THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES -.. . THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY THE ADMINISTKATION OF EDUCATION i II A DEMOCEACT BY HORACE A. HOLLISTER PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND HIGH SCHOOL VISITOR AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AUTHOR OF "HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION" CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON COPVMGHT, ipl t BY CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS Education Library L"B CO TO THE MEMORV OF m JOSIAH L. PICKARD TEACHER, FRIEND, AND EXEMPLAR OF A NOBLE CITIZENSHIP C "El O 2015G1 "For this jealous insistence by the States upon their sov- ereign power in school affairs I have only praise. Nothing is more dangerous for the schools than an all-inclusive system that reaches out over broad domains, having no regard for ter- ritorial conditions, much less for purely local demands. Free- dom in administration is one of the most important requisites for the success of the public schools." GEOKG KERSCHENSTEINER, Director of the schools of Munich, Bavaria. PREFACE THIS book was projected with the idea that the time is here for such a preliminary treatment, as an organic whole, of the field of educational administration. In seeking for a unifying principle the inevitable choice fell to our national ideals as expressed in democracy as we Americans have conceived it. The aim has been to deal with principles, giving just enough space to history and description to furnish a suitable background and to account for sequences. In this way only did it seem possible to deal with the prob- lems presented in such a constructively critical manner as the situation seemed to demand. The book makes its appeal (i) to teachers and stu- dents of education, (2) to school boards and all school officials, and (3) to public men and legislators interested in a comprehensive survey of the problems of public education. For materials the author has made free use of reports and bulletins of the United States Commissioner's office, of State departments of education, and of city boards and superintendents; of various studies by educational experts of colleges and universities and among school superintendents. Perhaps it is fair to say, however, vii viii PREFACE that the chief source has been from an experience of over thirty years in direct relationship with public schools and public education, and as a constant student of the problems thus presented. Acknowledgment is due and gratefully expressed for the many courtesies of school officials in various cities visited or where application was made for published reports and other documents bearing upon the subjects passed in review. Especially is such acknowledgment due to Doctor L. D. Coffman, of the School of Educa- tion, and Dean Eugene Davenport, of the College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, for careful and sym- pathetic reading of the manuscript and for numerous and valuable suggestions and criticisms. THE AUTHOR. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, May, 1914. CONTENTS PART ONE FIELD AND SCOPE OF TREATMENT OUTLINED PAGE CHAPTER I PRELIMINARY STATEMENT .... i i. National movements. 2. Motives for organized systems of education. 3. Steps leading to secularization of education. 4. Causes of slow development of popular education. 5 . Con- ditions calculated to reveal defects. 6. Basis and method of this discussion. CHAPTER II NATIONAL IDEALS AND STANDARDS 12 i. Massachusetts leads in setting up ideals. 2. Educa- tional ideals of early statesmen. 3. Federal policy concerning education. 4. State systems and the training of teachers. 5* Federal land grants. 6. Bureau of Education established. 7. Slowness of acceptance by the masses. 8. National stand- ards set. 9. Evidences of advancement. CHAPTER III EVOLUTION OF FREE COMMON SCHOOLS 24 i. Early types. 2. Beginnings in Germany. 3. Beginnings in the Netherlands. 4. Denmark. 5. Norway. 6. Austria. 7. Scotland and England. 8. France. 9. Simultaneous de- velopment of public education. 10. Description of the Prus- sian system as a type. n. Secularization largely the result of a religious movement. 12. Beginnings in New England. 13. Pennsylvania. 14. New York and New Jersey. 15. Del- aware and Maryland. 16. Virginia. 17. The Carolinas and Georgia. 18. Common origin and character in Europe and America. 19. Some striking differences. 20. The United States as type for this study. 21. European influence upon America. x CONTENTS PART T t WO SOCIETY'S PART IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION PAGE CHAPTER IV THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS: LAWS, AND UNITS OF CONTROL .... 44 i. Significance of constitutional treatment of education. 2. Nature and extent of such legislation. 3. Appearance of local influences. 4. Other notable provisions in State constitu- tions. 5. Influence of historical movements noted. 6. Ten- dency toward centralized control. 7. Constitutions mark evo- lution of conception of democracy. 8. Legislatures have supplemented constitutional provisions. 9. Units of control under religious influences. 10. Development of city units, n. Principles involved. 12. Reasons for tendency toward cen- tralized control. 13. Prevalence of local district control. 14. Changed conditions call for consolidation. 15. The district tested by the three principles. 16. The township unit. 17. Township units tested. 18. The city as a unit of control. 19. County units. 20. The same tests applied to the county unit. 21. The State considered as a unit. 22. National con- trol and influence. CHAPTER V THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS (CONTINUED). TYPES OF SCHOOLS SET UP 72 'i. Principles by which we may measure and test our school system. 2. Components of our national system of education. 3. Kindergartens and elementary schools. 4. High schools. 5. Statistical summary. 6. Higher education. 7. Industrial education. 8. Normal schools. 9. Schools for defectives and delinquents. 10. Military and naval schools, n. Units of control preliminary considerations. 12. Control of rural schools. 13. Provisions for supervision of rural schools. 14. General conditions in city schools. 15. Wide variation in character of schools provided. 16. Need of industrial training. CHAPTER VI THE SYSTEM AS TESTED BY THE FIVE PRINCIPLES OF CHAPTER V .... 90 i. Application of principle one. 2. Our schools as tested by principle two. 3. Schools fall short under principle three. CONTENTS xi PAGE (. Need of a better economy shown principle four. 5. Why society must share the criticism of the schools. 6. Need of economy in time. 7. Application of principle five. 8. Need of social like-mindedness. 9. Need of better organization. 10. High schools should be free to all. n. Neglect of rural- school needs. 12. Where colleges and universities fall short. 13. Better classification of defectives and delinquents. CHAPTER VII BOARDS OF EDUCATION . . . . 106 i. Popular participation the rule in our school organization. 2. Results of lack of such participation. 3. Logical limita- tions to centralized control. 4. Operation of this principle in case of boards of control. 5. Manner of choosing district and city boards. 6. Term of service. 7. Co-ordination of boards of large and small units. 8. State boards of education. 9. State institutional boards. 10. Haphazard growth of meth- ods of control, n. Persistence of traditions. 12. Discussion of types. Boards of rural and village schools. 13. County boards. 14. Kentucky plan of rural organization. 15. City boards. 16. The committee system. 17. Methods of selec- tion of city boards. 18. Special investigations as related to city boards. 19. Make-up of an ideal city board. 20. The State type of board. 21. Function of State boards confused between two ideals. 22. Trustees and regents of State institu- tions. 23. Application of principles of control to State types. 24. How to make State boards representative in character. 25. Necessity of independence of State boards. CHAPTER VIII MAINTENANCE AND OTHER FIS- CAL ASPECTS or PUBLIC EDUCATION . . 133 i. Evolution of the idea of popular support of schools. 2. Forces favorable and unfavorable. 3. Summary of arguments. 4. Need of more money for schools. 5. Advantages and dis- advantages of direct taxation. 6. Inadequacy and inequali- ties in support of schools. 7. Important principles involved. 8. Basis for State support. 9. A working scheme of mainte- nance. 10. Application in case of Federal aid. n. Increasing demands and fixed rates of levy. 12. Justice and wisdom in Federal aid. 13. Problem of compensation of teachers. 14. Reasons for present inadequacy. 1 5 . The question of arbitrary adjustments of salaries. 16. Effect of salary conditions on shortage of teachers. 17. Teachers' pensions as a remedy. xii CONTENTS PAGE 18. Doctor Pritchett on teachers' pensions. 19. A second par- tial remedy. 20. The problem of school accounting. 21. The St. Louis plan of accounting. 2 2 . Need of publicity in account- ing. CHAPTER IX PREPARATION OF TEACHERS . . 164 i. Skill and professional knowledge required. 2. Public policy to train teachers at public expense. 3. Relative im- portance of skill and knowledge. 4. Training of teachers in high schools. 5. Normal schools typical training-schools. 6. Need and propriety of Federal aid for normal schools. 7. The city training-school. 8. Colleges and universities as training-schools for teachers. 9. The university school of education. 10. What should be the relation of the three types of training? n. Methods of co-ordinating the university and normal school. 12. Training of teachers in service. CHAPTER X THE SELECTION OF TEACHERS . . 182 i. Method of selection of teachers. 2. State- wide system of selection needed. 3. Magnitude of the teaching service. 4. Urgent need of better methods of selection. 5. Present practice too cumbersome. 6. City certification its weakness. 7. County certification. 8. State certification. 9. Lack of conformity to any system among States. 10. Recognition of institutional training as a basis for certification, n. Summary of conditions needed for efficiency. 12. Specific selection by boards and supervisors. 13. Importance of this function of boards of education. 14. Expert observation of work as a basis for selection. 15. Methods and difficulties of large cities. 1 6. Examples of methods used by cities. CHAPTER XI PHYSICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOLS 209 i. Magnitude of the problem. 2. General conditions to be cared for. 3. The elementary building. 4. The intermediate type. 5. City high-school buildings. 6. The small-city or town type. 7. Special provisions and equipments. CONTENTS xiii PART THREE THE ADMINISTRATION OF INSTRUCTION PAGE CHAPTER XII RECAPITULATION AND DEFINITION 218 i. The mechanism of administration viewed as a whole. 2. Conclusions from what precedes. 3. Administration of in- struction denned. 4. Things to be kept in mind in the discus- sion to follow. CHAPTER XIII SUPERVISION 225 i. The educational expert of the system. 2. What the posi- tion involves. 3. Special and grade supervision. 4. Super- vision of rural and village schools. 5. County boards and bet- ter teachers the chief needs. 6. Supervision of small cities. 7. Supervision of large-city systems. 8. Purposes and aims of supervising agencies. 9. The superintendent and the training of teachers in service. 10. Function of supervisors in the selection of teachers, u. Things superintendents should know. 12. State supervision. 13. Supervision of normal schools needed. 14. Supervision of instruction in a univer- sity. 15. Inter-institutional supervision. CHAPTER XIV THE INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS . 249 i. Definitions. 2. Recent development of the inspectorial function in education. 3. Some interesting variations and their causes. 4. Types of inspection developed. 5. Work of the General Education Board in the South. 6. Associations of colleges and secondary schools. 7. Some conclusions. CHAPTER XV SCHOOL ATTENDANCE .... 266 i. Causes affecting attendance at school. 2. Legislation affecting attendance. 3. The question of free transportation. 4. Free text-book laws. 5. Free tuition in high schools. 6. Absence from school as a factor in retardation and elim- ination. 7. The truancy problem. 8. Plans for supervision of attendance. xiv CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER XVI PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH 277 i. The principle involved. 2. Relation of health to attend- ance and instruction. 3. Health supervision demanded as re- sult of neglect. 4. Medical inspection the first need. 5. The psychological clinic next. 6. Medical supervision of games and sports required. 7. Emphasis should be placed on hy- gienic conditions. 8. Specially trained experts needed. 9. Important recommendations of American Medical Association. 10. Legislation providing for medical inspection, n. The playground movement. 12. The school should supervise the play. CHAPTER XVII THE CURRICULA OF THE SCHOOLS 289 i. Sequence in education. 2. Interdependence of the three stages of education. 3. Basis for organization of educational institutions. 4. Problem of differentiation of pupils' work. 5. Organizing and adapting schools to varying needs. 6. Con- ditions needed for rural schools. 7. Town and city organiza- tion. 8. The problem s it appears in colleges and universities. 9. Requirements in the case of defectives. 10. Programme of the elementary school, n. Programme of the high school. 12. The weakness of the old order. 13. The element most needed is an industrial "core." 14. Specialization and ad- justability. 15. Knowledge lacking of educational values. 1 6. The demand is for greater flexibility of the curriculum. 17. The principle of economy involved. CHAPTER XVIII THE TEACHER 313 i. The teacher should volunteer the service. 2. The typical teacher characterized. 3. Personality in teaching. 4. The teacher's ethics concerning appointments. 5. Professional attitude of the teacher. 6. The teacher's rights and priv- ileges. 7. The teacher's duty to self. 8. Preparation which the service demands. CHAPTER XIX CLASSIFICATION AND PROMOTIONS 326 i. The problem stated. 2. The theory of classification. 3. Frequent and careful revision necessary. 4. Individual work and correct measure of achievement. 5. Correct classi- fication calls for careful study of changes in individuals. 6. CONTENTS xv PAGE Special care in case of abnormals. 7. Periods of promotion as affecting classification. 8. What shall be the basis for pro- motions? 9. The question as applied to high schools. 10. In higher institutions, n. The problem of transfers. 12. Need of reform in the matter of transfers. 13. Scientific treatment will bring relief. 14. University of Missouri plan. CHAPTER XX ACTIVITIES AND RELATIONS OF THE SCHOOL 341 i. The daily programme. 2. The problem of fatigue. 3. Value of the play instinct. 4. Theory of rest. 5. The lunch problem. 6. The problem in higher institutions. 7. Mean- ing of recitation and study periods. 8. The school as a com- munity. 9. School savings-banks and school gardens. 10. High-school management of business affairs, n. Extension work of the school. 12. Vacation schools. 13. The all-year type of school. CHAPTER XXI PRIVATE EDUCATION AND BENE- FACTIONS AS RELATED TO PUBLIC EDUCA- TION 356 i. Growth of private compared with public education. 2. The problem presented. 3. What should be the attitude of the State? 4. Educational foundations. CHAPTER XXII THE FORWARD LOOK .... 362 i. Persistence of an educational ideal. 2. The problem of to-day. 3. The great question of social conservation. 4. The "feeling of nationality" our hope. 5. The five essentials to progress. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING, BY CHAPTERS AND IN GENERAL 372 INDEX 379 PART ONE FIELD AND SCOPE OF TREATMENT OUTLINED PRELIMINARY STATEMENT The nineteenth and the first decade of the twentieth centuries have staged no more remarkable action in the world's drama than the evolution of public education. Sprung from the philosophical theories of Plato and Aristotle, this evolution did not reach concrete and tan- gible expression until the sixteenth century A. D. One of the earliest and most notable fruits of the Reforma- tion during this century was the impetus given to the movement for popular education. In the same century the Dutch celebrated their victories over Spain, in their remarkable struggle for religious freedom, by establish- ing both common schools and universities. Simultane- ously was laid, in Massachusetts, the foundation and early foreshadowing of our own system of common schools. As an essential part of the same general mani- festation of this earlier growth came the schools estab- lished by the Dutch in New Amsterdam and the Quakers in Pennsylvania. 1 2 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION i. National Movements Not, however, until the Revolutionary War had ce- mented the American colonies into a nation whose earlier declaration of independence became a reality with the war's close did the idea of free public education take form as a national policy. About the same time Prussia, awakened by the losses of the Napoleonic Wars, set reso- lutely about the task of establishing a system of uni- versal education which later became the dominant system of the united German Empire and the greatest system of popular education in modern Europe. In a similar way France was roused into action by the Franco-Prussian War and set seriously about the work of organizing the educational forces of the Repub- lic into a state system of public education. Switzer- land, Italy, and the Scandinavian states have emulated Prussia, with varying degrees of success, until all these countries are now in line as representing, with us, the democratic idea of education. Japan, in the Orient, stands forth as a remarkable example of the transfer of national methods in education. Here a people of differ- ent race ideals has succeeded in adapting much of the best in education that Western civilization has produced, thus giving that nation a most complete system of pub- lic schools under efficient organization. This Japan has done, too, apparently without sacrificing any essential features of her own national ideals. 2. Motives for Organized Systems of Education The narrower and more selfish interests of individuals, clans, or families, or the more effective and general prop- agation of religious doctrines, were the earlier motives for organized effort in education. Of these two, relig- PRELIMINARY STATEMENT 3 ious interests came to dominate the schools on account of the effective organization of various churches and cults. The growth of cities in Europe, the revival and spread of commerce among the new modern nations, the reorganization of industries to suit the demands of this wider distribution of their products, and, above all, the spread of democratic ideals, all conspired to change the motive of education to these more secular interests and to transfer the administration of education from church to state. 3. Steps Leading to Secularization of Education At first education was administered almost solely by the church. Thus it was that the masses came to look upon it as a secondary religious function of that body. Occasionally individual enterprises sprang up as com- mercial ventures; but the idea of a system of public education, administered by experts especially trained and equipped for such service, has developed slowly in most countries. Meantime the church, especially in its original types and where it was definitely established by the state, has contended strenuously for the reten- tion of the educational function as its prerogative. Against this attitude of the religious orders two forces have operated powerfully and are still operative. In the first place, the Reformation resulted in splitting organized Christianity into numerous sects and denomi- nations, thus distributing both the authority and the responsibility of education among a large number of bod- ies. One very important and direct result of this change was to leave a large body of people who were unattached to any Christian sect without means of education in a form acceptable to them. In the second place, the growth of the idea of democ- 4 .ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION racy has put a peculiar stress upon the need of universal education. The development of modern science and its application to the industries has further accentuated the necessity of finding some scheme which will insure such universal educational facilities. Out of the reaction of these contending forces has come the present situation with regard to the organization and administration of education. As we may readily see, the situation varies greatly in the different countries above referred to. The more directly these have come up out of traditional ecclesiastical control, the more dif- ficult has it been to break away from this and to make education a secular function of the State. In this re- spect Japan represents the extreme of release from tra- ditional complications. The British colonial govern- ments of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand are further illustrations of a weakened influence of tradi- tion as compared with the mother country. In the United States, while we are still left with a dominant secular control, yet the peculiar nature of our institutions, together with the vastness of the immigra- tion to our shores, has not left us free from some serious complications in this respect. There can be no ground for doubt, however, as to the outcome, ^f we are to maintain the free institutions for which our fathers contended we must maintain a cpmplete and universal system of free public education. Church schools and schools under private control may still be main tamed, and for an indefinite time to come. They need not be interfered with so long as they are able to show results in education that are a reasonably satisfactory equiva- lent of the secular schools of the State. Such a con- tinuance of these schools, however, can never relieve the State of its obligation to support, at public expense, PRELIMINARY STATEMENT 5 such a system of education as shall fully meet the re- quirements for maintaining those conditions of intelli- gence, skill, and morality among the people necessary to the perpetuation of our democratic institutions. The inadequacy of a system of schools administered solely by the church stands out more clearly with each advanced step in the evolution of democratic societies with their ever-increasing demands for technical educa- tion. 4. Causes of Slow Development of Popular Education The retardation which the tradition of religious con- trol of education has caused in the development of an efficiently administered educational scheme of universal character has been much greater than at first appears. In the first place it has made it more difficult for the people at large to grasp the significance of education as a public measure and financed from the common trea- sury. So deeply did the popular mind become habitu- ated to the performance, by the church, of the educa- tional function that many even yet fail to appreciate the need and the economic importance, for instance, of the supervisory function as exercised by the State or district in the management of schools. The same state of mind has been a chief cause for a similar lethargy in regard to the professional training of those who are to teach and supervise these schools. Nevertheless, our schools may now be said to be completely secularized. To quote from a recent study of this subject: 1 "To-day we find in every State a system of public education in which civic and industrial aims are dominant, in which religious instruction is either entirely eliminated or else 1 Samuel W. Brown, "The Secularization of American Education," contributions to Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1912. 6 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION reduced to the barest and most formal elements, and the control of which is vested well-nigh exclusively in the State or some subdivision thereof. Two factors have been dominant in bringing about this transformation. The first of these is the conviction that a republic can securely rest only on an educated citizenship; the sec- ond is a sacred regard by the State for the religious opinion of the individual citizen." Another cause of this retardation is seen in the diffi- culty with which the full significance of democracy in education is grasped by the popular mind. Even yet there are many who think of schools chiefly as a means of advantage to the individual or his family. From the point of view of the childless taxpayer this takes form in a protest at having to help educate his neighbor's children. The man who patronizes only private schools, for which he pays directly, or the man who, for con- science' sake, helps pay for a school as a religious propa- ganda, often calls the additional tax for the support of public schools unjust. These momentarily forget their share of interest in that part of the body politic which can neither afford the luxury of exclusiveness which the private school offers nor accept the doctrines which the church would inculcate. Even if it were possible for all to accept some of the many forms of religious faith as a basis for education, such a scheme could not begin to compete with the State in the efficiency of the schools organized. Many of the different religious denominations are small and therefore financially weak. They could never hope to keep pace with the stronger organizations in the support of adequate school facilities. Along with other things, the ability to understand the greatly increased cost of education has developed tar- PRELIMINARY STATEMENT 7 dily. Gradually much of the work of the home and of the church as well have been transferred to the school. At the same time there has come a rapid increase in the demand for educational facilities extending beyond the merely elementary stages. Thus it has gradually come about that many services previously rendered to society through other instrumentalities are now expected from the schools along with the natural increase of educational demands, and the resulting increase in the educational budget is correspondingly large. These various services which society has thus laid upon the schools are funda- mental to our industrial growth and to the maintenance of our national ideals, and hence not to be evaded with- out serious loss to the nation. But the massing of these and the consequent largeness of the direct tax involved is something for which the popular mind has not been prepared. This situation, together with the traditional Anglo-Saxon dislike for direct taxation, has materially retarded the development of our educational ideals as compared with our growth in other respects. At the very beginning of experiments with popular education, for want of a very clearly conceived ideal as to materials and methods, we accepted the traditional school as it had evolved under ecclesiastical administra- tion. This fact, together with long neglect of the study of educational philosophy as applied to the needs of a democracy, has been another cause for retardation. Very slowly, indeed, have we proceeded in breaking with the traditional types which we thus inherited. Nor has this release from hampering traditions been uniform. Thus far, in the rapid development of our vast domains, the movement of educational progress seems to have fol- lowed the westward migration of succeeding generations of our younger population. la several ways it is true 8 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION that the greatest advancement to-day in that form of > popular education befitting a democracy is to be found on the Pacific coast. Meantime, the more frequent min- gling of educational workers is bringing about a more general diffusion of ideas, methods, and types. Thus the East is giving to the West the results of its more highly perfected forms of education, while it also receives -7' from its Western offspring the more highly perfected ideals of education which regions untrammelled by tra- ditions have been able to develop under the skilful di- rection of men of high educational attainments drawn from all sections of our country. 5. Conditions Calculated to Reveal Defects The events of the past half century in our national development have been well calculated to bring out rather sharply the defects of our public educational scheme which are directly traceable to the conditions which we have here set in brief review. The increasing sharpness of commercial competition among the great producing nations; the extensive travel and the study abroad of many of our leaders in educational thought; the opportunities of comparing the abilities of the dif- ferent competing nations in the application of skill and of scientific knowledge to the great producing industries which the numerous international expositions have af- forded have had a remarkable awakening effect on the popular estimate of the value to a nation of an efficient scheme of education. Heretofore we have had no definite standards by which to estimate results. True, we have read the stories of the experiences of other nations; we have even looked on placidly while Japan was making preparation for the adjustment of her educational forces; but it has required the limelight of a direct comparison PRELIMINARY STATEMENT 9 and a relentless competition in the world's marts to fully arouse us. As a result we find our school system subjected to searching criticism on the part of a public which has remained rather lethargic until now, and which even yet seems inclined to overlook its own part in the re- tarded growth of our educational methods and facilities. This popular criticism promises well for the future. It indicates that there is at least some degree of compre- hension as to the real value and importance of having the most efficiently and economically administered sys- tem of education which modern scientific training can evolve. This means, again, that, although the educa- tional budget must ever increase, yet people will no longer haggle over the cost of an undertaking from which society is able to realize so much both in increased wealth and in security, public and private. 6. Basis and Method of This Discussion The time, therefore, seems opportune for the discussion of the various problems of educational administration in the light of present conditions, social and economic, and in harmony with such principles of psychology, ped- agogy, and sociology as are now clearly established. Much stress has thus far been laid upon school manage- ment, with almost exclusive reference to the direction of the instructional work of the school. It is believed that there is need of a more systematic discussion of all the related aspects of school administration in order that the bearing of each phase of it upon the others may be the more fully appreciated. The subject of public education is a broad one too broad to admit of comprehensive treatment in a single volume. It is proposed in this present effort to confine 10 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION the work to a discussion of the school as that particular instrument which society has set up for training the young to efficiency in service and to the ability to start as nearly abreast of the time in which they live as is possible through any such conventional practice. In this treatment all types of school education necessary to the operation of a State system in a democracy will come under review, together with such accessory fea- tures of education as may be clearly needed in order to give full setting to the situation. The establishment of a school in any form involves the idea of the organization of materials and forces into an environment created especially for the purpose of setting up those reactions in the young which are found to be necessary in order to accomplish the purposes of education as just stated. The materials of education are to be provided and directive intelligence in their application and use must be supplied. Society itself must determine what schools are to be provided; what materials are to be used; what teachers and supervisors shall be employed and on what condi- tions. On the other hand, there must be expert direc- tion in securing those adjustments among teachers, ma- terials, and pupils necessary to the accomplishment of the immediate ends of education. These two funda- mental aspects of school work give us the two leading departments of administrative effort. The first of these is usually set forth in laws the execution of which is vested in various State and local officials including boards of education. The second is delegated, at the discretion of educational boards, to such teachers and supervisors as may be selected and employed by them under the laws creating and denning the schools to be established. PRELIMINARY STATEMENT 11 Under the first it is proposed to discuss especially the establishment, equipment, and maintenance of schools and the training, selection, employment, and compensa- tion of teachers. Under the second will be considered the administration of instruction in its various phases. In both cases the purpose will be to get at underlying principles rather than to give a descriptive treatment, and to rely, as far as possible, on what is at present known of the character of education needed in a de- mocracy and the methods of attaining it. CHAPTER II NATIONAL IDEALS AND STANDARDS The dominant motive for American colonization is found in that general revolt against corrupt ecclesiasti- cism known in history as the Reformation. Closely fol- lowing this denunciation of religious corruption came a call for the better education of all the people. The later declaration of political freedom by the American colonists was the natural corollary to the initial motive for revolt. This applies especially to colonization in New England, . New Amsterdam, and Pennsylvania. Thus it was inevitable that, from the first, a free gov- ernment and a system of universal education were evolved side by side and as complements each of the other. i. Massachusetts Leads in Setting Up Ideals While all of the above-named colonies shared in this evolution, yet matters moved more rapidly in Massachu- setts than in the other colonies. As a result there were early established here some of the most fundamental principles since embodied in the educational system of this country. Among these principles, and first ex- pressed in the laws of 1642 and 1647 making provision for education in Massachusetts, are the following: 1 "The universal education of youth is essential to the ^ee Martin, "Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School Sys- tem," pp. 14, 15. 12 NATIONAL IDEALS AND STANDARDS 13 well-being of the State; the obligation to furnish this education rests primarily upon the parent; the State has the right to enforce this obligation; the State may fix a standard which shall determine the kind of educa- tion and the minimum amount; a general tax may be levied, although school attendance is not general, to be used in providing such education as the State requires; education higher than the rudiments may be supplied by the State, and opportunity must be provided at pub- lic expense for youths who wish to be fitted for the university." Thus early were formulated the essential features of a free common-school system such as has since been established in each State of our larger Union. The principles here enunciated are comprehensive enough, when broadly interpreted, to serve as a founda- tion for the organization and establishment of a com- plete system of education; but, owing to the influence of tradition, the unfolding of such a system has been very slow and even yet is found to be incomplete in some important features. 2. Educational Ideals of Early Statesmen From the very beginning of the nation the leaders of public thought and action have cherished high ideals as to the intelligence demanded of a self-governing people; but the people in whose hands has been the development of our educational system have manifested a conserva- tism that is little in keeping with their enthusiasm for free institutions. Among the framers of our govern- ment were a number of men who had caught clear visions of the future republic and the stress and strain that would come to it with its growth; but the major- ity seemed to respond but feebly to their appeals for some action in regard to education. Often, indeed, the 14 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION attitude was that of pure indifference. Washington talked and wrote tirelessly in his advocacy of a national university which should set up standards in learning and research and, by bringing together men from all parts of the nation, help to break down or prevent the growth of sectionalism. No less persistent and more effective were Jefferson's ideals in regard to a complete system of public educa- tion under local control and supported by voluntary local taxation. In New York Alexander Hamilton left an indelible record of his peculiar ideas of nationalism upon the educational system of that State when he secured the enactment by the legislature of his measure for the es- tablishment of the Regency of the University of New York. 1 3. Federal Policy Concerning Education None of these conceptions of educational organization found expression in the national Constitution. After some discussion of the proposition to establish a national university even that matter was left for later sessions of the national Congress to wrestle with. The entire organization and management of public schools, which all agreed were fundamental to the establishment of a government based upon the franchise of its citizens, was, by common consent, left in the hands of the States. Another glimpse of the trend of thought in regard to education comes to us in connection with the enactment of the Ordinance of 1787, and its renewal under the Constitution of 1789. The granting of one section of land out of each township under the Congressional sur- 1 "Works of Alexander Hamilton," edited by John C. Hamilton, edi- tion of 1850, vol. II, pp. 341 jf. NATIONAL IDEALS AND STANDARDS 15 vey as an endowment to education in the States, with the later addition of a second section, served as a con- crete and tangible expression of the sentiment handed down in the language of the Ordinance. The fact that the management of these land gifts and their proceeds was left to the States placed further em- phasis upon the policy of non-interference by the Federal Government in the domain of public education. A little supervisory control by the central government might have made possible the saving of millions to the distrib- utable funds of the States. But the decentralizing in- fluences growing out of the revolutionary movements of Europe at that time seem to have rendered such a procedure impossible if not unthought of. 4. State Systems and the Training of Teachers Very early in the development of State systems, es- pecially in the older States, it became evident that some special provision must be made for the training of teachers in a professional way. This naturally met with the opposition of those interested in colleges where classical and religious training predominated, and of all those who still thought of education as a function of the church rather than of the state. Indeed, it appears that these same classes were for a long time opposed to public education in general. 1 Various sporadic attempts at providing for the professional training of teachers were made by private institutions very early in the nineteenth century. But not until 1839 were the first normal schools really established in Massachusetts. Similar schools were begun in New York in 1844, Connecticut in 1852, Rhode Island in 1854, and Pennsylvania in 1855. Thus 1 See Martin, " Evolution of Massachusetts Public School System," chap. IV. 16 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION by the end of the first half century of progress in our educational system this important feature of the work, already firmly established in Prussia, was generally recog- nized by the States. 5. Federal Land Grants The most remarkable manifestation of national ideals in education as expressed by the Federal Government had its rise in the Central West at about the middle of the nineteenth century. The movement began with the or- ganization of an Industrial League in 1851 at Granville, 111. 1 Through the influence of this League the General Assembly of that State, in February, 1853, memorialized Congress with regard to the enactment of a law "donat- ing to each State in the Union an amount of public lands not less in value than five hundred thousand dollars for the liberal endowment of a system of industrial univer- sities ... for the more liberal and practical education of our industrial classes and their teachers." Professor J. B. Turner, chief director of the Industrial League, first outlined the general plan of these institutions. Through the activity of the League a bill was introduced in Congress, in 1857, which embodied the proposed en- dowment. The bill passed, but was vetoed by Pres- ident Buchanan. It was known as the Morrill Act, and was finally passed and approved by President Lin- coln, July 2, 1862. The bill as passed was different from the first proposal in that it provided for the grant- ing of land to the amount of thirty thousand acres for each representative and senator to which any State was entitled in Congress. Subsequent grants, as that in 1887 for founding experiment stations in agriculture, the 1 Edmund J. James, "Origin of the Land Grant Act of 1862," Uni- versity Studies, vol. 4, no. i, University of Illinois. NATIONAL IDEALS AND STANDARDS 17 second Morrill Act of 1890, the Nelson amendment which followed, and the Adams Act of 1906, greatly in- creasing the funds for experiment station work, carry the same general significance with respect to the na- tional policy regarding education as did the original act of 1862. 6. Bureau of Education Established Again the Federal Government gave expression to a recognized need of a national supervisory function with regard to education by establishing, in 1867, under the Department of State, the United States Bureau of Edu- cation and appointing a commissioner to attend to the duties prescribed. No directive authority over the schools was vested in this office, but the commissioner was authorized to collect and compile statistics and to furnish such other information of a national and inter- national character as should be deemed serviceable to the educational interests of the country. 7. Slowness of Acceptance by the Masses While we have these evidences of a national feeling for the free education of the masses, yet the masses seem to have been very slow in acquiring ideals of edu- cation sufficiently strong to keep up the standards re- quired under our manner of government. Fortunate, indeed, was it for this country that many of the colonies developed so early a scheme for carrying on free public schools. Without the leadership of such a State as Massachusetts, it is impossible to say what might long since have become of our experiment in democracy. As it was, Massachusetts, even, suffered a relapse which re- quired a great educational revival to overcome. In 1824 we find James G. Carter stating the situation thus: "If 18 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION the policy of the Legislature in regard to free schools for the last twenty years be not changed, the institution which has been the glory of New England will, in twenty years more, be extinct." 1 It is a long, hard road to that W- enlightenment of a people necessary to the exercise of sovereign power in a free country. Perhaps no one has expressed this problem more clearly than has Horace Mann, called, as he was, to lead in the great revival. These are his words: 2 "The education of the whole peo- ple, in a republican government, can never be attained without the consent of the whole people. Compulsion, even if it were desirable, is not an available instrument. Enlightenment, not coercion, is our resource. The na- ture of education must be explained. The whole mass of mind must be instructed in regard to its comprehen- sion and enduring interests. We cannot drive our people up a dark avenue even though it be the right one; but must hang the starry lights of knowledge about it, and show them not only the directness of the course to the goal of prosperity and honor but the beauty of the way that leads to it." Out of such a campaign of enlightenment, wisely begun by those who preceded, and pushed with enthusiasm, tact, and patient endurance by Mann and his coworkers, came the rehabilitation of the public schools of Massa- chusetts, the establishment of normal schools, and the complete and final commitment of the people of that State to a broad and efficient system of public educa- tion. And it is not too much to say that the lights thus kindled and kept burning have multiplied themselves 'In an address entitled "The Schools of Massachusetts in 1824," Old South Leaflets, no. 134. 2 See "Life and Works of Horace Mann, Lectures and Reports," II, p. 286. Lee and Shepard, Boston, 1891. NATIONAL IDEALS AND STANDARDS 19 again and again as the need has come out of the rapid upbuilding of that larger nation which has spread be- yond the Appalachians, even to the western slopes of the Rockies and the Sierras. 8. National Standards Set It is a remarkable situation which is presented when we contemplate the nation's attitude toward higher education and toward the general supervision of cer- tain aspects of our educational development which are clearly national in scope. With Washington's idea of a national university realized, what mighty power it must have exerted in unifying and giving clear outline to our educational aims and purposes, to say nothing of the advantages which must have been derived from the scientific research which such an institution would have fostered and developed! Not less disappointing, as we look for the nation's comprehension of the task it had assumed, is the slight- ing way in which the whole matter of a national admin- istrative function in education has been treated. War, the navy, all other great public affairs have found a ready recognition among the interests of the National Government. Educational institutions for the training of fighters have been provided; but when it comes to the great arts of peace and to that particular institution upon which, more than all else, the nation's welfare and security must depend, the Congress has remained strangely silent and conservative. In the provision made for industrial education we see a clearer vision and a higher purpose. In land grants and appropriations for higher institutions devoted to training and research in the great, fundamental indus- tries, the government authorities have fixed a purpose 20 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION and standard for education in the States the beneficent force of which will appear more and more as the years pass. Wherever the Federal Government has undertaken educational work it has usually been of a high order. In military training this is especially noticeable. The men trained at West Point and Annapolis have usually proven themselves to be well trained not alone hi the arts of war, but in some of the arts of peace as well. This seems especially true of those trained in engineer- ing. In these schools the government has thus set up standards of efficiency in service that have had a marked influence upon the country's ideals. So likewise the standards set by the various branches of the civil ser- vice, as determined by the examinations, have had a cer- tain influence in detenmning standards in education. But the real ideals and standards which the nation holds have unfolded gradually as our conception of de- mocracy has been slowly evolving through the experiences of years. For they are coming to us, as Horace Mann said, not by coercion but by enlightenment. After all, it is our ideal of democracy that must determine our educational ideals. How little the relation between the two was comprehended at first is plainly shown by the experience of Massachusetts. In this respect history is ever repeating itself. If we were to undertake to-day to measure the duration of our institutions in the light of the prevalent popular conception of the kind of gen- eral intelligence necessary to efficient citizenship, it is doubtful if we should give as much time for their endur- ance as did James G. Carter, in 1824, to the free-school system of New England. But now, even as then, there are educational evangelists abroad, speaking, writing, working tirelessly for that final day wjien all shall con- NATIONAL IDEALS AND STANDARDS 21 cede the needs of popular education to the utmost of society's ability to provide. 9. Evidences of Advancement Meanwhile, we have tried and doubtless are still to try many wasteful and costly experiments in our efforts to secure a reasonably complete, sane, and efficient ad- ministration of this very important branch of service which society undertakes to render itself through co- operation. "No deeper conviction," says President Butler, 1 "pervades the people of the United States than that the preservation of liberty under the law, and of the institutions that are our precious possession and proud heritage, depends upon the intelligence of the whole people." If this is true, then, no matter how often we may fail in our experiments, ultimately we shall find a way to insure this intelligence. Recent years have witnessed a rapid change in the mental attitude of the nation in regard to education. In the first place, we have had opportunity to study more carefully the cases of Prussia and France and to understand what actuated them in the establishment of national educational systems. The development of our own national life; the growth of our population, bring- ing with it new problems as to citizenship, as to indus- tries, and as to social relations and international inter- ests; the consequent widening of our responsibilities all these things have added materially to our realization of the vital relation which education bears to our exis- tence and the perpetuation of our national ideals and institutions. Then there has come about such a social change, due 1 In " The Meaning of Education," pp. 108-109. New York. Mac- millan, 1898. 22 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION to the division of labor and more extensive organization in production, as to make it necessary greatly to increase the work of the schools in order to replace much that can no longer be intrusted to the family or to other educational influences of the social group. As a result our conception of the function of public education has been greatly enlarged. We no longer think of the school as a place merely for acquiring the rudiments of learning, the arts of the school itself. The content of learning has been greatly increased. At the same time the necessity for industrial training to take the place of an obsolescent apprentice system has come to be quite generally recognized especially among social and industrial leaders. Along with this also comes a stressing of the demand for a different kind of moral training than that which has heretofore been thought of as a function of the school. The present outlook, then, as seen in the expression of our leaders in educational thought, calls for a system of education that shall embody a harmonious and related blending of intellectual, moral, and industrial training of all children and youth to the end that each may live efficiently, possessed of that civic and industrial intelli- gence, that skill to do a needed service, and that high moral sense which the nature of our existence as a de- mocracy is now seen to demand. To quote again from President Butler: 1 "But I am profoundly convinced that the greatest educational need of our time, in higher and lower schools alike, is a fuller appreciation on the part of the teachers of what human institutions really mean and what tremendous moral is- sues and principles they involve. The ethics of individ- ual life must be traced to its roots in the ethics of the 1 Op. cit., p. 121. NATIONAL IDEALS AND STANDARDS 23 social whole. The family, property, the common law, the state, and the church are all involved. These and their products, taken together, constitute civilization and mark it off from barbarism. Inheritor of a glorious past, each generation is a trustee for posterity. To pre- serve, protect, and transmit its inheritance unimpaired is its highest duty. To accomplish this is not the task of the few but the duty of all." CHAPTER III EVOLUTION OF FREE COMMON SCHOOLS The ferment of ideas and forces in mediaeval Europe produced the seed germs of our common-school system. There came out of that strange mingling of ancient civ- ilization with the Christianized barbarism of northern Europe, touched; in turn, by the life and learning of the East, a wonderful revival of trade and industries. This new life was destined soon to grow to greater propor- tions than the world of commerce and industry had yet seen. Centres of population teeming with the new ac- tivity developed rapidly. Out of this growth of cities new problems arose calling for a new education which the monastic schools could not offer. i. Early Types This condition of things gave rise to the burgh or city grammar-schools under the care of municipalities. The appearance of these schools, differentiated from the schools of the church to meet new social demands, doubtless marks the beginning of the modern secular free school. 1 The opening of writing and "reckoning" schools as private enterprises hi the interests of the training demanded for business became a factor also in the development of these schools of the people. It re- mained only for the powerful influence of the Reformation to weld these all into a scheme of secular education for the 1 See "A Study of Mediaeval Schools and School Work," L. F. Ander- son, Pedagogical Seminary, vol. XIV , pp. 223-82. 24 EVOLUTION OF FREE COMMON SCHOOLS 25 masses which was the forerunner of the American com- mon-school system and of all European systems as well. 2. Beginnings in Germany The influence of Luther and his associates soon pro- duced a marked effect on the educational interests of the continent. In the latter half of the sixteenth century beginnings were made in Prussia 1 for the organization of popular education under the supervision of the church. It remained for Frederick the Great, two centuries later, to clearly state the principles by which public instruc- tion should be administered. A little later, or about 1794, the Prussian code of laws (Landrecht) was adopted, in which the schools received complete recognition. The severe trials and losses of the Napoleonic Wars stirred Prussia and indeed all Germany to a keen realization of the educational needs of the people. In 1807 Ferdi- nand William III gave utterance to the famous words: "The state must regain in mental force what it has lost in physical force." This utterance has since been the guiding principle not only of Prussia but of the whole German Empire. It was then that the state assumed full control of the educational system under a "Minister of Worship and Public Instruction." And in 1850 Prus- sia was able to write into her new constitution: "Science and the teaching of science are free." 3. Beginnings in the Netherlands It is interesting to note further how general and simul- taneous was the movement for the establishment of pub- lic schools in Europe. As early as the twelfth century 1 For account of Prussian schools, cf. L. R. Klemm, U. S. Com. Report, 1889-90, vol. I, pp. 455-64; also U. S. Com. Report, 1867-8 (Barnard), PP- 435-522. 26 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION the stronger communities, chiefly the cities, of Holland and Belgium established schools for the common people. 1 These were exclusive of the various church schools. In the case of Holland the instruction in these schools was taken from the supervision of the clergy and thus became essentially secular. Universities and Latin schools were also established as early as the sixteenth century. Like the United States, the Netherlands, by the terms of their constitu- tion, grant entire liberty of conscience to all religious denominations. In all their legislation concerning pri- mary instruction the Dutch have been opposed to de- nominational schools. Their government was the first of European countries, in the beginning of the nineteenth century, to promulgate laws for the establishment of state schools, viz., in 1801, 1803, and 1806. 4. Denmark As early as 1721 a royal decree was issued by Fred- eric IV of Denmark 2 regulating the organization of peo- ples' schools. The Reformation period produced the Latin schools characteristic of western Europe. Normal schools were first established near the close of the eight- eenth century. In 1814 two decrees were issued which more completely organized the common-school system, including the country as well as the cities. These de- crees form the basis for the present system of education in Denmark. The head of the system is the University of Copenhagen, which exercises a powerful control over all educational institutions. Religion is a dominant element in the instruction of all the schools. 1 Cf. Miss Sophie Nussbaum, in U. S. Com. of Ed. Report, 1894-5, vol. I, pp. 475-542. i Cf. F. G. French, U. S. Com. Report, 1889-90, vol. I, pp. 519-547. EVOLUTION OF FREE COMMON SCHOOLS 27 5. Norway In Norway the first great impetus to popular educa- tion came through the Reformation as early as 1536; but this did not result in the immediate establishment of a system of schools. The present school system is based on a decree issued in 1736. Religious instruction was the chief purpose under this decree. A more compre- hensive law for educational purposes was that of 1827, which has since been greatly modified and extended, especially by the law of 1889. 6. Austria In Austria 1 the movement for public education began about 1774, under Maria Theresa. But it was not until 1848 that much of an effective nature could be accom- plished. Other enactments followed in 1861 which greatly affected the development of the schools. In 1868 measures were adopted which freed all instruction except that of religion from the control of the church, and in 1869 the law defining the course of study was passed. This became the basis for a rapid development of common schools in Austria. 7. Scotland and England It was probably Scotland 2 that produced the first compulsory school law in Europe. This was as early as 1494, under the reign of James IV. The law had reference to the grammar-schools and universities, both of which had previously been established. The effect of the Reformation was strong from the very beginning. In 1542 the Parliament granted the privilege of having 1 Cf. Klemm, U. S. Com. Report, 1889-90, vol. I, pp. 419-454. 2 Cf. A. T. Smith, in U. S. Com. Report, 1889-90, vol. I, pp. 187-235. 28 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION the Scriptures translated into the vernacular for the use of all the people. Under the leadership of John Knox education became a fundamental principle of government. The acts of 1633 and 1696 gave a very complete system of public schools under control of the church. In 1861 and 1872 acts were passed which gave to Scotland a civil rather than an ecclesiastical system of schools. The develop- ment of popular education in Scotland became the basis at once for the inspiration and emulation of England in her efforts toward public education. In 1870 the latter country succeeded in giving legal form to a system of common elementary schools. The Scotch system, on the other hand, included, also, secondary schools, normal schools, and universities. By reason, chiefly, of the peculiar relationship of church and state England has moved but slowly in the process of adapting her schools to the needs of such a great democratic people. Nevertheless, it should not be forgotten that whenever there has been an extension of the suffrage, as in the thirties and again in the seventies of the nineteenth century, Parliament has always sought to make a cor- respondingly liberal provision for public education. 8. France The French l system of public instruction owes its existence directly to the influence of the Revolution and Napoleon, on the one hand, and to the disasters of the Franco-Prussian War on the other. The establishment of the Imperial University in 1808 was the first impor- tant step. By this means secondary and higher educa- tion were organized throughout the communes. It was Guizot's law of 1833, however, which was essentially 1 Cf. A. T. Smith, in U. S. Com. Report, 1890-1, vol. I, pp. 100-120. EVOLUTION OF FREE COMMON SCHOOLS 29 the first charter of primary education in France. From 1872, under the ministry of M. Ferry, until the present time popular education of a secular character has made most rapid progress in that country. g. Simultaneous Development of Public Education * Thus out of those combined forces which gave to Eu- rope the Renaissance there grew, with the progress of enlightenment and of commerce, a system of universal education among the nations of the Western world. The seeds of learning fostered by the church and by the Greek scholars of the Eastern Empire thus were gradu- ally disseminated. Out of the mingling of the old learn- ing with the forces and human interests of a new en- vironment came that larger conception of a knowledge of letters as a boon to all classes and as a powerful means to a greater degree of social well-being. So it happened that simultaneously throughout Europe and the American colonies there appeared the first ex- pression of the idea of popular education. Practically in the space of a century of time there appeared, as a direct result of the Reformation, statutes and edicts establishing schools for the people in Scotland, Holland, Norway, Prussia, and Massachusetts; while only a little more extension of time gives us also the popular schools of Austria, Denmark, Switzerland all of Europe except the Latin states, the Turkish domain, and Russia. 10. Description of the Prussian System as a Type Returning to Prussia, we may take her schools as typ- ical of advanced European education and as a basis for a little closer comparison, in detail, with the develop- ment of our own system of administering education. From the time when Humboldt was made the first Min- 30 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION ister of Public Instruction, Prussia has had an efficient scheme for the administration of public education. This includes common schools for the masses, trade schools, secondary schools, normal schools, and universities. Briefly, the plan of administration is as follows: The centre of the system of education in a German state or kingdom is in the office of the minister of ecclesiastical, educational, and medical affairs. This officer is a mem- ber of the King's cabinet, but his tenure is at the will of the Emperor. He has general direction and super- vision of all educational institutions of the kingdom, in- cluding all examinations; the dispensing of school moneys, the fixing of salaries and the pensioning of teachers; the ratification of courses of study, and the regulating of pri- vate schools. He further represents the school interests in the parliament of his state and lays plans for the financial support of the school. In his hands is the ap- pointment of councillors, members of provincial boards, and other school officials, excepting such as receive their appointment directly from the Emperor. The kingdom is divided into provinces, each having a president and ^"cabinet; in each cabinet is a provincial school councillor; through these school councillors of the provinces the minister communicates with the lower authorities. In each province there is also a school board (Schul-kolle- gium) of which the provincial councillor is head. With him are associated several others, all educational experts. These boards have chiefly the oversight of secondary schools. Each province is again divided into subdivi- sions (Regierungen) like large counties; each of these governmental districts also has its president and coun- cillors, including a school councillor; these school coun- cillors act as examiners and supervisors of their entire districts with special oversight of the common schools. EVOLUTION OF FREE COMMON SCHOOLS 31 Each district is divided into circuits (Kreise) correspond- ing to our townships. The cities constitute circuits by themselves, and then there are the country circuits. In the city the burgomaster stands at the head and a com- mittee of three or five members of the city council act as the local school board. At the head of the country circuit is the Landrath, and three or five leading citizens are appointed to act as a school board. The royal secondary schools are under the direct care of boards of trustees. These various boards have about the same powers and duties as our city school boards, except that the courses of study are those prescribed by the central government through the office of the minister. Generally speaking, the local authorities nominate the teacher, subject to approval by the higher authorities. Little expert supervision is called for. The teachers are approved by the government, after receiving the pre- scribed training, and so are considered competent to di- rect the work of their schools in accordance with the prescribed courses. A general supervision is, however, exercised by the state through the provincial and dis- trict councillors. Local supervision is exercised by the mayor and clergymen or by community school boards or professional inspectors appointed by them. The normal schools and universities are under the direct control of the state and supported directly by it. In this way the state is able to exercise direct supervi- sion of the training of teachers and educational experts who are to direct the work of instruction in all public educational institutions. It is in this manner, chiefly, that the state controls the educational situation. The public schools of Prussia are established and main- tained partly by the state and partly by communi- ties. In this respect the state leaves the initiative to 32 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION communities, especially in establishing common or folk schools (Volksschulen). Usually the community raises about three fourths of the fund necessary for mainte- nance. The other one fourth comes directly from the state and from the income on certain permanent educa- tional funds. In the matter of higher education the state bears about three eighths of the cost hi the case of scientific, technical, and industrial secondary schools, while for the classical schools of this grade the state's share is nearly seven tenths. ii. Secularization Largely the Result of a Religious Movement The administrative plans of other countries mentioned above will be found to vary chiefly as influenced by pe- culiar traditional institutions and methods. Of all it may truly be said that the traditions which grew up under the administration of education by the church were most powerful in determining both the types of schools to be organized and the kind of instruction to be given. Even yet this influence is seen to be profound both in Europe and America. Strangely enough, it was a religious movement more than anything else which brought about the secularization of education; for it was through the influence of the Reformation, as we have seen, that the vernacular became the medium of instruc- tion in all countries, the sole purpose of which was to make at least the rudiments of education the common possession of all the people. 12. Beginnings in New England It was this influence that led the colonists of Massa- chusetts, twenty-two years after the landing at Plym- outh Rock, to enact the first law leading to the estab- EVOLUTION OF FREE COMMON SCHOOLS 33 lishment of schools. This was the order of the General Court of Elections, made in 1642^ and which provided: (i) That the men chosen to look after the prudential affairs should have the care of children whose parents neglected their education. (2) To this end they were empowered to take account of all children, to ascertain concerning their calling and employment and "of their ability to read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of the country." (3) To appren- tice " the children of those not able to employ and bring them up." (4) To look after their general conduct. (5) They were also to provide materials, tools, and im- plements for the work of such children as were under their care. In this way it was expected to provide that no children should grow up as illiterates or as unable to follow some useful occupation. The act of the General Court of 1647 taid the foundation for all subsequent legislation in the colony. As has been seen in a pre- vious chapter, these two acts embodied practically all the essential principles of a free-school system. Six years previous to the first act in regard to elemen- tary instruction, the General Court of Massachusetts had taken steps toward providing collegiate education through the establishment of Harvard College. In 16502 Connecticut adopted practically the same provisions in regard to elementary schools as those adopted by the Massachusetts General Court in 1647. Connecticut also agreed to support the college at Cam- bridge. Later provisions were made from time to time to perfect the schools of the colony, and also for the establishment of a college. Yale College, at New Haven, 1 See Mass. Col. Record, II, 8-9. 2 See Clews, "Educational Legislation and Administration of the Colo- nial Government," pp. 72-163. 34 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION was the result, established by act of the colonial legisla- ture in October, 1701. New Hampshire, 1 through her legislature, first made provision for public education in 1693. This primary enactment was supported and perfected by subsequent acts, especially those of 1719 and 1721. Through the efforts of Governor Wentworth a royal charter was ob- tained in 1769 establishing Dartmouth College at Han- over. 13. Pennsylvania The charter by which Charles II made William Penn proprietor of the territory extending a distance of five degrees west of the Delaware River included among its provisions a committee of the Provincial Council to have charge of manners, education and arts. 2 Immedi- ately after his arrival in his province Penn called a pro- vincial assembly. On the second meeting of this as- sembly, March, 1683, provision was made for the in- struction of all children in reading and writing and in "some useful trade or skill." These schools, however, seem to have been private church schools, and were not open as free schools to children of other religious faith than that of the Quakers. By the amended constitution of 1790 the following provision was made: "The legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may be, provide by law for the establish- ment of schools throughout the State, in such manner that the poor may be taught gratis." Not until 1831, however, was there established a free common-school system in Pennsylvania. 1 See Clews, op. cit., pp. 164-184. 2 See Clews, pp. 279-312. See also U. S. Com. Report, 1876, pp. 331-334. EVOLUTION OF FREE COMMON SCHOOLS 35 14. New York and New Jersey Schools were established by the Dutch in New York 1 as early as 1633. Provision was made for one school in each parish. These schools were continued for about a century after the English occupation. The first Eng- lish schools were established in the early part of the eighteenth century. King's College, the beginning of what is now Columbia University, was chartered in 1754. In 1789 two lots in each township were set apart to be surveyed "for gospel and school purposes." In 1795 an act was passed appropriating fifty thousand dollars annually for five years to encourage the establish- ment of schools in cities and towns of the State. In these schools the children were to be taught "English grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, and such other branches of knowledge as are most necessary to com- plete a good English education." Other arrangements were made whereby a very good system of schools for that time might be administered. But the act of 1795 expired by limitation in 1800, and no permanent re- newal of organized schools was accomplished until 1812. In New Jersey the first schools were "rate schools" established under the jurisdiction of the Friends in 1693. Not until 1816 did the State make any provision for free schools. 15. Delaware and Maryland The warring interests of different national types in Delaware effectually prevented the establishment of any system of people's schools during the colonial period. 1 See U. S. Com. Report, 1876-77, pp. 273-276. Also W. H. Kirk- patrick, "The Dutch Schools of New Netherland and Colonial New York," U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1912, no. 12. 36 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION So also the peculiar conditions of settlement, and the failure of the English type of grammar-schools to find subsistence, made Maryland barren, as a colony, of any notable progress in public education. 1 6. Virginia It was as late as 1797 before Virginia was able to enact a law for the establishment of public schools. Previous to this time the wealthier classes provided for the education of their children chiefly by employing tutors in their homes. It was through the influence of Jefferson and Wythe, who framed the measure, that the first free-school legislation was secured for Virginia. 17. The Carolinas and Georgia Free schools were established in North Carolina 1 in 1749. Practically all of the better influences found in New England and the middle colonies were represented in the character of the settlers of North Carolina. Here were Scotch, Irish, English, Dutch, and German. The chief difference seems to have been in the fact that the homogeneity of the population of the colonies of New England was wanting here. Still the colony moved for- ward educationally in a most remarkable way. The eighteenth century saw the establishment not only of the free elementary schools, but also of academies and the University of North Carolina. The first State con- stitution, adopted in December, 1776, contains these memorable words: "A school or schools shall be estab- lished by the Legislature for the convenient instruction of youth, with such salaries to the masters, paid by the public, as may enable them to instruct at low prices; J See C. L. Smith, "History of Education in North Carolina," Circ. of Inf., no. 2, 1888, U. S. Bureau of Education. EVOLUTION OF FREE COMMON SCHOOLS 37y and all useful learning shall be duly encouraged and pro- moted in one or more universities." Under the direction of the English church free schools were established in South Carolina 1 as early as 1712. The parish system was customary, and all classes were given the advantages of elementary education. In many cases slaves were included among those who shared these privileges. The organization of academies followed that of the parish schools, and a number of colleges also de- veloped in response to the demand for higher education. In the constitution and character of its local government this colony approached the colonies of New England and Virginia. Previous to the Revolutionary War Georgia had no plan for public education, and so calls for no considera- tion in this connection. Lf 1 8. Common Origin and Character in Europe and ^ America Thus, while we find education in some form provided for in all the colonies, yet it remains true that the real founding of the public free schools of the United States was by the people of Massachusetts. As shown pre- viously, 2 these early schools were based on principles which have become fundamental to our larger school system. If we now compare the general conditions under which popular schools were established in Europe and America, the striking thing that appears to us is the common origin of the idea and the similarity in the character of the schools. All were established primarily for the gen- 1 See B. James Ramage in Johns Hopkins Studies, vol. I, no. 12, " Local Government and Free Schools in South Carolina." 2 Chap. II. 38 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION era! enlightenment of the people in regard to religious teachings, largely as a result of the Reformation; and nearly all passed gradually from the religious to the secu- lar form as the needs of the entire social group, aside from considerations purely religious, became more evi- dent. Again, in the general character and purpose of public education throughout all the countries under considera- tion we find that two ideas were emphasized about equally as determining the aims and purposes of these "people's schools": the need of general intelligence on the part of citizens of all classes, and the need of care- ful training for some industrial pursuit. 19. Some Striking Differences There were certain striking differences between Eu- rope and the American colonies. The traditional hold of ecclesiasticism on education was much stronger in the older established order of things in Europe. Social strat- ification and the existence of caste affected the European situation, but were largely absent in the colonies. The government of the colonies, especially New England, was characteristically republican in form from the begin- ning. With these differences, due to traditional in- fluences chiefly, we must put one characteristic which all the countries we have been considering held in common : they were all essentially democratic. Whatever differ- ences have developed, therefore, in their various indi- vidual schemes of education must be considered as due to the influence of traditions concerning the social order- ing of things, either in industries, religion, or govern- ment, or to a relative freedom from such traditions, as in the case of the colonies. EVOLUTION OF FREE COMMON SCHOOLS 3 ferson all, in turn, tested and tempered by the philos- I ophy of Aristotle, Plato, and Fichte there came that conception of education as an essential prerequisite to a successful democracy that led to the establishment of J free schools in the United States. 1 Inseparably bound up, in this instance, with the Dutch influence. PART TWO SOCIETY'S PART IN THE ADMINISTRA- TION OF EDUCATION CHAPTER IV THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS: LAWS, AND UNITS OF CONTROL We may now proceed to consider the steps taken in the establishment of schools in this country after the adoption of the federal constitution. As we have already seen, 1 no provision was made in that document for the organization of education. By common consent this function was permitted to pass to the States. We have found that when the colonies advanced to statehood, immediately after the Declaration of Independence, by the adoption of constitutions, several of them embodied in their fundamental laws a provision for schools. There were six of these, and among the first, as already cited, 2 was North Carolina. By reason of the fulness of state- ment embodied in her constitution, Massachusetts ranks first in New England and readily became a pattern not only for the rest of New England but for many of the States subsequently erected out of the vast Northwest Territory. The precedent established by North Caro- lina also became influential, similarly, as populations developed westward from the Southern colonies. 1 Chap. II. 2 See p. 36. 44 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 45 i. Significance of Constitutional Treatment of Education The chief significance of the treatment given to edu- cation in the constitutional provisions of the States lies in the fact that this instrument is the one in which the people undertake, through their representatives, to ex- press their ideals in regard to government and the in- stitutions fundamental to its maintenance. In other words, it is a referendum vote; and whatever is most vital, as felt by the people, to the carrying into effect of the government thus set up, we naturally expect to find included in such a document. But the colonies were new at the business of constitution framing; and with no very elaborate type from which to copy, there was naturally great variety in the results. This varia- tion was evident enough as regards educational provi- sions which seven of the original colonies omitted en- tirely. Subsequently, however, as they were reminded of this omission, especially by the grant of school lands by Congress in 1789, these States revised their constitu- tions, so that now the fundamental law of all the States recognizes, in some way, the necessity and importance of schools. 2. Nature and Extent of Such Legislation It was in this manner that the first important legaliz- ing acts in the establishment of school administration in the United States came about. Now thirty-three of the States specifically require that the legislature shall establish a system of free schools offering uniform and general educational advantages. Those States not spe- cifically commanding such establishment do, by impli- cation, indicate such a course to be the will and pur- 46 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION pose of the people. Nor do the States confine the proposed plan of popular education to the teaching of the rudiments in elementary schools. In nearly every case provision is also made for higher schools, for normal schools, and for college and university training, with frequent emphasis on training in agriculture and the mechanic arts. In some of the States, notably of the North Central and Pacific groups, the constitutions undertake to define rather fully the scope of the educational system to be set up. Indiana, for instance, directs that the General Assembly shall provide for a "general system of educa- tion ascending in regular gradation from township schools to State University, wherein tuition shall be gratis and open to all." Here " township schools" indicate the prevalence of the township unit of organization of schools. California (1879) very explicitly defines the school system as including "primary and grammar schools, and such high schools, evening schools, normal schools, and tech- nical schools as may be established by the Legislature, or by municipal and district authority." In North Da- kota the provision is for a system of free schools "begin- ning with the primary and extending through all grades up to and including the normal and collegiate courses." This State also emphasizes moral education. The pro- vision of the constitution of Utah with regard to the kinds of schools to be established is perhaps the most explicit of all. It defines the system of education for that State as including "kindergarten schools, common schools consisting of primary and grammar grades; high schools; an agricultural college, a university, and such other schools as the Legislature may establish." THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 47 3. Appearance of Local Influences Some of the differences noticeable in State constitu- tions are readily seen to be the result of local influences. For instance, eight of the Southern States prescribe sep- arate schools for whites and blacks. Going quite to the opposite extreme in this respect are Wyoming and Wash- ington. The former forbids distinctions due to "race, sex, or color," while the latter declares that there shall be no distinction made "on account of race, color, caste, or sex." The use of funds for denominational or sectarian schools is constitutionally prohibited by some States; Nevada prohibits sectarian instruction in public schools; Utah forbids the requirement of any "religious or par- tisan qualifications of teachers or pupils"; while Mis- sissippi, on the other hand, forbids the exclusion of the Bible from the schools. The State of New York has gone even so far in practice as to subsidize certain church schools under regulations prescribed by the State. Both Michigan and Georgia require that the instruc- tion in free elementary schools be in the English language. 4. Other Notable Provisions in State Constitutions Compulsory attendance laws are prescribed or per- mitted by South Carolina, Virginia, Missouri, Texas, Colorado, Idaho, and Oklahoma; while Massachusetts, Connecticut, Minnesota, and Missouri demand an edu- cational qualification of electors. Most of the States make the school age a matter of constitutional legislation. All State constitutions provide for the proper care and sale of school lands and for the investment and conser- vation of school funds. In the matter of taxation there is considerable variation. The prevailing plan is to 48 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION combine State, county, township, and district systems of taxation for the support of the common schools. In a few States taxation is limited almost entirely to the State. In others the county system seems to dominate. In a few cases, again, a per-capita tax is called for. Usually the State provides for all higher institutions, while high schools are scarcely mentioned among con- stitutional provisions. In the matter of providing for officers of administra- tion, State supervision is expressly mentioned in most constitutions. Not quite so commonly are State boards constituted; while in a few cases county supervision is authorized. 5. Influence of Historical Movements Noted As one reads the constitutions 1 of some of the States, as they have been revised from time to time, there are seen marked evidences of the influence of historical movements in this country. The first and perhaps the most remarkable evidence of this kind is seen in the constitution of Massachusetts. Here are concentrated the ideals of the Pilgrims as they were evolved out of their colonial experiences. As we shall further note later on, these ideals have had a powerful influence upon State school systems throughout the North and West. Next to this should be considered the peculiar type of or- ganization established in the Southern colonies. Out of the peculiar system of landholding established in those colonies we see particularly the development of the county unit of control which has prevailed until now. While this does not now appear so plainly in the con- stitutions of the States erected out of these Southern 1 For a summary of constitutional provisions regarding education down to 1894, see U. S. Com. Report, 1892-3, vol. II, pp. 1312-1414. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 49 colonies, yet it was there essentially from the beginning although, perhaps, not directly expressed in relation to education. The first real innovation came with the federal land grants having their inception in the Ordinance of 1787. This is readily seen in the emphasis given in subsequent constitutions of new States erected out of the North- west Territory and later out of the Louisiana Purchase, the Mexican lands, and Texas. These provisions all refer especially to methods of caring for the school lands and the revenues derived therefrom. \ The results of the Civil War and of fcjie reconstruction period on the South are especially noticeable. South Carolina, for instance, in the constitution of 1868, says that "all the public schools, colleges, and universities of the State, supported in whole or part by the public funds, shall be free and open to all the children and youths of the State, without regard to race or color." It is needless to say that this could not long be enforced. In the constitution of that State, adopted in 1895, we read: "Separate schools shall be provided for children of the white and colored races, and no child of either race shall ever be permitted to attend a school provided for children of the other race." 6. Tendency Toward Centralized Control But perhaps the most interesting and important of these historical influences is seen in the reaction which appears from the strongly decentralized type of educa- tional administration which characterized the earlier constitutions toward a more strongly centralized con- trol of schools. In the constitutions of those States oi the Central West which were admitted in the first quarter or half of the nineteenth century the prevailing type of ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION administrative organization is strongly decentralized. On the other hand, Virginia, the home of Jefferson, in its constitution enacted in 1869, and again still more em- phatically in the constitution of IQO2 1 provides for strong centralized control in matters of education. In- diana, Minnesota, and California have manifested a sim- ilar reactionary tendency toward centralized control; while New York has gone to the extreme, practically, of what would seem to be feasible to a republican State. 7. Constitutions Mark Evolution of Conception of Democracy Thus, in a positive though often fragmentary or in- complete way, the States have made the establishment of schools and the setting up of educational systems a part of their fundamental laws. And here again do we find in the revisions of constitutions, which in some of the States have been frequent, another evidence of the evolution, in the minds of the people, of a truer con- ception of democracy and its needs. It would be easy to construct, out of these various State documents, by piecing together educational provisions selected from them, a "model constitution" affecting the organiza- tion and administration of schools; but such an instru- ment would have little meaning or value. Gradually the people are getting a clearer vision of what is re- quired, and, if not through their constitutional conven- tions, then by means of legislative enactment, they are moulding and perfecting the mechanism of this greatest of all instruments in the hands of an enlightened popu- lar government. 1 See the present constitution of Virginia. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 51 8. Legislatures Have Supplemented Constitutional Provisions It frequently happens that in a State where little of a definite nature is said in the constitution in regard to education there will be found to exist one of the most complete systems of all for which provision has been made by the legislature, frequently through the leader- ship of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction or the State Board of Education. It is this law-created mechanism which is the basis for the administration of education. Only upon the clear and specific sanctions thus given by society can there be any effective pro- cedure in an enterprise involving such cost and so many varying interests as does a system of public schools. N Speaking in the abstract, it may be considered cause for regret that all the States, and even the nation, have not embodied in the supreme law a clear and definite statement of the chief things to be done in the interests of free popular education. It still remains true, how- ever, that both in these primary enactments and in the body of laws governing schools there are strong and cheering evidences of a steady forward movement in the evolution of this social institution and its adjustment to the conditions under which it must operate. Having thus prepared ourselves, through this brief historical survey, for a more sympathetic perception and understanding of the ideals and purposes that have been operative until now in the establishment of our educational system, let us proceed to analyze more mi- nutely this administrative structure as it appears in the legislative acts, both general and specific, by means of which it has been reared. 52 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION 9. Units of Control Under Religious Influences From our earliest knowledge of the Germanic races, or of the history of any race, for that matter, a funda- mental aspect of social control has appeared in the unit of territory as supporting a given or possible population over which that control may extend. So, when it comes to the setting up of various legal sanctions in regard to the dissemination of education among a people, the first problem to consider is that of educational units of ter- ritory. .1906, "Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education." MAINTENANCE OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 143 In order to get before us in brief form the wide range of difference in ability of different sections in a State, and also of different States and sections of the United States, the following table has been compiled from sta- ASSESSED VALUATION OF REAL PROPERTY PER CAPITA, AVERAGE, HIGHEST COUNTY AND LOWEST COUNTY FOR EACH STATE; EX- PENDITURE PER CAPITA OF AVERAGE ATTENDANCE AT SCHOOL, AND AVERAGE LENGTH OF SCHOOL YEAR (APPROX.) IN MONTHS. $.1-3 a >f ~. 3 ^d** to "5" -5" s^sj s> u g j3 ** LJ^ V u Jj S *"? uJS ' Si s S. * fc " o. 5c " c ^ 1 111 gin (Hs^ 93j|l1 rt rt certificate. "55 ^ u o "" "5 ' ^ *> c G Q ** S v 5 -*- O C o % 2 o CJ CJ *o E a 1 B 5 en S i J3 ^ S s H d i3 3 & r H H I ii at H JT3 a o ft! . "3 S *J 4) ll o 1 T3T3 Authority I No provision. ^c "o s a o District boards. High-school com lie-school commit of education. Examining comm Town superintenc School committee Superintendent ai committee of boai o g > | ~S Q S J3 O TS CJ jjO o s T3 b O en en ll ' CO *- Ifl "2 _2 C 8 oJ 73 "ill I "en s I N E cj O *J O ; 2 S s sis* i r? t5 H H Certain in< S d 1 1/3 g "o V (j C3 **^ a g "o "o "o 3 1 C u 1 CO c 5 '" aa W.S I 1 1 U *i i u c 4-> 'B s . . u5 Jj .2* in J3 ^ ^ Jj* 5* 5 u G 5 u U U G 8 1 Mexico. 1 d Dakota. c I d 'S a 1 FH 1 1 2 I 5 3 H & 1 1 8 '^ 190 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION u - t^ d w 6 o" ^ ' - i "S COUNTY WHERE Kinds or Grades First, second, third. Secondary, 1 gramme or elementary, kind garten, primary, speci: Fh"st, second, third. Professional first, se ond, temporary. First grade life; first, se ond, third, temporary. o S in E temporary. Third, 4 special; thir i, III afa o county common scho< county primary schcx three grades each. Sp cial. 2 1 8. % b il UH S fc ^ c u - HH -o en D ^^ 1 ^ o z I 1 > 8 ^ I ^ 1 ^^ Ib 1 'g o 1 It 3 a i P. name f C.) C b l # C en b c c <.s < < i S5 en Q 1 S3 H t i h; Q Hrv] R 'g 8 O c/3 HH 00 s i 1 o fa a "O 3 H 's 1 i . . ^ f* W H i -M a a *-* o aa 3 3 -^0 O en en en en c ** en en 2 fe 6 6 6 00 a c3 'en C/2 C> <3 00 O 4* O .S H t ! a ^ rt D a } p = O TO j^ "2 JJ . 2 yj o ,O *o 2 ^O o g 1 ."H ULi dl T3 1 hH J! H N . j^ | en en en . en en en S en H C/5 O O 00 .0 '*u <4-> 9- d d Soo a a Id aa o fe O.S I i 5 w 7: en .2 o *> PQ H Name of "2 S S < O Colorad Delawai Florida. f o 1 i i || c H- ( HH Kansas. THE SELECTION OF TEACHERS 191 >-, T3 C M o . 6 . i 3 28 2-a ' s - "C 3) j,^ 3 "5 60 S5 ** c ! 1 -t-T a 1 "fl T3 -<: 1 ii *S w t> O fl ' O dT bi * p D c.o 1 a p t/i 1/3 'O t/1 8 in aj 2 u o 2 .ti bOJ 8 1 B . U a *t c -a .2 . fl Si ^ a* "O >d (A d" in *-] 4J-S *. - C9 * U (H C * fl o ^* *o In g "0 'S -g S "2 > 8 8 12 8 "p a" rt^ E ^^H (7l PH QJ 3 EJ en s E c C/3 B v- S -"S I 1 1 First and second grade; any third grade; Class A, primary dept.; Class B, any. Elementary grades. All public schools (by endorsement in other counties). Any except high schools and principalships. 13 Corresponds to county. Paper Issued by examination committi demic department named. Questions by State superintende Issued by county superintenden Questions by State superintende Professional, valid in any. . ( . r- 1 rt rt rt 4-> rt - " S S 5 3 3 9 "a cu 9 b S U d S N *o o 8 1 T3 C) UX, *o fl c 9 ^ s ^g 1 ^ *J n) D. <- J^ x ^? fl a ^ in ^ d u ^ to *J f 3 1/1 a 2 uj <" S2 2 i B ^ y t/i B fi 8 |l cd 4} Q c.a o a. a 0) 4) u.a 1.S a a .a (J W O *' I 1 a i/i a i in g s u >> S d "g 3'u fl - g s *0 *0 1 *o *o l^sl'-g .9 g T3 "g 8-- s "2 R-O.S 3^1 CT) rt c Rj tn rt "O t> ^ 53 Q o O "^ o O *>_S*5** - P *t-t fl l n . J ifl o 12 .0 ^J gfl * ^ o w o ^ on CX ^ rt g ^ a ^ 2 .2J fc *p C T3 M 43 . 3 A *J -^J 3 w !2 S2 s .a !2 1/1 e O OJ V O o y 2 fll O QJ d o j> "o ^ 0* bfl V * o u.a PH .3 O u .a in o. u .a U u.a J^^^^^-S ^IliSsS B a i .S ^2 *tn ^ 1 5 S 1 ississippi issouri. a o M ^ S J jj s 8 192 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION T3~ 'i- '~* a - ^ tT cd f T *] S rv o S 'c C d ci< .^ M S3 3 SI I-! _i C J3 o C3 S 8 5 * a" a H H y O S a 8 ^~ b|1| ^8 1 5 S _ 8'| 3 S-i O *rf *" c *" *i '33 y ill t, PI I III! ^ e ' _ .3 >, -S CO p, L^ . _ o M IS c 2 U M y o 1 >. 3 ^ OT > rt . en R *3 -i 1 B Q, -> 8 S^ 8 8 Q M i x a* en u > X T3 >." W "H U S ** 1 1 s i E^5^ O Z OO 4) d o o u u lO *-> 3 I 6 ID t- S2 . 1> o SO 11 H J~ i 3 6 53 "8 y 1 * . *o .2 "o "o ca o 1 J -H ^ *j' 1 o a] tn O u 1 1 i o n C/5 ! M >> S | "3 . i-i 1 1 .- u S 14 M *5 6 _ . .2 M 13 5o S 2 .y .S 5 d "5 | 3 "o | 4J, S r* rt "rt O ">> 1 < dj S & & OQ .0 J S c3 H 1 a> a) ^ ^ ^ - ' - ^^ ^i^o O u p-l c/i THE SELECTION OF TEACHERS 193 a a^-5 o< en tn O ! 8 | o. a ^ T3 h C "5 tn rt "S s S, 4> - fc< U) .J- c3 53 - ^j ^2 ^^ S J3 si ^J3 *J & S'l B.S "" IL "8 i J s 8-S| v fl V fll W M CO +1 CO V M Second grai fl-sl ^ 8 g -t: 3 ^3 to ^ ^ _ .ti II la I 1 Ol W b o 73 PH I t S*" 1 ^J w-S . 1 1^ JS to t3 i|l|1 ^1 'A O jn *O 'o ||ii4 I. " * ^ &^ . u y tn .2.f H >. C t dj o tn 2 ** "rt fl ^ ^ r*> , is ti >>"3 CO 5 !_,- Ill 8 8-8 b ^ c H S .- w3 JJ a b V) is 2 M o S" * >> l) 3 to ^ ti tn C 2 J '-3 C PP g 4) 'c o e j% 8,113 s C/5 6 o o" o w O O.S O H O /H 1 , . C 3 V "O 1 ggK . s| S *o s "'si 0.2 d 1 j 1 _ *j "* *j *j J'c'e 8 > ^S.ES& 4J 3 Q"73 en S o. > o. S o- o< *c i?;? * 3 33 3 X G Q *3 S* ^J "> i. '^ i . tn 3 u ** S 3 3 g a 3 d o w d 5 o d 55 u u.S u c/5 u u 3 ^3 c - Slltl c6 o 2 '5 c t>b S "-'2 1 O /J 1e 8 . g 1 '& ' .S H -B B f3 3 ^ o if ill Q c M lgl & auJacn^i c/i H H 194 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION time and money of teachers. It keeps the standards of preparation too low. Only one State, Delaware, now adheres to the strict county plan. Then there is the modified county plan by which the State has more or less to do with the certification in counties. In the States making use of this modified county plan the nature of the modification varies. 1 It may be by transfer of papers from one county to another; by send- ing out to counties uniform questions from the State department; by general interchange of county certifi- cates, either voluntarily or by legal compulsion; by the forwarding of papers to the State superintendent for validation or indorsement by him. All of these modi- fications are efforts to eliminate the grosser evils of the local system. The following States in the above table provide, with or without restrictions, for transfer or indorsement of certificates in other counties: California, Colorado; Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee. 8. State Certification State plans of certification vary from the State's par- ticipation in the modified county plans mentioned above to absolute State administration. There are fifteen States which may be said to come under the latter class. Most of the States, to be exact, twenty-eight, where the county plan prevails also issue from the State depart- ment or through a State board certificates of a higher 1 Cubberley, E. P., Fifth Year Book, Nat. Society for Study of Edu- cation, part II, pp. 19-22. THE SELECTION OF TEACHERS 195 grade valid throughout the State, and usually for longer periods than those issued in counties. The final goal to this system is the life certificate. The advantages of State control in the issuing of licenses to teach are: (i) general uniformity of requirements as to standards of scholarship and professional training; (2) the wider range of validity secured; (3) the extension of the term of validity, thus reducing the number of examinations. 9. Lack of Conformity to Any System among States Even State systems as now organized have their weak points. There are no common standards among the several States. The conditions of granting are compara- tively lax in some States, thus making the practice of interchange between States a matter of careful investi- gation and discrimination. As our teachers move about freely from State to State, this again is a drawback. It is gratifying to note that this situation is receiving at- tention at the hands of the National Education Asso- ciation and also by the U. S. Commissioner of Education. It is to be hoped that on the essential points grounds of agreement among the States may be found, so that cer- tificates may be readily transferable from one State to another, if, indeed, they are not validated by a central board, thus making them good anywhere in the United States. The large number and variety of State certificates is- sued makes it difficult to express these in ordinary tabu- lar form. For this reason we give the following partially tabulated description: 1. Whole number of different kinds, 399. 2. Number of States issuing some form of life certifi- cate, 39. 196 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION 3. Number of States issuing certificates of limited duration but subject to renewal, 33. Number renewing only on re-examination, 4. One State extends for attendance at some school. 4. There are 3 States in which the limited-term certifi- cates are non-renewable and 10 in which the lower-grade certificates are not renewable. In 14 States provision is made for extending the higher grades into life certificates. Usually permits and temporary certificates are non- renewable. 5. The usual forms of certificates are life: first, sec- ond, and third grades; professional, supervi- sory, high-school, elementary, special, kinder- garten. Fourteen States issue some form of professional certificate, g a supervisor's certifi- cate, 14 issue high-school certificates, 14 kin- dergarten certificates, and 13 make all State certificates (except certain special certificates) good for teaching in any public school. 6. The basis on which these certificates are issued also varies greatly. Life certificates are issued on examination, or on college or normal-school diploma, or a combination of examination and diploma. Twenty-nine out of the 39 issue wholly or in part on examination, and 27 re- cognize, in some way, college or normal-school certificates. Some experience, varying from fifteen months to ten years, is required in nearly all cases, the average being between four and five years. Limited-term certificates are usually based on exami- nations. In some instances diplomas are ac- cepted. The examinations usually cover the THE SELECTION OF TEACHERS 197 subjects taught in high school, or certain groups of them, together with some test along profes- sional lines. These examinations are conducted by the State superintendent, the State board of education, or a State board of examiners. When we consider the present chaotic condition such a consummation as suggested above seems like a far call, an ideal too high for attainment. Yet when once the clinging to the traditional practice of local control in certification is relinquished the greatest obstacle will be removed. It rests largely with those engaged in educational work to determine standards as to training, probably the most fundamental thing of all; duration and extent of the validity of certificates; the relative importance of training and examinations as a basis for granting certificates. Then, if by some power of persua- sion the fee system can be abolished, each State making provision for all the expense connected with the issuing of teachers' licenses, we shall have attained practically the fundamental conditions upon which to base a free interchange, among the States, of all certificates of teachers and supervisors of our schools. 10. Recognition of Institutional Training as a Basis for Certification One of the most vital questions still remaining un- settled with reference to the certification of teachers is that of the recognition to be given to the diplomas of various institutions as evidence of adequate preparation for teaching, both as to scholarship and professionally. It would seem to need no argument to demonstrate the propriety of the recognition, by any State, of the prep- aration of teachers in institutions or departments of in- 198 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION stitutions maintained by the State for that purpose. As E. P. Cubberley puts it: " There is no valid excuse for compelling a graduate of a State normal school to pass a county examination before she can teach." l Yet it is still true that in a number of the States teachers first entering upon the work, even though normal-school grad- uates, must pass the county examination hi order to get a certificate of inferior grade and for short duration, while in others the holder of such a diploma may at once receive a life certificate to teach anywhere in the State. It is likewise true that, in several States, college and university graduates must pass county examinations to teach or supervise until they have the experience de- manded for State certification. In some cases these examinations bear little or no relationship to the actual teaching work which the candidates are to do. It is, to say the least, an anomaly thus to permit the repudia- tion of the work of institutions estabh'shed and main- tamed by the State solely, or in part at least, for the proper preparation of teachers. This condition of things illustrates, in a very striking way, the undue value which has been placed upon the examination as a test for fit- ness to teach. On the other hand, the granting of a life certificate without future condition other than the power of revo- cation usually vested in the superintendent or board which issues it is, perhaps, as bad an extreme in the opposite direction. The safeguarding of our schools would seem to be more nearly attained if renewals, based on clear evidence of professional advancement and growth satisfactory both in kind and degree, were required once in five or ten years. 'In Fifth Year Book, Nat. Society for the Study of Education, part II, p. 76. THE SELECTION OF TEACHERS 199 n. Summary of Conditions Needed for Efficiency To summarize, we need to secure about the following conditions in order to insure reasonable efficiency in that general scheme of selecting teachers which we call licens- ing or certification: 1. Proper standards of scholarship and professional training as evidenced (a) by the preparation of candidates and (6) by examinations conducted by experts and uniform throughout a given State. 2. Greater uniformity both as to the grades and kinds of certificates, including age limit, time, and extent of validity. 3. The assumption by the State of all cost involved in certification. 4. The greatest possible freedom of interchange of certificates among States. 12. Specific Selection by Boards and Supervisors The function of selecting teachers, however, does not cease with their proper certification. By such a setting apart of those found to be fitted, in a few of the more general qualifications, for the work of teaching, society essays to protect boards of education against a large number of incompetent individuals who would otherwise seek employment in the schools. There still remains the selecting of teachers for particular schools and for specific lines of work therein. First of all, there are to be chosen the supervisors of the work. These are of two classes general and special. The general superintendents may be for the State, the county, the township, or district. In the former two cases it is still customary, in a majority of States, to choose by popular election, these offices 200 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION usually ranking as of minor significance in the general political scheme of the State or county, and the selections depending upon the hazards of the usual machinery of partisan politics. We have already suggested the desira- bility of an intermediary board with appointive power. 1 While the members of such boards must usually be laymen rather than experts, yet they are apt to be more carefully selected with reference to their fitness for the duties they are to perform and they may be entirely non-partisan in character. In the case of the town or district superintendent the choice is almost universally vested in a board nearly always non-partisan in make-up although generally also composed of laymen. Special supervisors are chosen in a similar manner, except that usually nominations are made by the gen- eral superintendent acting in the capacity of educational expert for the board. Such supervisors are those of kindergartens, primary grades, music, drawing, physical culture or play, manual training, domestic science, and arts. Special supervisors are sometimes employed under the State department of supervision, and very generally in cities. With the adoption of county units of control for rural education they would be employed also by county boards. Another type of supervising agency is seen in the ward principal of a city system. His ap- pointment is usually upon the recommendation of the superintendent. 13. Importance of This Function of Boards of Education By far the most important function of educational boards, either rural or urban, is the selection and ap- pointment of teachers for the various teaching positions 1 Chap. VH. THE SELECTION OF TEACHERS 201 under their administration. It requires a careful dis- criminating in order to secure for each place to be filled the most desirable teacher available. To base the choice on certification alone will not do. This sort of selection only expresses preference on the side of general qualifi- cations. When it comes to the particular school and the particular form of teaching required, other grounds for judging, such as the special subjects in which the teacher is prepared, her personal qualifications, etc., come under consideration. These are matters which cannot always be clearly determined by an examination nor by personal interviews. Expert judgment by those who have seen the teacher at work either in a training- school or as a regular teacher, if given fully and clearly, is the very best basis upon which to determine a candi- date's fitness for a given place. Of course, this takes for granted that ordinary stand- ards of scholarship and professional knowledge have been taken care of. This much certification ought to accomplish. The problem is serious enough for boards and superintendents without having to question these two fundamental points. No city, for instance, should find it necessary to duplicate the machinery for examin- ing and certificating teachers. The State should take care of this, leaving the city free to select teachers at large rather than to be compelled to become provincial and resort to the inbreeding process of the city training- school. 14. Expert Observation of Work as a Basis for Selection The most effective way of determining a teacher's fitness for a place is by expert observation of her work either in a regular school situation or in a well-conducted 202 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION training-school. The next best basis for judging a teacher is through the confidential statements of experts who have, in some capacity, supervised or inspected her work. The least desirable, and one rapidly becoming obsolete, is on the basis of general testimonial letters which, to be comprehended, must often be read "be- tween lines," and which are often outlawed by reason of their original dates. For the high school the appoint- ment committees of colleges and universities are com- ing to be looked upon as most dependable and helpful. A well-organized, conscientious teachers' agency is also capable of rendering valuable service both to would-be employers and those seeking employment. The selection of teachers for rural and village schools is almost entirely by laymen. Often it occurs that little or no attention is paid to a person's real qualifications as teacher. Frequently it happens that a pretty-faced girl or a stalwart and physically masterful youth will win an appointment with scarcely any further considera- tion. In some instances this situation is improving, however. It is a good indication of progress when the superintendent or commissioner of a county is called upon to advise with boards of directors or trustees in the selection of teachers, or when such an official will go out of his way to suggest a suitable candidate or put the appointing authorities on guard against a possible mis- take in choosing. In the towns and smaller cities the local superinten- dent is now often called in to advise with the board in filling vacancies in the teaching corps. This is as it should be. The man who is to be held responsible for the successful operation of the entire system should cer- tainly be entitled to some voice in the selection of those who are to work with him. It is true that greater re- THE SELECTION OF TEACHERS 203 sponsibility on his part is thus assumed; but the chief reason for the higher salary paid him is his ability and obligation to render just such expert service. 15. Methods and Difficulties of Large Cities In the larger systems of our great cities the business of nominating and appointing teachers is a much more complicated affair. In either case the constant struggle must be against the appointment through "pull" or political influence of those having little or no other claim on which to base their appointment. The fre- quent resort which is had to such means in some of our great centres exercises a baneful influence upon many of our young men and young women who are just entering upon the work of teaching. They get the notion, some- how, that the matter of "influence" is the all-important thing in securing an appointment. The result is almost inevitably a lower standard of professional aims and ideals on their part, a condition which usually marks the "beginning of the end" of their teaching careers. Fortunate indeed is it for the cause of education that most of our teachers are willing to base their claims for appointment solely upon professional training and ability. A little correspondence with fifty of our larger cities has revealed some very interesting facts as to the basis upon which teachers are chosen for specific assignment to places in the schools. Thirty-eight out of the fifty have been heard from. Of these thirty-eight cities twenty-eight certificate their teachers, although not all do so exclusively. Twenty-three have city training- schools or teachers' colleges. Four of the cities train both high-school and elementary teachers. The training of kindergarten teachers is also provided for in most of the twenty-three cities which have public kindergartens. 204 ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION Three other cities not counted in the twenty-three have normal or training classes. Four cities, Los Angeles, Oakland, Spokane, and Nashville, neither certificate nor train their own teachers. In New York, Virginia, and California State certification is quite generally accepted by the cities. In Philadelphia the training-school was recently abolished after an existence of twenty-two years. By far the most important information received has to do with the methods of appointment in use, with especial reference to the basis for selecting teachers for particular positions. It is certainly true that the prob- lem here confronted by education boards may be greatly simplified by a proper guarding of the two functions suggested in the facts just given. But there still remain difficulties to be gotten over. The tabular presentation given on pp. 205-207 will give a pretty good idea of the methods in use in our large cities in the selecting and appointment of teachers as this function concerns the actual work to be done. 16. Examples of Methods Used by Cities In order to present more concretely the method of procedure in appointing teachers the plans followed by a few of the larger cities are given here more in detail. Following is that for Denver: The teachers are elected by the board of education, but first must be present at the examination conducted by the superin- tendent of city schools. The scholarship examination embraces orthography, reading, arithmetic, English grammar and com- position, geography, American history, elementary sciences, theory and practice of teaching, English literature, elements of vocal music, and elementary drawing. All candidates who are graduates of the Colorado Normal School, the University of Colorado, or other educational institutions of equal rank and THE SELECTION OF TEACHERS 205 H City Train- ing-School CITY H 8 3 ft 11 ?! Basis for Selection and Appointment of Teachers