
 (c) After the nominative and accusative plural of 
 
 mcmdjer and folder (even when inflected) and 
 also after eintcje, cmbere, and betbe, the strong 
 forms are preferred; elsewhere the adjectives 
 that follow etntge, cmbere, beibe, member, folder 
 require weak endings. 
 
 54. Strong Declension 
 
 Singular 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Ictncjer 23letfttft 
 
 alte geber 
 
 neueg $letb 
 
 Gen. 
 
 lemgett (eg) 23letfttftes 
 
 * alter geber 
 
 neuen (eg) $letbeg 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Icmcjem 93letfttft 
 
 alter geber 
 
 neuem $letbe 
 
 Ace. 
 
 lanften 33letfttft 
 
 alte geber 
 
 Plural 
 
 neueg $letb 
 
 Nom. 
 
 lange 931etfttfte 
 
 alte gebern 
 
 neue JHetber 
 
 Gen. 
 
 fancjer 93letftifte 
 
 alter gebern 
 
 neuer ^leiber 
 
 Dat. 
 
 langen SBletfttften 
 
 alten gebent 
 
 neuen $letbern 
 
 Ace. 
 
 lange 93letftifte 
 
 alte gebern 
 
 neue $letber 
 
 55. 
 
 Strong Endings. 
 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 -er -e 
 
 -e^ 
 
 -e 
 
 
 -en (eg) -er 
 
 -en (eg) 
 
 -er 
 
 
 -em -er 
 
 -em 
 
 -en 
 
 
 -en -e 
 
 -eg 
 
 -e 
 
2 2 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 Note. — The strong endings of the adjective are those of biefer 
 except in the genitive singular of the masculine and neuter, where the 
 weak ending -en is generally used when the noun ends in -g or -eg. 
 Thus: fyarten <Steme$, alten £aufe3, instead of fyarteS ©teineS and alteS 
 ^)aufe6. (This is done to avoid the repetition of the s-sound.) 
 
 56. The strong endings are used when the adjective is 
 not preceded by a word with a distinctive ending. See 
 50, Rule and note, also 53. 
 
 57. After the indefinite article em and all words declined 
 like it, adjectives have the following endings : 
 
 Plural of fcin 
 
 Nom. em -cr erne -e em -e£ feme -en 
 
 Gen. etrteS -en etner -en etneg -en Fetner -en 
 
 Dat. etnem -en etner -en etnem -en Fetnen -en 
 
 Ace. etnen -en etne -c em -e£ Feme -en 
 
 Note. — As ern has no plural the plural of fetn was substituted in 
 the paradigm. Note that the adjective has the strong ending when- 
 ever em has no ending. This is sometimes called the mixed declension 
 of the adjective. 
 
 58. Two or more adjectives of coordinate rank preceding 
 one noun have the same endings: mem outer, alter ^Better; 
 fcfyone, rote 9?ofen. 
 
 59. An adverb or numeral coming between the descrip- 
 tive adjective and the limiting adjective does not affect 
 the inflection: Me gtoet grofeen $ferbe, bctS f$on lange oergeffene 
 SBort, em aug ©olg gemadjter £tfd). 
 
 Caution. The inflection of the noun does not affect the 
 inflection of the adjective, except as stated in the note to 55. 
 
 60. Adjectives and participles when used as nouns are 
 capitalized as nouns, but they retain their adjective inflec- 
 tion. Thus: em Hlter, ber 2lfte, em (MeFjrter, ber ©eletjrte, 
 ettoaS 9?eue$, mcmdjeS ©ute. 
 
 61. When adjectives are used as nouns, the masculine 
 
THE ADJECTIVE 23 
 
 singular usually refers to men, the feminine singular to 
 women, the plural to either, the neuter singular to objects, 
 the young of animals, and children. Thus: ber $ranfe, 
 the sick man; Me $ranfe, the sick woman; Me $rcmfert, the 
 sick people; ba$ ©djone, the beautiful; ba& 2llte, the old; ba$ 
 $leme, the little thing, the little one, the baby. 
 
 62. Adjectives derived from proper names are not capi- 
 talized in German as they are in English: ba$ amertfantfdje 
 23olf, Me enajtfdje $reffe. 
 
 Note. — Adjectives in -cr formed from names of places (^Berliner, 
 Joiner) are indeclinable and are usually capitalized, though at present 
 there is a tendency not to capitalize them. 
 
 63. Irregularities of Adjective Declension. 
 
 1. Adjectives ending in -el, -en, -er usually drop the e 
 of the final syllable before an inflectional ending: ebel, em 
 ebter Wlann; felten, ba& felt(e)rte SBudj; fetter, ein f)eit(e)rer Xag. 
 
 2. The adjective fyodj drops the c before endings beginning 
 with a vowel : ber SBaum ift f)0d), but ber f)of)e SBamn. 
 
 3. Before neuter names of places Q,ctrt£ and halb are not 
 inflected unless preceded by an article: gang 2)eutfd)Ianb, 
 fyalb (gnglanb, but baS gan$e £)eutfd)Ianb. 
 
 Comparison of Adjectives 
 
 64. Adjectives regularly form the comparative by adding 
 -er, the superlative by adding -ft to the positive : 
 
 _ ... _ A . Relative Adverbial 
 
 Positive Comparative ~ . . „ , . 
 
 superlative Superlative 
 
 retdj reiser ber (Me, ba&) retdjfte am retdjftert 
 
 tief tiefer ber tteffte am ttefften 
 
 65. A few of the more common monosyllabic adjectives 
 have umlaut in the comparative and superlative: arm, 
 armer, ber iirmfte, am armften. 
 
24 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 i. List of the more common adjectives having umlaut: 
 alt, arg, arm, grob, grofe, bart, f)od), jung, fait, flug, franf, fuq, 
 lang, nab, fdjarf, fdjtuad), fdfotoarg, ftarf, toarm, and sometimes 
 bang, bumm, rot, fromm, fdfomal. 
 
 Note. — Than and as are rendered in German by a(3 and fine 
 respectively. Thus: He is taller than I, (Sr ift grower alS id). He is 
 as tall as his father, (Sr ift (o arofe ttue fetn 33ater. That is, ai$ is used 
 after a comparative and tt)tc after a positive. 
 
 66. Adjectives ending in -e, -el, -en, -er usually drop the 
 e of the last syllable in the comparative but retain it in the 
 superlative. Thus : 
 
 toetfe metfer ber roeifefte 
 
 ebel ebler ber ebelfte 
 
 felten felt(e)ner ber feltenfte 
 
 better f)ett(e)rer ber fjeiterfte 
 
 67. Adjectives ending in -b, -t, or an s-sound (3, jj, fd), 
 I, 1j) form the superlative by adding -eft: furg, fiirger, ber 
 filrgefte. This is done to facilitate pronunciation. The 
 present participle and the past participle ending in -et are 
 exceptions: bte retjenbfte 2!u3(tdjt, the most charming view; 
 ber gead)tetfte 93iirger, the most respected citizen. 
 
 68. In the superlative there are two * forms, the relative 
 and the adverbial superlative. 
 
 i. The Relative Superlative is the regular superlative, 
 usually preceded by the definite article and is used both 
 attributively and in the predicate: bte befte geber, btefe geber 
 ift bte befte. 
 
 2. The Adverbial Superlative is the superlative with 
 am. It is only used in the predicate, never before a noun 
 (attributively). Thus: £)er Heine $nabe ift am fletfetgften, 
 but never, ber am fletfetgfte $ nabe. 
 
 * There is a third form, the so-called absolute superlative, cin after* 
 UebfteS £inb, cin aufoerft intereffanteS 93ud). 
 
THE ADJECTIVE 25 
 
 3. The adverbial superlative may be used instead of the 
 relative superlative in the predicate: liefer $nabe ift ber 
 flet&tgfte or am fleifjigften. ' 
 
 4. It must be used when a thing or person is compared 
 with itself in different times, conditions, or places: Um 
 6 Ufyr trxtr ber ©turrrt am hefttgften, At 6 o'clock the storm was 
 most violent. 2ln ber Dberflache roar ba% Staffer am toarmften, 
 At the surface the water was warmest. 
 
 69. The rules for the inflection of adjectives apply to the 
 comparative and superlative forms as well as to the posi- 
 tive. The case endings are added to the comparative and 
 the superlative endings. Thus: em dlterer SJtanrt, ba$ fleinfte 
 £inb, ber iiingere <£>orjn, em leurerer §ut. 
 
 Note. — As an aid in translation it is well to keep in mind that a 
 comparative in form is not always comparative in meaning. Thus, 
 G?in altcrcr SUJann arbeitete tm ©arten may mean an older man, or a some- 
 what or rather old man was working in the garden* This is called the 
 absolute use of the comparative. The same is true with regard to 
 the absolute superlative. 
 
 70. Irregular Comparison. As in English, some adjec- 
 tives are compared more or less irregularly: 
 
 grofe grower ber (bie, ba$) grofjte am grofeten 
 
 gut beffer ber befte am beften 
 
 triel mehr ber metfte am metften 
 
 Ijodj horjer ber hodjfte am hocfyften 
 
 nab ntther ber nftdjfte am nad)ften 
 
 . J toemger J ber roentgfte J am roemgften 
 
 I minber [ ber mmbefte | am mmbeften 
 
 71. Periphrastic Comparison. In certain cases adjectives 
 are compared by means of the adverbs mehr, am metften 
 instead of the regular endings, as: 
 
 1. When the comparison expresses different qualities of 
 the same object rather than different degrees of one quality : 
 £)er 2Ute ift mehr ehrltdj ate Hug. 
 
26 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 2. Adjectives that are used only in the predicate, as 
 angft, fetnb, letb, fdmlb: (Sr tft mebr fdmlb al$ id). 
 
 3. Frequently participles: 3)er fletfuge 33iirger rotrb mebr 
 geadjtet al3 feme ^adjbarn, The industrious citizen is more 
 respected than his neighbors. 
 
 72. Descending Comparison. A lower degree is expressed 
 by using the adverbs roeniger, rntnber, am roentgften, am mtrt- 
 beftert: SSentger Huge £eute fommen aud) burd)g £eben, Less 
 clever people also get through life. 
 
 73. Comparison of Adverbs. Like the positive, so the 
 comparative and the superlative of adjectives may also be 
 used adverbially. 
 
 1. When used as adverbs, the positive and the compara- 
 tive are not inflected: 3>r |nmb lauft fdmelL £)a$ $ferb 
 lauft fdmeller. 
 
 2. Of the three superlative forms only one, the adverbial 
 superlative, can be used adverbially : ©te fingt am fdjonften. 
 
 Note. — There is also an absolute superlative of the adverb: (£ie 
 fingt aufs frijonfte. 
 
 74. Cardinals. The cardinals 
 
 are: 
 
 1 em (3) 
 
 13 bret$elm 
 
 50 fimfetg 
 
 2 gtoet 
 
 14 uierjelm 
 
 60 fed)gtg 
 
 3 bret 
 
 15 fimfeelm 
 
 70 fteb(en)$tg 
 
 4 trier 
 
 16 fed)3erm 
 
 80 ad)tgig 
 
 5 ftinf 
 
 17 fteb(en)sefm 
 
 90 neungtg 
 
 6 fed)3 
 
 18 ad)tjelm 
 
 100 tmnbert 
 
 7 fieben 
 
 19 neungerm 
 
 101 lumber! unb etnS 
 
 8 adjt 
 
 20 smangtg 
 
 121 bunbert etnunbgtuan^tg 
 
 9 neun 
 
 21 emunbjroanstg 
 
 1000 taufenb 
 
 10 $elm 
 
 22 gtuetunbgroangtg 1,000,000 erne 9fttllton 
 
 n elf 
 
 30 bretfeig 
 
 
 12 groolf 
 
 40 trier$tg 
 
 - 
 
NUMERALS 27 
 
 1. Aside from Imnbert and taufenb, when these are used as 
 nouns (ba$ §unbert, ba3 £aufenb), only em is ordinarily 
 inflected. When used as an adjective, it is inflected like the 
 indefinite article (22) : (gr fyatte nur e t n 2luge, He had 
 only one eye. When used without a noun, it is inflected like 
 an adjective: (Sitter ift I)ter. Sine 6 toetfi id). 3dj fytbe 
 nur ben e i n e n gefefjen. 
 
 75. The Ordinals. Up to twenty the ordinals are formed 
 from the cardinals by adding -t: triert, gefmt, ad)tgefmt; from 
 twenty on they are formed by adding -ft: gtnanjtgft, etnunb* 
 atoan^igft, rmnbertft. 
 
 Exceptions : erft, brttt, ftebt and ftebent, adjt. 
 
 1. The ordinals are used only after the definite article or 
 some pronominal modifier and are inflected like adjectives. 
 Thus we never have gtneit, brttt, gtoansigjt, but ber (bte bctS) 
 atoette, brttte, jnoangtQfte, fein erfter ©ofm, ifjr trierteS $mb, ben 
 etmmbjtoangtajten (21. or 2iften) Qanuar. 
 
 76. Fractions are formed by means of the suffix -tel 
 (£ett) as follows: ba$ £)rtttel, SSicrtcI, 2W&teI, Stoanfafttl, 
 §unbertftel. Half as adjective is fyalb, as noun bte §alfte: 
 em fjatbe^ ^funb, half a pound, bte §alfte be3 3lpfel$, half of 
 the apple. Also note the forms anbertfyalb, one and a half, 
 brttt (e)fyalb, two and a half, triert (e)f)alb, etc. 
 
 77. The ordinal adverbs erftenS, gtoettenS, brtttenS, etc. are 
 derived from the ordinals by means of the suffix -en3. 
 
 1. From the cardinals are derived the adverbs etnmal, 
 gtoetmal, etc. by means of the suffix -mat, and four kinds of 
 adjectives by means of the following suffixes, -fad), -erlei, 
 -maltg, -falttcj: . 
 
 gtoetfadj, bretfadj, geljnfad); twofold, threefold, tenfold, 
 gtoeterlet, breterlet ; two kinds of, three kinds of, 
 etnmaltg, gtoetmaltcj; ba$ emmaltge @rfd)einen be3 ®etfte$, the 
 one (single) appearance of the ghost; 
 jtoetffiltia, (gtotefftltig,), twofold. 
 
28 
 
 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 THE PRONOUN 
 Personal Pronouns 
 
 78. Declension. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singuh 
 
 ir 
 
 
 
 First Person 
 
 Second Person 
 
 i 
 
 
 Third Person 
 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 
 F. N. 
 
 id) 
 
 bu 
 
 
 er 
 
 
 fie t$ 
 
 meiner 
 
 beiner 
 
 
 feiner 
 
 
 irjrer feiner 
 
 mir 
 
 bir 
 
 
 if)m 
 
 
 it)r irmt 
 
 midj 
 
 bid) 
 
 Plura! 
 
 irjn 
 
 I 
 
 
 fie e« 
 
 roir 
 
 it)r 
 
 
 
 fie 
 
 (®ie) 
 
 unfer 
 
 • euer 
 
 
 
 ifjrer 
 
 0f)rer) 
 
 un$ 
 
 eucf) 
 
 
 
 irjnen Ofmen) 
 
 un3 
 
 eucf) 
 
 
 
 fie 
 
 (@ie) 
 
 79. Pronouns of Address. 
 
 £)u (sing.) and tr)r (plu.) are used in addressing members 
 of one's own family, young children, intimate friends, God, 
 animals, and objects. ®ie is used in addressing strangers, 
 acquaintances, and less intimate friends. <Sie is always 
 capitalized to distinguish it from fie, they. Use the bu=form 
 in addressing persons whom you know well enough to address 
 by their given name. 
 
 Caution. Do not use two different forms of address in the 
 same sentence, or in speaking to one person. 
 
 Do not say, e.g., £rier ift 3 for §ut. 2Bi((ft bu irut auffer^en? 
 but: ^rier ift bein §ut. SStffft bu irm auffet^en? Just as in 
 English you would not say: Here is your hat. Wilt thou 
 put it on? 
 
 80. Adverbial Compounds. The forms of the third per- 
 son, when they refer to inanimate objects, are rarely used 
 
THE PRONOUN 29 
 
 after prepositions governing the dative or the accusative. 
 Compounds of the preposition with the adverb ba (or bar 
 before a vowel) are used instead: with it = bamtt, not mtt 
 tfmt; for them = bafiir, not fiir fie. 
 
 81. A personal pronoun referring to a preceding noun 
 must agree with its antecedent in number and gender: 
 £>ter ift em £)ut. SBem gefyort er? 3d) fyctbe rrtetne geber toer- 
 loren. £ctft bu ftc gefunben ? 
 
 82. Absolute Use of e3. ($3 is frequently used as the 
 subject of some form of fein without regard to the gender or 
 number of the predicate noun following; the verb agrees 
 with the predicate noun. The demonstrative pronouns 
 Me3 and ba$ (98) and the interrogative pronoun toeldjeS 
 (93) are used in the same way: (53 ift erne 9?ofe. (53 
 finb ftpfel. £)te3 ftnb metne (51tern. £>a3 toaren retdje £eute. 
 SSclcfje^ ftnb bte beften SBiicfyer ? 
 
 Possessive Pronouns and Adjectives 
 
 83. The possessives are called adjectives when they modify 
 a noun, tnein 53ud), xt)t ©ut; they are called pronouns when 
 they stand for the noun, £>ter ift mem 93ud). $3o ift beine3 
 (ba£ beine, ba3 beintge) ? 
 
 1. The possessive pronouns The possessive adjectives 
 
 are : are : 
 
 metner, mine mem, my 
 
 betner, yours, thine betn, your, thy 
 
 fetner, his, its fein, his, its 
 
 tfyrer, hers tfyr, /zer 
 
 unf(e)rer, ours unfer, 0«r 
 
 eu(e)rer, yours euer, yowr 
 
 tfyrer, l/teirc tljr, //*ez> 
 
 3'Urer, vowrs (polite address) 3ljr, yaw (polite address) 
 
3o 
 
 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 84. Declension of Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 metner 
 
 metne 
 
 metneS 
 
 metne 
 
 metneS 
 
 metner 
 
 metneS 
 
 metner 
 
 metnem 
 
 metner 
 
 metnem 
 
 metnen 
 
 metnen 
 
 metne 
 
 metneS 
 
 metne 
 
 i. When the possessive pronouns are preceded by the 
 
 definite article, they are declined like weak adjectives: 
 ber (bit, ba3) metne, betne, etc. (See 51.) 
 
 2. The forms ber (Me, ba§) metntge, beintge, fetnige, un frige, 
 etc. are also declined like weak adjectives. 
 
 85. Possessive adjectives are declined like the negative 
 indefinite article fetn: 
 
 mem 
 
 metne 
 
 mem 
 
 metne 
 
 metneS 
 
 metner 
 
 metneS 
 
 metner 
 
 metnem 
 
 metner 
 
 metnem 
 
 meinen 
 
 metnen 
 
 metne 
 
 metn 
 
 metne 
 
 Note i. — What has been said about the pronouns of address, bit, 
 tfyr, <Ste, (79) applies equally to their corresponding possessive pro- 
 nouns beiner, eurer, 3f)rer, and adjectives bein, euer, $fyv. 
 
 Note 2. — In the predicate the possessive pronouns need not be 
 inflected when they express ownership: £)ct3 93urfj tft mem. 2Ba3 mem 
 tft, i[t aud) bein. They are inflected when they denote identity: <2etn 
 9tat tft aud) meitter (ber metne, ber metntge), His advice is also mine. 3)tcfe 
 2lnftd)t tft aud) bte tfyre, This opinion is also hers. 3f)r- (hers, theirs, yours) 
 is always inflected. 
 
 Relative Pronouns 
 
 86. The common relatives are ber and toelcfyer. Both refer 
 to persons and things and are practically used interchangeably 
 except that in the genitive the forms of ber must always be 
 used. 
 
THE 
 
 PRONOUN 
 
 
 87. Declension. 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 M. F. 
 
 N. 
 
 M, F. N. 
 
 ber bie 
 
 ba$ 
 
 bie 
 
 beffen beren 
 
 beffen 
 
 beren 
 
 bent ber 
 
 bent 
 
 benen 
 
 ben bie 
 
 bctS 
 
 bie 
 
 toeldjer toeldje 
 
 roelc^e^ 
 
 toeldje 
 
 (beffen) (beren) 
 
 (beffen) 
 
 (beren) 
 
 toeldjem toetcfyer 
 
 toeldjem 
 
 toeldjen 
 
 toeldjen toeldje 
 
 roelcr)e^ 
 
 roelc^e 
 
 31 
 
 88. The relative agrees with its antecedent in gender and 
 number. The case of a relative, as of any noun or pronoun, 
 depends upon its use: 3)er 9D?cmn, ber (toeldjer) ba& getcm fyat, 
 ift mem greunb. £)er SBleiftift, ben (tr>eld)en) id) fanb, gefjort ifym. 
 
 Caution. In English the relative is frequently omitted; 
 in German this can not be done. The book I have is his, 
 2)ct3 93udj, bct3 (h>eld)e3) id) fyctbe, ift femes. 
 
 89. Adverbial Compounds. The dative and accusative 
 of a relative which refers to an inanimate object is frequently 
 replaced by a compound of the adverb too (toor before a 
 vowel) with the preposition: 3)er ©tufyl, tooranf (instead of 
 cmf bem) id) fafj; bie geber, toomtt (mit ber) fie fdjreibt. 
 
 90. SBer, whoever or he who, and toa3, whatever or that 
 which, more commonly used as interrogatives, are also used 
 as relatives. They are sometimes called compound relatives 
 because they usually include their antecedent. 
 
 j. Declension. 
 
 toer toa3 
 
 toeffen toeffen 
 
 mem 
 
 toen toa$ 
 
32 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 91. Use of SSer. SSer never has a noun antecedent. It 
 is chiefly used to introduce noun clauses: 2Ber ©elb fyat, 
 fyat ftxtunbt. Its antecedent is usually implied, but it may be 
 expressed in the form of a demonstrative pronoun: 2Ber 
 liigt, ber ftterjlt and); He who lies also steals. The antecedent 
 must be expressed when its case is different from that of the 
 relative : 2Ber einmal liigt, bent glaubt man nid)t. 
 
 i. 2Ber refers only to persons, one or more than one, 
 takes its verb in the singular, and is always used in an 
 indefinite sense. 
 
 92. Use of 2&ct3. 2Bct3 refers to things; like roer, it also is 
 used in an indefinite sense, but unlike roer it may have an 
 antecedent, though this is always a word expressing some 
 indefinite idea, such as an indefinite pronoun, a neuter ad- 
 jective, and even a neuter noun; it also refers to an entire 
 clause or idea: 2ttle3, toa3 er fagt, tft roafyr. £)aS tft nid)t ba3 
 3)ummfte, roa$ er gefdjrteben f)at, That isn't the most stupid 
 thing he has written. SDtan 53ruber fyat em £>au3 gefauft, roaS 
 mtr md)t gefallt, My brother bought a house, which (fact) does 
 not please me. But: Wfltin 93ruber fyat ein §auS gefauft, rr»elcf;e6 
 (the house) mtr m'cfjt gefallt. 
 
 Interrogative Pronouns 
 
 93. The interrogatives are roer, roa3, roelcfyer, roaS fiir ein 
 (roa$ fiir in the plu.). SKer and roaS are declined like the rela- 
 tives roer and roa$. See 90, i. 28eld)er is declined like a strong 
 adjective. 2Ber refers to persons and roa$ to things; they 
 are only used as pronouns. Sfikldjer and roa£ fiir ein refer to 
 persons and things; they are used as adjectives, though 
 roelcfyer may be used as a pronoun. SSer fyat ba$ getcm ? 2Ba3 
 fagten ©tc ? 2BeId)er ift eg ? SBaS fiir SBtrnen (pears) finb bag ? 
 9fltt roeldjer £>anb fdjreibt er ? 
 
THE PRONOUN 33 
 
 Note. — $iir in ft>a3 fur etn does not have the force of a preposi- 
 tion, and em is inflected as usual. Thus: 2Ba3 fur em Sfttann tft er? 
 9Ba3 fiir einem Stftann gaben <©tc baS ©elb? 2Ba3 fitr etnen Sftann fatten 
 <5te? 
 
 94. Adverbial Compounds. Instead of the dative, and 
 less frequently the accusative, after prepositions compounds 
 of the adverb too (tuor) with the preposition are used. 2Bor= 
 iiber rebete er? About what did he speak? 2Bo$u fagten ©ie 
 ba3 ? Why (wherefore) did you say that ? 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives 
 
 95. The demonstratives are ber, btefer, jener, fold)er, ber* 
 felbe, berjemge, fold) etner, em folder, fo einer. 
 
 96. Declension. 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 M. F. N. M. F. N. 
 
 ber Me bct3 bte 
 
 beffen beren beffen beren, berer 
 
 bem ber bem benen 
 
 ben bte ba$ bte 
 
 Note. — As an adjective ber is declined like the definite article, 
 but its vowel is stressed and long in all the forms except be3. 
 
 btefer btefe btefeS btefe 
 
 biefeS btefer btefe§ btefer 
 
 btefem btefer btefem btefen 
 
 btefen btefe btefem btefe 
 
 1. ©oldjer is declined like btefer; when it is preceded by 
 em or fern, it is inflected like an adjective; when followed by 
 etn, it is not inflected. 
 
 2. £)erfelbe and berjentge have a double inflection. The 
 first part, which is the definite article, is inflected as such, 
 and the second part is inflected like a weak adjective. £)er* 
 felbe, beSfelben, bemfelben, etc. 
 
34 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 97. £)tefer, this, the latter, denotes proximity; jener {yon), 
 that, the former, denotes remoteness. 
 
 Note. — Instead of btefeS the short form bieS occurs very frequently. 
 
 98. Absolute Use of $>ie3 and $)a£. Like e8, Meg and 
 bct$ are often used as the subject of the verb fetn without 
 regard to the gender and number of the following predicate 
 noun, with which the verb agrees. $)a$ finb brafce {well 
 behaved) $tnber. £)te£ tft metne Gutter. 
 
 Indefinite Pronouns 
 
 99. The more common indefinite pronouns are: 
 
 i. 9Jton, one, they, people: Sftcm fagt, one says, they say, 
 people say or it is said. Tlan is used only in the nominative. 
 The other cases are supplied by forms of em (etneS, etnem, 
 etnen). 
 
 2. 3emanb, somebody, some one: Qerrtanb mufc e3 tun, Some 
 one must do it. 
 
 Sfttemanb, nobody, no one: 3d) babe niemanb gefeben, I have 
 seen no one. 
 
 3ebermann, everybody: £)a3 tft nidjt jebermannS <Ba<$e, 
 That is not everybody's affair. 
 
 These have no plural and are invariable, except that they 
 take an 3 in the genitive. 
 
 3. (SttoctS, something, some, somewhat (as adverb): @$ tft 
 ettoa$ gefdjeljen, Something has happened. 
 
 SWdjtS, nothing: $d) babe ntdjtS gefagt, / said nothing. 
 
 Both are invariable and are frequently used before neuter 
 adjectives used as substantives: ettoctS ©ute3, something 
 good, rttd)t3 9tae3, nothing new. 
 
 Caution. Do not confuse ntcfyt, not (negative) and ntdjt3, 
 nothing (indefinite pronoun); nor jener (cognate of yon), 
 that, and jeber, each, every. 
 
THE VERB 35 
 
 THE VERB 
 
 100. In structure and use the German verb closely 
 resembles the verb in English. It has the following modi- 
 fications: two voices, active and passive; six tenses, present, 
 preterit, present perfect, past perfect, future, and future 
 perfect; four moods, indicative, imperative, subjunctive, 
 and conditional; three persons, first, second, and third; 
 two numbers, singular and plural. 
 
 Note. — It is of the utmost importance that the student have a 
 correct and real concept corresponding to each of the various gram- 
 matical terms. See introductory chapter for these general definitions. 
 
 101. The Stem of a verb is found by dropping the ending 
 -en (n of tun, fein, and verbs in -em, -ern) of the present 
 infinitive: leben, leb— ; fycmbem, fycmbel- 
 
 102. The Principal Parts of a verb are the present in- 
 finitive, the third person singular of the present, the preterit 
 (past), and the present perfect indicative: lernen, er lernt, er 
 lernte, er fyat gelernt; fallen, er fatlt, er ftel, er tft gefallen. 
 
 103. i. A verb is said to be Weak if it forms the preterit 
 indicative by adding -te to the stem, and the perfect parti- 
 ciple by adding -t: loben, lobte, gelobt. 
 
 2. A verb is said to be Strong if it forms the preterit 
 indicative by changing the stem vowel without adding 
 an ending, and its past participle ends in -en: feben, fafy, 
 Qefefyen. 
 
 3. An Irregular Weak verb has the endings of the weak 
 and the vowel change of the strong verb: brennen, brcttmte, 
 gebrcmnt. 
 
 104. Simple and Compound Tenses. The simple tenses 
 — the present (except present conditional) and the preterit 
 active — are formed without the aid of an auxiliary. The 
 
36 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 remaining four are compound tenses and are formed by the 
 aid of auxiliaries. Thus : simple, id) gefye, id) gtng ; compound, 
 tdj bin gegcmgen, tdj toerbe gefyen, etc. 
 
 105. An Auxiliary verb is one that is used in the conjuga- 
 tion of other verbs. Auxiliaries are of two kinds, tense auxil- 
 iaries: fern, Ijaben, ttierben, and mood auxiliaries: biirfen, 
 fonnen, mogen, miiffen, follert, toolTen. 
 
 106. Of the tense auxiliaries, fetn and fyabtn are used in 
 the perfect tenses, toerben is used in the future tenses of the 
 active voice and in all the tenses of the passive. 
 
 107. Rule for Use of fcin and fjabett. Intransitive verbs 
 denoting change of position or condition take fetn. All 
 other verbs take Imbcn. Exceptions: fetn, btetben, gelingen, 
 gefdjefyen, take fetn. 
 
 Note. — Some verbs may take both fetn and fyaben. Thus: 2Bir 
 finb in baS neue §au3 gejogen (intransitive), We moved into the new house; 
 but £)a3 ^ferb f)at ben SBagen ge^ogen (transitive), The horse pulled the 
 wagon. 
 
 i. A prefix often radically changes the meaning of a verb, 
 hence the simple verb often has a different auxiliary than 
 the compound. Thus geljen takes fetn, while begefyen, to com- 
 mit, takes haben ; fdjlafen takes fyaben, but etnfdjlafen, to fall 
 asleep, takes fetn. 
 
 108. i. The Present Infinitive ends in -en, except tun, 
 fetn and verbs in -em and -ern. The infinitive may be used 
 either with or without gu, to. With separable verbs gu comes 
 between the prefix and the verb : cmgufcmgen. Used as a noun, 
 the infinitive is always neuter and is inflected like strong 
 nouns of the first class. It has no plural. 
 
 2. The Passive Infinitive is composed of the perfect 
 participle of the verb and the present infinitive of ttierben: 
 (§8 fann ntd)t uon tlnu gefagt ttierben, bafc er getgtg ttoar, // can- 
 not be said of him that he was stingy. 
 
THE VERB 37 
 
 3. The Active Infinitive frequently is passive in meaning 
 after the verb fetn: £)er $nabe toar ntdjt gu fefyen, The boy was 
 not to be seen. 
 
 4. The Perfect Infinitive, as in English, is composed of 
 the past participle of the verb plus the present infinitive of 
 the auxiliary, but the order is reversed: cjelebt ($u) fyaben, 
 to have lived; gegangen (311) fetn, to have gone. 
 
 109. 1. The Present Participle is formed by adding 
 -b to the present infinitive: laufenb, fycmbelnb. Exceptions: 
 tun, tuenb, fetn, fetenb, both of which are rare. 
 
 Note. — In general the present participle is not used as freely in 
 German as in English. 
 
 2. When preceded by git the present participle is called 
 gerundive, and is used and declined like an attributive adjec- 
 tive: bte ivl lernenben 2htfgaben, the lessons to be learned. Note 
 that it is passive in meaning. 
 
 3. When used as adjectives or nouns, participles, both 
 present and perfect, are declined like adjectives. Compare 
 54 ff. 
 
 110. 1. The Past (or Perfect) Participle is formed by 
 prefixing ge- and adding -t to the stem: leb(en), aelebt. 
 Verbal stems in -b or -t add -et instead of -t, for the sake 
 of euphony. 
 
 2. The past participle of strong verbs also begins 
 with ge-; it ends in -en or -n: ftngen, gefungen; tun, 
 getcm. 
 
 3. Verbs beginning with an unaccented syllable do not 
 take ge- in the perfect participle. Such verbs are: those 
 beginning with the inseparable prefixes, be, ent (emp), er, 
 ge, t)er, ger; verbs in -teren and -eteu: ergafylen, ergafylt; ftu= 
 btereu, ftubtert; propfte^eten, propfje^ett. 
 
 4. In the case of separable verbs the augment ge- comes 
 between the prefix and the verb : angefontmen. 
 
38 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 111. Conjugation of Ija&en. 
 
 Principal parts : faben, er fat, er fatte, er fat gefabt. 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 
 Present 
 
 tdj fyabc 
 
 idj fabe 
 
 bu baft 
 
 bu babeft 
 
 er (fie, e$) f)at 
 
 er (fie, e$) fabe 
 
 nrir faben 
 
 nrir faben 
 
 ibr fjabt 
 
 ibr fabet 
 
 fie (@te) faben 
 
 fie (@te) faben 
 
 
 Preterit or Imperfect 
 
 id) fatte 
 
 fatte 
 
 bu batteft 
 
 batteft 
 
 er fjatte 
 
 fatte 
 
 tt)ir batten 
 
 fatten 
 
 tfyr fjattet 
 
 battet 
 
 fie fatten 
 
 batten 
 
 
 Present Perfect 
 
 idj babe gefabt 
 
 fabe gebabt 
 
 bu baft gebabt 
 
 fabeft gebabt 
 
 er fat gebabt 
 
 babe gefabt 
 
 totr faben gebabt 
 
 baben gefabt 
 
 ibr rjabt gebabt 
 
 babet gebabt 
 
 fie faben gefabt 
 
 baben gefabt 
 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 id) fjatte gebabt 
 
 batte gebabt 
 
 bu fatteft gebabt 
 
 batteft gebabt 
 
 er batte gebabt 
 
 batte gebabt 
 
 hnr fatten gebabt 
 
 batten gefabt 
 
 ibr l)atUt gebabt 
 
 bfittet gebabt 
 
 fie fatten gebabt 
 
 i)attm gebabt 
 
Indicative 
 
 td) toerbe baben 
 bu hrirft baben 
 er mirb baben 
 
 THE VERB 
 
 Future 
 
 39 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 toerbe baben 
 toerbeft baben 
 toerbe baben 
 
 toir toerben baben 
 ibr toerbet baben 
 fie toerben baben 
 
 toerben baben 
 toerbet baben 
 toerben baben 
 
 Note. — The subjunctive forms are placed opposite the indicative 
 to impress upon the student the formal differences between the two 
 modes. It must be borne in mind that the tenses do not correspond 
 in meaning. Thus, the preterit subjunctive denotes present time 
 and the present perfect and past perfect both denote past time. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 id? toerbe gebabt baben 
 bu toirft gebabt baben 
 er toirb gebabt baben 
 
 toir toerben gebabt rjaben 
 ibr toerbet gebabt baben 
 fie toerben §efyabt baben 
 
 Present 
 
 id) toiirbe baben 
 bu toitrbeft baben 
 er ttnirbe baben 
 
 nrir toiirben baben 
 ibr toitrbet baben 
 fie nnirben baben 
 
 babe (bu) 
 
 Present Participle 
 
 babenb 
 
 Conditional 
 
 Imperative 
 
 babt (ibr) 
 
 toerbe gebabt baben 
 toerbeft gebabt baben 
 toerbe gebabt baben 
 
 toerben gebabt baben 
 toerbet gebabt baben 
 merben gebabt baben 
 
 Perfect 
 
 toiirbe gebabt baben 
 toiirbeft gebabt baben 
 tDlirbe gebabt baben 
 
 toiirben gebabt baben 
 toiirbet gebabt baben 
 toiirben gebabt baben 
 
 baben ©ie 
 
 Perfect Infinitive 
 
 gebabt (ju) baben 
 
40 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 112. For the formation of the compound tenses the fol- 
 lowing formulas should be kept in mind. 
 
 i. Present Perfect = present of the auxiliary (fetn or 
 fyaben) plus the past participle of the verb. 
 
 2. Past Perfect = preterit of auxiliary plus the past 
 participle of the verb. 
 
 3. Future = present of tnerben plus the present infinitive 
 of the verb. 
 
 4. Future Perfect = present of toerben plus the perfect 
 infinitive of the verb. 
 
 5. Present Conditional = preterit subjunctive of merben 
 plus the present infinitive of the verb. 
 
 6. Perfect Conditional = preterit subjunctive of toerben 
 
 plus the perfect infinitive of the verb. 
 
 Note. — For the subjunctives use the subjunctive forms of the 
 auxiliary. 
 
 113. Conjugation of fettt. 
 
 Principal parts : fetn, er ift, er mar, er ift getoefen. 
 
 Indicative Subjunctive 
 
 Present 
 
 id) bin id) fei 
 
 bu bift bu fcift (fctcft) 
 
 er ift er fei 
 
 ftrir ftnb fair feten 
 
 tfjr feib if)r fetet 
 
 fie ftnb fie feten 
 
 Preterit 
 
 tdj toar . id) toare 
 
 bu rnarft bu roareft 
 
 er toar er mare 
 
 roir tearen t totr tudren 
 
 i\)x mart (maret) tf)r maret 
 
 fie maren fie maren 
 
THE VERB 
 
 41 
 
 Indicative 
 
 tdj bin gemefen 
 bu bift gemefen 
 er tft gemefen 
 
 mir finb gemefen 
 if)r feib gemefen 
 fie finb gemefen 
 
 id) mar genie fen 
 bu mar ft genie fen 
 er mar gemefen 
 
 mir maren gemefen 
 it)r mart gemefen 
 fie maren gemefen 
 
 id) merbe fein 
 bu mirft fein 
 er mirb fein 
 
 mir merben fein 
 xt)x merbet fein 
 fie merben fein 
 
 idj merbe gemefen fein 
 bu mirft gemefen fein 
 er mirb gemefen fein 
 
 mir merben gemefen fein 
 tfjr merbet gemefen fein 
 fie merben gemefen fein 
 
 Subjunctive 
 Present Perfect 
 
 id) fei gemefen 
 bu feift gemefen 
 er fei gemefen 
 
 mir feien gemefen 
 tfyr feiet gemefen 
 fie feien gemefen 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 idj mare gemefen 
 bu mareft gemefen 
 er mare gemefen 
 
 mir maren gemefen 
 i^r maret gemefen 
 fie maren gemefen 
 
 Future 
 
 tdj merbe fein 
 bu merbeft fein 
 er merbe fein 
 
 mir merben fein 
 xi)x merbet fein 
 fie merben fein 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 idj merbe gemefen fein 
 bu merbeft gemefen fein 
 er merbe gemefen fein 
 
 mir merben gemefen fein 
 ibr merbet gemefen fein 
 fie merben gemefen fein 
 
42 
 
 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 Indicative 
 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 
 Conditional 
 
 Present 
 
 
 Perfect 
 
 id) toitrbe fein 
 
 
 tdj toitrbe getoefen fein 
 
 bu toiirbeft fetn 
 
 
 bn toiirbeft getoefen fein 
 
 er toitrbe fetn 
 
 
 er toitrbe getoefen fein 
 
 toir toiirben fetn 
 
 
 toir toiirben getoefen fein 
 
 ifyr toiirbet fetn 
 
 
 tljr toiirbet getoefen fein 
 
 fie toiirben fetn 
 
 
 fie mitrben getoefen fein 
 
 
 Imperative 
 
 fet 
 
 feib 
 
 feien €ne 
 
 Present Participle 
 
 
 Perfect Infinitive 
 
 feienb 
 
 
 getoefen fein 
 
 114. Conjugation of toerben. 
 
 Principal parts: toerben, er totrb, er tourbe (or toarb), er ift 
 getoorben. 
 
 Present 
 
 idj toerbe id) toerbe 
 
 bu hrirft bu roerbeft 
 
 er totrb er toerbe 
 
 toir toerben toir toerben 
 
 ifjr toerbet t&r toerbet 
 
 fie toerben fie toerben 
 
 id) tourbe or toarb 
 bu tourbeft or toarbft 
 er tourbe or toarb 
 
 toir tourben 
 if)r tourbet 
 fie tourben 
 
 id) bin getoorben, etc. 
 
 Preterit 
 
 id) toitrbe 
 bu tourbeft 
 er toitrbe 
 
 toir tourben 
 iljr tourbet 
 fie tourben 
 
 Present Perfect 
 
 id) fei getoorben, etc. 
 
THE VERB 
 
 43 
 
 Indicative 
 
 id) toctr getoorben, etc. 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 idj mare getoorben, etc. 
 
 Future 
 
 id) toerbe toerben, etc. id) toerbe toerben, etc. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 id) toerbe getoorben fein, etc. idj toerbe getoorben fein, etc. 
 
 Conditional 
 
 Perfect 
 
 idj toiirbe getoorben fein, etc. 
 
 Imperative 
 toerbct toerben ©ie 
 
 Perfect Infinitive 
 
 getoorben fein 
 
 Present 
 
 id) toiirbe toerben, etc. 
 toerbe 
 
 Present Participle 
 
 toerbenb 
 
 Weak Verbs 
 
 115. Conjugation of looen. 
 
 Principal parts : lobert, er lobt, er lobte, er r)at gelobt. 
 
 vn 
 
 Indicative Subjunctive Indicative and Subjunctive 
 
 Present Preterit 
 
 idj lobe id) lobe id) lobte 
 
 bit lobft bu lobeft bit lobteft 
 
 er lobt er lobe er lobte 
 
 toir loben 
 
 toir loben 
 
 toir lobten 
 
 iljr lobt 
 
 tljr lobet 
 
 iljr lobtet 
 
 fie loben 
 
 fie loben 
 
 fie lobten 
 
 Note. — In the preterit the indicative and subjunctive of all weak 
 verbs are identical. In the present subjunctive only those forms that 
 differ from the corresponding indicative forms are used, and of these 
 three only the third singular is at all common. 
 
44 
 
 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 Indicative 
 id) f)ctbe gelobt, etc. 
 
 tdj fyatte gelobt, etc. 
 tdj toerbe loben, etc. 
 
 id) toerbe gelobt fjctben, etc. 
 
 Present 
 
 id) toiirbe loben, etc. 
 lobe 
 
 Present Participle 
 
 lobenb 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Present Perfect 
 
 id) l)abe gelobt, etc. 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 Future 
 
 id) Ijatte gelobt, etc. 
 id) toerbe loben, etc. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 id) toerbe gelobt Ijaben, etc. 
 
 Conditional 
 
 Imperative 
 lobt (lobet) 
 
 Perfect 
 
 id) ftriirbe gelobt Ijaben, etc. 
 loben ©ie 
 
 Perfect Infinitive 
 
 gelobt f)aben 
 
 116. Conjugation of hianbern. 
 
 Principal parts: tocmbern, er tocmbert, er toanberte, er ift 
 
 getoanbert. 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Present 
 
 id) tocmb(e)re 
 bu toanberft t 
 er toanbert 
 
 totr toanbern 
 if)r toanbert 
 fie tocmbern 
 
 Subjunctive Indicative and Subjunctive 
 
 Preterit 
 
 id) tocmb(e)re 
 bu toanb(e)reft 
 er nxmb(e)re 
 
 fair manb(e)ren 
 it)r tuanb(e)ret 
 fie n)cmb(e)ren 
 
 id) iranberte 
 bu tranbcrtcft 
 er nanterte 
 
 Uur ttanberten 
 it;r toanbcrtet 
 fie hxmbcrtcn 
 
 Note. — Verbs ending in -fin, -cm usually drop the c of their final 
 syllable before a suffix beginning with c but retain it elsewhere. 
 
THE VERB 45 
 
 Indicative Subjunctive 
 
 Present Perfect 
 
 tdj bin getocmbert, etc. id) fei getocmbert, etc. 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 idj toar getoanbert, etc. idj toare getoanbert, etc. 
 
 Future 
 
 id) toerbe toanbern, etc. tdj toerbe toanbern, etc. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 id) tuerbe gehxmbert fein, etc. idj toerbe getoanbert fein, etc. 
 
 Conditional 
 Present Perfect 
 
 id) toiirbe hoanbern, etc. tdj toiirbe getoanbert fein, etc. 
 
 Imperative 
 
 tuanb(e)re ttanbert toanbern ©ie 
 
 Present Participle Perfect Infinitive 
 
 tocmbernb getocmbert fein 
 
 117. Connecting Vowel. 
 
 i. Verbs whose stem ends in b or t, or m or n preceded by 
 a single consonant other than t, r, m, and n, take the con- 
 necting vowel e before -ft and -t. Thus: bu arbeiteft, er 
 arbeitet, iljr arbeitet, id) arbeitete, gearbeitet; bn rebeft, er rebet, 
 etc.; bu redjneft, bu atmeft, bu $eidnaeft. 
 
 2. Verbs whose stem ends in a sibilant (3, ff, fc, fd), ^, 
 X, h) take e before -ft: bu tcmgeft, bu reifeft, bu totinfd&eft. In 
 colloquial German, however, the contracted forms are more 
 common : bu tcmgt, bu tounfdjft. 
 
 118. The Imperative Mood has only three forms: the 
 second person singular, lobe (bu), the second person plural, 
 lobt (ifyr), and the polite, or conventional, which is third 
 person plural in form, but second person singular or plural 
 
4 6 
 
 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 in meaning, lobert ©te. In the first two, the so-called 
 familiar or bu=form, the subject bu, ibr, is rarely expressed 
 (and then for emphasis), as in English; in the polite form 
 the subject must always be expressed and capitalized. For 
 the use of these forms compare 79. 
 
 119. Irregular Weak Verbs. 
 
 nfinitive 
 
 Present 
 
 Preterit 
 
 Present 
 Perfect 
 
 Preterit 
 Subjunctive 
 
 brennen 
 
 er brennt 
 
 er brannte 
 
 er bat gebrannt 
 
 er brennte 
 
 bringen 
 
 brtngt 
 
 bradjte 
 
 bat gebradjt 
 
 bradjte 
 
 benfen 
 
 benft 
 
 badjte 
 
 bat gebad)t 
 
 badjte 
 
 biinfen 
 
 biinft 
 
 beucfyte 
 
 bat gebeud)t 
 
 beucbte 
 
 fennen 
 
 fennt 
 
 fannte 
 
 bat gefannt 
 
 fennte 
 
 nennen 
 
 nennt 
 
 nannte 
 
 bat genarmt 
 
 nennte 
 
 rennen 
 
 rennt 
 
 rannte 
 
 bat gerannt 
 
 rennte 
 
 fenben 
 
 fenbet 
 
 fanbte 
 
 bat gefcmbt 
 
 fenbete 
 
 toenben 
 
 toenbet 
 
 tuanbte 
 
 bat getoanbt 
 
 toenbete 
 
 Strong Verbs 
 120. Conjugation of fd)Iagett. 
 
 Principal parts: fcblagen, er fdjlagt, fusing, er r)at gefdjlagen. 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Indicative 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Present 
 
 Preterit 
 
 
 td) foliage 
 
 id) fdjlage 
 
 tdj fct)lug 
 
 idj fcbliige . 
 
 bu fd) 1 a flit 
 
 bu fd)lageft 
 
 bu fcblugft 
 
 bu fcbliigeft 
 
 er fcfylagt 
 
 er fd)lage 
 
 er fd)lug 
 
 er fcbliige 
 
 hrir fcblagen 
 
 nrir fdjlagen 
 
 totr fcblugen 
 
 ttrir fcbliigen 
 
 ibr fd)lagt 
 
 ibr fdjlaget 
 
 ibr fcblugt 
 
 ibr fcbliiget 
 
 fie fdjlagen 
 
 fie fcblagen * 
 
 fie fcblugen 
 
 fie fcbliigen 
 
 Present Perfect 
 
 td) babe gefcblagen, etc. icb babe gefd)lagen, etc. 
 
 * $)unfett, fenben, and toenben also have the regular weak forms. 
 
THE VERB 47 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 id) tyatte aefdjtagen, etc. id) fyatte Qefdjlagen, etc. 
 
 Future 
 
 id) toerbe fd)lagert, etc. id) toerbe fdjlagert, etc. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 idj toerbe gefdjlaaen fyaben, etc. id) toerbe gefdjlagen fyaben, etc. 
 
 Conditional 
 Present Perfect 
 
 idj toitrbe fdjlagen, etc. id) toiirbe gefdjlagen fyaben, etc. 
 
 Imperative 
 
 fd)tage fd)fagt fdjlagen ©ie 
 
 Present Participle Perfect Infinitive 
 
 fdjlctgenb gefdjlagen fyaben 
 
 121. Vowel Change in the Present Indicative and Im- 
 perative. In the second and third person singular of the 
 present indicative and the second singular imperative 
 many strong verbs have a vowel change. Note the following: 
 
 id) fctfjre idj fprecr)e id) neljme id) felje id) gefye 
 bu fdfyrft bu faritfjft bit ntmmft bit fieljft bit gefyft 
 er fdfyrt er ftmcfyt er nimmt er ftefyt er gef)t 
 
 totr fctljren ttrir fpredjen totr nef)tnen toir fefyen toir gefyen 
 tf)r fafyrt irjr fpred)t ifyr nefymt ir)r feljt ir)r gef)t 
 fie fafjren fie foredjen fie rtefymen fie fefyen fie gefyen 
 
 Imperative 
 
 faljre fartdj mmm fteft(c) get)e 
 
 i . Strong verbs having a for a stem vowel change this to 
 a in the second and third singular of the present indicative, 
 but are regular in the imperative. £aufen, faufen, ftofjen 
 
48 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 also belong here. <Sd)affen (also weak) and fdjctllen are 
 exceptions. 
 
 2. The following seven verbs whose stem vowel is long 
 e change to te: befefylen, empfefylen, gefd)eben, lefen, fdjeren (also 
 weak: id) fd)ere, bu fc^erft, er fcfyert), fefyen, fteblen. ®ebaren, 
 gebterft, gebtert, also belongs here. These verbs also have 
 the change in the imperative (gefdjefyen has no imperative). 
 
 3. The following seven verbs having long e for a stem 
 vowel do not change: betoegen, gefyen, genefen, fyeben, pflegeu, 
 ftefyen, toeben. 
 
 4. The following three verbs whose stem vowel is long 
 e change this to short i: geben, nefymen, treten. These also 
 have the change in the imperative. 
 
 5. All strong verbs whose stem vowel is short e change this 
 to short t. These also have the change in the imperative. 
 
 Note. — All the verbs changing from c to t, te, also have the change 
 in the imperative and drop the final e in the imperative. 
 
 Stem Vowel 2d and 3d Sing. Indicative 2d Sing. Imperative 
 
 a a a 
 
 e te, t, e te, t, e 
 
 e t t 
 
 Note. — The vowel of a verb is short when it is followed by two 
 or more consonants, unless the first of these is b. 
 
 122. Connecting Vowel. 
 
 1. Strong verbs whose stem ends in b or t, take the con- 
 necting vowel e before -ft and -t, except in the forms having 
 a vowel change in the present. Note the following forms : 
 
 faben bu Iftbft . er Iftbt but ibr labet 
 
 braten bu bratft . er brat ir>r bratet 
 
 batten bu fcttltft er ^ ttIt W* & aftct 
 
 gelten bu gtttft er gilt tbr gcltet 
 
 ftnbeu bu fiubeft er finbet tbr ftubet 
 
THE VERB 49 
 
 2. Strong verbs whose stem ends in a sibilant (s-sound) 
 may take e before -ft, but usually do not. Compare 
 117, 2. Examples: id) effe, bu tftt (iffeft), er ifet; tdj (jetfee, bu 
 hetfet O&eifjeft), er fyetfet. 
 
 123. The preterit (imperfect) subjunctive of strong verbs 
 is formed from the preterit indicative by mutating the 
 stem vowel and adding the subjunctive endings: -e, -eft, 
 -e, -en, -et, -en, which are alike for the present and the 
 preterit. 
 
 Note. — As an aid in determining whether a verb is weak or strong 
 it might be well for the student to remember that of the verbs having 
 umlaut in the stem vowel all but nine are weak, and these are mostly 
 quite rare. 
 
 Compound Verbs 
 
 124. Inseparable Verbs. Verbs having the prefixes be, 
 ent (emp before f), er, ge, ber, $er are inseparable. They are 
 conjugated like their corresponding simple verbs, except 
 that they do not take the augment ge- in the past participle, 
 because the prefix is unaccented (110, 3). As the prefix 
 sometimes changes an intransitive verb to a transitive, the 
 compound verbs do not always have the same auxiliary as 
 the simple verbs. 
 
 1. Synopsis of erfinben, 1st sing. ind. act.: tdj erfinbe, tdj 
 erfcmb, tdj fyctbe erfunben, id) fycttte erfunben, id) toerbe erfinben, id) 
 toerbe erfunben Ijaben. 
 
 125. Separable Verbs. Verbs having prefixes other than 
 those enumerated above are separable in their simple tenses 
 (present, preterit). 
 
 1. The separable prefixes are very numerous; they con- 
 sist of prepositions, adverbs, adjectives, and nouns : cmfcmgen, 
 fortfafyren, loSfaitfen, tetmehmen. 
 
 2. The separable prefix always bears the main accent: 
 auf'ftefyen, cm'fcmgen. 
 
50 ELEMENTS OF. GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 3. When separated, these prefixes come at the end of 
 the clause : 3dj ftng Ijeute morgen an. 
 
 4. In transposed word order they are not separated: 
 3d) toctr fdjon miibe, al3 tdj bte Arbeit anfing. 
 
 5. The ge- of the past participle and the gu of the infinitive 
 are placed between the prefix and the verb: angefommen, 
 an^ufangen. 
 
 6. Synopsis of anfangen, 3d sing. ind. act.: er fangt an, er 
 ftng an, er rjat angefangen, er fyatte angefangen, er rotrb anfangen, 
 er h)irb angefangen Ijaben. 
 
 Imperative 
 
 fange an fangt an fangen <Ste an 
 
 Present Participle Perfect Infinitive 
 
 anfangenb angefangen Ijaben 
 
 Note. — The following prefixes are usually separable if the verb is 
 used in its literal, concrete sense; inseparable, usually, if used figura- 
 tively: burd), liber, urn, unter, toteber. Thus: £)er f£ttf)rmann fefcte un8 
 tiber, The ferryman ferried us across. £5er <SdjiUer iiberfefcte feme Slufgabe, 
 The pupil translated his lesson. 
 
 Winter, mi ft, totber, boll are more often inseparable than separable. 
 
 126. Reflexive Verbs. A reflexive verb is one whose 
 subject and object refer to the Fame person or thing. The 
 object is always a pronoun, personal for the first and second 
 person and ftdj for the third. While practically all reflexives 
 have their object in the accusative, a few take their object 
 in the dative and a few in the genitive case : 3dj fdjarrte mid), 
 idj fdjmetdjle mir, idj fpotte metner. 
 
 127. Reflexive verbs are conjugated like other verbs. 
 The pronoun object, however, needs some attention. The 
 following paradigms will illustrate its use. 
 
 1. Conjugation of fid) freucn. 
 
 Principal parts: ftdj freuen, er freut ftdj, er freute ftdj, er fjat 
 fidj gefreut. 
 
THE VERB 51 
 
 Indicative Subjunctive 
 
 Present 
 
 idj freue midj idj freue midj 
 
 bu freuft bid) bit freueft bidj 
 
 er freut fid) er freue fid) 
 
 toir freuen unS nrir freuen unS 
 
 if)r freut eud) if)r freuet eud) 
 
 fie freueu fid) fie freueu fidj 
 
 Preterit 
 
 id) freute midj, etc. idj freute midj, etc. 
 
 Present Perfect 
 
 tdj fjabe midj gefreut, etc. idj fyaht midj gefreut, etc. 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 idj fycttte mtdj gefreut, etc. idj ()atte mtdj gefreut, etc. 
 
 Future 
 
 id) toerbe midj freueu, etc. tdj toerbe midj freueu, etc. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 id) tuerbe mid) gefreut Ijaben, * id) toerbe midj gefreut fyaben, 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 Conditional 
 Present Perfect 
 
 id) rolirbe midj freueu, etc. id) ttmrbe mid) gefreut Ijabeu, 
 
 etc. 
 Imperative 
 
 freue bidj freut eudj freueu ©ie fidj 
 
 2. Conjugation of fid) frimteidicln in the present. 
 
 Indicative Subjunctive 
 
 tdj fdjmeidjle mir id) fdjmeidjle mir 
 
 bu fd)meid)elft bir bu fdjmeid)left bir 
 
 er fdjmeidjett fidj er fdjmetd)le fid) 
 
52 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 Indicative Subjunctive 
 
 ttrir fdjmeid)eln unS totr fc^meidjlcn un3 
 
 ifyr fd)meid)elt eud) ifyr fd)meicf)Iet eud) 
 
 fie fd)meid)em fid) fie fd)meid)Ien fid) 
 
 Note i. — All reflexive verbs take r)aben. 
 
 Note 2. — Reflexive Verbs have no passive, but they are frequently 
 used instead of the passive. Hence many reflexives must be translated 
 by means of the passive. 
 
 Passive 
 
 128. A verb in the active voice represents its subject as 
 acting: 3d) fd)laQe. A verb in the passive represents its sub- 
 ject as receiving or suffering the action : 3d) tuer.be gefdjlctQen. 
 
 129. As a rule only transitive verbs can be used in the pas- 
 sive. In German, however, some intransitive verbs denoting 
 action may have an impersonal passive. Compare 136. 
 
 130. There are two passives in German, the Real (or 
 Actional) Passive and the Apparent (Quasi or Perfective) 
 Passive. 
 
 131. The Real Passive expresses an action going on at the 
 time indicated by the verb. It is formed by combining the 
 past participle of the verb with the various forms of toerben: 
 id) toerbe Qelobt, id) tourbe gelobt, id) bin gelobt toorben, etc. 
 
 Note. — In the perfect tenses of the passive the past participle of 
 toerben drops the augment ge : toorben not getoorben. 
 
 132. The Apparent Passive does not denote an action, but 
 rather a state resulting from an action already completed. 
 It is formed by combining the past participle of the verb 
 with the various forms of fern: ba& 33ud) ift Qebrucft (printed), 
 baS 53ud) tuar gcbmcft, ba3 53ud) ift gcbrutft gemefen, etc. 
 
 Note. — In the apparent passive the participle may be looked upon 
 as a predicate adjective after the verb fctn. Thus in baS 53ucf) ift gebrucft, 
 gebrucft has about the same force as in ba$ gcbrucftc 33ucf). 
 
THE VERB 53 
 
 i. The meaning of the auxiliaries toerbcn, to become, and 
 fetn, to be, gives the best clue to the distinction between the 
 real and the apparent passive. 
 
 Note. — As a further aid in determining whether to use the real 
 or the apparent passive the student should remember that the ap- 
 parent passive is not used when an agent is expressed. But this rule 
 cannot be reversed, that is, it is not correct to say that whenever no 
 agent is expressed, the apparent passive is used. 
 
 133. The agent is usually expressed in the dative after the 
 preposition Don: 2)er $unb ttmrbe Don etnem toctben gefdjtctgen. 
 
 Caution. Never translate the English preposition by as 
 used in expressing the agent with the passive with the Ger- 
 man preposition bet, but with Don. 
 
 134. Conjugation of pritfeit, to examine. Real Passive. 
 
 Principal parts: geprtift toerben, er nnrb gepriift, er tourbe 
 gepriift, er tft gepriift toorben. 
 
 Indicative Subjunctive 
 
 Present 
 
 tdj tuerbe gepriift id) toerbe gepriift 
 
 bu rairft gepriift bu toerbeft gepriift 
 
 er nnrb gepriift er toerbe gepriift 
 
 totr toerben gepriift toil toerben gepriift 
 
 tbr toerbet gepriift tf)r tuerbet gepriift 
 
 fie toerbert gepriift fie toerben gepriift 
 
 Preterit 
 
 tdj tuurbe gepriift, etc. tdj toiirbe gepriift, etc. 
 
 Present Perfect 
 
 id) bin gepriift toorben, etc. tdj fet gepriift toorben, etc. 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 id) tnar gepriift tuorben, etc. tdj rnarc gepriift toorben, etc. 
 
54 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 Future 
 
 idj luerbe gepritft toerben, etc. idj luerbe gepriift toerben, etc. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 tdj luerbe gepriift toorben fein, id) toerbe geprftft toorben fein, 
 etc. etc. 
 
 Conditional 
 
 Present Perfect 
 
 id) luiirbe gepriift toerben, etc. idj luiirbe gepriift toorben fetrt, 
 
 etc. 
 
 135. Conjugation of fcmgetl, to catch or capture. Ap- 
 parent Passive. 
 
 Principal parts : gefangen fein, er tft gefangen, er toar gefangen, 
 er tft gefangen getuefen. 
 
 Indicative Subjunctive 
 
 Present 
 
 idj bin gefangen, etc. id) fei gefangen, etc. 
 
 Preterit 
 
 idj toar gefangen, etc. idj toare gefangen, etc. 
 
 Persent Perfect 
 
 id) bin gefangen getoefen, etc. id) fei gefangen getoefen, etc. 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 id) toar gefangen getoefen, etc. id) mare gefangen getuefen, etc. 
 
 Future • 
 
 id) luerbe gefangen fein, etc. id) tnerbe gefangen fein, etc. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 id) luerbe gefangen getoefen fein, id) luerbe gefangen getoefen fein, 
 etc. - etc. 
 
 Conditional 
 
 Present Perfect 
 
 id) luiirbe gefangen fein, etc. id) luiirbe gefangen geluefen fein, 
 
 etc. 
 
* THE VERB 55 
 
 136. Impersonal Passive. Intransitive verbs denoting 
 action may have a passive in the third singular with e$ as 
 subject. (S3 tourbe in biefem §aufe bid Qetcm$t, There was 
 much dancing in this house. (£$ tourbe monatelana, Qefampft, 
 They fought for months. Qf$ is omitted unless it comes at 
 the beginning of the sentence or clause. Thus: 5ln btefer 
 ©telle tmirbe fange gefampft, On this spot they fought for a long 
 time. §>ter ttrirb oft gefungen, Here they frequently sing. Qn 
 ben ^dtungen nrirb Dtel gelogen, Newspapers print many lies. 
 
 i. Verbs having their object in the dative or the genitive 
 also may have an impersonal passive : 3fym nmrbe gefyolfen, He 
 was helped. (S3 ttrirb tfnu geljolfen toerben, He will be helped. 
 3fyr nrirb Don jebermann gefcfyntetdjelt, She is being flattered by 
 every one. Oft tourbe fetner gebadjt, He was often thought of. 
 
 Note that in all these the dative or genitive object of the 
 active is retained in the passive. 
 
 137. Substitutes for the Passive. The passive is less 
 frequently used in « German than in English. The more 
 common substitutes for the passive are: 
 
 i. The active with man as the subject: 3ttan fctgt, bafc fie 
 md)t gu £>cmfe toar, It is said that she was not at home. Tlcm 
 mntmt an, er fyabe e3 gefagt, 77 is supposed that he said it. 
 
 2. The reflexive, especially with laffen, but also alone: 
 3)a3 lafct ftd) etnrtd)ten, That can be arranged. (S3 lafet ftdj madden, 
 It can be done. £)te SBerfyetfeuna, roirb ftdj erfiitten, The promise 
 will be fulfilled. 
 
 3. The active infinitive with fetn and laffen frequently has 
 passive force, denoting either possibility or necessity. £)a3 
 ift ntd)t au3juf)a(ten, This is not to be endured. 3)te 5lufgabe tft 
 SU ternen, The lesson is to be learned. (Sr Heft em §au3 bauen, 
 He had a house built. £Ba3 ift gu tun ? What is to be done ? 
 
56 
 
 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 The Modal Auxiliaries 
 
 138. The modal auxiliaries biirfen, fonnen, mogen, miiffen, 
 follen, toollen, are thus designated because, like their English 
 equivalents, they are used to change the mode or manner of 
 expression. Thus the idea id) gef)e is modified by using the 
 modals with it: 3d) barf gefyen, / am permitted to go; id) fann 
 gel)en, / can go; id) mufe gefyen, / must go, etc. 
 
 Their principal parts with the preterit subjunctive are : 
 
 Mirfen er barf er burfte er fyat geburft er biirfte 
 
 fonnen 
 
 er fann 
 
 er fonnte 
 
 er fyat gefonnt 
 
 er fonnte 
 
 mogen 
 
 er ntag 
 
 er mod)te 
 
 er Ijat gemodjt 
 
 er mod)te 
 
 miiffen 
 
 er mufe 
 
 er mufete 
 
 er Ijat gemufct 
 
 er miifjte 
 
 follen 
 
 er foil 
 
 er follte 
 
 er I)at gefollt 
 
 er follte 
 
 roollen 
 
 er mill 
 
 er mollte 
 
 er f)at getoollt 
 
 er mollte 
 
 Note. — All but folten and tooften have umlaut in the present infini- 
 tive. This umlaut is retained in the present and preterit subjunctive 
 and in the plural of the present indicative, but not in the preterit in- 
 dicative nor in the past participle. 
 
 139. Conjugation. In the singular of the present indica- 
 tive all but follen have a vowel change, and the endings of 
 all are those of the preterit of strong verbs. Thus: 
 
 
 
 Present Indicative 
 
 
 
 id) barf 
 
 fann 
 
 mag 
 
 mufe 
 
 foK 
 
 nrill 
 
 bn barfft 
 
 fannft 
 
 magft 
 
 mufet 
 
 follft 
 
 nrillft 
 
 er barf 
 
 fann 
 
 mag 
 
 nmfi 
 
 foil 
 
 mill 
 
 ttnr biirfen 
 
 fonnen 
 
 mogen 
 
 miiffen 
 
 follen 
 
 toollen 
 
 tljr biirft 
 
 fbnnt 
 
 mb'gt 
 
 miifet 
 
 follt 
 
 mollt 
 
 fie biirfen 
 
 fonnen 
 
 ' mogen 
 
 miiffen 
 
 follen 
 
 toollen 
 
 i. The remaining forms of these verbs are like those of 
 the weak verbs, except that only toollen has the imperative 
 forms. These are: toolle, tooll(c)t, toollen ©te. 
 
THE VERB 57 
 
 2. Stiffen (toufete, gerou&t) is also conjugated like the 
 modal verbs: tdj toetfe, bu tueifet, er toeife, rotr totffen, etc. 
 But as it does not take a dependent infinitive, what is said 
 under 140 does not apply to it. 
 
 140. With Dependent Infinitives. The modal verbs are 
 nearly always used with a dependent infinitive without 
 gu. Whenever this is the case, their perfect tenses are not 
 formed by means of the weak past participle, geburft, gefonnt, 
 etc., but the so-called strong participle, which is like the 
 present infinitive, is used : 
 
 Indicative 
 Present Perfect Past Perfect 
 
 tdj babe geben formen, etc. tdj fycttte geljert fonnert, etc. 
 
 Future Future Perfect 
 
 id) roerbe geben fbnnen, etc. tdj toerbe fyaben geben fortnen, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Conditional 
 Present Perfect 
 
 tdj raiirbe geben fonnen, etc. tdj tuiirbe baben geben format, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Note. — The so-called double infinitive always comes last, even in a 
 dependent clause. Compare 185. 
 
 141. A number of other verbs which take a dependent 
 infinitive without gu may have the same construction in 
 their perfect tenses. These are: ^ei^en, belfen, hbrert, laffen, 
 feljen; and less frequently, lernen, tefyren, fiiblert, ftnben, and 
 madjen. (§r bie& mtdj fdjraetgen, He bade me be silent, fix bat 
 mid) fd)tt>etgen beiften, He has commanded me to be silent. 3dj 
 babe tbnen bauen belfen, / helped them build. 2Btr fyabm tbn 
 reben bbren, We heard him speak. (£r bat fofort ben 5lrgt bolen 
 laffen, He at once sent for the physician. 
 
58 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 142. The more common meanings of the modal verbs 
 are the following: ^iirfen, may (be permitted, allowed): 
 <Ste biirfen gefyen, You may go; when used with a negative, 
 must: £)a$ barfft bu ntcfyt tun, You must not do that. 
 
 $imnen, can (be able): (Ex fann md)t fommen, He cannot 
 come; may (permission and possibility) : <Ste f onnen gefyen, 
 You may go ; Qa$ f ann fern, That may be ; more idiomatic, to 
 know: (Ex faun 3>utfd) J 3$ fonn bag @ebtd)t. 
 
 Sftogen, way (permission and possibility): ©tc mogen 
 nad)fommen, Fow way follow; £)a3 mag tt>al)r fern, 77za/ may 
 fo true; to like: 3$ mag ba$ ntdjt, / a 7 ^ no/ like that. 
 
 HDiitffen, raws/ (compulsion and prohibition) : SStr miiffen 
 eilen, We must hurry ; $)ct$ mufjt bu roirfltcr) ntdjt tun, You really 
 must not do that; more idiomatic: (§3 mufcte fo fommen, It 
 was destined (fated) to be. 
 
 Soften, shall (obligation): 3)u foltft ntdjt ftefylen, Thou 
 shalt not steal ; idiomatic (decree of fate or hearsay) : (53 
 f)at nidjt fern follen, // was destined not to be ; (Ex foil reid) fetn, 
 He is said to be rich. 
 
 Gotten, will (want to) : 3d) toill e$ tun, / am willing to 
 do it ; (Ex toill nidjt gefjen, He does not want to go ; idiomatic 
 (pretense) : (Ex toil! e3 getjort l)aben, He claims to have heard it. 
 
 Caution. Do not use follen and toolleu for shall and will as 
 future auxiliaries. 
 
 143. Impersonal Verbs. Certain verbs are used only in 
 the third person singular with the impersonal e3 as subject. 
 They do not offer any special difficulty in their conjuga- 
 tion, and in general correspond to English impersonal 
 verbs: (§3 regnet, fdntetf, bonnert, etc., it rains, snows, thun- 
 ders, etc. 
 
 i. Certain other impersonal verbs, however, do not cor- 
 respond to English impersonals and offer considerable dim- 
 
THE VERB 59 
 
 culty. These are verbs or idioms denoting states of the body 
 or mind : 
 
 (§3 frtert mtd) or SMdj frtert ('3), / am freezing. 
 
 (§8 ramgert mtdj or SDHc^ tyungertCs), / am hungry. 
 
 (£8 biirftct tfyn or 3fm biirftet('3), #e w thirsty. 
 
 Q£$ fcfiroinbelt mtr or 9fttr fdjrombett('3), / am dizzy. 
 
 @S trciumte mtr or Wiv trciumte (e$), I dreamt. 
 
 &% fefylt or mcmcjelt un3 ntdjtS or Un3 fefylt (mcmcjelt) ntdjtg, 
 We lack nothing. 
 
 @3 gel)t mtr gut or 9Dltr get)t e$ gut, / am faring well. . 
 
 @8 tut mtr letb or Mr tut'3 letb, / am sorry. 
 
 Note that in all of these sentences the subject in English 
 is in German in the accusative or dative case. In the first 
 five sentences the e£ may be omitted if it does not introduce 
 the sentence, in the sixth it must be omitted, but in the other 
 two it is never omitted. 
 
 144. Use of e3 gibt and e3 ift or e3 ftnb. Note these sen- 
 tences : 
 
 @S cjtbt £oroen in 2lfrtfct, There are lions in Africa. 
 
 (§8 ftnb groei £ often in btefem $aftg, There are two lions in this 
 cage. 
 
 ©3 cjtbt bid $3etn Me3 3arjr, There is {will be) much wine 
 this year. 
 
 (§3 ift fetn 3lropfen SEBein in bem Safe, There isn't a drop of 
 wine in the barrel. 
 
 i. 15$ cjibt is used in broad general statements, e$ ift (ftnb), 
 in referring to specific persons or things located as to time 
 or place. Sometimes either may be used : ©3 cjtbt (ift) ntd)t3 
 ■ifteue3 unter ber ©onne, There is nothing new under the sun. 
 
 Note. — The noun after e$ Qtbt is in the accusative case, being the. 
 direct object of geben, a transitive verb. In e3 ift, eS ftnb, e3 is merely 
 an introductory word; the noun that follows is the subject and the 
 verb agrees with it. 
 
6o ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 Use of the Moods 
 
 145. Indicative. The indicative is the mood of the real, 
 the actual. It is used in assertions or statements of fact, 
 positive or negative or interrogative. 
 
 146. Imperative. The imperative mood is used, just as 
 in English, in giving commands, orders, directions, etc. 
 
 i. Substitutes for the imperative. 
 
 (a) The present infinitive: Urrtftetam! Change cars. 
 
 (b) The past participle : 5Iuf gepafet! Attention. 
 
 (c) As in English, adverbs (verbal prefixes) : §mau3! 
 
 Out {out with you, get out). 
 
 Note. — In giving a harsh command any of these forms would be 
 preferred to the ordinary imperative forms. 
 
 (d) In the first and the third person, the subjunc- 
 
 tive is used. Compare 149. 
 
 147. Subjunctive. The subjunctive is almost never used 
 to express a fact. It expresses ideas, desire, unreality, pos- 
 sibility, concession, purpose, personal impression, etc., and 
 is principally used in indirect statements. 
 
 Caution. Remember that the tenses of the subjunctive 
 do not correspond in meaning to those of the indicative. 
 Compare 158, 2 and 3. 
 
 148. The Optative Subjunctive. This use of the subjunc- 
 tive is very much like the English. 
 
 1. The present subjunctive: £ana. lebe ber $ontcj! Long 
 live the king! £)etn 9?etdj fortune! Thy kingdom come! ©ott 
 trofte tf)n! God comfort him! £)a$ ©liicf fei Mr fjolb! May 
 fortune smile on you! 
 
 2. The preterit subjunctive is used in wishes referring to 
 
THE VERB 6 1 
 
 present or future time whenever a sense of unreality enters 
 in : 2Benn er nur fyier roctre! // he were only here (but he is not) ! 
 51(f), bctfe e£ grilling toare ! Oh that it were spring! 
 
 3. The past perfect subjunctive is used when a wish 
 refers to past time. Here the sense of unreality is always 
 present: 2Benn er mid) nur nidjt gefyort tjcttte ! If he had only 
 not heard me! Scire e3 jenen 9ttorgen nur ntdjt fo fait getoefen! 
 Had it only not been so cold that morning! 
 
 Note the inversion of order in the last sentence, both 
 German and English. This is always the case when the 
 conjunction if (menu) is omitted. 
 
 149. The Imperative Subjunctive. The German language, 
 as the English, has real imperative forms only in the second 
 person. (The polite form — 3d plural — is second person 
 in meaning.) The English quasi-imperative of the first and 
 third person expressed by let with the infinitive may in 
 German be expressed in two ways: (a) like the English, 
 with Ictffen: £afe (lafet) ung gefyen, Let us go. Safe tfm fommen, 
 Let him come, (b) By the present subjunctive: ©efyen totr, 
 Let us go. @r fomme, Let him come. Wan fjore auf mid), Let 
 them listen to me. ®eftefye td)'3 nur, Let me confess. 
 
 Note. — The order in the first person is inverted to distinguish 
 these forms from the corresponding indicative forms, in the third 
 singular it may be either normal or inverted, in the third plural the 
 imperative subjunctive is avoided. 
 
 150. The Conditional Subjunctive. 1. In German, as in 
 English, a condition looked upon as real is expressed by the 
 indicative: SBenn e3 regnet, gefyen our nad) ber <Stabt, // it 
 rains, we are going to town. 2Benn Me ©onne fd)emt, fpteten 
 bte $mber tm greten, If the sun shines, the children play out- 
 doors. 
 
 2. If the condition is considered unreal (possible or con- 
 
62 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 trary to fact), the preterit subjunctive is used, just as in 
 English : 
 
 (a) possible condition: SSenn er fame, gtnge tdj nad) 
 
 ^>aufe, If he would come, I should go home. 
 
 (b) Contrary to fact condition: SSenn er fyter tocire, 
 
 fo bh'ebe id) md)t, // he were here (but he is not), 
 / should not stay. , 
 
 3. An unreal condition in past time is expressed by the 
 past perfect subjunctive: SBenn e£ fait getoefen toare, fjatte id) 
 meinen 9?ocf ange^ogen, If it had been cold, I should have put 
 on my coat. SSaren bie . @d)iiler fletfeig getoefen, fo toarett fie 
 gelobt toorben, // the pupils had been diligent, they would have 
 been praised. 
 
 Note that only the preterit and the past perfect subjunctive 
 may be used in these conditional sentences. The present 
 and perfect are never used in conditional sentences. 
 
 151. A conditional sentence always consists of two 
 clauses, the condition (if-clause) and the conclusion (result 
 clause). The condition is often merely implied, but can 
 readily be supplied from the conclusion or the context. 
 
 152. Tense Scheme for Unreal Conditions. Unreal con- 
 ditions are either in the present (future) or in past time. 
 
 If-Clause Result Clause 
 
 _, . . _ . . J Preterit Subjunctive 
 
 Present time Preterit Subjunctive j present Conditional 
 
 _ .«.../ Past Perfect Subjunctive 
 
 Past time Past Perfect Subjunctive j perfect Conditional 
 
 153. As in English so in German the conjunction if 
 (toenn) of a conditional clause is often omitted. When this 
 is the case, the order is inverted : £>atte tdj tfm gefefyen (SSenn 
 id) tfm gefeben fyatte), fo fotmte id) tbn befd)retben, Had I seen 
 him (If I had seen him), I could describe him. 
 
 Note. — In English this inversion is limited to had, were, could, and 
 should. 
 
THE VERB 63 
 
 1. Note that the order in the if -clause is transposed if the 
 conjunction toenn is not omitted. In the result clause the 
 order is normal (or inverted) if it comes before, inverted if it 
 comes after the if-clause. 2Bir toitrben nad) £>aufe gel)en, 
 toenn e$ ntdjt regnete. SSenn e$ nic^t regnete, fo ttmrben toir 
 nad) §aufe geljen. 
 
 Note. — When the if-clause follows, the conjunction is not omitted. 
 
 154. In the conclusion (result clause) of an unreal con- 
 dition (150, 1, 2, 3) the preterit subjunctive may always be 
 replaced by the present conditional, the past perfect subjunc- 
 tive by the perfect conditional: SSenn tdj nod) jung roctre, fo 
 toiirbe tdj ba$ ntd)t tun, // / were still young, I would {should) 
 not do that. 2Benn e£ geregnet Ijatte, fo toiirbe e3 auf ber ©trafje 
 ntdjt fo trocfcn fetn, // it had rained, it would not be so dry on 
 the street. 
 
 155. The Potential Subjunctive. The preterit subjunc- 
 tive (past perfect for past time) is used to denote possi- 
 bility, probability, or personal impression. Especially the 
 modal auxiliaries fonnen, ntogen, biirfen, and fallen are fre- 
 quently used in this way: 3)aS fonnte 3Ijnen gelingen, You 
 might succeed in that. £)a$ modjte tooljl fetn, That might Be so. 
 (§3 biirfte fogar mi^lid) fetn, It might even be useful, ©ollte er 
 baS ntdjt tun fonnen? Is it possible that he cannot do that? 
 (§3 liefee fidj nod) mandjeS bariiber fagen, Much might still be said 
 about it. 2Ber Jjatte ba$ geglaubt! Who would have believed 
 that! ganbe fidj roof)I jemanb, ber ba& tun toiirbe ? Could some 
 one possibly be found, who would do that ? 
 
 Note. — The last three sentences given above might be considered 
 the result clauses of unreal conditions, the conditions being omitted. 
 The conditionals may be substituted for the subjunctives: (§3 roiirbe 
 fidj nod) mandjeS bariiber fagen laffen. 
 
 156. The Unreal Subjunctive in Concessive Clauses. 
 Concessive clauses have their verb in the subjunctive if the 
 
64 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 concession is considered as unreal or contrary to fact, other- 
 wise the indicative is used: SSenn er e3 and) gefagt fyat (fact), 
 fo glaube id) e3 bod) nid)t, Though he has said it, I do not believe 
 it. <&ti (toare) enter and) fo gebulbtg nrie £>tob, MeS totrb er 
 ntd)t auSbalten, Though a man be (were) patient as Job, this he 
 will not bear. 
 
 Note that the preterit denotes a greater degree of unreality than the 
 present. The subjunctive is used only in the concessive clause. 
 
 157. The Unreal Subjunctive of Comparison. Compari- 
 sons involving any degree of unreality are expressed by the 
 subjunctive after al3 ob, al3 toenn. The preterit is used for the 
 present and the past perfect for the past: (Sr Itegt mtr bor 
 ben 8 u feen, a ^ toar'3 etn ®titcf Don mtr, He lies at my feet as 
 though he were a piece of me. @te far) au£, alg ob fie franf 
 toare, She looked as though she were sick. £)te $tnber fafyen 
 au£, alS ob fie feit Jaaen ntd)t$ aegeffert batten, The children 
 looked as though they had not eaten anything for days. 
 
 Rarely the present subjunctive is used instead of the 
 preterit: @3 fd)ien, ctlS ob fie ibm nidjt traue (or traute), 77 
 seemed as though she did not trust him. ($r faf) umber, al3 
 fucbe (or fud)te) er jemanb, He looked about as though he sought 
 some one. 
 
 Note. — The ob or toenn may be omitted, but then the order is 
 inverted. 
 
 158. The Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse. In English, 
 indirectness of speech (indirect quotations) is usually in- 
 dicated by a change of tense; in German, by a change of 
 mood: He said (that) he was glad (direct: I am glad), ($r fagte, 
 er fet frof). 
 
 i. If the main verb is in the present tense or in the first 
 person, the dependent verb may be in the indicative, pro- 
 vided the conjunction bafe is not omitted: @te fagt, oafo fie 
 
THE VERB 
 
 65 
 
 mid) gefeijert fyat, She says (that) she has seen me. But, ©ie 
 fagt, fie fyabt mtdj gefeljeri. 
 
 2. After a main verb in any other tense than the present, 
 the dependent verb is regularly put in the subjunctive. 
 The tense of the dependent verb does not depend upon the 
 tense of the main verb, but on its own tense in the direct 
 statement. Thus: 
 
 Time Direct 
 
 Pres. tdj bin jung 
 
 f idj roar jung 
 Past \ id) bin iung geroefen 
 [ idj roar Jung geroefen 
 
 Future id) ioerbe Jung fein 
 
 Fut. Perf . idj roerbe jung geroefen (ein 
 
 Indirect 
 er fei Jung 
 er roare jung 
 
 er fei fung geroefen 
 er roare Jung geroefen 
 
 Tense 
 Present 
 Preterit 
 
 Perfect 
 Pluperfect 
 
 er ioerbe Jung fein Future 
 
 er roiirbe jung fein Pres. Cond. 
 
 er roerbe jung geroefen fein Fut. Perf. 
 er roiirbe iung geroefen fein Perf. Cond. 
 
 Tense Scheme for Indirect Discourse. 
 
 Indirect, Subjunctive 
 Present 
 
 Direct, Indicative 
 Present 
 
 Preterit 
 Present Perfect 
 Past Perfect 
 
 Future 
 Future Perfect 
 
 Preterit 
 
 Present Perfect 
 Past Perfect 
 
 J Future 
 
 1 Present Conditional 
 
 f Future Perfect 
 
 I Perfect Conditional 
 
 Note. — In each of the dependent clauses the verb has two different 
 forms. These can be used interchangeably, though generally the first 
 form should be used, unless it is like the corresponding indicative. 
 The present and preterit refer to present time, the present perfect and 
 past perfect to past time, the future and the present conditional to 
 future time, and the future perfect and perfect conditional to future 
 perfect time. 
 
66 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 4. As in English, the conjunction bctfj {that) may intro- 
 duce the dependent clause. When this is the case, the 
 order is transposed, otherwise either normal or inverted: 
 @r fagte, ha^ ber Stftcmn fjeute ba fet. (Sr fagte, ber SD^ann fet 
 fyeute ba. (Sr fagte, fyeute fet ber SJtomt ba. 
 
 159. The Subjunctive in Clauses of Purpose. Purpose 
 clauses have their verb in the subjunctive, though after a 
 main verb in the present the indicative is frequently used: 
 @r bletbt $u ^paufe, bamit er ntdjtS berfaumt (berfaume), He 
 stays at home that he may miss nothing. Qtf) berliefc tf)n, 
 bamit er mid) ntdjt itberrebe, / left him, that he might not persuade 
 me. 
 
 160. The Conditional. The conditionals are used as 
 alternative forms for the preterit and past perfect subjunc- 
 tive in the result clauses of conditional sentences (154) and 
 for the future and future perfect subjunctive of indirect 
 discourse (158, 2, 3, and note; also note to 155). 
 
 The conditionals are translated by would or should. 
 
 Use of the Tenses 
 
 161. The use of the tenses with the indicative corresponds 
 very closely to the English. Notable deviations are the 
 following: 
 
 1. The present with fdjon (berettS, erft, lange) is used for the 
 English perfect to denote the continuation of an action or 
 state that started in the past: (§3 regnet fdjon bret £age, // 
 has been raining for three days (and it is still raining). 
 
 2. As the present is used for the English present perfect 
 so the preterit is^used for the English past perfect: 2IIS id) 
 gu bir fam, toar mem 53rubcr fd)on groet £age tot, When I came 
 to you, my brother had been dead for two days. 
 
 3. The present perfect tense may be used in German to 
 denote a single action or state in past time where English 
 
THE VERB 
 
 67 
 
 demands the preterit : ©eftern bin id) 311 &au\t getoefen, Yes- 
 terday I was at home. 33orige 2Bod)e fyaben toir $artoffeln ge* 
 graben, Last week we dug potatoes. The preterit, however, 
 would be equally good in these instances. 
 
 Note. — South German dialects have almost completely lost the 
 use of the preterit and use the present perfect instead. 
 
 4. The future is used for the present to denote probability: 
 £)u toirft ba$ nuf)t glauben toolkit, You will probably not be 
 willing to believe that. 3u §cmfe toerben fie je^t toof)l urn ben 
 £>erb fi^en unb ©efcfytdjten ergafylen, At home they are probably 
 sitting about the hearth now telling stories. 
 
 162. Partial List of Verbs Governing the Dative. 
 
 anttoorter 
 
 t answer 
 
 gefallen 
 
 please 
 
 mangeln 
 
 be lacking 
 
 begegnen 
 
 meet 
 
 geljordjeti 
 
 1 obey 
 
 nafyen 
 
 approach 
 
 banfen 
 
 thank 
 
 geljoren 
 
 belong 
 
 nii^en 
 
 benefit 
 
 btenen 
 
 serve 
 threaten 
 
 gefdjeljen 
 glauben 
 
 happen 
 believe 
 
 paffen 
 
 fit 
 
 broken 
 
 fdjaben 
 
 injure 
 
 fetjlert 
 
 lack 
 
 gletdjen 
 
 resemble 
 
 fdjmetdjeln flatter 
 
 folgen 
 
 follow 
 
 fyelfen 
 
 help 
 
 (uer)trauen 
 Siirnen 
 
 trust 
 be angry 
 
 163. List of Troublesome Verbs. The following verbs 
 should be carefully distinguished, both in form and meaning. 
 
 ftfcen fafe gefeffen, sit 
 fe^en fe^te gefe^t, set 
 
 Itegen lag gelegen, lie, recline 
 
 liigen log gelogen, lie, tell a falsehood 
 
 legen legte gelegt, lay 
 
 bitten bat gebeten, ask (for something) 
 bteten bot geboten, offer 
 beten betete gebetet, pray 
 
68 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 totffen toufjte getmifet, know (facts) 
 fennen fannte gefannt, know (be acquainted) 
 . fonnen fonnte gefonnt, be able, know (by heart) 
 
 flier)en flof) geflof)en, flee 
 fltegert flog geftoam, fly 
 
 164. A number of verbs that in English are followed by 
 the present participle take the present infinitive in German: 
 J saw him coming, 3d) faf) if)n fommen. We heard her speaking, 
 2Str fyorten fie reben. We went walking, 2Btr gtngen fpa^ieren. 
 He stopped preaching, smoking, drinking, etc., (Sr fyorte auf gu 
 prebtgen, uftD. They remained standing, ©ie blteben ftetjen. 
 
 After fommen German uses the past participle to denote 
 the manner, while English uses the present participle: (Sin 
 23ogletn fam geftogen, A bird came flying. 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 165. 2113, toenn, toann, when, are used as follows: 
 
 i. 5113 denotes definite past time: 5113 e3 anfing m recmen, 
 gmgen h)ir in3 $au3, When it began to rain, we went into the 
 house. It may also be used in the historical present. 
 
 2. SSenn is used in the present and future: SBenn e3 regnet, 
 geljen totr m3 §au3, Whenever it rains, we go into the house, 
 and If it rains, we shall go into the house. 2Benn er angef ommen 
 fein ftrirb, When he will have arrived. In the sense of whenever 
 it is also used in the past : SSenn er bcmn fo etnen ©djers mad)te, 
 fo Iad)ten nnr alle, Whenever he told a joke of this sort, we all 
 laughed. 
 
 3. SBcmn is only used in questions, both direct and indirect : 
 2Bcmn ftanben ©te auf? When did you get up? (§r fragte mtdfj, ' 
 toann id) aufgeftanben fet. 
 
 166. Use of nad) and nadjbem. Sftadj, after (preposition), 
 nad)bem, after (conjunction) : £)u fommft nad) mtr, You come 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 69 
 
 after me. ^adjbem ttrir ba$ getatt fatten, After we had done 
 that. 
 
 167. If is translated by toerm, except in the sense of 
 whether, when it is rendered by ob: 2Benn bie ©onne fdjetnt, 
 ftrirb e$ toarm, // the sun shines, it will be warm. 3$ ttmjjte 
 nic^t, ob er fomtnen toiirbe, / did not know if {whether) he 
 would come. 
 
 168. Ways of expressing time. 
 
 (a) With prepositions: Urn 6 Ufyr am 9ttorgen, tm 
 
 SBtnter; Dor greet 3afyren, ftew years ago. Note 
 that oor with an expression of time always 
 means ago. 
 
 (b) Time may be expressed without prepositions : 
 
 1. Indefinite time is expressed by the genitive: be£ SD^or- 
 fienS, cineS £ctge3, eineS 9?ctd)t3, be3 ©onntagS. 
 
 2. Definite time and duration are expressed by the accusa- 
 tive : letgte SBocfye, ben gemgen ©ommer, ben 4. Quit. 
 
 169. Masculine and neuter nouns denoting weight, measure, 
 quantity, number are used in the singular after numerals, 
 and the noun following is in apposition: X>ret ^funb Gutter, 
 three pounds of butter ; bier S u 6 fang, four feet long. Of femi- 
 nine nouns only bie SDforf has this peculiarity: £tod £ctffen 
 %tt, two cups of tea ; but fiinf 9D?arf. 
 
 170. The English accusative infinitive construction can 
 not be imitated in German. It must be given by a dependent 
 clause : We believed him to be a poet, 2Bir gfaubten, er fet (toftre) 
 3)idjter. I wanted him to write me a recommendation, 3$ 
 toollte, bafe er mir etne (Smpfefylung fdjretbe. 
 
70 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 Prepositions 
 
 171. The following jingles, crude as they are, will help 
 the student in memorizing the lists of prepositions and the 
 case or cases they govern. 
 
 i.SBet burd), fitr, ofyne, urn, 
 bi3, fonber, gegen, roiber 
 
 fdjretb ftetS ben trierten gall (accusative) 
 unb nte ben brttten (dative) nteber. 
 
 2. ^djretb mit, nadjft, nebft, natfi, famt, 
 ^ct, fcit, toon, 5it, proibcr, 
 entgegcn, aufter, au3 
 
 ftetS mit bem £)atto nteber (gegeniiber also belongs here). 
 
 3. 5ln, anf, tjtnter, neben, tow, 
 tiber, unter, gtoifrfjen, in 
 ftefjn mit bem TOufatm, 
 
 toenn man fragen mufr. SSofyin? 
 gragt man aber: SSo? fo rjat 
 allemal ber £>atto ftatt. 
 
 4. Umtmt, mtttel3, fraft, ijalb, roafjrenb, 
 laut, fcermijge, ungead)tet, 
 oberfyalb unb unterfyaib, 
 
 innerfyalb unb aufterfyalb, 
 bie£feit(3), jenfeit(S), ftalber, roegen, 
 ftatt, aud) fang3, sufotge, tro<? 
 ftefjen mit bem ©enttto 
 ober auf Me grage: SBeffen? 
 £>odj ift f)ter ntdjt gu fcergeffen, 
 bafe bet btefen le^ten bret 
 
 aud) ber Static rtd)ttg fet. (entlang, urn . . . mitten, tjalbcn 
 
 also belong here). 
 
CONJUNCTIONS 71 
 
 Conjunctions 
 
 172. Coordinating conjunctions: 
 
 unb, and 
 
 ober, or 
 
 benn, for 
 
 ctber, but (most common and weakest in force) 
 
 fonbern, but (used only after certain negative clauses) 
 
 alletn, but, however (not used in colloquial speech) 
 
 These conjunctions connect clauses of equal rank, and do 
 not affect the word order, fonbern is the only one present- 
 ing any difficulty. It is used only when the speaker has 
 denied an assertion, and then states the truth or his view: 
 SKtr gittgen nidjt nadj Chicago, fonbern ftrir mad)ten etnen 2ht3flug 
 nadj (Socmfton, We did not go to Chicago, but we made an 
 excursion to Evanston. ^tcfyt etne Nation ift frfjulb an bem 
 $rteg, fonbern alle, Not one nation is to blame for the war, 
 but all. 
 
 173. Subordinating conjunctions: 
 
 Ctl3, when (referring to a single act or event in past time, 
 
 See 165) 
 toenn, when, whenever, if. See 165, 167. 
 toctmt, when (indirect questions, See 165) 
 ctlS ob, alS toenn, as if, as though (with subjunctive, See 157) 
 bafc, that 
 toeil, because 
 ba, since (cause) 
 bt$, until 
 beoor, before 
 efye, before 
 
 nad)bem, after. See 166. 
 fett, or fettbem, since (time) 
 
72 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 tudfyrenb, while (in mere statements of time, duration) 
 tnbem, while (denotes time by referring it to an action or 
 
 event [attendant circumstance]) 
 ob, whether, if 
 
 obgletd), obfcfjon, obtoofyl, though, although 
 bamtt, in order that 
 tote, how, as 
 
 This list is not complete. Remember that all subordinating 
 conjunctions require transposed word order. Note the fol- 
 lowing distinction in the use of toafyrenb and tnbem: 2Ba()renb 
 totr natf) ^paufe gtrtgen, ergafylte er mir btefe ©efd)td)te, While 
 we were going home, he told me this story. The time during 
 which this happened is indicated. Qnbem er mid) $ormg cmfaf), 
 fagte er, ba3 tft nid)t toafyr, While (as) he looked (or, looking) 
 at me in anger, he said, that is not true. Not duration of time, 
 but attendant circumstance is denoted. 
 
 WORD ORDER 
 
 174. To simplify the study of word order we shall divide 
 the sentence into three elements: the subject (S) including 
 its modifiers, the inflected verb (V), and verbal adjuncts 
 (vA) including objects, predicate noun, predicate adjective, 
 adverbs, past participle, infinitive, and separable prefix. 
 
 175. There are three general types of word order, which 
 can be denoted by the following formulas: 
 
 i. Normal = SV vA. £>tefer ©a£ tft ntd)t fang, This sen- 
 tence is not long. 
 
 2. Inverted = (vA) V S (vA). ©eftern *)orte id) ettoaS 9?eue3, 
 Yesterday I heard something new. 
 
 3. Transposed = S vA V. (Sr fagte, bafe er glcid) fommc, 
 He said that he was coming at once. 
 
WORD ORDER 73 
 
 176. The transposed (also called the dependent) word 
 order is used only in dependent clauses, and nearly all de- 
 pendent clauses have this order. For exceptions see 178 
 and 179. 
 
 177. Independent clauses have either normal or inverted 
 order. 
 
 1. The order of an independent clause is inverted when 
 it is introduced by any element (word, phrase, or dependent 
 clause) other than the subject: 
 
 9Q?orgen rotrb er fommen, He will come to-morrow. 
 
 2In biefer ©telle ftcmb bctS alte ©djulfjauS, On this spot stood 
 the old schoolhouse. 
 
 TO roir an ben 93ar)nt)of famen, mar ber £u$ fd)on fort, When 
 we arrived at the station, the train was already gone. 
 
 2. Inverted order is also used in imperative sentences 
 and in direct questions, unless the latter are introduced by 
 an interrogative word which is the subject or a modifier 
 of the subject: 
 
 ^er)men ©ie fid) in ad)t ! Be on your guard. 
 §aben ©ie fidj erfaltet ? Did you take cold ? 
 2Ben t)aft bu a,efet)en? Whom did you see ? 
 But: 
 2Ber ift flier geroefen ? Who was here ? 
 SSeldjeS $3ncf) ttegt auf bem £tfd) ? Which book lies on the table ? 
 
 Other independent clauses have normal order. 
 
 Caution 1. Only one element can precede the verb. 
 You may say : ©eftern far) id) jenen ffiann, or $enen SJcann far) 
 id) geftern, but not ©efrern jenen Wflann fat) id). 
 
 Caution 2. In normal order do not, as in English, insert 
 an adverb between subject and verb: We often walk home, 
 2Btr gerjen oft nact) §aufe. 
 
74 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 178. The dependent clauses of indirect discourse have 
 normal or inverted order whenever baft is omitted : 
 
 (§r fd)rieb mtr, er toerbe morgen fommen, He wrote me {that) 
 he would come to-morrow, or (5r fdjrteb mtr, morgen toerbe er 
 fommen. 
 
 179. Conditional clauses have inverted order, as in Eng- 
 lish, whenever the conjunction toenn (if) is omitted: SKcireft 
 bu f)ier getoefen, fo roctre metn SBruber ntd)t geftorben, If you 
 had been here (had you been here), my brother would not have 
 died. 
 
 180. Infinitives, past participles, and separable prefixes 
 come last in the 1 clause, except in dependent clauses, where 
 they immediately precede the verb: 
 
 SBtr toerben morgen nad) §aufe fommen, We shall come home 
 to-morrow. 
 
 (§r fyat e$ ntdjt gent getcm, He did not like to do it. 
 
 (Bit ftanben urn fiinf Ufyr auf, They got up at five o'clock. 
 
 2113 bie (Sonne enbltd) aufgegangen noar, madjten toir un3 auf 
 ben 2Beg, When the sun had at last risen, we set out on our way. 
 
 181. Predicate nouns and predicate adjectives come last 
 in an independent clause, except when an infinitive or a 
 past participle is in the clause: 
 
 £)te $Rofe ift rot, The rose is red. 
 
 @r ift ©olbat, He is a soldier. 
 
 (§3 ift beute ntd)t fait getoefert, 77 was not cold to-day. 
 
 £>a$ ^Better nitrb fdjon tncrben, The weather will be fair. 
 
 182. Order of Objects, i. Of two objects, the indirect 
 precedes, unless the direct is a personal or a reflexive pro- 
 noun : 3>r {gdjiUer gab fetnem £ef)rer feine Slnttoort, The pupil 
 did not give his teacher an answer. (Sr gab mir em 9)?ef[cr, He 
 
WORD ORDER 75 
 
 gave me a knife. ($r gab e$ tntr, but also, (Ex gab mir'3. <5te 
 ftellte ftdj mir Dor, She introduced herself to me. 
 
 183. Order of Adverbs, i. A short adverb of time may 
 precede a noun object; other adverbs follow: 
 
 2Bir fafyen geftern etnen gremben auf ber ©trafje, We saw a 
 stranger on the street yesterday. 
 
 2. Adverbs of time almost always precede other adverbs, 
 and adverbs of place usually come second: Sftein 33ruber 
 retfte geftern morgen nadj (Sfytcago, My brother went to Chicago 
 yesterday morning. Note that in English the order is reversed. 
 
 3. General scheme: Time, place, manner, cause, purpose: 
 SBir famen geftern Don Sfteutyorf mit unfern ©Item, urn bent 
 gefte betgutoofynen, We came from New York yesterday with our 
 parents to attend the festival. 
 
 4. A single adverb modifying another adverb or adjective 
 must stand before it: 
 
 £)er £nnb lief nicr)t ferjr fdjnetl. ©ie ift rec^t t>libfdr). 
 
 184. The negatives ntd)t, nte, mentals usually follow the 
 object but precede a predicate noun, a predicate adjective, 
 an infinitive, a past participle, a separable prefix, and a 
 transposed verb. If they negate any particular word rather 
 than the predicate or the proposition in general, they come 
 immediately before it: 
 
 3dj fyorte feme 2Inttoort ntdjt, / did not hear his answer. 
 £)tefe 93lume ift ntd)t rot, This flower is not red. 
 3d) fonnte tfyn ntd)t feljen, / could not see him. But: 3dj 
 fonnte tint ntdjt beutltdj fefyen, / could not see him distinctly. 
 (§r fjatte ba$ ntdjt getan, He had not done that. 
 (Sr tear geftern nid)t gu §aufe, He was not at home yesterday. 
 (§3 gefdjaf) nidjt bier, // did not happen here. 
 2)a3 fotmnt nicf)t Don oben, That does not come from above. 
 
76 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 3$ gefye nie nrieber in fein §au$, / will never enter his house 
 again. 
 
 9?id)t er fonbern ©ie toaren e£, It was not he but you. 
 
 £>a3 fotnmt nid)t fefyr fyaufig bor in biefer <Stabt, That does 
 not happen very often in this city. 
 
 185. The " double infinitive" (140) always comes at the 
 end of the sentence, even in transposed order: ©ie fatten 
 ba$ ntd)t tun foden, You should not have done that. 3)a id) e3 
 nid)t fyabe berraten toolfen, fagte id) gar nid)t3, As I did not wish 
 to give it away (betray it), I said nothing at all. 
 
 186. The modifiers or the object of an infinitive with gu 
 always precede it: C?g ift nidjt leid)t, biefen 33erg p befteigen, 
 It is not easy to ascend this mountain. (§3 getting mir, meinen 
 33ater gu bereben, mit mir gemeinfdjaftltd) ein S3ergeid)ni3 iiber 
 bk bort lagernben 2Baren aufmnerjmen, / succeeded in persuading 
 my father to make with me an inventory of the merchandise 
 stored there. 
 
 187. The modifiers or object of a participle precede it; 
 in English they follow: £)er bom SBeften fommenbe 2Binb mar 
 fefyr fait, The wind coming from the west was very cold. Qd) 
 la£ foeben einen bor 3af)ren bon tfmx erfjaltenen 23rief, / have 
 just been reading a letter received from him years ago. 
 
 Cautions and Suggestions for Translation 
 
 The day when foreign language courses consisted almost 
 exclusively of grammar and translation is happily past. Yet 
 translation will always hold an important place in foreign 
 language study and teaching. We therefore venture to as- 
 semble here a few cautions and suggestions that may help 
 the student to avoid some of the numerous pitfalls that lie 
 in his way. 
 
 188. Guard against merely translating words. In Ger- 
 
'TRANSLATION 77 
 
 man, as in all other languages, most words have more than 
 one meaning; it therefore requires much care to render each 
 expression by one that will convey the idea intended by 
 the author. The context usually makes this clear. 
 
 189. German word order differs materially from the 
 English; hence the student should be on his guard against 
 retaining the German order where English demands a 
 different order. The following are the most important 
 differences. 
 
 i. Transposition of the verb and inversion are extremely 
 common in German, while in English they are relatively rare. 
 Note the position of the verbs in the following sentence: 
 2113 mem SBrnber geftern morgen cmfam, Voax tdj fdjon nctd) ,£Jaufe 
 gegangen, When my brother arrived yesterday morning, I had 
 already gone home. 
 
 2. In German the past participle and the infinitive usually 
 have either the last or next to the last place in the clause, 
 in English they do not: $<§ fonnte ba% aire §au$ nidjt mefyr 
 feljett, / could no longer see the old house. 2Btr fatten unfere 
 lattQen 2lufaaben griinbltdj ftubtert, We had thoroughly studied 
 our long lessons. 
 
 3. In German, infinitives and participles follow their 
 objects and modifiers, in English they precede them: 
 Cnnen 5£pfel in ber §cmb fyctltenb, ftanb er ba imb toartete auf 
 mid). (§,& fiel tfym nidjt einmal em, ben langen SSeg nad) §aufe 
 ofyne 33egfetter mriicf mlegen, // did not even occur to him to travel 
 the long way home without a companion. 3)ie bom 30. ©rabe 
 M3 m ben 'ifolen toefyenben unteren SBinbe, The lower winds, 
 blowing from the thirtieth parallel to the poles. This, the so- 
 called participial construction, is very common in German 
 and may be rendered either by a participial phrase or a rela- 
 tive clause, both of which must follow the noun. The usual 
 order of translation is: (1) the article or limiting adjective, 
 
78 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 (2) the noun, (3) the participle, (4) modifiers or object 
 of the participle. 
 
 4. Inversion in if-clauses, which in English is limited to 
 the forms had, were, could, and should (had he been here, 
 were that true) is extremely frequent in German and may 
 occur in the case of any verb and any form of it. If, there- 
 fore, the student encounters a statement beginning with 
 the finite verb, it is safe to render it as an if-clause, unless 
 it is a question or command, or is immediately preceded by 
 a dependent clause: ($rtt>armt man 1 kg SBaffer, if 1 kg. of 
 water is heated ; SStrb alfo Staffer Don 4 C (4 ©rab SelftuS) MS 
 auf o° C abgeftifylt, if therefore water at 4 C. is cooled to o° C. 
 
 190. A German comparative in form is not always com- 
 parative in meaning: (Sine ciltere 3)ame fafj in bent 2Bagen, An 
 elderly lady sat in the carriage. 
 
 191. Since reflexive verbs are used far less in English 
 than in German, care must be taken not to translate a 
 German reflexive by a reflexive where the English verb 
 cannot be used. Thus : 3d) freue mid) is not / rejoice myself, 
 but / am glad. 
 
 192. Difficult Words. One of the most difficult tasks 
 confronting the student of German, or, for that matter, of 
 any foreign language, is the mastery of certain particles, 
 adverbs, connectives, etc., which occur very frequently and 
 may have a large number of different meanings or shades of 
 meaning. The student should be particularly careful to 
 master each new word of this type and each new meaning of 
 such a word the first time he encounters it. It might be well 
 to make a list of such words with their various meanings, 
 adding new words and illustrative examples to it from day 
 to day. The list given here contains only a small number; 
 it is intended to suggest to the student a method of solving 
 the difficulties rather than to solve them for him. 
 
TRANSLATION 79 
 
 193. $a is used: 
 
 1. As an adverb of place and time, there, here, then: 9Ba3 
 fyaft bu ba, Wlaxk? What have you there, Marie? £)a bin tdj, 
 Here I am. £)a fiel mtr aud) mein Xraum em, Then my dream 
 occurred to me, too. In each case the context will reveal 
 which is the proper meaning. 
 
 2. Sometimes it is best rendered by when: $Dte 33riiber 
 toaren eben fort, ba famen bie Altera, The brothers had just gone 
 when their parents came. 
 
 3. As causal conjunction, since, as: £)ct id) m'djt antloortete, 
 fragte er toteber, Since (as) I did not answer, he asked again. 
 
 4. As temporal conjunction, as, when: 2lber niemal$ guOor, 
 ba nodj mein $ater unfefylbar Oor mtr ftanb, fjabe id) foldje £>axU 
 Iidc)fett fiir tint flefiifylt, tote in jener ©tunbe, ba er mtr jene £at 
 Oertrante; But never before, when my father still stood before 
 me infallible, did I feel such tenderness for him as in the hour 
 when he confided that deed to me. 
 
 As conjunction, either causal or temporal, it has trans- 
 posed order and can thus be readily recognized. 
 
 5. Colloquially it is used very frequently with various 
 shades of meaning that can not well be classified and often 
 defy translation or should not be translated: T)k fjarten 
 banner! £)a fytlft fetn bitten, The hard(-hearted) men! Plead- 
 ing is of no avail with them. SDa follte man bod) ba% aange 
 S3efttenjeug oor ben $opf fdjtefjen, toenn'3 m toetter nicfyts ba 
 toare, al3, etc., In that case, one really ought to shoot the beasts, 
 one and all, if they exist for no other purpose than, etc. 
 
 194. Sftun may be used: 
 
 1. As an adverb of time, now: ^un famen bte anbern and), 
 Now the others came also. $ftun fam er an bit SRetfye, Now his 
 turn came. 
 
 2. As a so-called sentence adverb, well: 9hm, n)k gefyt e$ 
 
80 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 3^rent 23ater? Well, how is your father? In this latter 
 meaning, it is always set off by a comma and can therefore 
 be readily recognized. 
 
 195. $et (bte, ba3). The beginner frequently finds it 
 difficult to tell whether a given form of ber is an article, a 
 relative pronoun, or a demonstrative pronoun. 
 
 i. As an article ber (bte, ba$) is used with a noun, though 
 it may be far removed from it by adjective modifiers: £)a3 
 Dor furger £dt neu angeftrtdjene £>au3 tourbe berfauft, The house 
 which was newly painted a short time ago was sold. 
 
 2. When it introduces a clause that has transposed word 
 order, it is a relative pronoun: £)a3 £>au$, ba$ bor furger 
 gett neu angeftrtdjen tourbe, tft berfauft toorben. 
 
 3. When it introduces a clause having normal or inverted 
 word order, it is a demonstrative pronoun (unless it is the 
 article) : £)te 2lrt lafj' id) Mr ba, bte fyalt feft, / shall leave the 
 ax here for you, hang on to it. As in this case, the demonstra- 
 tive pronoun ber is frequently best translated by a personal 
 pronoun. 
 
 196. Syllabication 
 
 1. Words are divided into syllables according to the 
 division that takes place in pronouncing them slowly. 
 
 2. In simple words a single consonant between two vowels 
 goes with the syllable that follows : ge-ben, le=fen. Note that 
 d), fd), 6, ft, pf), tfy are regarded as one sound: 33it-d)er, grower, 
 $a=ften. 
 
 3. Of several consonants and double consonants only the 
 last one is carried over: ^un^ge, ©titb-te, ef=fen, $nof~pe, 
 2ln=fer, frat=gen, fcimp=fen. cf is resolved into f =f , ^paf =fe. 
 
 Note. — In foreign words the combinations of b, p, b, t, g, f, with I 
 or r regularly belong to the following syllable: ^u^lifum, 9tte=tnim, 
 ge=bruar. 
 
CAPITALS 8 1 
 
 4. Compound words are divided according to their com- 
 ponents: §au§=bad), bar=an, bor^auS, bar=unt, be=ob-ad)teti, 
 boII=enben, £)ten3=tag, 3nter=effe. 
 
 197. Capitals 
 
 1. All nouns begin with a capital letter: baS ^paitS, Me 
 geber. 
 
 2. All words used as nouns (adjectives, participles, 
 infinitives, etc.) begin with a capital letter: ber 2trme, ber 
 (Mefyrte, bctS ©ingen, ettoaS 9?eue3. 
 
 Note. — Be careful to distinguish between adjectives used as nouns 
 and adjectives with noun omitted. Thus: ©in Sftetdjer 6ea,egnete etnem 
 Sfrmett auf ber ©trajje, ^4 ric// »m» we/ a />oor wa« ow the street. But, 
 gtoet banner bcgegneten fid) auf ber ©trafee, ein reiser unb etn armer. 
 
 3. The pronoun ©te, yo«, and its possessive 3fyr, y^wr, 
 and in letters all pronouns and possessive adjectives referring 
 to the one addressed, are capitalized. The pronoun ict) is 
 not capitalized. 
 
 4. Proper adjectives are capitalized only when they are 
 part of a proper name: bctS 3>utfdje 9tod), but ba$ beutfcfye 
 SSoIf, Me engu'fdje $reffe. 
 
 198. Punctuation 
 
 The most important differences between English and 
 German punctuation are the following: 
 
 1. In German all subordinate clauses are set off by 
 commas. 
 
 2. In a series where the last two members are connected 
 by a conjunction the comma is not used before the conjunc- 
 tion: geber, Xtnte unb papier ftnb ba. 
 
 3. A single word used parenthetically is not set off by 
 commas : S0?etn 23ruber jebodj mar ntcf)t gefommen, My brother, 
 however, had not come. 
 
82 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR EXERCISES 
 
 Articles and Nouns 
 
 i. How does German differ from English in the use of 
 the definite article? the indefinite article? 2. When may 
 the definite article in German take the place of the pos- 
 sessive adjective? Give examples illustrating fully your 
 answers to questions 1 and 2. (Do not confine your illustra- 
 tions to those given in the grammar.) 
 
 3. What genders does German have? 4. Give rules for 
 the determination of gender. 5. With the help of these 
 rules determine the gender of the following nouns : grilling, 
 (Efyrtftentum, Abetter, SBhmte, 3ung.e, £>of)e, ^rcmffyett, ©tubmen, 
 $itnglem, 231iimd)en, £epptd), ©angerm, (Smtgfett, (Sljcmte, 
 Nation, 9?atur, ©olb, 9?orben, UtttDerfttat, greunbfdjaft, Ubung, 
 SBatferet, 53ofton, @tubium, ©ebiiube, §ontg, 9D?a%mattf, 9Q?at, 
 SDHtttDod). 
 
 6. Name the different noun declensions, and give the 
 characteristics of each. 7. What nouns do not change in 
 the singular? 8. Which case has the same ending in all 
 declensions? 9. Name and distinguish the different classes 
 of the strong declension. 10. Do nouns of class I of the strong 
 declension ever take -eS in the genitive singular? 11. What 
 nouns of classes II and III of the strong declension take 
 -e3 in the genitive singular? 12. What nouns belong to the 
 first class of the strong declension? 13. Give the member- 
 ship of the weak declension. Which weak nouns take -n 
 and which -en? 14. What nouns take umlaut in the plural ? 
 15. In which class are there no neuter nouns? in which no 
 feminines ? 16. What peculiarity in spelling should be noted 
 in the inflection of nouns in -nt$, -in, -fe ? Write the princi- 
 pal parts of ©efangntS, 2lrbeiterm, ber gufj, ber glufe. 17. 
 
QUESTIONS 83 
 
 What inflectional ending do proper names take? 18. When 
 is the definite article used with proper names ? 19. How does 
 the use of the definite article affect the inflection of proper 
 names ? 20. Write out the principal parts of all nouns in 
 your reading lesson, and state to which declension and 
 class each belongs. Thus: Me ^poffnung, ber ^poffnung, bit 
 $offnungen, wk. 
 
 Adjectives 
 
 1. What is an adjective? 2. What is meant by the term 
 modify? 3. What two kinds of adjectives are there? De- 
 fine them. 4. When are adjectives inflected and when not? 
 
 5. How are they inflected? When weak? When strong? 
 
 6. Do the terms weak and strong mean the same when ap- 
 plied to adjectives as when applied to nouns? 7. What is 
 a distinctive ending? 8. WTiat words have distinctive end- 
 ings? 9. Where do the indefinite article em and words 
 declined like it (ein^words) have no distinctive ending ? 
 10. Which are the em=words? 11. How are adjectives in a 
 series (two or more adjectives modifying one noun) inflected? 
 12. How are adjectives and participles inflected when used 
 as nouns? 13. When are adjectives derived from proper 
 names capitalized ? When not ? 14. What peculiarity have 
 adjectives ending in -er formed from names of places? 15. 
 What peculiarity must be noted in the- declension of ad- 
 jectives ending in -e, -el, -en, -er? 16. Pick out all the 
 descriptive adjectives in your reading lesson and answer the 
 following questions with regard to each. Inflected or not ? 
 Why or why not ? If inflected, how and why ? 
 
 17. What is meant by comparison of adjectives? 18. 
 How are adjectives compared in English? 19. What de- 
 termines the manner of comparison in English? 20. Does 
 the length of an adjective in German have any influence 
 on the manner of comparison? 21. How is the comparative 
 
84 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 generally formed? The superlative? 22. What exceptions 
 are there to this rule? Explain them. 23. When are ad- 
 jectives compared by means of adverbs? What adverbs are 
 used for this purpose? 24. Distinguish between the relative 
 superlative and the adverbial superlative as to form. When 
 is each used? 25. Can all adjectives be compared? Give 
 reason for your answer. 26. What is descending compari- 
 son? How is it indicated? How are the comparative and 
 the superlative forms of the adjective inflected? 
 27. How are adverbs compared? 
 
 Numerals 
 
 1. Which of the numerals may be inflected, and how? 
 2. How are ordinals formed? Illustrate and give excep- 
 tions. 3. How are the, ordinal adverbs erftenS, gft>eiten3, etc. 
 formed? 4. How are fractions formed? 5. In what ways 
 may a date be given in German ? 
 
 Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives 
 
 1. Name and define the various kinds of pronouns. 2. 
 Decline the personal pronouns. 3. Explain and illustrate 
 fully the use of bu, ifyr, @te as pronouns of address. 4. What 
 is meant by adverbial compounds? 5. Explain and illus- 
 trate by at least five sentences the use of adverbial com- 
 pounds instead of personal pronouns. 6. Explain and 
 illustrate the absolute use of e$, bteS, ba$, toeldjeS. 
 
 7. How are possessives declined when used as pronouns? 
 as adjectives? 8. When are possessive pronouns, used in 
 the predicate, inflected? When not? 
 
 9. Name the relative pronouns. 10. How are they used? 
 n. How are they declined? 12. May the relative ever be 
 omitted in German as it is in English? 13. What determines 
 
QUESTIONS 85 
 
 the gender and number of a relative? 14. What determines 
 its case? 15. Explain and illustrate the use of adver ial 
 compounds instead of relative pronouns. 16. What are 
 the compound relatives? 17. How are they declined? 18. 
 Explain and illustrate the use of each. 19. What kind of 
 antecedent does a compound relative never have? 20. When 
 must the antecedent of tner be expressed ? 
 
 21. Name the interrogative pronouns. 22. Which of 
 these may also be used as adjectives? 23. Explain and 
 illustrate the use of each of the interrogatives. 24. Explain 
 and illustrate the use of adverbial compounds instead of 
 the interrogatives. 
 
 25. Name the demonstratives and give the meaning of 
 each. 26. How does the demonstrative pronoun ber differ 
 in declension from the demonstrative adjective ber? from 
 the article ber? from the relative ber? 27. How is berfelbe 
 declined ? 
 
 28. What forms are used for the missing genitive, dative, 
 and accusative of man? 29. What inflectional changes do 
 iemcmb, niemcmb, and ieberrrtctnn have? 30. How are ettt)a6 
 and m'(f)t3 inflected? 31. How are they used? 
 
 Verbs 
 
 1. What is a verb? a transitive verb? an intransitive 
 verb? a weak verb? a strong verb? an irregular weak verb? 
 an auxiliary verb? 2. What are the modifications of the 
 verb? Define each. 3. How is the stem of a verb found? 
 4. What are the principal parts of a verb? 5. What is a 
 simple tense? a compound tense? 6. What auxiliaries have 
 we in German? 7. Which verbs take fein? What excep- 
 tions are there to this rule ? 8. What is the auxiliary of 
 the future ? 9. How are infinitives inflected when used as 
 nouns ? Of what gender are they ? 10. How is the passive 
 
86 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 infinitive formed? the perfect infinitive? n. How is the 
 present participle formed? the perfect participle? 12. Is 
 the meaning of the gerundive (the present participle with 
 gu) active or passive? 13. How are participles declined 
 when used as adjectives or nouns? 14. Which verbs do 
 not take ge- in the past participle? Why? 15. In the 
 case of separable verbs, what is the position of the ge- in the 
 past participle and of gu in the infinitive ? 
 
 16. How many and what moods have we in German? 
 17. How many and what tenses? 18. Does each mood 
 have all the tenses? 19. Give the formula or rule for the 
 formation of each of the compound tenses in all the moods. 
 20. Do the tenses of the various moods correspond in 
 meaning? 
 
 21. Which of the two forms of the preterit of rnerben is 
 generally used? Where is the other used? 22. How is 
 the preterit of a weak verb formed? 23. Where are the 
 indicative and the subjunctive of weak verbs alike? 24. 
 What principle governs the use of the subjunctive forms 
 which are like the indicative forms? 25. What irregularity 
 is there in the conjugation of the verbs ending in -eln, -em ? 
 Illustrate fully. 26. What weak verbs require the connect- 
 ing vowel e ? Where ? Illustrate. 
 
 27. How many and what forms does the imperative mood 
 have? 28. When are the familiar forms used? the polite? 
 29. When may the subject be expressed in the familiar 
 forms? Where is it always expressed? 30. Why is the 
 subject of the polite form always capitalized? 
 
 31. What peculiarity do some strong verbs have in the 
 present tense? In which forms? 32. Which verbs have this 
 peculiarity? 33. Which of these also have this change in 
 the imperative? In which form? 34. What other irregu- 
 larity do these imperative forms have? 35. When is the 
 
QUESTIONS 87 
 
 connecting vowel used in strong verbs? Where do strong 
 verbs differ in this respect from weak verbs? 36. How is 
 the preterit subjunctive of strong verbs formed? 
 
 37. Which are the inseparable verbal prefixes? 38. Do 
 inseparable verbs differ in any way from the simple verbs 
 with respect to their conjugation? If so, where and how? 
 39. Does a compound verb always have the same auxiliary 
 as the simple verb? 40. In what tenses are separable verbs 
 separated? 41. When are they not separated in these 
 tenses? 42. Where does the prefix come when separated? 
 
 43. Where does the chief accent fall in separable verbs? 
 
 44. What is the position of ge- in the past participle and of 
 git in the infinitive? 45. Do these verbs offer any special 
 difficulties in their conjugation ? 46. Which prefixes are at 
 times separable, at others not? What rule governs the 
 matter ? 
 
 47. What is a reflexive verb? 48. Do they differ from 
 other verbs in conjugation? 49. What is the reflexive pro- 
 noun of the third person? of the first singular? first plural? 
 second singular? second plural? 50. What auxiliary do all 
 reflexives take? 
 
 51. Distinguish between active and passive voice. 52. 
 Which verbs may have a passive? 53. Distinguish between 
 the real and the apparent passive, (a) as to formation; (b) 
 as to meaning and use. Illustrate fully. 54. What change 
 does the past participle of toerbert undergo when used as an 
 auxiliary of the passive? 55. How is the agent with the 
 passive expressed in English ? in German ? 56. What in- 
 transitive verbs may have a passive? What is the subject 
 of such a passive? When is this not expressed? 57. What 
 substitutes are there for the passive ? 58. After which verbs 
 does the active infinitive often have passive force ? 
 
 59. What does the term modal auxiliary mean? 60. 
 
88 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 What peculiarity of conjugation have these verbs in the 
 present indicative? 61. What other verb has this? 62. 
 Which of the modals has imperative forms? 63. What 
 peculiarity of conjugation have these verbs in their perfect 
 tenses when used with a dependent infinitive? 64. What 
 position does the " double infinitive " take in the sentence? 
 
 65. What other verbs, given a dependent infinitive without 
 git, may have the same construction in their perfect tenses ? 
 
 66. Can folten and toolfen be at all used as auxiliaries of the 
 future ? 
 
 67. What is an impersonal verb ? 68. What difference of 
 construction is there between (53 frtert mid) and I am freezing ? 
 69. When should there is (are) be translated by e3 Qtbt and 
 when by e$ tft (ftnb) ? 
 
 70. When is the indicative mood used? 71. What sub- 
 stitutes are there for the imperative? Illustrate. 72. When 
 is the subjunctive used? 73. What tenses of the subjunctive 
 may be used to express a wish? When is the preterit used? 
 when the pluperfect? 74. Where is the imperative sub- 
 junctive used? 75. What English construction is its equiva- 
 lent? 76. W T hat other way is there in German to express 
 such a command? 77. What is the word order in a clause 
 having an imperative subjunctive? 78. In what kind of 
 conditional sentences is the indicative used? 79. In what 
 kind the subjunctive? 80. What tenses of the subjunctive 
 may be used in unreal conditions? 81. When is the preterit 
 used? the pluperfect? 82. What alternative forms have 
 we for these? Explain and illustrate their use. 83. What is 
 the word order in the result clause? In the if-clause? 84. 
 When does the dependent' clause in these sentences not have 
 transposed word order? 85. What idea is usually expressed 
 by the potential subjunctive? 86. With what verbs is it most 
 common? 87. Explain the use of the subjunctive in com- 
 
QUESTIONS 89 
 
 parisons. 88. How are such clauses introduced? 89. What 
 is meant by indirect discourse? 90. How is indirectness of 
 speech indicated in English? in German? 91. When may 
 the indicative be used in indirect discourse? 92. What 
 determines the tense of the dependent verb? 93. What is 
 the order of the dependent clause? 94. Illustrate and ex- 
 plain how the tenses of the direct and indirect statements 
 correspond. 95. Which of the two possible forms of an 
 indirect statement is to be used ordinarily? 96. In what 
 mood do purpose clauses require their verb? 
 
 97. When is the present tense used? When the preterit? 
 98. What tense largely takes the place of the future in col- 
 loquial English and German? 99. What is the historical 
 present? its purpose? 100. When is the present used for 
 the English perfect? the preterit for the English past per- 
 fect? 101. When is the future used for the present? 
 
 Exercises. — 1. Using the model below, give the construc- 
 tion of all the verbs in your reading lesson: (§r berh'ef} je^t 
 bctS ^inxmer. 23erltefe, 3d sing. pret. ind. act. of berlaffen, er 
 berlajjt, er berltejj, er §at berlaffen. 2. Write a synopsis in the 
 indicative and subjunctive active of 3)u fcmnft ba3 33ucf) lefen. 
 
 3. Pick out the transitive verbs of your reading lesson and 
 change the clauses in which they are used into the passive. 
 
 4. Select from your reading lesson some portion of a dialog 
 in direct discourse and change it to indirect discourse. 
 Direct: „3?dj metne, toctS toar e3 etgentlidj, ba% ba% Unajittf liber 
 betne gamilte bradjte?" Indirect: £)er 3unge fagte ju fetner 
 greunbtn, er meine, toag e3 eigentlidj getoefen fet, bag ba$ Uncjliicf 
 iiber ifyre Samttie gebrac^t fjabe. 5. Reverse the process under 
 4 with a different passage. 
 
90 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 
 
 Word Order 
 
 I. Name and define the different types of word order. 
 Give examples of each. 2. When is the inverted order used? 
 Illustrate fully. 3. When is the transposed or dependent 
 order used? 4. What kind of dependent clauses have in- 
 verted order? normal order? Give examples of each. 5. 
 What order may an interrogative sentence have? 6. What 
 is the position of the verb in an indirect question? 7. What 
 is the order of an imperative sentence? 8. What is the order 
 of adverbs? 9. What is the position of a predicate noun? 
 a predicate adjective? the direct object? the indirect object? 
 (both or either as noun or pronoun). 10. What is the posi- 
 tion of infinitives, past participles, and separable prefixes? 
 11. What is the position of the finite verb in a dependent 
 clause with a double infinitive? 12. What is the position 
 of the negatives? 13. How does the position of the modifiers 
 and objects of participles and infinitives differ in German 
 from their order in English? Illustrate all your answers. 
 
 14. Define and account for the position of each verb in 
 your reading lesson. 15. What is the position of the 
 finite verb in clauses introduced by the following words: 
 baft, benn, toetl, unb, ba (since), ba (there or then), al$, toann 
 (two possibilities), toenrt, bamtt (conjunction), aber, ber (rela- 
 tive), ob, efye, nad)bem ? 16. Use the above words in sentences. 
 17. In the following sentences correct the errors and state 
 the rule violated in each case. Oft ttrir gtngen nad) §aufe. 
 3d) faum toufcte, toaS gu tun. ©eftem auf ber ©trafee fallen ttnr 
 biele 9ftenfd)en. §eute morgen id) erbtelt einen SBrtef. TO ber 
 $rteg anftng, man crtoartete md)t, bafc er toiirbe bauern (last) 
 fo lemg. $8crben @te nadj ber ©tabt morgen gefjen ? £>aben <&k 
 gefefyen inein 93ud) ? 3a, id) fyabe bem £e()rer e3 gegeben. 
 
INDEX 
 
INDEX 
 
 (References are to sections of the text) 
 
 adjectives, 4, 12, 46-74: definition 
 of, 4; modifications of, 12; limiting 
 and descriptive, 46; rule for in- 
 flection of, 50; weak declension of, 
 51-53; strong declension of, 54- 
 56; used as nouns, 60-61; proper, 
 62; irregularities of declension, 
 62; comparison of, 64-72; relative 
 and adverbial superlatives, 68; 
 irregular comparison, 70; peri- 
 phrastic comparison, 71; descend- 
 ing comparison, 72; possessive, 83, 
 85; interrogative, 93; demonstra- 
 tive, 95-98; participles used as, 
 60, 109, 3; used as adverbs, 73 
 adverbial compounds, 80, 89, 94 
 adverbs, 6, 73, 77: definitions of, 6; 
 comparison of, 73; ordinal, 77 
 
 al£, roemt, roamt, 165, 173 
 ttl£ and rote, 65 note 
 
 at§ oh, al$ roemt, 173 
 
 articles, 18-23: definite, 18-21; 
 
 indefinite, 22, 23; contractions, 
 
 19 
 
 capitals, 197 
 
 conjunctions, coordinating, 172; sub- 
 ordinating, 173 
 connecting vowel, 117, 122 
 
 ba, uses of, 193 
 ber, bie, ba£, 195 
 biefer, 96, 97 
 bu=form, 79, 118 
 
 e3 gtbt (tft), 144 
 tttvad, 99, 3 
 
 gender, 11, 24, 25 
 gerundive, 109, 2 
 
 haOcn, conjugation of, 111; verbs 
 that take fiabett, 107 
 
 imperative mood, 118, 121, 146 
 imperative subjunctive, 149 
 indirect discourse, 158 
 infinitives, 108, 140; accusative, 170 
 interjections, 9 
 
 jemanb, 99, 2 
 iebermatm, 99 
 
 lofietl, conjugation of, 115 
 
 tnan, 99, 1 
 
 manner, 53c 
 
 modal auxiliaries, 138-142 : principal 
 parts of, 138; conjugation in pres- 
 ent, 139; with dependent infini- 
 tives, 140; meaning of, 142 
 
 moods, kinds and definitions of, 5; 
 uses of, 145-160 
 
 nacfj and nacfybetn, 166 
 mdjtS, 99, 3 
 niemanb, 99 
 
 nouns: kinds and definitions of, 2; 
 modifications of (person, number, 
 
94 
 
 INDEX 
 
 gender, fa.se) 11 ; rules for gender, 
 25; declension of, 26 ff.; general 
 scheme, 33; strong, 34-38; weak, 
 40-41; mixed, 42-43; proper, 45; 
 of weight, 169 
 
 numerals, 74-77: cardinals, 74; ordi- 
 nals, 75; fractions, 76; ordinal 
 adverbs, 77 
 
 HUH, uses of, 194 
 
 participles, present, 109; past, 110 
 passive, 128-137: auxiliary of, 131- 
 
 132; real, 130, 131, 134; apparent, 
 
 130, 132, 135; agent with, 133; 
 
 substitutes for, 137 
 prefixes, inseparable, 124; separable, 
 
 125; doubtful, 125 note 
 prepositions, definitions, 8; lists, 171 
 principal parts, of nouns, 32 note i; 
 
 of verbs, 102 
 pronouns: kinds and definitions of, 
 
 3; personal, 78; of address, 79; 
 
 agreement, 81; absolute use of e£, 
 
 bteS, bad, metered, 82, 93, 98; 
 
 possessive, 83-85; relative, 86-92; 
 agreement with antecedent, 88; 
 tt)er, 90, 91; roa£, 90, 92; inter- 
 rogative, 93; demonstrative, 95- 
 98; indefinite, 99 
 punctuation, 198 
 
 frfllagcn, 120 
 
 fetit, conjugation of, 113; verbs that 
 take fetit, 107 
 
 sentence, kinds and definitions of, 
 14 
 
 fid) frcucn, 127, i 
 
 fid) fdimctrficln, 127, 2 
 
 fold), 53c, 96, 1 
 
 fottbertt, after, aftettt, 172 
 
 subjunctive, 147-160: optative, 148 
 imperative, 149; conditional, 150 
 potential, 155; concessive, 156 
 comparison, 157; indirect dis- 
 course, 158; purpose, 159 
 
 superlative, 64, 68 
 syllabication, 196 
 
 tenses, formation of, 112; of the 
 subjunctive, 147; use of, 161 
 
 tense scheme, for unreal conditions, 
 152; for indirect discourse, 158, 
 2, 3 
 
 time, ways of expressing, 168 
 
 umlaut, of nouns, 33, 36, 3, 38, 2, 40 
 note 1, 44; of adjectives, 65; of 
 verbs, 121, 123 
 
 unreal conditions, 150-157 
 
 verbs, 100-164: definitions of, 5; 
 modifications of, 13; stem of, 101; 
 principal parts of, 102; weak, 103, 
 115-118; irregular weak, 103, 119; 
 connecting vowel, 117, 122; strong, 
 
 103, 120-123; vowel change in 
 the present indicative of strong 
 verbs, 121; formation of tenses, 
 
 104, 112; tense auxiliaries, 105, 
 111-114; rule for fettt and batten, 
 107; modal auxiliaries, 105, 138- 
 142; infinitives, 108, 140; partici- 
 ples, 109, 110; verbs in — cllt and 
 -em, 116; inseparable, 124; sepa- 
 rable, 125; reflexive, 126, 127; 
 preterit subjunctive, 123; passive 
 voice, 128-137; auxiliary of the 
 future, 112, 3, 4, 142 caution; im- 
 personal, 143, 144; with dative, 
 162 
 
 vowel change in present indicative of 
 strong verbs, 121, 122 
 
 rotihrcnb and tnbem, 173 
 
 roanbent, 116 
 
 roamt, 165, 173 
 
 ftjad, relative, 90, 92; interrogative, 
 
 93 
 roaS fiir cin, 93 note 
 mean, 165, 167, 173 
 
INDEX 
 
 95 
 
 foer, relative, 90, 92; interrogative, 
 93 
 
 toerben, 114 
 
 toiffen, 139, 2 
 
 word order, 174-187: kinds of, 175; 
 
 transposed, 176; normal, 177; 
 
 inverted, 177-179; of infinitives, 
 
 past participles, and separable 
 prefixes, 180; of predicate nouns 
 and predicate adjectives, 181; of 
 objects, 182; of adverbs, 183; of 
 negatives, 184; of double infinitive, 
 185; of modifiers or objects of 
 infinitives and participles, 186, 187 
 
Ibeatb's /l&ofcern Xanguage Series 
 
 GERMAN GRAMMARS AND READERS. 
 
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 Ball's German Drill Book. Companion to any grammar. 
 Ball's German Grammar. 
 Bishop and McKinlay's Deutsche Grammatik. 
 Deutsches Liederbuch. With music. 
 Foster's Geschichten und Marchen. For young children. 
 Fraser and Van der Smissen's German Grammar. 
 Greenfield's Grammar Summary and Word List. 
 Guerber's Marchen und Erzahlungen. 
 Haertel and Cast's Elements of Grammar for Review. 
 Harris's German Composition. 
 Harris's German Lessons. 
 Hastings' Studies in German Words. 
 Heath's German Dictionary. 
 Hewitt's Practical German Composition. 
 Holzwarth's Gruss aus Deutschland. 
 Huebsch-Smith's Progressive Lessons in German. 
 Huebsch-Smith's Progressive Lessons in German. Rev. 
 
 Huss's German Reader. 
 
 Jones's Des Kindes erstes Lesebuch 
 
 Joynes-Meissner German Grammar. 
 
 Joynes and Wesselhoeft's German Grammar. 
 
 Kriiger and Smith's Conversation Book. 
 
 Manfred's Ein praktischer Anfang. 
 
 Meras' Ein Wortschatz. 
 
 Mosher and Jenney's Lern- und Lesebuch. 
 
 Pattou's An American in Germany. A conversation book. 
 
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f>eatb's flDofcern ^Language Series 
 
 ELEMENTARY GERMAN TEXTS. (Partial List.) 
 
 Andersen's Bilderbuch ohne Bilder (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. 
 
 Andersen's Marchen (Super). Vocabulary. 
 
 Aus der Jugendzeit (Betz). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Baumbach's Nicotiana (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. 
 
 Baumbach's Waldnovellen (Bernhardt). Six stories. Vocabulary. 
 
 Benedix's Der Prozess (Wells). Vocabulary. 
 
 Benedix's Nein (Spanhoofd). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Bliithgen's Das Peterle von Niirnberg (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exs. 
 
 Bolt's Peterli am Lift (Betz). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Campe's Robinson der Jungere (Ibershoff). Vocabulary. 
 
 Carmen Sylva's Aus meinem Konigreich (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. 
 
 Die Schildbiirger (Betz). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Der Weg zum Gltick (Bernhardt). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Deutscher Humor aus vier Jahrhunderten (Betz). Vocab. and exercises. 
 Elz's Er ist nicht eifersiichtig (Wells). Vocabulary. 
 Gerstacker's Germelshausen (Lewis). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 Goethe's Das Marchen (Eggert). Vocabulary. 
 Grimm's Marchen and Schiller's Der Taucher (Van der Smissen). 
 Hauff's Das kalte Herz (Van der Smissen). Vocab. Roman type. 
 Hauff's Der Zwerg Nase (Patzwald and Robson). Vocab. and exs. 
 Heyse's L'Arrabbiata (Deering-Bernhardt). Vocab. and exercises. 
 Heyse's Niels mit der offenen Hand (Joynes). Vocab. and exercises. 
 Hillern's Hoher als die Kirche (Clary) . Vocabulary and exercises. 
 Leander's Traumereien (Van der Smissen). Vocabulary. 
 Munchhausen: Reisen und Abenteuer (Schmidt). Vocabulary. 
 Rosegger's Der Lex von Gutenhag (Morgan). Vocab. and exercises. 
 Salomon's Die Geschichte einer Geige (Tombo). Vocab. and exercises. 
 Schiller's Der Neffe als Onkel (Beresford-Webb). Vocabulary. 
 Spyri's Monider Geissbub (Guerber). Vocabulary. 
 Spyri's Rosenresli (Boll). Vocabulary. 
 
 Spyri's Was der Grossmutter Lehre bewirkt (Barrows). Vocab. and exs. 
 Storm's Geschichten aus der Tonne (Vogel). Vocab. and exs. 
 Storm's Immensee (Bernhardt). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 Storm's In St. Jiirgen (Wright). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 Storm's Pole Poppenspaler (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exercises. 
 Till Eulenspiegel (Betz). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 Volkmann's Kleine Geschichten (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. 
 Zschokke's Der zerbrochene Krug (Joynes). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
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 INTERMEDIATE GERMAN TEXTS. (Partial List.) 
 
 Arndt, Deutsche Patrioten (Colwell) . Vocabulary. 
 
 Benedix's Die Hochzeitsreise (Schiefferdecker) . Vocabulary. 
 
 Bohlau's Ratsmadelgeschichten (Haevernick). Vocabulary. 
 
 Chamisso's Peter Schlemihl (Primer) . Vocabulary. 
 
 Deutsche Gedichte und Lieder (Roedder and Purin) . Vocabulary. 
 
 Eichendorff 's Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts (Osthaus) . Vocab. 
 
 Ernst's Asmus Sempers Jugendland (Osthaus). Vocabulary. 
 
 Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea (Adams). Vocabulary. 
 
 Goethe's Sesenheim (Huss). From Die htung und Wahrheit. Vocab. 
 
 Hauff's Lichtenstein (Vogel). Abridged. 
 
 Heine's Die Harzreise (Vos). Vocabulary. 
 
 Hoffmann's Historische Erzahlungen (Beresford-Webb). 
 
 Jensen's Die braune Erica (Joynes). Vocabulary. 
 
 Keller's Fahnlein der sieben Aufrechten (Howard) . Vocabulary. 
 
 Keller's Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe (Adams). Vocabulary. 
 
 Lambert's Alltagliches. Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Lohmeyer's Geissbub von Engelberg (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exs. 
 
 Lyrics and Ballads (Hatfield) . 
 
 Meyer's Gustav Adolf s Page (Heller). 
 
 Mosher's Willkommen in Deutschland. Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Novelletten-Bibliothek (Bernhardt). Vol. I, Vol. II, 
 
 Raabe's Eulenpfingsten (Lambert). Vocabulary. 
 
 Riehl's Burg Neideck (Jonas). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Rogge's Der grosse Preussenkonig (Adams). Vocabulary. 
 
 Schiller's Der Geisterseher (Joynes). Vocabulary. 
 
 Schiller's Dreissigjahriger Krieg (Prettyman). Book III. 
 
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 Spielhagen's Das Skelett im Hause (Skinner) . Vocabulary. 
 
 Stifter's Das Haidedorf (Heller). 
 
 Stokl's Alle fiinf (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exercises. 
 
 Unter dem Christbaum (Bernhardt). 
 
 Wildenbruch's Das edle Blut (Schmidt). Vocab. and exercises. 
 
 Wildenbruch's Der Letzte (Schmidt). Vocab. and exercises. 
 
 Wildenbruch's Neid (Prettyman). Vocabulary. 
 
 Zschokke's Das Abenteuer der Neujahrsnacht (Handschin) . Vocab. 
 
 Zschokke's Das Wirtshaus zu Cransac (Joynes). Vocab. and exs. 
 
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 Arnold's April wetter (Fossler). Vocabulary. 
 
 Arnold's Fritz auf Ferien (Spanhoofd). Vocab. and exercises. 
 
 Arnold's Menne im Seebad (Thomas). Vocab. and exercises. 
 
 Auf der Sonnenseite (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. 
 
 Baumbach's Das Habichtsfraulein (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exs. 
 
 Baumbach's Der Schwiegersohn (Bernhardt). Vocabulary, 
 
 Baumbach's Die Nonna (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. 
 
 Drei kleine Lustspiele (Wells). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Ebner-Eschenbach's Die Freiherren von Gemperlein (Hohlfeld). 
 
 Freytag's Die Journalisten (Toy). Vocabulary. 
 
 Frommel's Eingeschneit (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. 
 
 Frommel's Mit Ranzel und Wanderstab (Bernhardt) . Vocab. and exs. 
 
 Fulda's Der Talisman (Prettyman). Vocabulary. 
 
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 Heyse's Das Madchen von Treppi (Joynes). Vocab. and exercises. 
 
 Heyse's Hochzeit auf Capri (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exercises. 
 
 Hoffmann's Gymnasium zu Stolpenburg (Buehner). Vocabulary. 
 
 Keller's Die drei gerechten Kammacher (Collings). Vocabulary. 
 
 Keller's Kleider machen Leute (Lambert). Vocabulary. 
 
 Liliencron's Anno 1870 (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. 
 
 Moser's Der Bibliothekar (Wells) . Vocabulary. 
 
 Moser's Kbpnickerstrasse 120 (Wells). 
 
 Riehl's Das Spielmannskind (Eaton). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Riehl's Der Fluch der Schonheit (Thomas). Vocabulary. 
 
 Schiller's Das Lied von der Glocke (Chamberlin). Vocabulary. 
 
 Schiller's Jungfrau von Orleans (Wells). Illus. Vocab., 
 
 Schiller's Maria Stuart (Rhoades). Illustrated. Vocab., 
 
 Schiller's Wilhelm Tell (Deering). Illustrated. Vocab. , 
 
 Seidel: Aus goldenen Tagen (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exercises. 
 
 Seidel's Leberecht Hiihnchen (Spanhoofd). Vocabulary. 
 
 Selections for Sight Translation (Deering). 
 
 Stern's Die Wiedertaufer (Sturm). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Stille Wasser (Bernhardt). Three tales. Vocabulary. 
 
 Wichert's Als Verlobte empfehlen sich (Flom). Vocabulary. 
 
 Wilbrandt's Das Urteil des Paris (Wirt). 
 
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 ADVANCED GERMAN TEXTS (Partial List.) 
 
 Dahn's Ein Kampf um Rom (Wenckebach). Abridged. 
 
 Dakn's Sigwalt und Sigridh (Schmidt). 
 
 Deutsche Reden (Tombo). 
 
 Ein Charakterbild von Deutscniand (Evans and Merhaut). 
 
 Frenssen's Jorn Uhl (Florer). 
 
 Freytag's Aus dem Jahrhundert des grossen Krieges (Rhoades) . 
 
 Freytag's Aus dem Staat Friedrichs des Grossen (Hagar). 
 
 Freytag's Das Nest der Zaunkonige (Roedder and Handschin). 
 
 Freytag's Rittmeister von Alt-Rosen (Hatfield). 
 
 Freytag's Soil und Haben (Files). Abridged. 
 
 Goethe's Dichtung und Wahrheit (I-IV). Buchheim. 
 
 Goethe's Egmont (Hatfield). 
 
 Goethe's Faust (Thomas). 
 
 Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea (Hewett). 
 
 Goethe's Iphigenie (Rhoades). 
 
 Goethe's Meisterwerke (Bernhardt). 
 
 Goethe's Poems (Harris). 
 
 Goethe's Torquato Tasso (Thomas). 
 
 Grillparzer's Der Traum, ein Leben (Meyer). 
 
 Hebbel's Agnes Bernauer (Evans). 
 
 Heine's Poems (White). 
 
 Herzog's Die Burgkinder (Boetzkes). Abridged. Vocabulary. 
 
 Komer's Zriny (Holzwarth). 
 
 Lessing's Emilia Galotti (Winkler). 
 
 Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm (Primer). With vocabulary, 
 
 Lessing's Nathan der Weise (Primer). 
 
 Ludwig's Zwischen Himmel und Erde (Meyer). 
 
 Meyer's Jiirg Jenatsch (Kenngott). Abridged. 
 
 Morike's Mozart auf der Reise nach Prag (Howard). 
 
 Scheffel's Ekkehard (Wenckebach). Abridged. 
 
 Scheffel's Trompeter von Sakkingen (Wenckebach). Abridged. 
 
 Schiller's Ballads (Johnson). 
 
 Schiller's Wallensteins Tod (Eggert). 
 
 Sudermann's Der Katzensteg (Wells). Abridged. Glossary. 
 
 Sudermann's Frau Sorge (Leser and Osthaus). Vocabulary. 
 
 Sudermann's Heimat (Schmidt). 
 
 Sudermann's Johannes (Schmidt). 
 
 Sudermann's Teja (Ford). Vocabulary. 
 
 Thomas's German Anthology. 
 
 Wildenbruch's Die Rabensteinerin (Ford). 
 
 Wildenbruch's Harold (Eggert). 
 
fceatb's /iDofcern Xanguage Series 
 
 FRENCH GRAMMARS, READERS, ETC. 
 
 Armand's Grammaire Elementaire. 
 Blanchaud's Progressive French Idioms. 
 Bouvet's Exercises in French Syntax and Composition. 
 Bowen's First Scientific French Reader. 
 Bruce's Dictees Francaises. 
 Bruce's Grammaire Francaise. 
 Bruce's Lectures Faciles. 
 Capus's Pour Charmer nos Petits. 
 Chapuzet and Daniels' Mes Premiers Pas en Francais. 
 Clarke's Subjunctive Mood. An inductive treatise, with exercises- 
 Comfort's Exercises in French Prose Composition. 
 Davies's Elementary Scientific French Reader. 
 Edgren's Compendious French Grammar. 
 Fontaine's En France. 
 Fontaine's Lectures Courantes. 
 Fontaine's Livre de Lecture et de Conversation. 
 Fraser and Squair's Abridged French Grammar. 
 Fraser and Squair's Complete French Grammar. 
 Fraser and Squair's Shorter French Course. 
 French Verb Blank (Fraser and Squair) . 
 Grandgent's Essentials of French Grammar. 
 Grandgent's French Composition. 
 Grandgent's Short French Grammar. 
 Heath's French Dictionary. 
 Henin's Methode. 
 
 Hotchkiss's Le Premier Livre de Francais. 
 Knowles and Favard's Grammaire de la Conversation. 
 Mansion's Exercises in French Composition. 
 Mansion's First Year French. For young beginners. 
 Martin's Essentials of French Pronunciation. 
 Martin and Russell's At West Point. 
 Meras' Le Petit Vocabulaire. 
 Pattern's Causeries en France. 
 Pellissier's Idiomatic French Composition. 
 Perfect French Possible (Knowles and Favard). 
 Prisoners of the Temple (Guerber). For French composition. 
 Roux's Lessons in Grammar and Composition, based on Colomba 
 Schenck's French Verb Forms. 
 Snow and Lebon's Easy French. 
 
 Story of Cupid and Psyche (Guerber) , For French composition. 
 Super's Preparatory French Reader. 
 
Deatb'8 flDooern ^Language Series 
 
 ELEMENTARY FRENCH TEXTS. 
 
 Assolant's Recits de la Vieille France. Notes by E. B. Wauton. 
 
 Berthet's Le Pacte de Famine (Dickinson). 
 
 Bruno's Les Enfants Patriotes (Lyon). Vocabulary. 
 
 Bruno's Tour de la France par deux Enfants (Fontaine). Vocabulary 
 
 Claretie's Pierrille (Francois). Vocab. and exs. 
 
 Daudet's Trois Contes Choisis (Sanderson). Vocabulary. 
 
 Desnoyers' Jean-Paul Choppart (Fontaine). Vocab. and exs. 
 
 Enault's Le Chi en du Capitaine (Fontaine). Vocabulary. 
 
 Erckma nn-Chatrian's Le Conscrit de 1813 (Super). Vocabulary. 
 
 Erckmann-Chatrian's L'Histoire d'un Paysan (Lyon). 
 
 Erckmann-Cha trian's Le Juif Polonais (Manley). Vocabulary. 
 
 Erckmann-Chatrian's Madame Therese (Manley). Vocabulary. 
 
 Fabliaux et Contes du Moyen Age (Mansion). Vocabulary. 
 
 France's Abe ill e (Lebon). 
 
 French Fairy Tales (Joynes). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 French Plays for Children (Spink). Vocabulary. 
 
 Gervais's Un Cas de Conscience (Horsley). Vocabulary. 
 
 La Bedolliere's La Mere Michel et son Chat (Lyon). Vocabulary. 
 
 Labiche's La Gramma ire (Levi). Vocabulary. 
 
 Labiche's La Poudre aux Yeux (Wells). Vocabulary. 
 
 Labiche's Le Voyage de M. Perrichon (Wells). Vocab. and exs. 
 
 Laboulaye's Contes Bleus (Fontaine). Vocabulary. 
 
 La Main Malheureuse (Guerber). Vocabulary. 
 
 Laurie's M6moires d'un Collegien (Super). Vocab. and exs. 
 
 Legouve and Labiche's Cigale chez les Fourmis (Witherby). 
 
 Lemaitre, Contes (Rensch). Vocabulary. 
 
 Mairet's La Tache du Petit Pierre (Super). Vocab. and exa 
 
 Maistre's La Jeune Siberienne (Fontaine). Vocab. and exs. 
 
 Malot's Sans Famille (Spiers). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Meilhac and Halevy's L'Ete de la St. Martin (Francois) Vocab. 
 
 Moinaux's Les deux Sourds (Spiers). Vocabulary. 
 
 Muller's Grandes Decouvertes Modernes. Vocabulary. 
 
 Recits de Guerre et de Revolution (Minssen). Vocabulary. 
 
 Recits Historiques (Moffett). Vocabulary and exercises. 
 
 Saintine's Picciola (Super). Vocabulary. 
 
 Segur's Les Malheurs de Sophie (White). Vocab. and exs. 
 
 Selections for Sight Translation (Bruce). 
 
 Verne's L'ExpSdition de la Jeune-Hardie (Lyon) . Vocabulary 
 
t>eatb'5 /IDofcern Slanguage Series 
 
 INTERMEDIATE FRENCH TEXTS. (Partial List.) 
 About's La Mere de la Marquise (Brush). Vocabulary. 
 About's Le Roi des Montagnes (Logie). With vocab. 
 
 Balzac: Cinq Scenes de la Comedie Humaine (Wells). Glossary. 
 Balzac's Eugenie Grande t (Spiers). Vocabulary. 
 Balzac's Le Cure de Tours (Super). Vocabulary. 
 Chateaubriand's Atala (Kuhns). Vocabulary. 
 Contes des Romanciers Naturalistes (Dow and Skinner). Vocab. 
 Daudet's La Belle -Nivernaise (Boielle). Vocabulary. 
 Daudet's Le Petit Chose (Super). Vocabulary. 
 Daudet's Tartarin de Tarascon (Hawkins). Vocabulary. 
 Dumas's Due de Beaufort (Kitchen). Vocabulary. 
 Dumas's La Question d' Argent (Henning) . Vocabulary. 
 Dumas's La Tulipe Noire (Fontaine). With vocabulary. 
 
 Dumas's Les Trois Mousquetaires (Spiers). Vocabulary. 
 Dumas's Monte-Cristo (Spiers). Vocabulary. 
 Feuillet's Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre (Bruner) . Vocabulary,, 
 Gautier's Voyage en Espagne (Steel). 
 Greville's Dosia (Hamilton). Vocabulary. 
 Hugo's Bug Jargal (Boielle). 
 
 Hugo's La Chute. From Les Miserables (Huss). Vocabulary. 
 Hugo's Quatre-vingt-treize (Fontaine). Vocabulary. 
 Labiche's La Cagnotte (Farnsworth). 
 La Brete's Mon Oncle et mon Cure (Colin). Vocabulary. 
 Lamartine's Graziella (Warren). 
 Lamartine's Jeanne d'Arc (Barrere). Vocabulary. 
 Lamartine's Scenes de la Revolution Francaise (Super). Vocab. 
 Lesage's Gil Bias (Sanderson). 
 
 Maupassant: Huit Contes Choisis (White). Vocabulary. 
 Michelet: Eztraits del'histoire de France (Wright). 
 Musset: Trois Comedies (McKenzie). 
 Sarcey's Le Siege de Paris (Spiers). Vocabulary. 
 Taine's L'Ancien Regime (Giese). Vocabulary. 
 Theuriet's Bigarreau (Fontaine). Vocab. and exercises. 
 Tocqueville's Voyage en Amerique (Ford). Vocabulary* 
 Vigny's Cinq-Mars (Sankey). Abridged. 
 Vigny's Le Cachet Rouge (Fortier). 
 Vigny's La Canne de Jonc (Spiers). 
 Voltaire's Zadig (Babbitt). Vocabulary . 
 
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