■ Je/l V> y-3 Bosim YZA HB '/MM& Diversity op cawforn/a Ibeatb's flDctoern language Series ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR FOR REVIEW BY M. H.\HAERTEL WHILE ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF GERMAN IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN AND G. C. CAST WHILE INSTRUCTOR IN GERMAN IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO R££lacinc Copyright, 1917, By D. C. Heath & Co. 2 K I PRINTED IN U. S. A. PREFACE The present volume is not intended to be a complete German grammar or to replace the many excellent grammars or books for beginners now on the market. Its primary object is to serve as a guide to the student in reviewing the grammar during the second year, to focus his attention upon the essentials, and to impress these firmly upon his, mind. Hence all unnecessary details have been omitted, and matter of secondary importance has been put in small type or in the notes. The introductory chapter on definitions of grammatical terms has been inserted in the hope that it may relieve the teacher of German of the time-consuming task of teaching the first elements of English grammar. It is hoped that the questions on the various topics may prove a valuable aid in impressing all important points upon the student's mind. The suggested exercises can and ought to be multiplied and varied by the teacher, to give the stu- dent not merely a theoretical but also a practical knowledge of German grammar. M. H. H. G. C. C. The University of Wisconsin, July, 1916. 682 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofgermanOOhaerrich CONTENTS PAGE Definitions of Grammatical Terms i The parts of speech 4 i Modifications of the parts of speech *4 The sentence 8 The Article 10 The Noun 12 Gender of nouns 12 Declension 13 Strong declension 14 Weak declension 17 Mixed declension 17 Proper nouns 19 The Adjective 19 Weak declension 20 Strong declension 21 Comparison 23 The Numerals 26 The Pronoun 28 Personal 28 Possessive 29 Relative 30 Interrogative 32 Demonstrative ^ Indefinite 34 vi CONTENTS The Verb 35 Tense auxiliaries fyaben, fein, toerben 38 Weak and irregular weak verbs 43 Strong verbs 46 Compound and reflexive verbs 49 Passive voice 52 Modal auxiliaries 56 Impersonal verbs 58 Use of moods 60 Use of tenses 66 Verbs governing dative 67 Prepositions 70 Conjunctions 71 Word Order 72 Suggestions for Translation 76 Syllabication 80 Capitals and Punctuation 81 Questions and Suggestions for Exercises 82 DEFINITIONS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS 1. Grammar Grammar is the study of the forms, uses, and structure of language. THE PARTS OF SPEECH 2. Nouns i. A Noun is the name of a person, place, idea, or thing: man, Berlin, truth, hat. 2. A Common Noun is a name that may be applied to any one of a class of persons, places, things: man, city, month. 3. A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing: Lincoln, Boston, May. 4. A Collective Noun is the name of a number of persons or things taken together: army, herd, class. 5. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, action, or state of being: beauty, reading, life. 3. Pronouns 1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun: he, you, they, it, who, this. 2. A Personal Pronoun is one that denotes (a) the speaker (First Person, /, me, we, us). (b) the one spoken to (Second Person, thou, you). (c) the person or thing spoken of (Third Person, he, him, she, it, they). 2 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 3. A Relative Pronoun is one that refers to some preced- ing noun or pronoun (its Antecedent) and connects clauses: who, which, what, that. The book which lies on the table is mine. 4. An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used to ask a question: who, which, what. 5. A Demonstrative Pronoun is one that is used to desig- nate or point out an object definitely: this, that, these, those. 6. An Indefinite Pronoun is one that designates or refers to an object or person in a more general or indefinite way: one, many, few, several, etc. 7. A Reflexive Pronoun is one that refers back to the subject: myself, himself, etc. 4. Adjectives 1. An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun: old house, this table. Adjectives are of two kinds: Descriptive, old, white, and Limiting, this, that. 2. The term Limiting Adjectives includes the following: (a) the definite article, the; (b) the indefinite article, a or an; (c) the demonstrative adjectives, this, that, these, those; (d) the interrogative adjectives, which, what; (e) the possessive adjectives, my, your, his, etc.; (f) the indefinite adjectives, some, all, much, etc.; (g) the numerals, both cardinals, one, two, three, etc., and ordinals, first, second, third, etc. 5. Verbs 1. A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being: He runs. I am. The dog sleeps. THE PARTS OF SPEECH 3 2. A Transitive Verb is one that in the active voice re- quires an object: He writes a letter. 3. An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an object: I go. Birds fly. Note. — Some verbs may be used either transitively or intransi- tively: He writes well. 4. A Regular Verb is one that forms its imperfect tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed: praise, praised, praised. 5. An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its imper- fect tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed: see, saw, seen. 6. An Auxiliary Verb is one that is used in the conjuga- tion of other verbs: I have seen. We shall go. 7. An Impersonal Verb is one that is used only in the third person singular, having it for a subject: It rains. It thunders. 6. Adverbs 1. An Adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb: She sings well. The tree is very tall. Don't run so fast. 2. Adverbs of Place answer the question " where? " — there, yonder, above, etc. 3. Adverbs of Time answer the question " when? " — to-day, now, never, etc. 4. Adverbs of Manner answer the question " how? " — fast, well, badly, etc. 5. Adverbs of Degree answer the question "how much?" or "to what extent? " — much, little, very. 7. Conjunctions 1. Conjunctions are words used to connect words, phrases, and clauses: The day was cold and dreary. The nations pray 4 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR for peace and work for war. Philosophers are not men of action, but of contemplation. 2. A Coordinating Conjunction is one that connects ele- ments of equal rank. For illustrations see 7, i. 3. A Subordinating Conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause with an independent clause: We arrived on the mountain top when the sun rose. 8. Prepositions A Preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation of its principal word (a noun or pro- noun) to the word modified: The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United States by the blueness of the water. 9. Interjections An Interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling: oh! ah! alas! MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 10. Modifications of the parts of speech are changes in form to denote changes in meaning and use: man, men; long, longer; go, went. These changes are called Inflection. 11. Modifications of the Noun The modifications of the noun and pronoun are Person, Number, Gender, Case. Note. — Nouns have no distinct forms to show person, and in English only few have forms to show gender. A noun is usually in the third person, unless it is in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second person. THE PARTS OF SPEECH 5 1. Person. A pronoun or noun is in the First Person when it denotes the speaker: /, we; in the Second Person when it denotes the one spoken to: thou, you; in the Third Person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of: he, she, it. 2. Number. A noun or pronoun is in the Singular Num- ber when it denotes one person or thing: man, book, I, he; in the Plural Number when it denotes more than one: men, books, we, they. 3. Gender. (a) The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex: man, boy, he. (b) The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex: woman, girl, she. (c) The Neuter Gender denotes want of sex: house, book, it. (d) A noun or pronoun denoting either male or female is said to be of the Common Gender: parent, child, I, we. 4. Case. The Case of a noun depends on its use in the sentence. There are three cases in English: (a) The Nominative Case, used in the subject and predicate: His brother is a soldier. (b) The Possessive Case, used to denote possession: Shakespeare's plays are more frequently per- formed in Germany than in England. (c) The Objective Case, used as object of a transitive verb or of a preposition: I met the man at his house. Note. — In English the noun has special forms to denote case only for the possessive case. 6 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 12. Modification of the Adjective i. Comparison. Adjectives and adverbs are compared to show the relative degree of the quality or quantity in the things compared. 2. The Positive Degree denotes the simple quality or quantity: large, much, small. 3. The Comparative Degree denotes a greater or less degree: larger, more, smaller. 4. The Superlative Degree denotes the greatest or least degree: largest, most, smallest. 5. In English adjectives and adverbs are regularly com- pared by adding to the positive -er or -r to form the com- parative, and -est or -st to form the superlative. Adjectives of more than two syllables are usually compared by means of the adverbs more, most; less, least. 13. Modifications of the Verb 1. The Modifications of the verb are Person, Number, Tense, Voice, and Mood. The inflection of the verb to show these modifications is called Conjugation. 2. The Person and Number of a verb correspond to the person and number of its subject. 3. There are six Tenses; as follows: (a) The Present tense denotes present time: I go; (b) The Past (also called Imperfect or Preterit) denotes past time: I went; (c) The Present Perfect (or simply Perfect) denotes action completed in the present time: I have gone; (d) The Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) denotes action completed in past time: I had gone; (e) The Future denotes future time: I shall go; THE PARTS OF SPEECH 7 (f) The Future Perfect denotes action completed in future time: I shall have gone. 4. Voice is that modification of the verb which shows whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon. (a) The Active Voice shows that the subject names the actor: The boy strikes the dog. (b) The Passive Voice shows that the subject de- notes the thing or person acted upon: The dog was struck by the boy. 5. Mood, or Mode, is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting or stating the action or being. (a) The Indicative Mood states the action as a fact : The earth is round. Is the earth round? (b) The Subjunctive Mood asserts the action as conditioned, possible, desired, doubted, un- real: Oh, that the war were over! If he knew more, he would speak less. Note. — In colloquial English of to-day the subjunctive is almost extinct. In German it is much used. (c) The Imperative Mood is used to express a com- mand or an entreaty: Listen to me. Sing for us, please. 6. The Infinitive merely names the action or being. It may be either Present, to sing, to ride; or Perfect, to have sung, to have ridden. In either form it may be used sub- stantively or verbally: To ride is pleasant. I saw them ride home. 7. The Participle is a verbal adjective. It may be either Present, Past, or Past Perfect. (a) The Present Participle denotes the action as going on: going, singing. 8 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR (b) The Past Participle denotes the action as com- pleted: gone, sung. (c) The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate: Having sent him a letter, I resumed my work. THE SENTENCE 14. A Sentence is a group of words expressing a com- plete thought: It is cold. Dogs bark. i. A Declarative Sentence is one that asserts something as a fact: The sun shines. 2. An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a question: Did the bell ring? 3. An Imperative Sentence expresses a command or request: Go home. Please tell me the time. 4. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses strong feeling or emotion: "How are the mighty J alien! ,: 15. A sentence consists of two parts, Subject and Predicate. 1. The Subject denotes the person or thing about which something is said: Dogs bark. He is tall. 2. The Predicate asserts something about the subject: Dogs bark. He is tall. Note. — Both subject and predicate may have modifiers: Some small dogs bark very loudly. 16. The Object of a transitive verb completes the meaning of the verb and denotes that which receives the action: He struck the ball. I saw him. 1. The Direct Object denotes that which is directly af- fected by the action: He brought me a letter. 2. The Indirect Object denotes that to or for which the action is done: He brought me a letter. THE SENTENCE 9 3. Certain intransitive verbs and also certain verbs in the passive require a Predicate Noun or Predicate Adjective to complete their meaning by defining or describing the subject: He is an old soldier. This cat is black. Our friend was chosen chairman. 17. 1. A Simple Sentence is one that expresses one thought and has but one subject and predicate, either of which may, however, be compound: The weather is fair. Man and beast alike suffered from cold and longed for spring. 2. A Compound Sentence is one that contains two or more statements of the same rank: The sun is 93,000,000 miles from the earth, but the stars are much more distant. 3. A Complex Sentence is one that contains at least one independent clause (statement) and one or more dependent clauses: His friends went home when the moon rose. 4. An Independent Clause is one that can stand alone and does not qualify or limit another statement: His friends went home. 5. A Dependent or Subordinate Clause is one that cannot stand alone; it qualifies or limits some other statement: This is the place where the deed was done. 6. Dependent clauses are, according to their use, desig- nated as: (a) Adverbial Clauses, It was raining when we arrived; (b) Adjective Clauses, I do not recall the day on which I saw him; (c) Noun Clauses, We saw that night was falling. * GERMAN GRAMMAR THE ARTICLE The Definite Article 18. Declension. Singular Plural M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. ber bte ba3 bte Gen. beS ber beS ber Dat. bent ber bent ben Ace. ben bte bag bte 19. Contractions. The most common contractions of the definite article with prepositions are the following: am = an bent tnt = in bent an$ = an bag in$ = in ba& auf$ = auf bag bom = Don bem betm = bet bem gum = gu bem burd)8 = burd) ba8 gur = gu ber furs = fur ba$ 20. Use of the Definite Article. The use of the definite article closely resembles the use of the definite article in English. The following exceptions to this should, however, be noted. In German the article is used: i. With nouns used in the generic or general sense: £)er Sftenfdj tft fterbltdj, Man is mortal. 2. With names of the seasons, months, days of the week, the points of the compass : ber Winter, ber 9M, ber Sftontao,, ber •iftorben. THE ARTICLE ii 3. With names of streets, proper names preceded by an adjective, and masculine and feminine names of places: in ber grtebridjftrafee, ba% fcereinte ©eutfdjlanb, bie ©djtoets, gretburg tm 33ret3a.au. 21. The definite article is often used instead of the pos- sessive adjective. But this is only done when the possessive relation is quite clear: (gr ftecfte bie &anb in bie £afdje, He put his hand in his pocket. £)er 53ater toar ifmt geftorben, His father had died, ©ie Derbanb tf)m ben Singer, She ban- daged his finger. The Indefinite Article 22. Declension. Plural of fetn M. F. N. M. F. N. em cine etn feme eme3 einer emeS feiner einem enter einem feinen einen cine etn feine Note. — (Sin has no plural. $ein, the negative indefinite article, is declined like etn in the singular; in the plural it is declined as shown above. 23. Use of the Indefinite Article. The use of the indefinite article closely resembles that of the English indefinite ar- ticle. However, it is omitted after at£ and ofyne, and gener- ally also before an unmodified predicate noun denoting a profession, calling, rank, party, or sect: 2113 $iinftler tear er nodj unbefannt, As an artist he was still unknown. (Sr ift £ef)rer, unb fetn SBruber ift 2Ir$t, He is a teacher and his brother is a physician, (gr ift ^roteftant, ontg, ber Xcpptd), ber grueling. 2. The following are Feminine: (a) Nouns ending in -ct, -fyett, -in, -fett, -fdjaft, -ung; -te, -if, -ton, -ur, -tat: Me £ef)rerm, Me (5tnf)ett, Me greimbfd)aft, Me SDhtftf, Me 9catur, Me Nation, Me Cualttat. (b) Most nouns ending in -e and not masculine by natural gender, nor beginning with ©e-: Me 2£od)e, Me ©rbfee, Me SBhime, Me (Stdje, Me £tebe. 3. The following are Neuter: (a) All infinitives used as nouns: ba& £efen, ba§ ©tngen. DECLENSION OF NOUNS 13 (b) Diminutives in -djen and -kin: bag 9D?cibd)en, bag grciulctn, bag ^mugdjen. (c) Collective nouns beginning with ©e- and end- • ing in -e: bag ©ebirge, bag ©etretbe, bag ©ebaube. (d) Most nouns in -ntg, -fal, -fel, -turn: bag ©efang.- ntg, bag 9?atfel, bag (Sbriftentum ; but toe ^enntntg, bte £ritbfal, ber 3rrtum, ber SKeidjtiim. (e) Names of cities and most names of countries: bag alte Slom, bag fiibltcfje granfreidj; but bte ©d&toets, bte Xiixtd. (f) Names of minerals: bag (Sifen, bag 93fei; but ber ©ta&l. DECLENSION OF NOUNS . 26. There are three noun declensions in German: the Strong, the Weak, and the Mixed. 27. The Strong Declension falls into three classes, ac- cording to the ending of the nominative plural. Class I takes no ending, Class II takes -e, and Class III takes -er. 28. The genitive singular of masculine and neuter nouns of the strong declension is formed by adding -g or -eg to the nominative singular. 29. No feminine noun takes an ending in the singular. 30. The dative plural of all nouns ends in -tt. 31. Weak nouns add -en or -n to the nominative singular to form all other cases. 32. Mixed nouns are strong in the singular and weak in the plural. Note i . — The nominative and genitive singular and the nominative plural are called the principal parts of a noun. Note 2. — The last member of a compound noun determines its gender and inflection. 14 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 33. General Scheme of Noun Declension. Nom. Strong Class I Class II Class III Singular Weak Mixed Gen. — g — 8 or eg — g or eg — en or n — g or eg Dat. — — e — e — en or n — Ace. — — — — en or n — Plural Nom. LI * LA t * — er — en or n — en or n Gen. (..) (••)- — er — en or n — en or n Dat. Hi % — ern — en or n — en or n Ace. (•■) (-) c — er — en or n — en or n 34. Strong Declension, Class I. Singular Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. ber ©arten beg ©arteng bem ©arten ben ©arten bie £od)ter ber £od)ter ber Jotter bie £od)ter Plural bag ©ebaube beg ©ebaubeg bem ©ebaube bag ©ebaube Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. bie ©arten ber ©arten ben ©arten bie ©arten bie £otf)ter ber £od)ter ben £od)tern bie £od()ter bie ©ebaube ber ©ebaube ben (Stbaubm bie ©ebaube i. The genitive singular of masculine and neuter nouns of this class is formed by adding -g (never -eg) to the nomina- tive singular. 35. Membership. To this class belong: i. Masculines and neuters in -el, -en, -er. Exceptions: ber SBauer, ber better, which belong to the mixed declension. * (••) denotes that the umlaut is not used in all of the nouns belong- ing to this class. bag ©efyetmnig beg ©efjeimmffeg bent ©efyeimnig bag ®ef)ehnntg DECLENSION OF NOUNS 15 2. The feminines Me Gutter and bie £odjter. 3. The diminutives in -djen and -lein. 4. The neuters beginning with ©e- and ending in -e, and the masculine ber $cife. 36. Strong Declension, Class II. Singular | Nom. ber©tiu)l bag ^ferb bie ©anb Gen. beg©tiu)l(e)g beg anb Plural Nom. bie ©tiifjle bie $ferbe bie §cinbe bte ©efyehnntffe Gen. ber ©tiifyte ber ^ferbe ber £>anbe ber ©efyeimniffe Dat. ben ©tiifylen ben "i)3ferben ben £>anben ^>en ©eftetmntffen Ace. bie ©tiifjle bie ^ferbe bie ^anbe bk ©efjeimniffe 1. The -e in the genitive singular is optional, except when the noun ends in a sibilant: ber £if(f), beg £ifd)eg; ber Slufe, beg Stuff eg. Words of more than one syllable usually take only -g. The dative of monosyllables usually has -e, especially when the following word begins with a consonant. 2. Nouns ending in -nig double the g before the case ending : bag SSerfyaltntg, bie 53ert)dltntffe. 3. The majority of the masculines and all feminines take umlaut when the vowel permits. 37. Membership. To this class belong: 1. Most monosyllabic masculines. 2. Nouns in -id), -to,, -ling (all these are masculine), -funft, -nig, -fat. 3. Many monosyllabic neuters and feminines. i6 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 4. List of feminine nouns belonging to this class: Me 2lngft anxiety biefluft cleft bie 9todjt night bie 2lrt ' ax bie $rctft strength bie 91af)t seam bie 53cmf bench bte $tut) cow bie 9lot weed bte 33ruft breast V bie $unft art bie Sftufj ww/ bie gcmft fist bie Saug louse bie ©cm saw bie grud)ty>w^ V bie £uft air bie ©djnur string bie ©cm$ goose ^ bie Suft pleasure bie ©tabt «7y bie ©ruft vault bie SD^ac^t wig/?/ bie SBBcmb wall bie £>cmb kwd bie SOMgb waia 7 bie 2Burft sausage bie §aut foVfc, s&iw bie 9D?aug w0w.se bie 3imft gwi/a 7 38. Strong Declension, Class III. Singular Norn. ba& £orf ber 2Mb ber $tod)titm Gen. beg £orfeg beg 2Balbeg • beg 9?eid)tumg Dat. bem £orfe bem 2Balbe bem $eid)tum Ace. ba% £)orf ben 83alb Plural ben SRetdjtum Nom. bie 3)orfer bie 2Balber bie 9tocf)tiimer Gen. ber £)orfer ber SBalber ber 3todjrumer Dat. ben £)orfern ben 2Bdlbern ben Sttetdjritment Ace. bie £orfer bie SBalber bie 9to$tiimer 1. In the singular these nouns are declined like those of class II. 2. All nouns of this class take umlaut in the plural, when possible. 39. Membership. To this class belong: 1. Most monosyllabic neuters. 2. All nouns in -turn. 3. A small number of monosyllabic masculines. Note. — No feminine nouns belong to this class. DECLENSION OF NOUNS 17 40. Weak Declension. Singular Nom. ber $nabe bte SBlume bte Sefyrertn Gen. beg $naben ber SBlume ber £ef)rertn Dat. bem toaben ber 931ume ber £efyrertn Ace. ben $naben bte SBIume Plural bte £ef)rerm Nom. bte $naben bte 33 lumen bte £ef)rertnnen Gen. ber $naben ber 331umen ber £e()rertnnen Dat. ben $naben ben SBlumen ben £ef)rermnen Ace. bte $nabcn bte 93tumen bte £efyrertnnen 1. Masculine nouns add -en or -n to the nominative singular to form all other cases; feminines add -en or -n only in the plural. Nouns ending in -e, -el, -er add -n, others -en. Feminines in -in double the n before the case ending. Note i . — No weak noun takes umlaut to form the plural. Note 2. — SDer £>err takes only -n in the singular, but -en in the plural : be3 £errn, bie ^errcn. 41. Membership. To this declension belong: 1. All feminines, except those listed under 35, 2 and 37. 2. Many masculines that denote living beings, a number of which end in -e: ber 93urfd)e, ber £otr>e, ber SDtafd). 3. A number of masculine nouns of foreign origin accented on the last syllable : ber ©tubent, ber ©olbat, ber $anbtbat. Note. — This declension contains no neuter nouns. 42. Mixed Declension. Singular Nom. ber £)oftor bag Huge bag ©tubtum Gen. beg £:oftorg beg Hugeg beg ©tubtumg Dat. bent £oftor bem 2luge bem ©tubtum Ace. ben 2>oftor bag 2luge bag ©tubtum i8 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR Plural Nom. Me 2)oftoren bte 2Iugen bte ©tubten Gen. ber £>oftoren ber 2lugen ber ©tubten Dat. ben 3)o!toren ben 2Iugen ben ©tubten Ace. bte 3)oFtoren bte 2lugen bte (Stubten Singular Nom. ber ^cemte (teamen) ba3 §erg Gen. be3 yiammd be3 £>ergen$ Dat. bem Harnett bem £>eqen Ace. ben 9carrten Plural ba$ £er$ Nom. bte Dtanten bte §er$en Gen. ber Stamen ber Bergen Dat. ben 9tamen ben £)ergen Ace. bie 9?amen bte §ergen i. Nouns of the mixed declension are strong in the singular and weak in the plural. 2. Neuter foreign nouns in -al, -il form the plural by- adding -ten, those in -turn drop the -um before adding -tn. 3. About ten masculine nouns whose nominative singular may end either in -e or -en have -en$ in the genitive singular and -en in all other cases. 43. Membership. As no really helpful rules for member- ship can be given, a partial list of the nouns belonging to this class is given below. The nouns in -or, -turn, -al, -tl, are not included in the list. bct3 2luge eye ber 93auer peasant baSSBett bed ber £orn thorn ba3 (Snbe end ba& ^ernb shirt ber 3ftaft mast ber 9Q?u3fel muscle ber yiatfybav neighbor ba& £)f)r ear ber @ee lake ber ©taat state ber eutfd)lanb3. When preceded by the definite article, they take no ending: bie 2Berfe be$ jungen ©djttler. When preceded by an adjective, the definite article must always be used with proper names. THE ADJECTIVE 46. There are two kinds of adjectives: The definite article, the indefinite article, the 1. Limiting possessive, the demonstrative, interroga- tive, and indefinite adjectives, and the numerals. See 4, 2. 2. Descriptive; as gut, fang, fdjon. Declension of Adjectives 47. When we speak of adjective declension or comparison, we refer to descriptive adjectives only. Limiting adjectives have their own declension. 48. Adjectives are not inflected when used as predicate 20 ELEMENTS OF 'GERMAN GRAMMAR adjectives: Qa.% i8ud) tft rot, or when used appositively, as „9t"o3lein, 9?b3lein, 9?o3letn rot." 49. Adjectives are inflected when they precede the noun they modify (this noun may be expressed or understood), and when used as nouns: ba% rote 23ud), bie gelbe SBlume unb bie loetfee, (Sin ©djtoarger toar fjter. 50. A qualifying adjective can be inflected either weak or strong. Whether an adjective should be inflected weak or strong in any given instance depends entirely on what precedes it. Rule. If a limiting adjective with a " distinctive end- ing " precedes a descriptive adjective, the latter is inflected weak, otherwise it is inflected strong. Note. — A Distinctive ending is one that shows the gender, number, and case of the following noun . See 53 and 55 note. 51. Weak Declension Singular Nom. ber lange SBletfttft bie alte geber ba$ neue $letb Gen. be3 langen SBletfttfteS ber alten geber be6 neuen JHetbeS Dat. bent langen SBleifttft ber alten geber bent neuen $leib(e) Ace. ben langen SBletftift bie alte geber Plural ba3 neue $letb Nom. bie langen SBleifttfte bie alten gebern bie neuen £letber Gen. ber langen SBletfrifte ber alten gebern ber neuen $Ietber Dat. ben langen SBletftiften ben alten gebern ben neuen $leibern Ace. bie langen SBletftifte bie alten getern bie neuen $leiber 52. Weak Endings. -e -c -e -en -en -en -en -en -en -en -en -en -en -e -e -en THE ADJECTIVE' 21 53. According to rule given in 50, the weak endings must be used: (a) After all forms of ber, btefer, jener, jeber, ft)eld)er (when inflected), ctlte, berfelbe, berjemge; (b) After ein, fetn, and all the possessive adjectives (metn, betrt, fetn, unfer, euer, iljr, 3br), except where these have no distinctive ending; viz., in the nominative singular masculine and neuter, and the accusative singular neuter. (c) After the nominative and accusative plural of mcmdjer and folder (even when inflected) and also after eintcje, cmbere, and betbe, the strong forms are preferred; elsewhere the adjectives that follow etntge, cmbere, beibe, member, folder require weak endings. 54. Strong Declension Singular Nom. Ictncjer 23letfttft alte geber neueg $letb Gen. lemgett (eg) 23letfttftes * alter geber neuen (eg) $letbeg Dat. Icmcjem 93letfttft alter geber neuem $letbe Ace. lanften 33letfttft alte geber Plural neueg $letb Nom. lange 931etfttfte alte gebern neue JHetber Gen. fancjer 93letftifte alter gebern neuer ^leiber Dat. langen SBletfttften alten gebent neuen $letbern Ace. lange 93letftifte alte gebern neue $letber 55. Strong Endings. Singular Plural -er -e -e^ -e -en (eg) -er -en (eg) -er -em -er -em -en -en -e -eg -e 2 2 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR Note. — The strong endings of the adjective are those of biefer except in the genitive singular of the masculine and neuter, where the weak ending -en is generally used when the noun ends in -g or -eg. Thus: fyarten orjn, em leurerer §ut. Note. — As an aid in translation it is well to keep in mind that a comparative in form is not always comparative in meaning. Thus, G?in altcrcr SUJann arbeitete tm ©arten may mean an older man, or a some- what or rather old man was working in the garden* This is called the absolute use of the comparative. The same is true with regard to the absolute superlative. 70. Irregular Comparison. As in English, some adjec- tives are compared more or less irregularly: grofe grower ber (bie, ba$) grofjte am grofeten gut beffer ber befte am beften triel mehr ber metfte am metften Ijodj horjer ber hodjfte am hocfyften nab ntther ber nftdjfte am nad)ften . J toemger J ber roentgfte J am roemgften I minber [ ber mmbefte | am mmbeften 71. Periphrastic Comparison. In certain cases adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs mehr, am metften instead of the regular endings, as: 1. When the comparison expresses different qualities of the same object rather than different degrees of one quality : £)er 2Ute ift mehr ehrltdj ate Hug. 26 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 2. Adjectives that are used only in the predicate, as angft, fetnb, letb, fdmlb: (Sr tft mebr fdmlb al$ id). 3. Frequently participles: 3)er fletfuge 33iirger rotrb mebr geadjtet al3 feme ^adjbarn, The industrious citizen is more respected than his neighbors. 72. Descending Comparison. A lower degree is expressed by using the adverbs roeniger, rntnber, am roentgften, am mtrt- beftert: SSentger Huge £eute fommen aud) burd)g £eben, Less clever people also get through life. 73. Comparison of Adverbs. Like the positive, so the comparative and the superlative of adjectives may also be used adverbially. 1. When used as adverbs, the positive and the compara- tive are not inflected: 3>r |nmb lauft fdmelL £)a$ $ferb lauft fdmeller. 2. Of the three superlative forms only one, the adverbial superlative, can be used adverbially : ©te fingt am fdjonften. Note. — There is also an absolute superlative of the adverb: (£ie fingt aufs frijonfte. 74. Cardinals. The cardinals are: 1 em (3) 13 bret$elm 50 fimfetg 2 gtoet 14 uierjelm 60 fed)gtg 3 bret 15 fimfeelm 70 fteb(en)$tg 4 trier 16 fed)3erm 80 ad)tgig 5 ftinf 17 fteb(en)sefm 90 neungtg 6 fed)3 18 ad)tjelm 100 tmnbert 7 fieben 19 neungerm 101 lumber! unb etnS 8 adjt 20 smangtg 121 bunbert etnunbgtuan^tg 9 neun 21 emunbjroanstg 1000 taufenb 10 $elm 22 gtuetunbgroangtg 1,000,000 erne 9fttllton n elf 30 bretfeig 12 groolf 40 trier$tg - NUMERALS 27 1. Aside from Imnbert and taufenb, when these are used as nouns (ba$ §unbert, ba3 £aufenb), only em is ordinarily inflected. When used as an adjective, it is inflected like the indefinite article (22) : (gr fyatte nur e t n 2luge, He had only one eye. When used without a noun, it is inflected like an adjective: (Sitter ift I)ter. Sine 6 toetfi id). 3dj fytbe nur ben e i n e n gefefjen. 75. The Ordinals. Up to twenty the ordinals are formed from the cardinals by adding -t: triert, gefmt, ad)tgefmt; from twenty on they are formed by adding -ft: gtnanjtgft, etnunb* atoan^igft, rmnbertft. Exceptions : erft, brttt, ftebt and ftebent, adjt. 1. The ordinals are used only after the definite article or some pronominal modifier and are inflected like adjectives. Thus we never have gtneit, brttt, gtoansigjt, but ber (bte bctS) atoette, brttte, jnoangtQfte, fein erfter ©ofm, ifjr trierteS $mb, ben etmmbjtoangtajten (21. or 2iften) Qanuar. 76. Fractions are formed by means of the suffix -tel (£ett) as follows: ba$ £)rtttel, SSicrtcI, 2W&teI, Stoanfafttl, §unbertftel. Half as adjective is fyalb, as noun bte §alfte: em fjatbe^ ^funb, half a pound, bte §alfte be3 3lpfel$, half of the apple. Also note the forms anbertfyalb, one and a half, brttt (e)fyalb, two and a half, triert (e)f)alb, etc. 77. The ordinal adverbs erftenS, gtoettenS, brtttenS, etc. are derived from the ordinals by means of the suffix -en3. 1. From the cardinals are derived the adverbs etnmal, gtoetmal, etc. by means of the suffix -mat, and four kinds of adjectives by means of the following suffixes, -fad), -erlei, -maltg, -falttcj: . gtoetfadj, bretfadj, geljnfad); twofold, threefold, tenfold, gtoeterlet, breterlet ; two kinds of, three kinds of, etnmaltg, gtoetmaltcj; ba$ emmaltge @rfd)einen be3 ®etfte$, the one (single) appearance of the ghost; jtoetffiltia, (gtotefftltig,), twofold. 28 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR THE PRONOUN Personal Pronouns 78. Declension. Singuh ir First Person Second Person i Third Person M. F. N. id) bu er fie t$ meiner beiner feiner irjrer feiner mir bir if)m it)r irmt midj bid) Plura! irjn I fie e« roir it)r fie (®ie) unfer • euer ifjrer 0f)rer) un$ eucf) irjnen Ofmen) un3 eucf) fie (@ie) 79. Pronouns of Address. £)u (sing.) and tr)r (plu.) are used in addressing members of one's own family, young children, intimate friends, God, animals, and objects. ®ie is used in addressing strangers, acquaintances, and less intimate friends. ter ift em £)ut. SBem gefyort er? 3d) fyctbe rrtetne geber toer- loren. £ctft bu ftc gefunben ? 82. Absolute Use of e3. ($3 is frequently used as the subject of some form of fein without regard to the gender or number of the predicate noun following; the verb agrees with the predicate noun. The demonstrative pronouns Me3 and ba$ (98) and the interrogative pronoun toeldjeS (93) are used in the same way: (53 ift erne 9?ofe. (53 finb ftpfel. £)te3 ftnb metne (51tern. £>a3 toaren retdje £eute. SSclcfje^ ftnb bte beften SBiicfyer ? Possessive Pronouns and Adjectives 83. The possessives are called adjectives when they modify a noun, tnein 53ud), xt)t ©ut; they are called pronouns when they stand for the noun, £>ter ift mem 93ud). $3o ift beine3 (ba£ beine, ba3 beintge) ? 1. The possessive pronouns The possessive adjectives are : are : metner, mine mem, my betner, yours, thine betn, your, thy fetner, his, its fein, his, its tfyrer, hers tfyr, /zer unf(e)rer, ours unfer, 0«r eu(e)rer, yours euer, yowr tfyrer, l/teirc tljr, //*ez> 3'Urer, vowrs (polite address) 3ljr, yaw (polite address) 3o ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 84. Declension of Possessive Pronouns. Singular Plural M. F. N. M. F. N. metner metne metneS metne metneS metner metneS metner metnem metner metnem metnen metnen metne metneS metne i. When the possessive pronouns are preceded by the definite article, they are declined like weak adjectives: ber (bit, ba3) metne, betne, etc. (See 51.) 2. The forms ber (Me, ba§) metntge, beintge, fetnige, un frige, etc. are also declined like weak adjectives. 85. Possessive adjectives are declined like the negative indefinite article fetn: mem metne mem metne metneS metner metneS metner metnem metner metnem meinen metnen metne metn metne Note i. — What has been said about the pronouns of address, bit, tfyr, eld)en) id) fanb, gefjort ifym. Caution. In English the relative is frequently omitted; in German this can not be done. The book I have is his, 2)ct3 93udj, bct3 (h>eld)e3) id) fyctbe, ift femes. 89. Adverbial Compounds. The dative and accusative of a relative which refers to an inanimate object is frequently replaced by a compound of the adverb too (toor before a vowel) with the preposition: 3)er ©tufyl, tooranf (instead of cmf bem) id) fafj; bie geber, toomtt (mit ber) fie fdjreibt. 90. SBer, whoever or he who, and toa3, whatever or that which, more commonly used as interrogatives, are also used as relatives. They are sometimes called compound relatives because they usually include their antecedent. j. Declension. toer toa3 toeffen toeffen mem toen toa$ 32 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 91. Use of SSer. SSer never has a noun antecedent. It is chiefly used to introduce noun clauses: 2Ber ©elb fyat, fyat ftxtunbt. Its antecedent is usually implied, but it may be expressed in the form of a demonstrative pronoun: 2Ber liigt, ber ftterjlt and); He who lies also steals. The antecedent must be expressed when its case is different from that of the relative : 2Ber einmal liigt, bent glaubt man nid)t. i. 2Ber refers only to persons, one or more than one, takes its verb in the singular, and is always used in an indefinite sense. 92. Use of 2&ct3. 2Bct3 refers to things; like roer, it also is used in an indefinite sense, but unlike roer it may have an antecedent, though this is always a word expressing some indefinite idea, such as an indefinite pronoun, a neuter ad- jective, and even a neuter noun; it also refers to an entire clause or idea: 2ttle3, toa3 er fagt, tft roafyr. £)aS tft nid)t ba3 3)ummfte, roa$ er gefdjrteben f)at, That isn't the most stupid thing he has written. SDtan 53ruber fyat em £>au3 gefauft, roaS mtr md)t gefallt, My brother bought a house, which (fact) does not please me. But: Wfltin 93ruber fyat ein §auS gefauft, rr»elcf;e6 (the house) mtr m'cfjt gefallt. Interrogative Pronouns 93. The interrogatives are roer, roa3, roelcfyer, roaS fiir ein (roa$ fiir in the plu.). SKer and roaS are declined like the rela- tives roer and roa$. See 90, i. 28eld)er is declined like a strong adjective. 2Ber refers to persons and roa$ to things; they are only used as pronouns. Sfikldjer and roa£ fiir ein refer to persons and things; they are used as adjectives, though roelcfyer may be used as a pronoun. SSer fyat ba$ getcm ? 2Ba3 fagten ©tc ? 2BeId)er ift eg ? SBaS fiir SBtrnen (pears) finb bag ? 9fltt roeldjer £>anb fdjreibt er ? THE PRONOUN 33 Note. — $iir in ft>a3 fur etn does not have the force of a preposi- tion, and em is inflected as usual. Thus: 2Ba3 fur em Sfttann tft er? 9Ba3 fiir einem Stftann gaben <©tc baS ©elb? 2Ba3 fitr etnen Sftann fatten <5te? 94. Adverbial Compounds. Instead of the dative, and less frequently the accusative, after prepositions compounds of the adverb too (tuor) with the preposition are used. 2Bor= iiber rebete er? About what did he speak? 2Bo$u fagten ©ie ba3 ? Why (wherefore) did you say that ? Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives 95. The demonstratives are ber, btefer, jener, fold)er, ber* felbe, berjemge, fold) etner, em folder, fo einer. 96. Declension. Singular Plural M. F. N. M. F. N. ber Me bct3 bte beffen beren beffen beren, berer bem ber bem benen ben bte ba$ bte Note. — As an adjective ber is declined like the definite article, but its vowel is stressed and long in all the forms except be3. btefer btefe btefeS btefe biefeS btefer btefe§ btefer btefem btefer btefem btefen btefen btefe btefem btefe 1. ©oldjer is declined like btefer; when it is preceded by em or fern, it is inflected like an adjective; when followed by etn, it is not inflected. 2. £)erfelbe and berjentge have a double inflection. The first part, which is the definite article, is inflected as such, and the second part is inflected like a weak adjective. £)er* felbe, beSfelben, bemfelben, etc. 34 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 97. £)tefer, this, the latter, denotes proximity; jener {yon), that, the former, denotes remoteness. Note. — Instead of btefeS the short form bieS occurs very frequently. 98. Absolute Use of $>ie3 and $)a£. Like e8, Meg and bct$ are often used as the subject of the verb fetn without regard to the gender and number of the following predicate noun, with which the verb agrees. $)a$ finb brafce {well behaved) $tnber. £)te£ tft metne Gutter. Indefinite Pronouns 99. The more common indefinite pronouns are: i. 9Jton, one, they, people: Sftcm fagt, one says, they say, people say or it is said. Tlan is used only in the nominative. The other cases are supplied by forms of em (etneS, etnem, etnen). 2. 3emanb, somebody, some one: Qerrtanb mufc e3 tun, Some one must do it. Sfttemanb, nobody, no one: 3d) babe niemanb gefeben, I have seen no one. 3ebermann, everybody: £)a3 tft nidjt jebermannS r bratet batten bu fcttltft er ^ ttIt W* & aftct gelten bu gtttft er gilt tbr gcltet ftnbeu bu fiubeft er finbet tbr ftubet THE VERB 49 2. Strong verbs whose stem ends in a sibilant (s-sound) may take e before -ft, but usually do not. Compare 117, 2. Examples: id) effe, bu tftt (iffeft), er ifet; tdj (jetfee, bu hetfet O&eifjeft), er fyetfet. 123. The preterit (imperfect) subjunctive of strong verbs is formed from the preterit indicative by mutating the stem vowel and adding the subjunctive endings: -e, -eft, -e, -en, -et, -en, which are alike for the present and the preterit. Note. — As an aid in determining whether a verb is weak or strong it might be well for the student to remember that of the verbs having umlaut in the stem vowel all but nine are weak, and these are mostly quite rare. Compound Verbs 124. Inseparable Verbs. Verbs having the prefixes be, ent (emp before f), er, ge, ber, $er are inseparable. They are conjugated like their corresponding simple verbs, except that they do not take the augment ge- in the past participle, because the prefix is unaccented (110, 3). As the prefix sometimes changes an intransitive verb to a transitive, the compound verbs do not always have the same auxiliary as the simple verbs. 1. Synopsis of erfinben, 1st sing. ind. act.: tdj erfinbe, tdj erfcmb, tdj fyctbe erfunben, id) fycttte erfunben, id) toerbe erfinben, id) toerbe erfunben Ijaben. 125. Separable Verbs. Verbs having prefixes other than those enumerated above are separable in their simple tenses (present, preterit). 1. The separable prefixes are very numerous; they con- sist of prepositions, adverbs, adjectives, and nouns : cmfcmgen, fortfafyren, loSfaitfen, tetmehmen. 2. The separable prefix always bears the main accent: auf'ftefyen, cm'fcmgen. 50 ELEMENTS OF. GERMAN GRAMMAR 3. When separated, these prefixes come at the end of the clause : 3dj ftng Ijeute morgen an. 4. In transposed word order they are not separated: 3d) toctr fdjon miibe, al3 tdj bte Arbeit anfing. 5. The ge- of the past participle and the gu of the infinitive are placed between the prefix and the verb: angefommen, an^ufangen. 6. Synopsis of anfangen, 3d sing. ind. act.: er fangt an, er ftng an, er rjat angefangen, er fyatte angefangen, er rotrb anfangen, er h)irb angefangen Ijaben. Imperative fange an fangt an fangen ter ttrirb oft gefungen, Here they frequently sing. Qn ben ^dtungen nrirb Dtel gelogen, Newspapers print many lies. i. Verbs having their object in the dative or the genitive also may have an impersonal passive : 3fym nmrbe gefyolfen, He was helped. (S3 ttrirb tfnu geljolfen toerben, He will be helped. 3fyr nrirb Don jebermann gefcfyntetdjelt, She is being flattered by every one. Oft tourbe fetner gebadjt, He was often thought of. Note that in all these the dative or genitive object of the active is retained in the passive. 137. Substitutes for the Passive. The passive is less frequently used in « German than in English. The more common substitutes for the passive are: i. The active with man as the subject: 3ttan fctgt, bafc fie md)t gu £>cmfe toar, It is said that she was not at home. Tlcm mntmt an, er fyabe e3 gefagt, 77 is supposed that he said it. 2. The reflexive, especially with laffen, but also alone: 3)a3 lafct ftd) etnrtd)ten, That can be arranged. (S3 lafet ftdj madden, It can be done. £)te SBerfyetfeuna, roirb ftdj erfiitten, The promise will be fulfilled. 3. The active infinitive with fetn and laffen frequently has passive force, denoting either possibility or necessity. £)a3 ift ntd)t au3juf)a(ten, This is not to be endured. 3)te 5lufgabe tft SU ternen, The lesson is to be learned. (Sr Heft em §au3 bauen, He had a house built. £Ba3 ift gu tun ? What is to be done ? 56 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR The Modal Auxiliaries 138. The modal auxiliaries biirfen, fonnen, mogen, miiffen, follen, toollen, are thus designated because, like their English equivalents, they are used to change the mode or manner of expression. Thus the idea id) gef)e is modified by using the modals with it: 3d) barf gefyen, / am permitted to go; id) fann gel)en, / can go; id) mufe gefyen, / must go, etc. Their principal parts with the preterit subjunctive are : Mirfen er barf er burfte er fyat geburft er biirfte fonnen er fann er fonnte er fyat gefonnt er fonnte mogen er ntag er mod)te er Ijat gemodjt er mod)te miiffen er mufe er mufete er Ijat gemufct er miifjte follen er foil er follte er I)at gefollt er follte roollen er mill er mollte er f)at getoollt er mollte Note. — All but folten and tooften have umlaut in the present infini- tive. This umlaut is retained in the present and preterit subjunctive and in the plural of the present indicative, but not in the preterit in- dicative nor in the past participle. 139. Conjugation. In the singular of the present indica- tive all but follen have a vowel change, and the endings of all are those of the preterit of strong verbs. Thus: Present Indicative id) barf fann mag mufe foK nrill bn barfft fannft magft mufet follft nrillft er barf fann mag nmfi foil mill ttnr biirfen fonnen mogen miiffen follen toollen tljr biirft fbnnt mb'gt miifet follt mollt fie biirfen fonnen ' mogen miiffen follen toollen i. The remaining forms of these verbs are like those of the weak verbs, except that only toollen has the imperative forms. These are: toolle, tooll(c)t, toollen ©te. THE VERB 57 2. Stiffen (toufete, gerou&t) is also conjugated like the modal verbs: tdj toetfe, bu tueifet, er toeife, rotr totffen, etc. But as it does not take a dependent infinitive, what is said under 140 does not apply to it. 140. With Dependent Infinitives. The modal verbs are nearly always used with a dependent infinitive without gu. Whenever this is the case, their perfect tenses are not formed by means of the weak past participle, geburft, gefonnt, etc., but the so-called strong participle, which is like the present infinitive, is used : Indicative Present Perfect Past Perfect tdj babe geben formen, etc. tdj fycttte geljert fonnert, etc. Future Future Perfect id) roerbe geben fbnnen, etc. tdj toerbe fyaben geben fortnen, etc. Conditional Present Perfect tdj raiirbe geben fonnen, etc. tdj tuiirbe baben geben format, etc. Note. — The so-called double infinitive always comes last, even in a dependent clause. Compare 185. 141. A number of other verbs which take a dependent infinitive without gu may have the same construction in their perfect tenses. These are: ^ei^en, belfen, hbrert, laffen, feljen; and less frequently, lernen, tefyren, fiiblert, ftnben, and madjen. (§r bie& mtdj fdjraetgen, He bade me be silent, fix bat mid) fd)tt>etgen beiften, He has commanded me to be silent. 3dj babe tbnen bauen belfen, / helped them build. 2Btr fyabm tbn reben bbren, We heard him speak. (£r bat fofort ben 5lrgt bolen laffen, He at once sent for the physician. 58 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 142. The more common meanings of the modal verbs are the following: ^iirfen, may (be permitted, allowed): utfd) J 3$ fonn bag @ebtd)t. Sftogen, way (permission and possibility): ©tc mogen nad)fommen, Fow way follow; £)a3 mag tt>al)r fern, 77za/ may fo true; to like: 3$ mag ba$ ntdjt, / a 7 ^ no/ like that. HDiitffen, raws/ (compulsion and prohibition) : SStr miiffen eilen, We must hurry ; $)ct$ mufjt bu roirfltcr) ntdjt tun, You really must not do that; more idiomatic: (§3 mufcte fo fommen, It was destined (fated) to be. Soften, shall (obligation): 3)u foltft ntdjt ftefylen, Thou shalt not steal ; idiomatic (decree of fate or hearsay) : (53 f)at nidjt fern follen, // was destined not to be ; (Ex foil reid) fetn, He is said to be rich. Gotten, will (want to) : 3d) toill e$ tun, / am willing to do it ; (Ex toill nidjt gefjen, He does not want to go ; idiomatic (pretense) : (Ex toil! e3 getjort l)aben, He claims to have heard it. Caution. Do not use follen and toolleu for shall and will as future auxiliaries. 143. Impersonal Verbs. Certain verbs are used only in the third person singular with the impersonal e3 as subject. They do not offer any special difficulty in their conjuga- tion, and in general correspond to English impersonal verbs: (§3 regnet, fdntetf, bonnert, etc., it rains, snows, thun- ders, etc. i. Certain other impersonal verbs, however, do not cor- respond to English impersonals and offer considerable dim- THE VERB 59 culty. These are verbs or idioms denoting states of the body or mind : (§3 frtert mtd) or SMdj frtert ('3), / am freezing. (§8 ramgert mtdj or SDHc^ tyungertCs), / am hungry. (£8 biirftct tfyn or 3fm biirftet('3), #e w thirsty. Q£$ fcfiroinbelt mtr or 9fttr fdjrombett('3), / am dizzy. @S trciumte mtr or Wiv trciumte (e$), I dreamt. &% fefylt or mcmcjelt un3 ntdjtS or Un3 fefylt (mcmcjelt) ntdjtg, We lack nothing. @3 gel)t mtr gut or 9Dltr get)t e$ gut, / am faring well. . @8 tut mtr letb or Mr tut'3 letb, / am sorry. Note that in all of these sentences the subject in English is in German in the accusative or dative case. In the first five sentences the e£ may be omitted if it does not introduce the sentence, in the sixth it must be omitted, but in the other two it is never omitted. 144. Use of e3 gibt and e3 ift or e3 ftnb. Note these sen- tences : @S cjtbt £oroen in 2lfrtfct, There are lions in Africa. (§8 ftnb groei £ often in btefem $aftg, There are two lions in this cage. ©3 cjtbt bid $3etn Me3 3arjr, There is {will be) much wine this year. (§3 ift fetn 3lropfen SEBein in bem Safe, There isn't a drop of wine in the barrel. i. 15$ cjibt is used in broad general statements, e$ ift (ftnb), in referring to specific persons or things located as to time or place. Sometimes either may be used : ©3 cjtbt (ift) ntd)t3 ■ifteue3 unter ber ©onne, There is nothing new under the sun. Note. — The noun after e$ Qtbt is in the accusative case, being the. direct object of geben, a transitive verb. In e3 ift, eS ftnb, e3 is merely an introductory word; the noun that follows is the subject and the verb agrees with it. 6o ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR Use of the Moods 145. Indicative. The indicative is the mood of the real, the actual. It is used in assertions or statements of fact, positive or negative or interrogative. 146. Imperative. The imperative mood is used, just as in English, in giving commands, orders, directions, etc. i. Substitutes for the imperative. (a) The present infinitive: Urrtftetam! Change cars. (b) The past participle : 5Iuf gepafet! Attention. (c) As in English, adverbs (verbal prefixes) : §mau3! Out {out with you, get out). Note. — In giving a harsh command any of these forms would be preferred to the ordinary imperative forms. (d) In the first and the third person, the subjunc- tive is used. Compare 149. 147. Subjunctive. The subjunctive is almost never used to express a fact. It expresses ideas, desire, unreality, pos- sibility, concession, purpose, personal impression, etc., and is principally used in indirect statements. Caution. Remember that the tenses of the subjunctive do not correspond in meaning to those of the indicative. Compare 158, 2 and 3. 148. The Optative Subjunctive. This use of the subjunc- tive is very much like the English. 1. The present subjunctive: £ana. lebe ber $ontcj! Long live the king! £)etn 9?etdj fortune! Thy kingdom come! ©ott trofte tf)n! God comfort him! £)a$ ©liicf fei Mr fjolb! May fortune smile on you! 2. The preterit subjunctive is used in wishes referring to THE VERB 6 1 present or future time whenever a sense of unreality enters in : 2Benn er nur fyier roctre! // he were only here (but he is not) ! 51(f), bctfe e£ grilling toare ! Oh that it were spring! 3. The past perfect subjunctive is used when a wish refers to past time. Here the sense of unreality is always present: 2Benn er mid) nur nidjt gefyort tjcttte ! If he had only not heard me! Scire e3 jenen 9ttorgen nur ntdjt fo fait getoefen! Had it only not been so cold that morning! Note the inversion of order in the last sentence, both German and English. This is always the case when the conjunction if (menu) is omitted. 149. The Imperative Subjunctive. The German language, as the English, has real imperative forms only in the second person. (The polite form — 3d plural — is second person in meaning.) The English quasi-imperative of the first and third person expressed by let with the infinitive may in German be expressed in two ways: (a) like the English, with Ictffen: £afe (lafet) ung gefyen, Let us go. Safe tfm fommen, Let him come, (b) By the present subjunctive: ©efyen totr, Let us go. @r fomme, Let him come. Wan fjore auf mid), Let them listen to me. ®eftefye td)'3 nur, Let me confess. Note. — The order in the first person is inverted to distinguish these forms from the corresponding indicative forms, in the third singular it may be either normal or inverted, in the third plural the imperative subjunctive is avoided. 150. The Conditional Subjunctive. 1. In German, as in English, a condition looked upon as real is expressed by the indicative: SBenn e3 regnet, gefyen our nad) ber aufe, If he would come, I should go home. (b) Contrary to fact condition: SSenn er fyter tocire, fo bh'ebe id) md)t, // he were here (but he is not), / should not stay. , 3. An unreal condition in past time is expressed by the past perfect subjunctive: SBenn e£ fait getoefen toare, fjatte id) meinen 9?ocf ange^ogen, If it had been cold, I should have put on my coat. SSaren bie . @d)iiler fletfeig getoefen, fo toarett fie gelobt toorben, // the pupils had been diligent, they would have been praised. Note that only the preterit and the past perfect subjunctive may be used in these conditional sentences. The present and perfect are never used in conditional sentences. 151. A conditional sentence always consists of two clauses, the condition (if-clause) and the conclusion (result clause). The condition is often merely implied, but can readily be supplied from the conclusion or the context. 152. Tense Scheme for Unreal Conditions. Unreal con- ditions are either in the present (future) or in past time. If-Clause Result Clause _, . . _ . . J Preterit Subjunctive Present time Preterit Subjunctive j present Conditional _ .«.../ Past Perfect Subjunctive Past time Past Perfect Subjunctive j perfect Conditional 153. As in English so in German the conjunction if (toenn) of a conditional clause is often omitted. When this is the case, the order is inverted : £>atte tdj tfm gefefyen (SSenn id) tfm gefeben fyatte), fo fotmte id) tbn befd)retben, Had I seen him (If I had seen him), I could describe him. Note. — In English this inversion is limited to had, were, could, and should. THE VERB 63 1. Note that the order in the if -clause is transposed if the conjunction toenn is not omitted. In the result clause the order is normal (or inverted) if it comes before, inverted if it comes after the if-clause. 2Bir toitrben nad) £>aufe gel)en, toenn e$ ntdjt regnete. SSenn e$ nic^t regnete, fo ttmrben toir nad) §aufe geljen. Note. — When the if-clause follows, the conjunction is not omitted. 154. In the conclusion (result clause) of an unreal con- dition (150, 1, 2, 3) the preterit subjunctive may always be replaced by the present conditional, the past perfect subjunc- tive by the perfect conditional: SSenn tdj nod) jung roctre, fo toiirbe tdj ba$ ntd)t tun, // / were still young, I would {should) not do that. 2Benn e£ geregnet Ijatte, fo toiirbe e3 auf ber ©trafje ntdjt fo trocfcn fetn, // it had rained, it would not be so dry on the street. 155. The Potential Subjunctive. The preterit subjunc- tive (past perfect for past time) is used to denote possi- bility, probability, or personal impression. Especially the modal auxiliaries fonnen, ntogen, biirfen, and fallen are fre- quently used in this way: 3)aS fonnte 3Ijnen gelingen, You might succeed in that. £)a$ modjte tooljl fetn, That might Be so. (§3 biirfte fogar mi^lid) fetn, It might even be useful, ©ollte er baS ntdjt tun fonnen? Is it possible that he cannot do that? (§3 liefee fidj nod) mandjeS bariiber fagen, Much might still be said about it. 2Ber Jjatte ba$ geglaubt! Who would have believed that! ganbe fidj roof)I jemanb, ber ba& tun toiirbe ? Could some one possibly be found, who would do that ? Note. — The last three sentences given above might be considered the result clauses of unreal conditions, the conditions being omitted. The conditionals may be substituted for the subjunctives: (§3 roiirbe fidj nod) mandjeS bariiber fagen laffen. 156. The Unreal Subjunctive in Concessive Clauses. Concessive clauses have their verb in the subjunctive if the 64 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR concession is considered as unreal or contrary to fact, other- wise the indicative is used: SSenn er e3 and) gefagt fyat (fact), fo glaube id) e3 bod) nid)t, Though he has said it, I do not believe it. <&ti (toare) enter and) fo gebulbtg nrie £>tob, MeS totrb er ntd)t auSbalten, Though a man be (were) patient as Job, this he will not bear. Note that the preterit denotes a greater degree of unreality than the present. The subjunctive is used only in the concessive clause. 157. The Unreal Subjunctive of Comparison. Compari- sons involving any degree of unreality are expressed by the subjunctive after al3 ob, al3 toenn. The preterit is used for the present and the past perfect for the past: (Sr Itegt mtr bor ben 8 u feen, a ^ toar'3 etn ®titcf Don mtr, He lies at my feet as though he were a piece of me. @te far) au£, alg ob fie franf toare, She looked as though she were sick. £)te $tnber fafyen au£, alS ob fie feit Jaaen ntd)t$ aegeffert batten, The children looked as though they had not eaten anything for days. Rarely the present subjunctive is used instead of the preterit: @3 fd)ien, ctlS ob fie ibm nidjt traue (or traute), 77 seemed as though she did not trust him. ($r faf) umber, al3 fucbe (or fud)te) er jemanb, He looked about as though he sought some one. Note. — The ob or toenn may be omitted, but then the order is inverted. 158. The Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse. In English, indirectness of speech (indirect quotations) is usually in- dicated by a change of tense; in German, by a change of mood: He said (that) he was glad (direct: I am glad), ($r fagte, er fet frof). i. If the main verb is in the present tense or in the first person, the dependent verb may be in the indicative, pro- vided the conjunction bafe is not omitted: @te fagt, oafo fie THE VERB 65 mid) gefeijert fyat, She says (that) she has seen me. But, ©ie fagt, fie fyabt mtdj gefeljeri. 2. After a main verb in any other tense than the present, the dependent verb is regularly put in the subjunctive. The tense of the dependent verb does not depend upon the tense of the main verb, but on its own tense in the direct statement. Thus: Time Direct Pres. tdj bin jung f idj roar jung Past \ id) bin iung geroefen [ idj roar Jung geroefen Future id) ioerbe Jung fein Fut. Perf . idj roerbe jung geroefen (ein Indirect er fei Jung er roare jung er fei fung geroefen er roare Jung geroefen Tense Present Preterit Perfect Pluperfect er ioerbe Jung fein Future er roiirbe jung fein Pres. Cond. er roerbe jung geroefen fein Fut. Perf. er roiirbe iung geroefen fein Perf. Cond. Tense Scheme for Indirect Discourse. Indirect, Subjunctive Present Direct, Indicative Present Preterit Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Future Perfect Preterit Present Perfect Past Perfect J Future 1 Present Conditional f Future Perfect I Perfect Conditional Note. — In each of the dependent clauses the verb has two different forms. These can be used interchangeably, though generally the first form should be used, unless it is like the corresponding indicative. The present and preterit refer to present time, the present perfect and past perfect to past time, the future and the present conditional to future time, and the future perfect and perfect conditional to future perfect time. 66 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 4. As in English, the conjunction bctfj {that) may intro- duce the dependent clause. When this is the case, the order is transposed, otherwise either normal or inverted: @r fagte, ha^ ber Stftcmn fjeute ba fet. (Sr fagte, ber SD^ann fet fyeute ba. (Sr fagte, fyeute fet ber SJtomt ba. 159. The Subjunctive in Clauses of Purpose. Purpose clauses have their verb in the subjunctive, though after a main verb in the present the indicative is frequently used: @r bletbt $u ^paufe, bamit er ntdjtS berfaumt (berfaume), He stays at home that he may miss nothing. Qtf) berliefc tf)n, bamit er mid) ntdjt itberrebe, / left him, that he might not persuade me. 160. The Conditional. The conditionals are used as alternative forms for the preterit and past perfect subjunc- tive in the result clauses of conditional sentences (154) and for the future and future perfect subjunctive of indirect discourse (158, 2, 3, and note; also note to 155). The conditionals are translated by would or should. Use of the Tenses 161. The use of the tenses with the indicative corresponds very closely to the English. Notable deviations are the following: 1. The present with fdjon (berettS, erft, lange) is used for the English perfect to denote the continuation of an action or state that started in the past: (§3 regnet fdjon bret £age, // has been raining for three days (and it is still raining). 2. As the present is used for the English present perfect so the preterit is^used for the English past perfect: 2IIS id) gu bir fam, toar mem 53rubcr fd)on groet £age tot, When I came to you, my brother had been dead for two days. 3. The present perfect tense may be used in German to denote a single action or state in past time where English THE VERB 67 demands the preterit : ©eftern bin id) 311 &au\t getoefen, Yes- terday I was at home. 33orige 2Bod)e fyaben toir $artoffeln ge* graben, Last week we dug potatoes. The preterit, however, would be equally good in these instances. Note. — South German dialects have almost completely lost the use of the preterit and use the present perfect instead. 4. The future is used for the present to denote probability: £)u toirft ba$ nuf)t glauben toolkit, You will probably not be willing to believe that. 3u §cmfe toerben fie je^t toof)l urn ben £>erb fi^en unb ©efcfytdjten ergafylen, At home they are probably sitting about the hearth now telling stories. 162. Partial List of Verbs Governing the Dative. anttoorter t answer gefallen please mangeln be lacking begegnen meet geljordjeti 1 obey nafyen approach banfen thank geljoren belong nii^en benefit btenen serve threaten gefdjeljen glauben happen believe paffen fit broken fdjaben injure fetjlert lack gletdjen resemble fdjmetdjeln flatter folgen follow fyelfen help (uer)trauen Siirnen trust be angry 163. List of Troublesome Verbs. The following verbs should be carefully distinguished, both in form and meaning. ftfcen fafe gefeffen, sit fe^en fe^te gefe^t, set Itegen lag gelegen, lie, recline liigen log gelogen, lie, tell a falsehood legen legte gelegt, lay bitten bat gebeten, ask (for something) bteten bot geboten, offer beten betete gebetet, pray 68 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR totffen toufjte getmifet, know (facts) fennen fannte gefannt, know (be acquainted) . fonnen fonnte gefonnt, be able, know (by heart) flier)en flof) geflof)en, flee fltegert flog geftoam, fly 164. A number of verbs that in English are followed by the present participle take the present infinitive in German: J saw him coming, 3d) faf) if)n fommen. We heard her speaking, 2Str fyorten fie reben. We went walking, 2Btr gtngen fpa^ieren. He stopped preaching, smoking, drinking, etc., (Sr fyorte auf gu prebtgen, uftD. They remained standing, ©ie blteben ftetjen. After fommen German uses the past participle to denote the manner, while English uses the present participle: (Sin 23ogletn fam geftogen, A bird came flying. Miscellaneous 165. 2113, toenn, toann, when, are used as follows: i. 5113 denotes definite past time: 5113 e3 anfing m recmen, gmgen h)ir in3 $au3, When it began to rain, we went into the house. It may also be used in the historical present. 2. SSenn is used in the present and future: SBenn e3 regnet, geljen totr m3 §au3, Whenever it rains, we go into the house, and If it rains, we shall go into the house. 2Benn er angef ommen fein ftrirb, When he will have arrived. In the sense of whenever it is also used in the past : SSenn er bcmn fo etnen ©djers mad)te, fo Iad)ten nnr alle, Whenever he told a joke of this sort, we all laughed. 3. SBcmn is only used in questions, both direct and indirect : 2Bcmn ftanben ©te auf? When did you get up? (§r fragte mtdfj, ' toann id) aufgeftanben fet. 166. Use of nad) and nadjbem. Sftadj, after (preposition), nad)bem, after (conjunction) : £)u fommft nad) mtr, You come MISCELLANEOUS 69 after me. ^adjbem ttrir ba$ getatt fatten, After we had done that. 167. If is translated by toerm, except in the sense of whether, when it is rendered by ob: 2Benn bie ©onne fdjetnt, ftrirb e$ toarm, // the sun shines, it will be warm. 3$ ttmjjte nic^t, ob er fomtnen toiirbe, / did not know if {whether) he would come. 168. Ways of expressing time. (a) With prepositions: Urn 6 Ufyr am 9ttorgen, tm SBtnter; Dor greet 3afyren, ftew years ago. Note that oor with an expression of time always means ago. (b) Time may be expressed without prepositions : 1. Indefinite time is expressed by the genitive: be£ SD^or- fienS, cineS £ctge3, eineS 9?ctd)t3, be3 ©onntagS. 2. Definite time and duration are expressed by the accusa- tive : letgte SBocfye, ben gemgen ©ommer, ben 4. Quit. 169. Masculine and neuter nouns denoting weight, measure, quantity, number are used in the singular after numerals, and the noun following is in apposition: X>ret ^funb Gutter, three pounds of butter ; bier S u 6 fang, four feet long. Of femi- nine nouns only bie SDforf has this peculiarity: £tod £ctffen %tt, two cups of tea ; but fiinf 9D?arf. 170. The English accusative infinitive construction can not be imitated in German. It must be given by a dependent clause : We believed him to be a poet, 2Bir gfaubten, er fet (toftre) 3)idjter. I wanted him to write me a recommendation, 3$ toollte, bafe er mir etne (Smpfefylung fdjretbe. 70 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR Prepositions 171. The following jingles, crude as they are, will help the student in memorizing the lists of prepositions and the case or cases they govern. i.SBet burd), fitr, ofyne, urn, bi3, fonber, gegen, roiber fdjretb ftetS ben trierten gall (accusative) unb nte ben brttten (dative) nteber. 2. ^djretb mit, nadjft, nebft, natfi, famt, ^ct, fcit, toon, 5it, proibcr, entgegcn, aufter, au3 ftetS mit bem £)atto nteber (gegeniiber also belongs here). 3. 5ln, anf, tjtnter, neben, tow, tiber, unter, gtoifrfjen, in ftefjn mit bem TOufatm, toenn man fragen mufr. SSofyin? gragt man aber: SSo? fo rjat allemal ber £>atto ftatt. 4. Umtmt, mtttel3, fraft, ijalb, roafjrenb, laut, fcermijge, ungead)tet, oberfyalb unb unterfyaib, innerfyalb unb aufterfyalb, bie£feit(3), jenfeit(S), ftalber, roegen, ftatt, aud) fang3, sufotge, troodj ift f)ter ntdjt gu fcergeffen, bafe bet btefen le^ten bret aud) ber Static rtd)ttg fet. (entlang, urn . . . mitten, tjalbcn also belong here). CONJUNCTIONS 71 Conjunctions 172. Coordinating conjunctions: unb, and ober, or benn, for ctber, but (most common and weakest in force) fonbern, but (used only after certain negative clauses) alletn, but, however (not used in colloquial speech) These conjunctions connect clauses of equal rank, and do not affect the word order, fonbern is the only one present- ing any difficulty. It is used only when the speaker has denied an assertion, and then states the truth or his view: SKtr gittgen nidjt nadj Chicago, fonbern ftrir mad)ten etnen 2ht3flug nadj (Socmfton, We did not go to Chicago, but we made an excursion to Evanston. ^tcfyt etne Nation ift frfjulb an bem $rteg, fonbern alle, Not one nation is to blame for the war, but all. 173. Subordinating conjunctions: Ctl3, when (referring to a single act or event in past time, See 165) toenn, when, whenever, if. See 165, 167. toctmt, when (indirect questions, See 165) ctlS ob, alS toenn, as if, as though (with subjunctive, See 157) bafc, that toeil, because ba, since (cause) bt$, until beoor, before efye, before nad)bem, after. See 166. fett, or fettbem, since (time) 72 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR tudfyrenb, while (in mere statements of time, duration) tnbem, while (denotes time by referring it to an action or event [attendant circumstance]) ob, whether, if obgletd), obfcfjon, obtoofyl, though, although bamtt, in order that tote, how, as This list is not complete. Remember that all subordinating conjunctions require transposed word order. Note the fol- lowing distinction in the use of toafyrenb and tnbem: 2Ba()renb totr natf) ^paufe gtrtgen, ergafylte er mir btefe ©efd)td)te, While we were going home, he told me this story. The time during which this happened is indicated. Qnbem er mid) $ormg cmfaf), fagte er, ba3 tft nid)t toafyr, While (as) he looked (or, looking) at me in anger, he said, that is not true. Not duration of time, but attendant circumstance is denoted. WORD ORDER 174. To simplify the study of word order we shall divide the sentence into three elements: the subject (S) including its modifiers, the inflected verb (V), and verbal adjuncts (vA) including objects, predicate noun, predicate adjective, adverbs, past participle, infinitive, and separable prefix. 175. There are three general types of word order, which can be denoted by the following formulas: i. Normal = SV vA. £>tefer ©a£ tft ntd)t fang, This sen- tence is not long. 2. Inverted = (vA) V S (vA). ©eftern *)orte id) ettoaS 9?eue3, Yesterday I heard something new. 3. Transposed = S vA V. (Sr fagte, bafe er glcid) fommc, He said that he was coming at once. WORD ORDER 73 176. The transposed (also called the dependent) word order is used only in dependent clauses, and nearly all de- pendent clauses have this order. For exceptions see 178 and 179. 177. Independent clauses have either normal or inverted order. 1. The order of an independent clause is inverted when it is introduced by any element (word, phrase, or dependent clause) other than the subject: 9Q?orgen rotrb er fommen, He will come to-morrow. 2In biefer ©telle ftcmb bctS alte ©djulfjauS, On this spot stood the old schoolhouse. TO roir an ben 93ar)nt)of famen, mar ber £u$ fd)on fort, When we arrived at the station, the train was already gone. 2. Inverted order is also used in imperative sentences and in direct questions, unless the latter are introduced by an interrogative word which is the subject or a modifier of the subject: ^er)men ©ie fid) in ad)t ! Be on your guard. §aben ©ie fidj erfaltet ? Did you take cold ? 2Ben t)aft bu a,efet)en? Whom did you see ? But: 2Ber ift flier geroefen ? Who was here ? SSeldjeS $3ncf) ttegt auf bem £tfd) ? Which book lies on the table ? Other independent clauses have normal order. Caution 1. Only one element can precede the verb. You may say : ©eftern far) id) jenen ffiann, or $enen SJcann far) id) geftern, but not ©efrern jenen Wflann fat) id). Caution 2. In normal order do not, as in English, insert an adverb between subject and verb: We often walk home, 2Btr gerjen oft nact) §aufe. 74 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 178. The dependent clauses of indirect discourse have normal or inverted order whenever baft is omitted : (§r fd)rieb mtr, er toerbe morgen fommen, He wrote me {that) he would come to-morrow, or (5r fdjrteb mtr, morgen toerbe er fommen. 179. Conditional clauses have inverted order, as in Eng- lish, whenever the conjunction toenn (if) is omitted: SKcireft bu f)ier getoefen, fo roctre metn SBruber ntd)t geftorben, If you had been here (had you been here), my brother would not have died. 180. Infinitives, past participles, and separable prefixes come last in the 1 clause, except in dependent clauses, where they immediately precede the verb: SBtr toerben morgen nad) §aufe fommen, We shall come home to-morrow. (§r fyat e$ ntdjt gent getcm, He did not like to do it. (Bit ftanben urn fiinf Ufyr auf, They got up at five o'clock. 2113 bie (Sonne enbltd) aufgegangen noar, madjten toir un3 auf ben 2Beg, When the sun had at last risen, we set out on our way. 181. Predicate nouns and predicate adjectives come last in an independent clause, except when an infinitive or a past participle is in the clause: £)te $Rofe ift rot, The rose is red. @r ift ©olbat, He is a soldier. (§3 ift beute ntd)t fait getoefert, 77 was not cold to-day. £>a$ ^Better nitrb fdjon tncrben, The weather will be fair. 182. Order of Objects, i. Of two objects, the indirect precedes, unless the direct is a personal or a reflexive pro- noun : 3>r {gdjiUer gab fetnem £ef)rer feine Slnttoort, The pupil did not give his teacher an answer. (Sr gab mir em 9)?ef[cr, He WORD ORDER 75 gave me a knife. ($r gab e$ tntr, but also, (Ex gab mir'3. <5te ftellte ftdj mir Dor, She introduced herself to me. 183. Order of Adverbs, i. A short adverb of time may precede a noun object; other adverbs follow: 2Bir fafyen geftern etnen gremben auf ber ©trafje, We saw a stranger on the street yesterday. 2. Adverbs of time almost always precede other adverbs, and adverbs of place usually come second: Sftein 33ruber retfte geftern morgen nadj (Sfytcago, My brother went to Chicago yesterday morning. Note that in English the order is reversed. 3. General scheme: Time, place, manner, cause, purpose: SBir famen geftern Don Sfteutyorf mit unfern ©Item, urn bent gefte betgutoofynen, We came from New York yesterday with our parents to attend the festival. 4. A single adverb modifying another adverb or adjective must stand before it: £)er £nnb lief nicr)t ferjr fdjnetl. ©ie ift rec^t t>libfdr). 184. The negatives ntd)t, nte, mentals usually follow the object but precede a predicate noun, a predicate adjective, an infinitive, a past participle, a separable prefix, and a transposed verb. If they negate any particular word rather than the predicate or the proposition in general, they come immediately before it: 3dj fyorte feme 2Inttoort ntdjt, / did not hear his answer. £)tefe 93lume ift ntd)t rot, This flower is not red. 3d) fonnte tfyn ntd)t feljen, / could not see him. But: 3dj fonnte tint ntdjt beutltdj fefyen, / could not see him distinctly. (§r fjatte ba$ ntdjt getan, He had not done that. (Sr tear geftern nid)t gu §aufe, He was not at home yesterday. (§3 gefdjaf) nidjt bier, // did not happen here. 2)a3 fotmnt nicf)t Don oben, That does not come from above. 76 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 3$ gefye nie nrieber in fein §au$, / will never enter his house again. 9?id)t er fonbern ©ie toaren e£, It was not he but you. £>a3 fotnmt nid)t fefyr fyaufig bor in biefer armt man 1 kg SBaffer, if 1 kg. of water is heated ; SStrb alfo Staffer Don 4 C (4 ©rab SelftuS) MS auf o° C abgeftifylt, if therefore water at 4 C. is cooled to o° C. 190. A German comparative in form is not always com- parative in meaning: (Sine ciltere 3)ame fafj in bent 2Bagen, An elderly lady sat in the carriage. 191. Since reflexive verbs are used far less in English than in German, care must be taken not to translate a German reflexive by a reflexive where the English verb cannot be used. Thus : 3d) freue mid) is not / rejoice myself, but / am glad. 192. Difficult Words. One of the most difficult tasks confronting the student of German, or, for that matter, of any foreign language, is the mastery of certain particles, adverbs, connectives, etc., which occur very frequently and may have a large number of different meanings or shades of meaning. The student should be particularly careful to master each new word of this type and each new meaning of such a word the first time he encounters it. It might be well to make a list of such words with their various meanings, adding new words and illustrative examples to it from day to day. The list given here contains only a small number; it is intended to suggest to the student a method of solving the difficulties rather than to solve them for him. TRANSLATION 79 193. $a is used: 1. As an adverb of place and time, there, here, then: 9Ba3 fyaft bu ba, Wlaxk? What have you there, Marie? £)a bin tdj, Here I am. £)a fiel mtr aud) mein Xraum em, Then my dream occurred to me, too. In each case the context will reveal which is the proper meaning. 2. Sometimes it is best rendered by when: $Dte 33riiber toaren eben fort, ba famen bie Altera, The brothers had just gone when their parents came. 3. As causal conjunction, since, as: £)ct id) m'djt antloortete, fragte er toteber, Since (as) I did not answer, he asked again. 4. As temporal conjunction, as, when: 2lber niemal$ guOor, ba nodj mein $ater unfefylbar Oor mtr ftanb, fjabe id) foldje £>axU Iidc)fett fiir tint flefiifylt, tote in jener ©tunbe, ba er mtr jene £at Oertrante; But never before, when my father still stood before me infallible, did I feel such tenderness for him as in the hour when he confided that deed to me. As conjunction, either causal or temporal, it has trans- posed order and can thus be readily recognized. 5. Colloquially it is used very frequently with various shades of meaning that can not well be classified and often defy translation or should not be translated: T)k fjarten banner! £)a fytlft fetn bitten, The hard(-hearted) men! Plead- ing is of no avail with them. SDa follte man bod) ba% aange S3efttenjeug oor ben $opf fdjtefjen, toenn'3 m toetter nicfyts ba toare, al3, etc., In that case, one really ought to shoot the beasts, one and all, if they exist for no other purpose than, etc. 194. Sftun may be used: 1. As an adverb of time, now: ^un famen bte anbern and), Now the others came also. $ftun fam er an bit SRetfye, Now his turn came. 2. As a so-called sentence adverb, well: 9hm, n)k gefyt e$ 80 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR 3^rent 23ater? Well, how is your father? In this latter meaning, it is always set off by a comma and can therefore be readily recognized. 195. $et (bte, ba3). The beginner frequently finds it difficult to tell whether a given form of ber is an article, a relative pronoun, or a demonstrative pronoun. i. As an article ber (bte, ba$) is used with a noun, though it may be far removed from it by adjective modifiers: £)a3 Dor furger £dt neu angeftrtdjene £>au3 tourbe berfauft, The house which was newly painted a short time ago was sold. 2. When it introduces a clause that has transposed word order, it is a relative pronoun: £)a3 £>au$, ba$ bor furger gett neu angeftrtdjen tourbe, tft berfauft toorben. 3. When it introduces a clause having normal or inverted word order, it is a demonstrative pronoun (unless it is the article) : £)te 2lrt lafj' id) Mr ba, bte fyalt feft, / shall leave the ax here for you, hang on to it. As in this case, the demonstra- tive pronoun ber is frequently best translated by a personal pronoun. 196. Syllabication 1. Words are divided into syllables according to the division that takes place in pronouncing them slowly. 2. In simple words a single consonant between two vowels goes with the syllable that follows : ge-ben, le=fen. Note that d), fd), 6, ft, pf), tfy are regarded as one sound: 33it-d)er, grower, $a=ften. 3. Of several consonants and double consonants only the last one is carried over: ^un^ge, ©titb-te, ef=fen, $nof~pe, 2ln=fer, frat=gen, fcimp=fen. cf is resolved into f =f , ^paf =fe. Note. — In foreign words the combinations of b, p, b, t, g, f, with I or r regularly belong to the following syllable: ^u^lifum, 9tte=tnim, ge=bruar. CAPITALS 8 1 4. Compound words are divided according to their com- ponents: §au§=bad), bar=an, bor^auS, bar=unt, be=ob-ad)teti, boII=enben, £)ten3=tag, 3nter=effe. 197. Capitals 1. All nouns begin with a capital letter: baS ^paitS, Me geber. 2. All words used as nouns (adjectives, participles, infinitives, etc.) begin with a capital letter: ber 2trme, ber (Mefyrte, bctS ©ingen, ettoaS 9?eue3. Note. — Be careful to distinguish between adjectives used as nouns and adjectives with noun omitted. Thus: ©in Sftetdjer 6ea,egnete etnem Sfrmett auf ber ©trajje, ^4 ric// »m» we/ a />oor wa« ow the street. But, gtoet banner bcgegneten fid) auf ber ©trafee, ein reiser unb etn armer. 3. The pronoun ©te, yo«, and its possessive 3fyr, y^wr, and in letters all pronouns and possessive adjectives referring to the one addressed, are capitalized. The pronoun ict) is not capitalized. 4. Proper adjectives are capitalized only when they are part of a proper name: bctS 3>utfdje 9tod), but ba$ beutfcfye SSoIf, Me engu'fdje $reffe. 198. Punctuation The most important differences between English and German punctuation are the following: 1. In German all subordinate clauses are set off by commas. 2. In a series where the last two members are connected by a conjunction the comma is not used before the conjunc- tion: geber, Xtnte unb papier ftnb ba. 3. A single word used parenthetically is not set off by commas : S0?etn 23ruber jebodj mar ntcf)t gefommen, My brother, however, had not come. 82 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR EXERCISES Articles and Nouns i. How does German differ from English in the use of the definite article? the indefinite article? 2. When may the definite article in German take the place of the pos- sessive adjective? Give examples illustrating fully your answers to questions 1 and 2. (Do not confine your illustra- tions to those given in the grammar.) 3. What genders does German have? 4. Give rules for the determination of gender. 5. With the help of these rules determine the gender of the following nouns : grilling, (Efyrtftentum, Abetter, SBhmte, 3ung.e, £>of)e, ^rcmffyett, ©tubmen, $itnglem, 231iimd)en, £epptd), ©angerm, (Smtgfett, (Sljcmte, Nation, 9?atur, ©olb, 9?orben, UtttDerfttat, greunbfdjaft, Ubung, SBatferet, 53ofton, @tubium, ©ebiiube, §ontg, 9D?a%mattf, 9Q?at, SDHtttDod). 6. Name the different noun declensions, and give the characteristics of each. 7. What nouns do not change in the singular? 8. Which case has the same ending in all declensions? 9. Name and distinguish the different classes of the strong declension. 10. Do nouns of class I of the strong declension ever take -eS in the genitive singular? 11. What nouns of classes II and III of the strong declension take -e3 in the genitive singular? 12. What nouns belong to the first class of the strong declension? 13. Give the member- ship of the weak declension. Which weak nouns take -n and which -en? 14. What nouns take umlaut in the plural ? 15. In which class are there no neuter nouns? in which no feminines ? 16. What peculiarity in spelling should be noted in the inflection of nouns in -nt$, -in, -fe ? Write the princi- pal parts of ©efangntS, 2lrbeiterm, ber gufj, ber glufe. 17. QUESTIONS 83 What inflectional ending do proper names take? 18. When is the definite article used with proper names ? 19. How does the use of the definite article affect the inflection of proper names ? 20. Write out the principal parts of all nouns in your reading lesson, and state to which declension and class each belongs. Thus: Me ^poffnung, ber ^poffnung, bit $offnungen, wk. Adjectives 1. What is an adjective? 2. What is meant by the term modify? 3. What two kinds of adjectives are there? De- fine them. 4. When are adjectives inflected and when not? 5. How are they inflected? When weak? When strong? 6. Do the terms weak and strong mean the same when ap- plied to adjectives as when applied to nouns? 7. What is a distinctive ending? 8. WTiat words have distinctive end- ings? 9. Where do the indefinite article em and words declined like it (ein^words) have no distinctive ending ? 10. Which are the em=words? 11. How are adjectives in a series (two or more adjectives modifying one noun) inflected? 12. How are adjectives and participles inflected when used as nouns? 13. When are adjectives derived from proper names capitalized ? When not ? 14. What peculiarity have adjectives ending in -er formed from names of places? 15. What peculiarity must be noted in the- declension of ad- jectives ending in -e, -el, -en, -er? 16. Pick out all the descriptive adjectives in your reading lesson and answer the following questions with regard to each. Inflected or not ? Why or why not ? If inflected, how and why ? 17. What is meant by comparison of adjectives? 18. How are adjectives compared in English? 19. What de- termines the manner of comparison in English? 20. Does the length of an adjective in German have any influence on the manner of comparison? 21. How is the comparative 84 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR generally formed? The superlative? 22. What exceptions are there to this rule? Explain them. 23. When are ad- jectives compared by means of adverbs? What adverbs are used for this purpose? 24. Distinguish between the relative superlative and the adverbial superlative as to form. When is each used? 25. Can all adjectives be compared? Give reason for your answer. 26. What is descending compari- son? How is it indicated? How are the comparative and the superlative forms of the adjective inflected? 27. How are adverbs compared? Numerals 1. Which of the numerals may be inflected, and how? 2. How are ordinals formed? Illustrate and give excep- tions. 3. How are the, ordinal adverbs erftenS, gft>eiten3, etc. formed? 4. How are fractions formed? 5. In what ways may a date be given in German ? Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives 1. Name and define the various kinds of pronouns. 2. Decline the personal pronouns. 3. Explain and illustrate fully the use of bu, ifyr, @te as pronouns of address. 4. What is meant by adverbial compounds? 5. Explain and illus- trate by at least five sentences the use of adverbial com- pounds instead of personal pronouns. 6. Explain and illustrate the absolute use of e$, bteS, ba$, toeldjeS. 7. How are possessives declined when used as pronouns? as adjectives? 8. When are possessive pronouns, used in the predicate, inflected? When not? 9. Name the relative pronouns. 10. How are they used? n. How are they declined? 12. May the relative ever be omitted in German as it is in English? 13. What determines QUESTIONS 85 the gender and number of a relative? 14. What determines its case? 15. Explain and illustrate the use of adver ial compounds instead of relative pronouns. 16. What are the compound relatives? 17. How are they declined? 18. Explain and illustrate the use of each. 19. What kind of antecedent does a compound relative never have? 20. When must the antecedent of tner be expressed ? 21. Name the interrogative pronouns. 22. Which of these may also be used as adjectives? 23. Explain and illustrate the use of each of the interrogatives. 24. Explain and illustrate the use of adverbial compounds instead of the interrogatives. 25. Name the demonstratives and give the meaning of each. 26. How does the demonstrative pronoun ber differ in declension from the demonstrative adjective ber? from the article ber? from the relative ber? 27. How is berfelbe declined ? 28. What forms are used for the missing genitive, dative, and accusative of man? 29. What inflectional changes do iemcmb, niemcmb, and ieberrrtctnn have? 30. How are ettt)a6 and m'(f)t3 inflected? 31. How are they used? Verbs 1. What is a verb? a transitive verb? an intransitive verb? a weak verb? a strong verb? an irregular weak verb? an auxiliary verb? 2. What are the modifications of the verb? Define each. 3. How is the stem of a verb found? 4. What are the principal parts of a verb? 5. What is a simple tense? a compound tense? 6. What auxiliaries have we in German? 7. Which verbs take fein? What excep- tions are there to this rule ? 8. What is the auxiliary of the future ? 9. How are infinitives inflected when used as nouns ? Of what gender are they ? 10. How is the passive 86 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR infinitive formed? the perfect infinitive? n. How is the present participle formed? the perfect participle? 12. Is the meaning of the gerundive (the present participle with gu) active or passive? 13. How are participles declined when used as adjectives or nouns? 14. Which verbs do not take ge- in the past participle? Why? 15. In the case of separable verbs, what is the position of the ge- in the past participle and of gu in the infinitive ? 16. How many and what moods have we in German? 17. How many and what tenses? 18. Does each mood have all the tenses? 19. Give the formula or rule for the formation of each of the compound tenses in all the moods. 20. Do the tenses of the various moods correspond in meaning? 21. Which of the two forms of the preterit of rnerben is generally used? Where is the other used? 22. How is the preterit of a weak verb formed? 23. Where are the indicative and the subjunctive of weak verbs alike? 24. What principle governs the use of the subjunctive forms which are like the indicative forms? 25. What irregularity is there in the conjugation of the verbs ending in -eln, -em ? Illustrate fully. 26. What weak verbs require the connect- ing vowel e ? Where ? Illustrate. 27. How many and what forms does the imperative mood have? 28. When are the familiar forms used? the polite? 29. When may the subject be expressed in the familiar forms? Where is it always expressed? 30. Why is the subject of the polite form always capitalized? 31. What peculiarity do some strong verbs have in the present tense? In which forms? 32. Which verbs have this peculiarity? 33. Which of these also have this change in the imperative? In which form? 34. What other irregu- larity do these imperative forms have? 35. When is the QUESTIONS 87 connecting vowel used in strong verbs? Where do strong verbs differ in this respect from weak verbs? 36. How is the preterit subjunctive of strong verbs formed? 37. Which are the inseparable verbal prefixes? 38. Do inseparable verbs differ in any way from the simple verbs with respect to their conjugation? If so, where and how? 39. Does a compound verb always have the same auxiliary as the simple verb? 40. In what tenses are separable verbs separated? 41. When are they not separated in these tenses? 42. Where does the prefix come when separated? 43. Where does the chief accent fall in separable verbs? 44. What is the position of ge- in the past participle and of git in the infinitive? 45. Do these verbs offer any special difficulties in their conjugation ? 46. Which prefixes are at times separable, at others not? What rule governs the matter ? 47. What is a reflexive verb? 48. Do they differ from other verbs in conjugation? 49. What is the reflexive pro- noun of the third person? of the first singular? first plural? second singular? second plural? 50. What auxiliary do all reflexives take? 51. Distinguish between active and passive voice. 52. Which verbs may have a passive? 53. Distinguish between the real and the apparent passive, (a) as to formation; (b) as to meaning and use. Illustrate fully. 54. What change does the past participle of toerbert undergo when used as an auxiliary of the passive? 55. How is the agent with the passive expressed in English ? in German ? 56. What in- transitive verbs may have a passive? What is the subject of such a passive? When is this not expressed? 57. What substitutes are there for the passive ? 58. After which verbs does the active infinitive often have passive force ? 59. What does the term modal auxiliary mean? 60. 88 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR What peculiarity of conjugation have these verbs in the present indicative? 61. What other verb has this? 62. Which of the modals has imperative forms? 63. What peculiarity of conjugation have these verbs in their perfect tenses when used with a dependent infinitive? 64. What position does the " double infinitive " take in the sentence? 65. What other verbs, given a dependent infinitive without git, may have the same construction in their perfect tenses ? 66. Can folten and toolfen be at all used as auxiliaries of the future ? 67. What is an impersonal verb ? 68. What difference of construction is there between (53 frtert mid) and I am freezing ? 69. When should there is (are) be translated by e3 Qtbt and when by e$ tft (ftnb) ? 70. When is the indicative mood used? 71. What sub- stitutes are there for the imperative? Illustrate. 72. When is the subjunctive used? 73. What tenses of the subjunctive may be used to express a wish? When is the preterit used? when the pluperfect? 74. Where is the imperative sub- junctive used? 75. What English construction is its equiva- lent? 76. W T hat other way is there in German to express such a command? 77. What is the word order in a clause having an imperative subjunctive? 78. In what kind of conditional sentences is the indicative used? 79. In what kind the subjunctive? 80. What tenses of the subjunctive may be used in unreal conditions? 81. When is the preterit used? the pluperfect? 82. What alternative forms have we for these? Explain and illustrate their use. 83. What is the word order in the result clause? In the if-clause? 84. When does the dependent' clause in these sentences not have transposed word order? 85. What idea is usually expressed by the potential subjunctive? 86. With what verbs is it most common? 87. Explain the use of the subjunctive in com- QUESTIONS 89 parisons. 88. How are such clauses introduced? 89. What is meant by indirect discourse? 90. How is indirectness of speech indicated in English? in German? 91. When may the indicative be used in indirect discourse? 92. What determines the tense of the dependent verb? 93. What is the order of the dependent clause? 94. Illustrate and ex- plain how the tenses of the direct and indirect statements correspond. 95. Which of the two possible forms of an indirect statement is to be used ordinarily? 96. In what mood do purpose clauses require their verb? 97. When is the present tense used? When the preterit? 98. What tense largely takes the place of the future in col- loquial English and German? 99. What is the historical present? its purpose? 100. When is the present used for the English perfect? the preterit for the English past per- fect? 101. When is the future used for the present? Exercises. — 1. Using the model below, give the construc- tion of all the verbs in your reading lesson: (§r berh'ef} je^t bctS ^inxmer. 23erltefe, 3d sing. pret. ind. act. of berlaffen, er berlajjt, er berltejj, er §at berlaffen. 2. Write a synopsis in the indicative and subjunctive active of 3)u fcmnft ba3 33ucf) lefen. 3. Pick out the transitive verbs of your reading lesson and change the clauses in which they are used into the passive. 4. Select from your reading lesson some portion of a dialog in direct discourse and change it to indirect discourse. Direct: „3?dj metne, toctS toar e3 etgentlidj, ba% ba% Unajittf liber betne gamilte bradjte?" Indirect: £)er 3unge fagte ju fetner greunbtn, er meine, toag e3 eigentlidj getoefen fet, bag ba$ Uncjliicf iiber ifyre Samttie gebrac^t fjabe. 5. Reverse the process under 4 with a different passage. 90 ELEMENTS OF GERMAN GRAMMAR Word Order I. Name and define the different types of word order. Give examples of each. 2. When is the inverted order used? Illustrate fully. 3. When is the transposed or dependent order used? 4. What kind of dependent clauses have in- verted order? normal order? Give examples of each. 5. What order may an interrogative sentence have? 6. What is the position of the verb in an indirect question? 7. What is the order of an imperative sentence? 8. What is the order of adverbs? 9. What is the position of a predicate noun? a predicate adjective? the direct object? the indirect object? (both or either as noun or pronoun). 10. What is the posi- tion of infinitives, past participles, and separable prefixes? 11. What is the position of the finite verb in a dependent clause with a double infinitive? 12. What is the position of the negatives? 13. How does the position of the modifiers and objects of participles and infinitives differ in German from their order in English? Illustrate all your answers. 14. Define and account for the position of each verb in your reading lesson. 15. What is the position of the finite verb in clauses introduced by the following words: baft, benn, toetl, unb, ba (since), ba (there or then), al$, toann (two possibilities), toenrt, bamtt (conjunction), aber, ber (rela- tive), ob, efye, nad)bem ? 16. Use the above words in sentences. 17. In the following sentences correct the errors and state the rule violated in each case. Oft ttrir gtngen nad) §aufe. 3d) faum toufcte, toaS gu tun. ©eftem auf ber ©trafee fallen ttnr biele 9ftenfd)en. §eute morgen id) erbtelt einen SBrtef. TO ber $rteg anftng, man crtoartete md)t, bafc er toiirbe bauern (last) fo lemg. $8crben @te nadj ber ©tabt morgen gefjen ? £>aben <&k gefefyen inein 93ud) ? 3a, id) fyabe bem £e()rer e3 gegeben. INDEX INDEX (References are to sections of the text) adjectives, 4, 12, 46-74: definition of, 4; modifications of, 12; limiting and descriptive, 46; rule for in- flection of, 50; weak declension of, 51-53; strong declension of, 54- 56; used as nouns, 60-61; proper, 62; irregularities of declension, 62; comparison of, 64-72; relative and adverbial superlatives, 68; irregular comparison, 70; peri- phrastic comparison, 71; descend- ing comparison, 72; possessive, 83, 85; interrogative, 93; demonstra- tive, 95-98; participles used as, 60, 109, 3; used as adverbs, 73 adverbial compounds, 80, 89, 94 adverbs, 6, 73, 77: definitions of, 6; comparison of, 73; ordinal, 77 al£, roemt, roamt, 165, 173 ttl£ and rote, 65 note at§ oh, al$ roemt, 173 articles, 18-23: definite, 18-21; indefinite, 22, 23; contractions, 19 capitals, 197 conjunctions, coordinating, 172; sub- ordinating, 173 connecting vowel, 117, 122 ba, uses of, 193 ber, bie, ba£, 195 biefer, 96, 97 bu=form, 79, 118 e3 gtbt (tft), 144 tttvad, 99, 3 gender, 11, 24, 25 gerundive, 109, 2 haOcn, conjugation of, 111; verbs that take fiabett, 107 imperative mood, 118, 121, 146 imperative subjunctive, 149 indirect discourse, 158 infinitives, 108, 140; accusative, 170 interjections, 9 jemanb, 99, 2 iebermatm, 99 lofietl, conjugation of, 115 tnan, 99, 1 manner, 53c modal auxiliaries, 138-142 : principal parts of, 138; conjugation in pres- ent, 139; with dependent infini- tives, 140; meaning of, 142 moods, kinds and definitions of, 5; uses of, 145-160 nacfj and nacfybetn, 166 mdjtS, 99, 3 niemanb, 99 nouns: kinds and definitions of, 2; modifications of (person, number, 94 INDEX gender, fa.se) 11 ; rules for gender, 25; declension of, 26 ff.; general scheme, 33; strong, 34-38; weak, 40-41; mixed, 42-43; proper, 45; of weight, 169 numerals, 74-77: cardinals, 74; ordi- nals, 75; fractions, 76; ordinal adverbs, 77 HUH, uses of, 194 participles, present, 109; past, 110 passive, 128-137: auxiliary of, 131- 132; real, 130, 131, 134; apparent, 130, 132, 135; agent with, 133; substitutes for, 137 prefixes, inseparable, 124; separable, 125; doubtful, 125 note prepositions, definitions, 8; lists, 171 principal parts, of nouns, 32 note i; of verbs, 102 pronouns: kinds and definitions of, 3; personal, 78; of address, 79; agreement, 81; absolute use of e£, bteS, bad, metered, 82, 93, 98; possessive, 83-85; relative, 86-92; agreement with antecedent, 88; tt)er, 90, 91; roa£, 90, 92; inter- rogative, 93; demonstrative, 95- 98; indefinite, 99 punctuation, 198 frfllagcn, 120 fetit, conjugation of, 113; verbs that take fetit, 107 sentence, kinds and definitions of, 14 fid) frcucn, 127, i fid) fdimctrficln, 127, 2 fold), 53c, 96, 1 fottbertt, after, aftettt, 172 subjunctive, 147-160: optative, 148 imperative, 149; conditional, 150 potential, 155; concessive, 156 comparison, 157; indirect dis- course, 158; purpose, 159 superlative, 64, 68 syllabication, 196 tenses, formation of, 112; of the subjunctive, 147; use of, 161 tense scheme, for unreal conditions, 152; for indirect discourse, 158, 2, 3 time, ways of expressing, 168 umlaut, of nouns, 33, 36, 3, 38, 2, 40 note 1, 44; of adjectives, 65; of verbs, 121, 123 unreal conditions, 150-157 verbs, 100-164: definitions of, 5; modifications of, 13; stem of, 101; principal parts of, 102; weak, 103, 115-118; irregular weak, 103, 119; connecting vowel, 117, 122; strong, 103, 120-123; vowel change in the present indicative of strong verbs, 121; formation of tenses, 104, 112; tense auxiliaries, 105, 111-114; rule for fettt and batten, 107; modal auxiliaries, 105, 138- 142; infinitives, 108, 140; partici- ples, 109, 110; verbs in — cllt and -em, 116; inseparable, 124; sepa- rable, 125; reflexive, 126, 127; preterit subjunctive, 123; passive voice, 128-137; auxiliary of the future, 112, 3, 4, 142 caution; im- personal, 143, 144; with dative, 162 vowel change in present indicative of strong verbs, 121, 122 rotihrcnb and tnbem, 173 roanbent, 116 roamt, 165, 173 ftjad, relative, 90, 92; interrogative, 93 roaS fiir cin, 93 note mean, 165, 167, 173 INDEX 95 foer, relative, 90, 92; interrogative, 93 toerben, 114 toiffen, 139, 2 word order, 174-187: kinds of, 175; transposed, 176; normal, 177; inverted, 177-179; of infinitives, past participles, and separable prefixes, 180; of predicate nouns and predicate adjectives, 181; of objects, 182; of adverbs, 183; of negatives, 184; of double infinitive, 185; of modifiers or objects of infinitives and participles, 186, 187 Ibeatb's /l&ofcern Xanguage Series GERMAN GRAMMARS AND READERS. / Ball's German Drill Book. Companion to any grammar. Ball's German Grammar. Bishop and McKinlay's Deutsche Grammatik. Deutsches Liederbuch. With music. Foster's Geschichten und Marchen. For young children. Fraser and Van der Smissen's German Grammar. Greenfield's Grammar Summary and Word List. Guerber's Marchen und Erzahlungen. Haertel and Cast's Elements of Grammar for Review. Harris's German Composition. Harris's German Lessons. Hastings' Studies in German Words. Heath's German Dictionary. Hewitt's Practical German Composition. Holzwarth's Gruss aus Deutschland. Huebsch-Smith's Progressive Lessons in German. Huebsch-Smith's Progressive Lessons in German. Rev. Huss's German Reader. Jones's Des Kindes erstes Lesebuch Joynes-Meissner German Grammar. Joynes and Wesselhoeft's German Grammar. Kriiger and Smith's Conversation Book. Manfred's Ein praktischer Anfang. Meras' Ein Wortschatz. Mosher and Jenney's Lern- und Lesebuch. Pattou's An American in Germany. A conversation book. Schmidhofer's Lese-tJbungen fiir Kinder. Schmidhofer's Erstes Lesebuch. With vocab., Schmidhofer's Zweites Lesebuch. Spanhoof d's Elementarbuch der deutschen Sprache. Spanhoofd's Erstes deutsches Lesebuch. Spanhoofd's Lehrbuch der deutschen Sprache. Wallentin's Grundziige der Naturlehre (Palmer). Wesselhoeft's Elementary German Grammar. Wesselhoeft's Exercises. Conversation and composition. Wesselhoeft's German Composition Zinnecker's Deutsch fiir Anfanger. f>eatb's flDofcern ^Language Series ELEMENTARY GERMAN TEXTS. (Partial List.) Andersen's Bilderbuch ohne Bilder (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. Andersen's Marchen (Super). Vocabulary. Aus der Jugendzeit (Betz). Vocabulary and exercises. Baumbach's Nicotiana (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. Baumbach's Waldnovellen (Bernhardt). Six stories. Vocabulary. Benedix's Der Prozess (Wells). Vocabulary. Benedix's Nein (Spanhoofd). Vocabulary and exercises. Bliithgen's Das Peterle von Niirnberg (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exs. Bolt's Peterli am Lift (Betz). Vocabulary and exercises. Campe's Robinson der Jungere (Ibershoff). Vocabulary. Carmen Sylva's Aus meinem Konigreich (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. Die Schildbiirger (Betz). Vocabulary and exercises. Der Weg zum Gltick (Bernhardt). Vocabulary and exercises. Deutscher Humor aus vier Jahrhunderten (Betz). Vocab. and exercises. Elz's Er ist nicht eifersiichtig (Wells). Vocabulary. Gerstacker's Germelshausen (Lewis). Vocabulary and exercises. Goethe's Das Marchen (Eggert). Vocabulary. Grimm's Marchen and Schiller's Der Taucher (Van der Smissen). Hauff's Das kalte Herz (Van der Smissen). Vocab. Roman type. Hauff's Der Zwerg Nase (Patzwald and Robson). Vocab. and exs. Heyse's L'Arrabbiata (Deering-Bernhardt). Vocab. and exercises. Heyse's Niels mit der offenen Hand (Joynes). Vocab. and exercises. Hillern's Hoher als die Kirche (Clary) . Vocabulary and exercises. Leander's Traumereien (Van der Smissen). Vocabulary. Munchhausen: Reisen und Abenteuer (Schmidt). Vocabulary. Rosegger's Der Lex von Gutenhag (Morgan). Vocab. and exercises. Salomon's Die Geschichte einer Geige (Tombo). Vocab. and exercises. Schiller's Der Neffe als Onkel (Beresford-Webb). Vocabulary. Spyri's Monider Geissbub (Guerber). Vocabulary. Spyri's Rosenresli (Boll). Vocabulary. Spyri's Was der Grossmutter Lehre bewirkt (Barrows). Vocab. and exs. Storm's Geschichten aus der Tonne (Vogel). Vocab. and exs. Storm's Immensee (Bernhardt). Vocabulary and exercises. Storm's In St. Jiirgen (Wright). Vocabulary and exercises. Storm's Pole Poppenspaler (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exercises. Till Eulenspiegel (Betz). Vocabulary and exercises. Volkmann's Kleine Geschichten (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. Zschokke's Der zerbrochene Krug (Joynes). Vocabulary and exercises. Ifoeatb's flDofcern Xanouaoe Series INTERMEDIATE GERMAN TEXTS. (Partial List.) Arndt, Deutsche Patrioten (Colwell) . Vocabulary. Benedix's Die Hochzeitsreise (Schiefferdecker) . Vocabulary. Bohlau's Ratsmadelgeschichten (Haevernick). Vocabulary. Chamisso's Peter Schlemihl (Primer) . Vocabulary. Deutsche Gedichte und Lieder (Roedder and Purin) . Vocabulary. Eichendorff 's Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts (Osthaus) . Vocab. Ernst's Asmus Sempers Jugendland (Osthaus). Vocabulary. Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea (Adams). Vocabulary. Goethe's Sesenheim (Huss). From Die htung und Wahrheit. Vocab. Hauff's Lichtenstein (Vogel). Abridged. Heine's Die Harzreise (Vos). Vocabulary. Hoffmann's Historische Erzahlungen (Beresford-Webb). Jensen's Die braune Erica (Joynes). Vocabulary. Keller's Fahnlein der sieben Aufrechten (Howard) . Vocabulary. Keller's Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe (Adams). Vocabulary. Lambert's Alltagliches. Vocabulary and exercises. Lohmeyer's Geissbub von Engelberg (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exs. Lyrics and Ballads (Hatfield) . Meyer's Gustav Adolf s Page (Heller). Mosher's Willkommen in Deutschland. Vocabulary and exercises. Novelletten-Bibliothek (Bernhardt). Vol. I, Vol. II, Raabe's Eulenpfingsten (Lambert). Vocabulary. Riehl's Burg Neideck (Jonas). Vocabulary and exercises. Rogge's Der grosse Preussenkonig (Adams). Vocabulary. Schiller's Der Geisterseher (Joynes). Vocabulary. Schiller's Dreissigjahriger Krieg (Prettyman). Book III. Selections for Sight Translation (Mondan). Shorter German Poems (Hatfield). Vocabulary. Spielhagen's Das Skelett im Hause (Skinner) . Vocabulary. Stifter's Das Haidedorf (Heller). Stokl's Alle fiinf (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exercises. Unter dem Christbaum (Bernhardt). Wildenbruch's Das edle Blut (Schmidt). Vocab. and exercises. Wildenbruch's Der Letzte (Schmidt). Vocab. and exercises. Wildenbruch's Neid (Prettyman). Vocabulary. Zschokke's Das Abenteuer der Neujahrsnacht (Handschin) . Vocab. Zschokke's Das Wirtshaus zu Cransac (Joynes). Vocab. and exs. t>eatb's flDofcern Xanguage Series INTERMEDIATE GERMAN TEXTS. (Partial List.) Arnold's April wetter (Fossler). Vocabulary. Arnold's Fritz auf Ferien (Spanhoofd). Vocab. and exercises. Arnold's Menne im Seebad (Thomas). Vocab. and exercises. Auf der Sonnenseite (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. Baumbach's Das Habichtsfraulein (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exs. Baumbach's Der Schwiegersohn (Bernhardt). Vocabulary, Baumbach's Die Nonna (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. Drei kleine Lustspiele (Wells). Vocabulary and exercises. Ebner-Eschenbach's Die Freiherren von Gemperlein (Hohlfeld). Freytag's Die Journalisten (Toy). Vocabulary. Frommel's Eingeschneit (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. Frommel's Mit Ranzel und Wanderstab (Bernhardt) . Vocab. and exs. Fulda's Der Talisman (Prettyman). Vocabulary. Gerstacker's Der Wilddieb (Myers). Vocabulary and exercises. Gerstacker's Irrfahrten (Sturm). Vocabulary. Grillparzer's Der arme Spielmann (Howard). Vocabulary. Heyse's Das Madchen von Treppi (Joynes). Vocab. and exercises. Heyse's Hochzeit auf Capri (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exercises. Hoffmann's Gymnasium zu Stolpenburg (Buehner). Vocabulary. Keller's Die drei gerechten Kammacher (Collings). Vocabulary. Keller's Kleider machen Leute (Lambert). Vocabulary. Liliencron's Anno 1870 (Bernhardt). Vocabulary. Moser's Der Bibliothekar (Wells) . Vocabulary. Moser's Kbpnickerstrasse 120 (Wells). Riehl's Das Spielmannskind (Eaton). Vocabulary and exercises. Riehl's Der Fluch der Schonheit (Thomas). Vocabulary. Schiller's Das Lied von der Glocke (Chamberlin). Vocabulary. Schiller's Jungfrau von Orleans (Wells). Illus. Vocab., Schiller's Maria Stuart (Rhoades). Illustrated. Vocab., Schiller's Wilhelm Tell (Deering). Illustrated. Vocab. , Seidel: Aus goldenen Tagen (Bernhardt). Vocab. and exercises. Seidel's Leberecht Hiihnchen (Spanhoofd). Vocabulary. Selections for Sight Translation (Deering). Stern's Die Wiedertaufer (Sturm). Vocabulary and exercises. Stille Wasser (Bernhardt). Three tales. Vocabulary. Wichert's Als Verlobte empfehlen sich (Flom). Vocabulary. Wilbrandt's Das Urteil des Paris (Wirt). Ibeatb's /l&ofcern ^Language Series ADVANCED GERMAN TEXTS (Partial List.) Dahn's Ein Kampf um Rom (Wenckebach). Abridged. Dakn's Sigwalt und Sigridh (Schmidt). Deutsche Reden (Tombo). Ein Charakterbild von Deutscniand (Evans and Merhaut). Frenssen's Jorn Uhl (Florer). Freytag's Aus dem Jahrhundert des grossen Krieges (Rhoades) . Freytag's Aus dem Staat Friedrichs des Grossen (Hagar). Freytag's Das Nest der Zaunkonige (Roedder and Handschin). Freytag's Rittmeister von Alt-Rosen (Hatfield). Freytag's Soil und Haben (Files). Abridged. Goethe's Dichtung und Wahrheit (I-IV). Buchheim. Goethe's Egmont (Hatfield). Goethe's Faust (Thomas). Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea (Hewett). Goethe's Iphigenie (Rhoades). Goethe's Meisterwerke (Bernhardt). Goethe's Poems (Harris). Goethe's Torquato Tasso (Thomas). Grillparzer's Der Traum, ein Leben (Meyer). Hebbel's Agnes Bernauer (Evans). Heine's Poems (White). Herzog's Die Burgkinder (Boetzkes). Abridged. Vocabulary. Komer's Zriny (Holzwarth). Lessing's Emilia Galotti (Winkler). Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm (Primer). With vocabulary, Lessing's Nathan der Weise (Primer). Ludwig's Zwischen Himmel und Erde (Meyer). Meyer's Jiirg Jenatsch (Kenngott). Abridged. Morike's Mozart auf der Reise nach Prag (Howard). Scheffel's Ekkehard (Wenckebach). Abridged. Scheffel's Trompeter von Sakkingen (Wenckebach). Abridged. Schiller's Ballads (Johnson). Schiller's Wallensteins Tod (Eggert). Sudermann's Der Katzensteg (Wells). Abridged. Glossary. Sudermann's Frau Sorge (Leser and Osthaus). Vocabulary. Sudermann's Heimat (Schmidt). Sudermann's Johannes (Schmidt). Sudermann's Teja (Ford). Vocabulary. Thomas's German Anthology. Wildenbruch's Die Rabensteinerin (Ford). Wildenbruch's Harold (Eggert). fceatb's /iDofcern Xanguage Series FRENCH GRAMMARS, READERS, ETC. Armand's Grammaire Elementaire. Blanchaud's Progressive French Idioms. Bouvet's Exercises in French Syntax and Composition. Bowen's First Scientific French Reader. Bruce's Dictees Francaises. Bruce's Grammaire Francaise. Bruce's Lectures Faciles. Capus's Pour Charmer nos Petits. Chapuzet and Daniels' Mes Premiers Pas en Francais. Clarke's Subjunctive Mood. An inductive treatise, with exercises- Comfort's Exercises in French Prose Composition. Davies's Elementary Scientific French Reader. Edgren's Compendious French Grammar. Fontaine's En France. Fontaine's Lectures Courantes. Fontaine's Livre de Lecture et de Conversation. Fraser and Squair's Abridged French Grammar. Fraser and Squair's Complete French Grammar. Fraser and Squair's Shorter French Course. French Verb Blank (Fraser and Squair) . Grandgent's Essentials of French Grammar. Grandgent's French Composition. Grandgent's Short French Grammar. Heath's French Dictionary. Henin's Methode. Hotchkiss's Le Premier Livre de Francais. Knowles and Favard's Grammaire de la Conversation. Mansion's Exercises in French Composition. Mansion's First Year French. For young beginners. Martin's Essentials of French Pronunciation. Martin and Russell's At West Point. Meras' Le Petit Vocabulaire. Pattern's Causeries en France. Pellissier's Idiomatic French Composition. Perfect French Possible (Knowles and Favard). Prisoners of the Temple (Guerber). For French composition. Roux's Lessons in Grammar and Composition, based on Colomba Schenck's French Verb Forms. Snow and Lebon's Easy French. Story of Cupid and Psyche (Guerber) , For French composition. Super's Preparatory French Reader. Deatb'8 flDooern ^Language Series ELEMENTARY FRENCH TEXTS. Assolant's Recits de la Vieille France. Notes by E. B. Wauton. Berthet's Le Pacte de Famine (Dickinson). Bruno's Les Enfants Patriotes (Lyon). Vocabulary. Bruno's Tour de la France par deux Enfants (Fontaine). Vocabulary Claretie's Pierrille (Francois). Vocab. and exs. Daudet's Trois Contes Choisis (Sanderson). Vocabulary. Desnoyers' Jean-Paul Choppart (Fontaine). Vocab. and exs. Enault's Le Chi en du Capitaine (Fontaine). Vocabulary. Erckma nn-Chatrian's Le Conscrit de 1813 (Super). Vocabulary. Erckmann-Chatrian's L'Histoire d'un Paysan (Lyon). Erckmann-Cha trian's Le Juif Polonais (Manley). Vocabulary. Erckmann-Chatrian's Madame Therese (Manley). Vocabulary. Fabliaux et Contes du Moyen Age (Mansion). Vocabulary. France's Abe ill e (Lebon). French Fairy Tales (Joynes). Vocabulary and exercises. French Plays for Children (Spink). Vocabulary. Gervais's Un Cas de Conscience (Horsley). Vocabulary. La Bedolliere's La Mere Michel et son Chat (Lyon). Vocabulary. Labiche's La Gramma ire (Levi). Vocabulary. Labiche's La Poudre aux Yeux (Wells). Vocabulary. Labiche's Le Voyage de M. Perrichon (Wells). Vocab. and exs. Laboulaye's Contes Bleus (Fontaine). Vocabulary. La Main Malheureuse (Guerber). Vocabulary. Laurie's M6moires d'un Collegien (Super). Vocab. and exs. Legouve and Labiche's Cigale chez les Fourmis (Witherby). Lemaitre, Contes (Rensch). Vocabulary. Mairet's La Tache du Petit Pierre (Super). Vocab. and exa Maistre's La Jeune Siberienne (Fontaine). Vocab. and exs. Malot's Sans Famille (Spiers). Vocabulary and exercises. Meilhac and Halevy's L'Ete de la St. Martin (Francois) Vocab. Moinaux's Les deux Sourds (Spiers). Vocabulary. Muller's Grandes Decouvertes Modernes. Vocabulary. Recits de Guerre et de Revolution (Minssen). Vocabulary. Recits Historiques (Moffett). Vocabulary and exercises. Saintine's Picciola (Super). Vocabulary. Segur's Les Malheurs de Sophie (White). Vocab. and exs. Selections for Sight Translation (Bruce). Verne's L'ExpSdition de la Jeune-Hardie (Lyon) . Vocabulary t>eatb'5 /IDofcern Slanguage Series INTERMEDIATE FRENCH TEXTS. (Partial List.) About's La Mere de la Marquise (Brush). Vocabulary. About's Le Roi des Montagnes (Logie). With vocab. Balzac: Cinq Scenes de la Comedie Humaine (Wells). Glossary. Balzac's Eugenie Grande t (Spiers). Vocabulary. Balzac's Le Cure de Tours (Super). Vocabulary. Chateaubriand's Atala (Kuhns). Vocabulary. Contes des Romanciers Naturalistes (Dow and Skinner). Vocab. Daudet's La Belle -Nivernaise (Boielle). Vocabulary. Daudet's Le Petit Chose (Super). Vocabulary. Daudet's Tartarin de Tarascon (Hawkins). Vocabulary. Dumas's Due de Beaufort (Kitchen). Vocabulary. Dumas's La Question d' Argent (Henning) . Vocabulary. Dumas's La Tulipe Noire (Fontaine). With vocabulary. Dumas's Les Trois Mousquetaires (Spiers). Vocabulary. Dumas's Monte-Cristo (Spiers). Vocabulary. Feuillet's Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre (Bruner) . Vocabulary,, Gautier's Voyage en Espagne (Steel). Greville's Dosia (Hamilton). Vocabulary. Hugo's Bug Jargal (Boielle). Hugo's La Chute. From Les Miserables (Huss). Vocabulary. Hugo's Quatre-vingt-treize (Fontaine). Vocabulary. Labiche's La Cagnotte (Farnsworth). La Brete's Mon Oncle et mon Cure (Colin). Vocabulary. Lamartine's Graziella (Warren). Lamartine's Jeanne d'Arc (Barrere). Vocabulary. Lamartine's Scenes de la Revolution Francaise (Super). Vocab. Lesage's Gil Bias (Sanderson). Maupassant: Huit Contes Choisis (White). Vocabulary. Michelet: Eztraits del'histoire de France (Wright). Musset: Trois Comedies (McKenzie). Sarcey's Le Siege de Paris (Spiers). Vocabulary. Taine's L'Ancien Regime (Giese). Vocabulary. Theuriet's Bigarreau (Fontaine). Vocab. and exercises. Tocqueville's Voyage en Amerique (Ford). Vocabulary* Vigny's Cinq-Mars (Sankey). Abridged. Vigny's Le Cachet Rouge (Fortier). Vigny's La Canne de Jonc (Spiers). Voltaire's Zadig (Babbitt). Vocabulary . 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate RECD LD JUL31'64-4PM fcEAD Rft,€"P LD ffl l'66 - gP M J MF**— AUG 7 '66 -5 PM LOAN DEPT. R ECD LD J«L 2 1-65 -1PM JAW V 1956 4 REC'Dt 0EC23'65"5P« ^ifi&MSfJflEFT. General Library University of California Berkeley YB 38904