LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 Gl FT OF 
 
 Class 
 
Gollege 
 
 R.ECOR.D 
 
 A Journal Devoted to the Practical Problems 
 of Elementary and Secondary Education 
 and the Professional Training of Teachers 
 
 November, 1907 
 
 rrv 
 
 THE 
 
 INDUSTRIAL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 OF 
 
 WUERTTEMBERG 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 Columbia University, New York 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, AGENTS 
 
 66 Fifth Avenue, New York 
 
 Bi-Monthly $1.00 a year 
 
 except July Vol. VIII., No. 5 JOcts.acopy 
 
 Entered as Second-Class Matter at the New York, N. Y., Post Office, June 12, 1900 
 Copyright, 1907, by Teachers College 
 
Teachers College Record 
 
 Edited by James E. Russell 
 
 TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD is a serial publication issued 
 by Teachers College, Columbia University, for the purpose of 
 presenting to students of Education, and to the public gener- 
 ally, a comprehensive view of the history and principles of 
 education, of educational administration, and of the theory and 
 practice of teaching as advocated and followed by Teachers 
 College and its schools of observation and practice. 
 
 ANNOUNCEMENT 
 
 On account of the timeliness of all matters relating to indus- 
 trial education, the RECORD publishes this month a study 
 of u The Industrial Improvement Schools of Wuerttemberg" 
 instead of the number by Professor Johnson on " Methods of 
 Teaching History" as previously announced. This number, 
 however, will appear in the coming year together with one on 
 the " Teaching of Fine Arts " under the direction of Professor 
 Dow, and one on " Manual Training" by Professor Richards. 
 The number for January will contain a classified and critical 
 bibliography of juvenile literature edited with an introduction 
 by Professor Baker. 
 
 Published bi-monthly, except July. Subscription price, 
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 on 5 or more copies a discount of 20 % is granted. All sub- 
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 Address all communications to Teachers College Record 
 Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City 
 
The 
 
 Industrial Improvement Schools of 
 Wuerttemberg 
 
 Together with a Brief Description of the Other Industrial and Com- 
 mercial Schools of the Kingdom, and an Outline of the 
 Activities of the Wuerttemberg Central Bureau 
 for Industry and Commerce 
 
 By 
 
 Albert A. Snowden 
 
 Wer soil Meister sein ? Wer was ersann. 
 Wer soil Geselle sein ? Wer was kann. 
 Wer soil Lehrling sein ? Jedermann. 
 
 Goethe. 
 
 The industrious spirit is assailed by but one Devil the idle by legion. 
 -Eastern Proverb. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FOREWORD ........ i 
 
 PREFACE ......... 2 
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE ....... 5 
 
 I. THE PLACE OF VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN 
 THE KINGDOM .... 
 
 II. THE RISE OF VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS . . 22 
 
 III. THE REORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL 
 
 IMPROVEMENT SCHOOLS ... 34 
 
 IV. THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL OF STUTTGART, 
 
 AND THE COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS . . 48 
 
 V. OTHER INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, AND THE CEN- 
 TRAL BUREAU FOR INDUSTRY AND 
 COMMERCE ..... 57 
 
TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD 
 
 VOL. VIII NOVEMBER, 1907 No. 5 
 
 FOREWORD 
 
 At the present time few matters pertaining to education 
 have more significance for Americans than those which reveal 
 the accomplishments of the modern German nation, and per- 
 haps no feature of German educational progress means more to 
 us to-day than that which pertains to vocational training. 
 
 The memoir which is here printed is a study of the system 
 of industrial and vocational schools in one of the smaller king- 
 doms of the German Empire. It sets forth briefly the economic 
 conditions which hold in the kingdom of Wuerttemberg, the 
 natural resources of the country and the system of transporta- 
 tion. It then traces the development in this environment of 
 the system of industrial schools and the service which they 
 render in the up-building and maintenance of the state. 
 
 Such a study seems to me particularly opportune and the 
 reading of this report answers the questions which the American 
 is likely to ask. He desires to know how such schools arose, 
 what the different kind of schools are, how the pupil is steered 
 into them, and what part the vocational training plays in his 
 preparation for life. In describing one of the smaller kingdoms 
 of Southern Germany, Mr. Snowden has here made it possible 
 for the American reader to understand and to trace the develop- 
 ment of industrial education and the function which it plays in 
 an agricultural and manufacturing state as he can only under- 
 stand it by reading the actual story of some one of these states. 
 
 HENRY S. PRITCHETT. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The report herewith presented is the outcome of some weeks 
 spent in Wuerttemberg, during an investigation of vocational 
 training in Europe. Although many other states abroad have 
 made noteworthy provisions to secure greater industrial efficiency, 
 it is the writer's belief that on the whole Wuerttemberg offers 
 the experience most fruitful for our consideration at present. To 
 be sure we do not have here a young giant of the democracies, 
 rich in undeveloped resources, with the means within easy reach 
 to recoup any youthful extravagances, but, rather, a tight-skinned 
 monarchy that was in danger of paresis over a half-century ago, 
 and almost as populous then as it is now. Moreover, fate had 
 set it down in a hilly region that seems vastly more like a 
 pleasant place to live in than a good place to get a living. 
 Indeed, the fierce economic struggle of the early days drove 
 thousands of Wuerttemberg citizens into permanent exile from 
 the Fatherland. During the first five years of the last half- 
 century the kingdom actually witnessed a diminution of sixty 
 thousand in the total population. It was said that the country 
 was overcrowded. 
 
 Wuerttemberg had long been in the lead among the Teutonic 
 states for general culture in education, a notable achievement, 
 perhaps unappreciated abroad because of the political ascendency 
 of Prussia. Still the population was too dense. Finally, those 
 statesmen who had maintained that industrial efficiency makes 
 its own elbow-room in the world were allowed to take such steps 
 as would provide a broad vocational training for every one in 
 the kingdom who could take advantage of the opportunity. 
 Gradually but surely the country evolved within itself the 
 elements of commercial stability and economic independence 
 that have placed it in the front rank of nations. The tide of 
 
353] Preface. 3 
 
 emigration has been checked, the population has increased 
 rapidly, and the whole land shows evidence of general 
 prosperity. Also there is more room than ever before. The 
 story of this development, full of suggestiveness for America, is 
 the theme of the following chapters. The chief institutions 
 concerned are the industrial improvement schools, and the 
 Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce (Zentralstelle fuer 
 Gewerbe und Handel) a branch of the Interior Ministry. During 
 an active career, three years of which were spent in the Orient 
 as legal adviser to the Japanese government, its president, 
 Ritter von Mosthaf , has been able to perform services for his 
 country that are nothing short of wonderful. Moreover they 
 have met with the high approval of king and commoner. The 
 new National Industrial Museum (Landesgewerbemuseum) at 
 Stuttgart, an institution that is worth going around the world 
 to see, is one of the monuments of his sagacity. Another 
 important accomplishment for which he has earned the 
 greatest credit is the new law governing the reorganization of 
 the industrial improvement schools. Since the details of this 
 law are all set forth in Chapter III, it is unnecessary to print 
 the text of this brief enactment in the report. 
 
 While it might have been more desirable, from the point of 
 view of sequence in time, to have introduced the historical 
 chapter (II) at the outset, it has seemed to me that the reader 
 would appreciate first a summary statement of what Wuerttem- 
 berg has actually accomplished by means of its system of 
 vocational training. The historical chapter, however, finds its 
 justification and interest in the fact that it gives a brief outline 
 of the battles that have been fought in the past for industrial 
 betterment through training, and by so doing may offer some 
 guidance to us who have just entered upon a similar struggle to 
 secure greater average efficiency in America. 
 
 The present monograph is an abridgment of the chapters on 
 industrial training in a work on "The Schools of Wuerttemberg, " 
 to be issued at another time. Written some months ago, the 
 present treatise was accepted for publication by a society of 
 national scope, but through the error of an officer in that society 
 publication was delayed during my absence in Europe. A 
 similar monograph, written by myself, is appearing, however, in 
 the School Journal. 
 
4 Teachers College Record. [354 
 
 I am under especial obligations to President von Mosthaf, 
 who not only furnished me with a number of helpful state 
 documents, but also generously answered questions as to the 
 working of the system of industrial schools and allied problems 
 on many occasions. 
 
 It also gives me great pleasure at this time to acknowledge 
 the helpful interest and assistance of Dean James E. Russell, 
 of Teachers College, Columbia University, under whose auspices 
 this and other investigations have been conducted abroad by 
 the writer; the kindly encouragement of Messrs. T. A. Sperry 
 and John Jamieson; the suggestive criticisms of Mr. Felix M. 
 Warburg, and especially of President Henry S. Pritchett, who 
 has co-operated in the final revision, and has kindly written a 
 foreword. I wish also to acknowledge my indebtedness for 
 the courteous aid of the Wuerttemberg Minister for Religious 
 Affairs and Education, Dr. von Weizsaecker; of President von 
 Stumpf and Dr. Losch of the Statistical Office; of Ministerial 
 Director Baelz; and finally of many school principals, teachers, 
 manufacturers and business men, students, artisans, and experts 
 throughout the kingdom, who gave me freely of their valuable 
 time, with that rare courtesy and helpful spirit which I have so 
 often met with abroad. 
 
 A. A. S. 
 
 420 West i2ist Street, 
 New York City 
 
WUERTTEMBERG. AREA, POPULATION, DESCRIPTION, GOVERNMENT 
 
 The Kingdom of Wuerttemberg, in South Germany, is the third 
 German state in area (7528 sq. mi.) and the fourth in population (2,300,- 
 330 in 1905). Compared with New Jersey (area 8i73"sq. mi., pop. 
 2,144,143 in 1905) or with Massachusetts (area 8546 sq. mi., pop. 
 3,003,635 in 1905), it shows a lesser area and a population between the 
 two. Texas is over thirty -five times the size of Wuerttemberg. To be 
 noted on the map is the irregular wedge of land (entering from the south) 
 formed by the little' territory of Hohenzollern (440 sq. mi.) an isolated 
 province of Prussia, and the original cradle of the present Imperial dyn- 
 asty. From Ulm, at the Bavarian border, the Danube is navigable, 
 and from Heilbronn, in the north, the Neckar carries ships, while traffic 
 on the Lake of Constance is brisk in all seasons. The Black Forest Hills 
 crop out in the west and furnish "Hollaender, " the great pines that are 
 floated down to the Dutch shipyards. The Swabian Alps are thrown 
 across the country from southwest to northeast. On the whole, the land 
 is hilly, with mountains and valleys interspersed in bewildering confusion. 
 The climate is equally varied. Thirty-one per cent, of the total area is 
 forest, mostly government owned. Sixty-four per cent, is under culti- 
 vation, and furnishes work for forty-five per cent, of the population. 
 Wuerttemberg, since 1806 a kingdom, has been a constitutional monarchy 
 
 5 F355 
 
6 Teachers College Record [356 
 
 since 1819. The present King is William II (ace. 1891). The Parliament 
 is composed of two houses ("estates "). The upper chamber, or House of 
 Standesherren, has as members: the royal princes (four at present), persons 
 named by the King (there were two in 1906 with hereditary rights, and 
 six who had been named for life), and the representatives of mediatized 
 houses (seventeen in 1906). The King appoints the president of this 
 house. The Chamber of Deputies, or lower house, is composed of thirteen 
 nobles, six evangelical and three catholic dignitaries, the Chancellor of 
 the state university, seven representatives of cities, and sixty-three 
 representatives of districts that might be called "congressional," though 
 better known as administrative units. There are six Ministries Justice, 
 Foreign Affairs, Interior, Religious Affairs and Education, War, and 
 Finance. For purposes of administration the country is divided into 
 four "Circles": Neckar (chief seat Ludwigsburg) , Black Forest (Reut- 
 lingen), Danube (Ulm), and Jagst (Ellwangen). These correspond fairly 
 well with the natural divisions of the kingdom. The "Circles" are di- 
 vided into a total of sixty-four "Districts " (Oberaemter} , Stuttgart making 
 two of these. The smallest local division is the Gemeinde, or commune, 
 corresponding fairly well to our "township." Of these there are 1905. 
 Thirty-seven of them have a population of five thousand or over, that is, 
 are cities, one hundred and thirteen show a population between two and 
 five thousand each, and the rest are below two thousand some of them 
 the merest- villages together with the outlying country. In Wuerttem- 
 berg there are very few isolated dwellings, even in the rural districts. 
 In this report, the Gemeinde is usually referred to as the "commune," 
 "community," or "locality." 
 
 An interesting geographical fact is that Wuerttemberg contains within 
 its area several "enclaves," or bits of territory belonging to neighboring 
 German states, which in turn have enclaves subject to Wuerttemberg rule. 
 The kingdom contains three bits of land belonging to Baden, with a total 
 of 2934 acres and 1152 inhabitants; belonging to Hohenzollern, 6330 
 acres, in three divisions, with 1042 inhabitants. Baden encloses four 
 Wuerttemberg spots, with 2735 acres and 240 people; Hohenzollern has 
 four Wuerttemberg areas with 6605 acres and 1291 inhabitants. Two 
 other bits of land are under the co-dominion of Prussia and Wuerttemberg, 
 and of Baden and Wuerttemberg, respectively. 
 
THE INDUSTRIAL IMPROVEMENT 
 SCHOOLS OF WUERTTEMBERG 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE PLACE OF VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN THE KINGDOM 
 
 In the old German song which Longfellow has aptly rendered 
 into English, a Swabian peasant doubtless from Wuerttem- 
 berg bespeaks happiness for the "stout and hardy men and 
 the nut-brown maidens there." The measure of contentment 
 claimed for the rugged tillers of the soil is found in all walks of 
 life in that snug little kingdom; for Wuerttemberg is the king- 
 dom of contentment. Other lands may have towns that are 
 bigger and busier than those here seen the true story of the 
 development of New York or Chicago outclasses the fairy tales 
 of seven-leagued progress but few countries show either town 
 or land where the conditions not inherent in soil, climate, or 
 location are more generally hopeful than in Wuerttemberg. 
 This notwithstanding certain native disadvantages. The coun- 
 try is comparatively poor in natural resources. Though rich in 
 salt mines, there is a lack of coal for manufacturing purposes 
 and only a scant supply of "white coal," otherwise water- 
 power. Here are no bonanza farms or wealth-producing El 
 Dorados. In many a case the waste of a Kansas wheat-farm 
 would make a merry harvest for the Wuerttemberg peasant. 
 
 Industrial competition is intrenched on all sides without the 
 kingdom. Furthermore, the property-owner may not look to 
 the earnings of the government railroads to reduce his taxes, 
 for a glance at the map of Europe reveals the unfortunate 
 situation of the country with regard to transcontinental traffic, 
 and explains why the annual profits are only three per cent., or 
 about enough to pay the interest on the railroad debt, whereas 
 the Prussian railroads yield an annual revenue of six or seven 
 per cent. The Wuerttemberg system is overbuilt, and is at 
 the mercy of the larger Reichslaender . Bismarck at one time 
 
 7 [357 
 
8 Teachers College Record [3 58 
 
 nearly succeeded in consolidating the states' railroads into an 
 Imperial system. But the South dissented from the plan, and 
 now the conditions are reversed. The South, and especially 
 Wuerttemberg, is the victim of traffic discrimination. Neither 
 is there much tourist traffic here, at least to such extent as 
 maintains many an European town through the lavish ex- 
 penditures of Americans. While speaking of revenues, let us 
 mention the chief proprietary source of income for the kingdom. 
 Here is a wonderful illustration of that statesmanlike prevision 
 that has put the country on an economic basis that is unassail- 
 able, and which, in substance, is the theme of my writing. The 
 government forests, in 1904, covered an area of 483,421.5 acres. 
 When all expenses of maintenance had been paid, there was a net 
 revenue from the forests in that year of $2,701,587.25. And 
 that without impairing their value in any way. Here is a 
 regard for "woods and templed hills" that is not only patriotic, 
 but practical. Such forethought, evinced in many directions, 
 has made Wuerttemberg self-sustaining and independent. If 
 not wealthy, it is prosperous, and that is better. The govern- 
 ment assists and protects the agriculturist and the laborer just 
 as it aids and protects the manufacturer helping to increase 
 both the quantity and the quality of the output of factory and 
 field. And despite the drawbacks already cited, despite the 
 cumbersome traditions of court and caste that prevail, despite 
 the awkward alliance of church and state, and other inherited 
 encumbrances, the various elements of society co-operate to a 
 degree not found in some democracies. Study at close hand 
 shows that problems of common interest, whether relating to 
 social, commercial, agricultural, or industrial needs, have been 
 met in a statesmanlike manner. 
 
 Upon investigation the industries of Wuerttemberg are 
 found to be surprisingly diversified and prosperous. As we in- 
 spect the numerous towns that cluster in the winding valleys, 
 we are to become convinced that the Wuerttemberg workman 
 is doing his full share for the German industrial advance, an ad- 
 vance that is attracting the attention of the world and is even 
 putting the English competitor on the street. The cleverest 
 Yankee inventions are readily imitated by the German man- 
 ufacturer. On the other hand, there is a rapidly increasing 
 exportation to America, or to rival markets, of a vast quantity 
 
359] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 9 
 
 of Wuerttemberg products, of the kind wherein superior work- 
 manship is, on the whole, the essential quality. The Declared 
 Export Returns of the various consuls at Stuttgart supply 
 abundant evidence of this fact. Stuttgart stands next to 
 Leipzig as a German publishing centre, and its products are 
 exported annually to the extent of millions. But it is not in 
 artistic printing alone that Wuerttemberg excels. It is made 
 clear by the Imperial Statistics, verified by our personal in- 
 vestigations, that Wuerttemberg is more than holding its own 
 among the German states in the production of machinery and 
 implements, in the textile, wood and metal working industries, 
 and in the manufacture of musical instruments and art materials, 
 and of paper, leather, and rubber goods. When it is observed 
 that Wuerttemberg is also producing its share of the agricultural 
 output of the Empire, at the same time furnishing its full quota 
 of 25,000 men to the Imperial army, what the industrial achieve- 
 ment means, in the face of natural disadvantages, becomes 
 clear. It means that the Wuerttemberg workman has taken 
 his place in the front rank of that industrial army that is fairly 
 started on a conquest of the world of trade. No one in posses- 
 sion of the facts will deny that this campaign has been well 
 planned, or that Germany is making rapid progress in this 
 direction. England has already been successfully invaded, and 
 the "practical Yankee" set at naught. Take this illustration 
 as one of many: the single item of machinery and tools. Ger- 
 many's sales to the United States have doubled in the five 
 years from 1900 to 1905. Meanwhile, American sales to Ger- 
 many, in this line, are now about one- third of the totals of five 
 years ago. For the same period, Germany now sends to Eng- 
 land twice as much finished products, receiving only two-thirds 
 the former imports. To Sweden, Denmark, Argentine, and 
 Chile, Germany now sends double the quantity of machinery 
 and tools exported five years ago, while to China it sends five 
 times the former amount, and to Canada four and to Portugal 
 three times the quantity sold in 1900. In the case of all other 
 countries there has been a gradual increase of trade. 
 
 Our consuls, importers, and manufacturers who are in touch 
 with the situation seem to have agreed that this successful 
 German invasion of the world's markets is the logical outcome 
 of the greater average efficiency of her workmen. An analysis 
 
io Teachers College Record [360 
 
 of what Wuerttemberg has done toward securing this high 
 vantage ground gives the keynote of progress for the whole 
 German industrial movement, and is the more fruitful since 
 the kingdom has this very year embodied the results of over 
 three-quarters of a century of experience with industrial im- 
 provement 1 schools (Gewerbliche Fortbildungsschulen industrial 
 "continuation schools") in a remarkable bit of legislation, to be 
 described in detail later. The industrial and commercial im- 
 provement schools of Wuerttemberg are designed to give a 
 broad vocational training to boys and girls of fourteen to eighteen 
 years who have left the common schools at the end of the com- 
 pulsory period (six to fourteen), as nearly all do, and have gone 
 to work. 2 This training forms a basis for greater efficiency and for 
 industrial and commercial intelligence. Instruction has hitherto 
 been given on Sundays or holidays or in the evening, but under 
 the new law will be given in the daytime on week-days. The 
 schools attract older workingmen, as well as apprentices. One 
 evening, when I was conversing with the director of the Stuttgart 
 industrial improvement school, a man fifty-two years of age 
 entered the office and enrolled for his thirtieth half-year in the 
 institution. I talked with many who had been regular in 
 attendance for ten or a dozen years. When schools attract and 
 hold students in this way, it is evident that they have something 
 vital to offer, and that this belief is shared by the masses. It 
 
 1 Throughout, I have by preference employed the term industrial, 
 commercial, or general "improvement" schools, in lieu of the expression 
 "continuation" schools. The Fortbildungsschulen in which general 
 subjects (that is, mainly the "four R's " reading, writing, arithmetic, and 
 religion) were taught originated before the vocational (industrial and 
 commercial) Fortbildungsschulen. In the case of the former there was 
 a real "continuation" of the work done in the common schools. This is 
 hardly so apparent in the case of the vocational Fortbildungsschulen; 
 and many Germans are not satisfied with the term that has been in vogue. 
 In our language "improvement schools" qualified by the adjective 
 "industrial," "commercial, " or "general" seems better, and moreover 
 a notable precedent for its use is found in an important series of English 
 special reports on German schools. 
 
 2 The German Imperial law prohibits altogether the regular employment 
 of children under twelve in the industries, and permits their employment 
 when above that age only under the severest restrictions as to hours of 
 labor, factory conditions, and compliance with the compulsory education 
 laws. A great many go to work at the age of fourteen. 
 
361] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom i T 
 
 also becomes clear, with regard to schools in general, why 
 for many years the Wuerttemberg records have shown no 
 perceptible traces of illiteracy in the kingdom. 
 
 Wuerttemberg, in area and population comparable to New 
 Jersey, had in 1905 two hundred and forty- three industrial 
 and commercial improvement schools, public drawing schools, 
 and "women's work" schools (Frauenarbeitschuleri) scattered 
 throughout the kingdom, with a total of twenty-eight thou- 
 sand five hundred and seventy-four students. One hundred 
 and fifty of the institutions were industrial improvement 
 schools for young men, twenty-two compulsory, by local 
 option, and one hundred and twenty-eight non-compulsory, 
 attended by 18,535 students (1349 + 17,186); four were com- 
 mercial improvement schools two compulsory and two op- 
 tional with a total enrolment of 1245 (225 + 1020); forty-two 
 were industrial drawing schools, with 894 pupils on the rosters; 
 fifteen were industrial improvement schools for girls (or female 
 departments in the industrial improvement schools for men) 
 with 1042 in attendance; and thirty-two were "trades schools" 
 for girls and women, with 6858 on the lists. Industrial drawing 
 was taught in these schools by six hundred and fifty-four 
 specialists, and the remaining subjects by nine hundred and 
 fifty- two instructors. The state gave aid to the schools to the 
 extent of $73,500, of which $66,500 was for the industrial and 
 commercial improvement schools alone. The growth of the two 
 last named institutions during the past forty-five years is 
 indicated by the following statistics: In 1861 '62, they were 
 found in 84 localities, with 7273 pupils; in i87i-'72, 155 places, 
 9763 students; in i88i-'82, 153 communes, attendance 10,225; 
 in i89i-'92, 188 and 17,250; in i9oi-'o2, 239 (of these , 104 
 were schools for drawing only) and 21,054 students; at present, 
 fully 30,000 students, including those in the "women's work" 
 ("trade") schools. 
 
 The new law to be in full operation in 1909 will add a still 
 greater number to the lists. It compels all localities (Gemeinderi) , 
 having for a period of three successive years at least forty youths 
 under eighteen years of age engaged in industrial or commercial 
 pursuits, to establish an industrial or commercial school, and to 
 maintain it as long as the number of such youths employed does 
 not fall below thirty for three years in succession. The term 
 
12 Teachers College Record [362 
 
 "commercial or industrial pursuits" is given the widest possible 
 scope in Wuerttemberg, and takes into account not only the 
 factory hand and the counting-house assistant, but the day 
 laborer, the grocer's clerk, and the errand boy. The law pro- 
 vides for the compulsory attendance of all young workmen (a 
 stipulation formerly left to the localities to decide, in virtue of 
 Imperial laws based on a North German ordinance of 1869). 
 The chief objective point of the law is to furnish opportunity 
 for instruction during the work-days, instead of evenings, 
 Sundays, or holidays, as before. The minimum number of hours 
 per year is to be two hundred and eighty. The schools are to be 
 organized more strictly than ever along vocational lines, and 
 instructors specially prepared through long courses of training 
 are to be put in charge everywhere. The courses will extend over 
 a term of three years, instead of two, as formerly. 1 
 
 Besides the schools already mentioned, Wuerttemberg has an 
 unusual number of other state-aided institutions and special 
 courses, of all grades, in which vocational instruction is given. 
 This in addition to a general educational system that is as well 
 developed as any in the world, if not better. Peculiar to the 
 system is a great variety of types of schools, each concentrated 
 upon a special aim. The vocational schools have been more 
 practical than in other states, and have enrolled a higher per- 
 centage of the population. Wuerttemberg was the first to make 
 vocational education compulsory by state law with day instruc- 
 tion for all apprentices engaged in industry or commerce. 
 Wuerttemberg' s classical schools have long been more classical 
 and its "realistic" schools stronger in mathematics than those 
 elsewhere in Germany. Its system of schools for all the people 
 is the oldest in the world. There is a considerable number of 
 "Latin" schools in the kingdom the direct descendants of the 
 monastic and municipal schools of the middle ages, though at 
 present modern in spirit and equipment. Likewise the theolog- 
 ical seminaries are the continuation of the old monastic schools, 
 with the addition of modern methods. The University is one of 
 
 T" A detailed analysis of the recent legislation for the industrial im- 
 provement schools a codification of experience in vocational education 
 that is now the model for all Germany is postponed to Chapter III. 
 The historical growth of vocational school types is outlined in Chapter II 
 (abridged for the present use). 
 
363] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 1 3 
 
 the oldest in existence, and excels in the theological department. 
 The agricultural college is the oldest in Germany. The same 
 is true of the Industrial Museum at Stuttgart. Also, the 
 pedagogical exhibit of this Museum is the oldest permanent 
 exposition of the kind in the world. The Sunday schools of 
 Wuerttemberg are the oldest institution of the kind in existence. 
 Reutlingen, in Wuerttemberg, had the first "women's work" 
 school in Germany. Wuerttemberg has done much more than 
 Prussia for the education of women through state initiative. 
 Its Technical College (or Institute of Technology) and Royal 
 Building Trades School are in many respects admittedly the 
 best in Germany. The educational system is unique, too, in 
 the fact that home training is much preferred to that of the 
 kindergarten for the earliest years. There are very few schools 
 for infants, the kindergarten being ordinarily private, not in- 
 cluded in the state system, and only rarely considered part of 
 of a city system, although more often subsidized by the latter. 
 
 If proof of the general efficiency of Wuerttemberg 's educa- 
 tional system is desired, compare, for instance, the almost 
 absolute literacy 1 of the kingdom with the records of our States 
 highest in this respect those in the West. Iowa and Nebraska 
 headed our honor roll in 1900, with a percentage of illiteracy of 
 "only" 2.3 per cent. Maine, the first Eastern State in the list, 
 came eighteenth, with 5.1 per cent, who did not read or write. 
 New York State is next, with 5.5 per cent. New York County 
 (Manhattan and the Bronx) 8.1 per cent. while Louisiana is 
 at the bottom of the list, with an illiteracy of 38.5 per cent. All 
 make a poor showing in the statistics of general culture when 
 put side by side with Wuerttemberg. Or, if you believe the 
 comparison on the basis of literacy unfair, because of our colored 
 population and annual accessions of illiterate immigrants, com- 
 pare in relation to the population the state-aided schools and 
 attendance in Wuerttemberg with all the schools, public and 
 private, of any state in the Union. Compare also the "clock- 
 work" school-attendance of Wuerttemberg, and the training, 
 length of service, and general efficiency of the teachers, with the 
 
 1 Out of 11,000 recruits for the army examined in Wuerttemberg each 
 year, only three individuals, on the average, are found to be illiterate. 
 These are invariably Germans from other states, or from out-of-the- 
 way colonies. 
 
14 Teachers College Record [364 
 
 conditions in any American community and see just how far 
 Old World Wuerttemberg is behind New World America in 
 these particulars. Then observe what Wuerttemberg is doing 
 to build, maintain and develop vocational schools. The inquiry 
 furnishes food for reflection. 
 
 Before giving the table of attendance in the various types 
 of schools in Wuerttemberg, an introductory word is perhaps 
 required for the purpose of differentiating the vocational improve- 
 ment schools previously mentioned from the general improve- 
 ment schools (Allgemeine Fortbildungsschulen "continuation 
 schools") and the Sunday-schools ("Sunday continuation"). 
 For some years all the Wuerttemberg localities have been under 
 the obligation to establish general improvement schools with 
 instruction in religion and the common branches for male pupils 
 who have finished the compulsory common school course, and 
 also for female pupils where possible. Students of both sexes 
 who are through with the common schools are obligated to 
 attend the general improvement schools for a period of two years, 
 and for a total of eighty hours a year, to be given, ordinarily, at the 
 rate of two hours a week, on work-days (usually evenings). In 
 the majority of the agricultural districts, four hours a week for 
 twenty weeks in the winter and in a few cases instruction on 
 Sunday is permitted. Exempt from attendance are those 
 who are enrolled in a higher institution, or in a vocational im- 
 provement school. In the event that for local reasons the 
 community is excused from the letter of the law, a Sunday 
 school like the week-day improvement school with instruction 
 in the common branches as well as in religion must be sub- 
 stituted. Attendance here is compulsory for three years, in 
 communes with a single day-school teacher, for only twenty 
 hours a year, and in those with two or more, for forty hours a 
 year. In i9o$-'o6, there were general improvement schools 
 in 1969 Wuerttemberg localities, with 2273 "rooms" and 37,770 
 pupils (22,682 males, 15,088 females). Of the 2273 "classes," 
 692 had the instruction spread over forty weeks, and 1581 
 during the winter semester only, in double measure. On work- 
 days, 1891 classes were taught; on Sundays, 123; on both, 259. 
 Day classes were 749 in number; evening classes, 1302; partly 
 day and partly evening classes, 222. Sunday schools for boys 
 were found in 182 places, with 186 "classes" and 3119 pupils; 
 
3 65] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 1 5 
 
 for girls, in 1593 localities, with 1646 divisions and 32,345 pupils. 
 Total number of Sunday school pupils, 35,464. 
 
 With all due respect for numbers, it must be admitted that 
 the general improvement school of Wuerttemberg is rather a 
 sorry institution in comparison with the vocational improvement 
 schools. And the same thing is true in those German states 
 which require a longer period of attendance yearly. However, 
 their social value is considerable, and they do help a few ambi- 
 tious persons, and even catch a few black sheep and give them 
 enough mental baggage to enable them to count as literate. 
 But in Wuerttemberg, with a total of only eighty hours a year 
 (making about thirty -two average school days in the two years) , 
 there is very little time in which to accomplish the announced 
 aim, viz.: "to impart the knowledge necessary for practical life." 
 In the industrial improvement school it is different. There you 
 have a total of 840 hours in three years (or practically two school 
 days a week), religion and the purely cultural subjects are 
 eliminated, and instruction in the students' own field is given, 
 as far as possible by practical workers of distinction and with 
 special ability and training. Meanwhile the student has the 
 chance to put the theory he acquires to the test in the daily 
 work. 
 
 THE SCHOOL ATTENDANCE IN WUERTTEMBERG 
 
 Total population 2,300,330 in December, 1905. Area considerably 
 less than that of New Jersey. The figures below are for actual school 
 attendance. In the case of elementary and secondary education the 
 statistics are those of January i, 1906. The others are mostly for 1906, 
 but in the case of the vocational improvement schools, for 1905. 
 
 A. In the Elementary Schools System: 
 
 In Kindergartens and Infant Schools (not state 
 institutions, and almost exclusively private): 
 
 a. In Stuttgart 3 ,000 
 
 b. Elsewhere, estimated 3,006 
 
 In "People's" (Volks-) Schools (ages 6 to 14) ... 319,515 
 
 In the Six State Normals for Men 593 
 
 In the Preparatory Departments of Men's Nor- 
 mals 507 
 
1 6 Teachers College Record [366 
 
 In the Two State Normals for Girls 102 
 
 In the Four Private Normals 43 
 
 In the General Improvement Schools (1969 
 
 localities) 37, 770 
 
 In the Sunday Improvement Schools (for the 
 
 common branches) 35,464 
 
 Total 400 , 
 
 ooo 
 
 B. In the Secondary Schools System: 
 
 In the Elementarschulen (prep, schools ages six 
 
 to^eight for the secondary system) 3,609 
 
 In the 91 "Gymnasial' ' (classical) and ' 'Real- 
 istic- Gymnasial " (modern Latin) Schools: 
 
 In the Four Protestant Theological Seminaries. . 186 
 
 In the Fourteen Gymnasien (ages eight to 
 
 eighteen) 4,305 
 
 In the Pro-Gymnasium (or abbreviated Gym- 
 nasium) at Oehringen 123 
 
 In the Four Real-Gymnasien (Latin mathematics 
 
 modern), ages nine to eighteen 1.932 
 
 In the Five Real-Progymnasien (or abbreviated 
 Real-Gymnasien) 783 
 
 In the Fifty-eight "Latin Schools" (ages nine to 
 fourteen), One Real-Latin School, and Four 
 
 Latin^Divisions in Real-Schools 2,233 
 
 In the Ninety-two "Realistic" Schools: 
 
 In the Ten Oberrealschulen (giving a nine- years 
 
 modern-scientific course) 5,457 
 
 In the Six Realschulen with two higher classes. . 1,619 
 
 In the Twelve Realschulen with one higher class . . 2,285 
 
 In the Sixty-three Realschulen without added 
 
 classes (giving a five- years course) 2,973 
 
 In the Buergerschule ("municipal school" of 
 higher rank than the common schools) at 
 Stuttgart i ,402 
 
 In the "realistic" class of the Realgymnasium at 
 
 Gmuend 125 
 
 In the Higher Girls' Schools: 
 
 a. Thirteen "Public" 4,043 
 
367] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 1 7 
 
 b. Six " Private " 929 
 
 In the Girls' Higher Normal 73 
 
 Total 3 2 <>77 
 
 C. In the Vocational (Industrial and Commercial) 
 Improvement Schools: 
 
 In Industrial Improvement Schools J 8,535 
 
 In Commercial Improvement Schools 1,245 
 
 In Industrial Drawing Schools 894 
 
 In Industrial Improvement Schools and Divisions 
 
 for Girls and Women 1,042 
 
 In "Women's Work" Schools 6,858 
 
 Total 28,574 
 
 D. In the State University at Tuebingen (Winter, 
 
 1,407 ; Summer, 1,714) *2,i87 
 
 E. In the Higher Art Schools: 
 
 In the Conservatory of Music at Stuttgart 490 
 
 In the Academy for the Plastic Arts in Stuttgart 
 
 (W., ioi;S., 97) *i27 
 
 In the Industrial Art School in Stuttgart (W., 129 ; 
 
 S-, 97) *iS5 
 
 In the Industrial Art Workshop at Stuttgart (W., 
 
 43; S., So) *57 
 
 Total 829 
 
 F. In the Agricultural Schools: 
 
 In the Agricultural Institute in Hohenheim (W., 
 
 128; S., 108) *i52 
 
 In the Veterinary College in Stuttgart (W., 107; 
 
 S., 97) *i4Q 
 
 In the Agricultural Winter Schools of Ellwangen, 
 Kirchberg, and Ochsenhausen 36 
 
 In the Vintner's School at Weinsberg (19 regular, 
 
 87 special) 106 
 
 In Eight Agricultural Winter Schools 292 
 
 In the Gardening School of Hohenheim 12 
 
 * Estimated from detailed attendance at the Technical College for two 
 semesters. 
 
1 8 Teachers College Record [368 
 
 In Special Fruit-raising Courses 84 
 
 In Pomological Courses 30 
 
 In the Four Housekeeping Schools 65 
 
 In Three Courses in Agriculture 29 
 
 Total 946 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, there are three Agricultural 
 Improvement Schools, and Five Practice Shops for Farriers. 
 
 G. In the Technical College (Hochschule) at Stuttgart . . 1,381 
 H. In the Building Trades School at Stuttgart (S. 566; 
 
 W., 884) *996 
 
 I. In the Technicum for the Textile industries, at 
 
 Reutlingen 149 
 
 J. In the Technical School for Skilled Mechanics and 
 
 Watchmaking, at Schwenningen 69 
 
 K. In the Weaving Schools of Heidenheim, Sindelfingen, 
 
 and Laichingen 94 
 
 In the Weaving Workshop at Sontheim 92 
 
 In the Embroidery School at Wolf schlugen 25 
 
 In the Lacemaking School of Koengen 30 
 
 L. In ttie Tanners' School of Metzingen 8 
 
 M. In the Technical School for Book Printing at 
 
 Stuttgart 108 
 
 N. In the Commercial College at Stuttgart ,. 125 
 
 0. "Practical-Technical" Courses for master- workmen 
 in a variety of industries given under the au- 
 spices of the Central Bureau for Industry and 
 
 Commerce 276 
 
 In "Theoretical-Technical" Courses, under the 
 
 same auspices 35 
 
 Total in Special Industrial and Commercial 
 
 Schools and Courses 3.388 
 
 Besides the above there are a few private industrial schools 
 about a half-dozen good ones in connection with large manu- 
 facturing enterprises for the most part. A few courses for 
 apprentices are also given independently under the auspices of 
 unions and guilds. 
 
369] The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 19 
 
 P. In Orphan Homes, Reformatories and Schools for 
 
 Defectives : 
 
 In Orphan Homes 984 
 
 In State Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb. . . 227 
 
 In Private Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb . . 440 
 
 In Schools for the Blind 196 
 
 Other Defectives (in Public Schools: 1,086, 
 
 Private Schools: n) 1,097 
 
 In Reformatories and Rescue Homes for Children 2,333 
 
 Total * S 2 77 
 
 RECAPITULATION 
 
 In the Elementary Schools System 400,000 
 
 In the Secondary Schools System 3 2 >77 
 
 In the State University 2,187 
 
 In the Higher Art Schools 829 
 
 In the Agricultural Schools 946 
 
 In the Institutions for Orphans, Defectives, and Way- 
 ward Children 5 2 77 
 
 In the Industrial and Commercial Improvement Schools 28,574 
 
 In the Other Vocational Schools and Courses 3*388 
 
 Total 473. 2 78 
 
 The few remaining figures for private schools not mentioned 
 above would not make any appreciable difference in the result. 
 Figures preceded by an asterisk (*) are estimated in accordance 
 with the detailed attendance at the Technical College for two 
 semesters a very rough approximation is the result, but the 
 numbers concerned are small. It is because the attendance 
 at the higher institutions of Wuerttemberg is tabulated officially 
 by half-years that it is difficult to get at the exact number of 
 individuals enrolled during the year, as would be reported in 
 the year-book of an American university. A careful com- 
 parison of the semester lists of the Technical College, for instance, 
 shows that 614 regular and 14 extension students are included 
 in the statement for both semesters under consideration. The 
 total enrolment for the year, then, reduces to 1031 regulars and 
 350 extension students. Further analysis shows the drawing 
 
20 Teachers College Record [370 
 
 power of the institution abroad a condition characteristic of 
 all the higher institutions of Wuerttemberg. During the winter 
 semester cited, 209 students came from other German states, 
 106 from Prussia alone, and 66 from foreign countries: during 
 the summer half-year, 190 came from other German states, 
 109 from Prussia, and 62 from abroad. Two of the regular 
 students for the year were women, and the extension courses 
 enrolled 196 women in the winter and 34 in the summer. These 
 figures are for the Technical College alone. 
 
 The table given above does not indicate the entire range of 
 commercial or industrial instruction. Commercial subjects, for 
 instance, may be pursued in the University and in certain of 
 the higher schools ("realistic"). Nearly all the girls enrolled 
 in the common ("people's") and higher girls' schools are 
 instructed in manual subjects. In the common schools this 
 department is called an "Industry School," and a few boys are 
 also admitted to it. Other industrial aids are the lectures and 
 personal assistance of the official travelling instructor (Wander- 
 lehrer) of the Central Bureau, and the intelligent help furnished 
 through the industrial museums headed by the National Indus- 
 trial Museum at Stuttgart, and by means of industrial exposi- 
 tions, both state and local. One hundred and eighty-five 
 apprenticeship workshops are subsidized. Special laboratory aid 
 is placed at the disposal of the merchants and manufacturers 
 of the land. Free advice is furnished by the experts of the 
 Central Bureau, in close relations with the unions of employers 
 and employed. Finally, a valuable industrial journal (weekly, 
 furnished to unions at the club rate of only $.24 a year) has been 
 issued by the Central Bureau since January i, 1849; financial 
 assistance is extended to worthy industries; and stipends are 
 granted to young and old for industrial investigations. 
 
 A glance at the statistical summary of school attendance in 
 Wuerttemberg discloses the fact that over twenty per cent, of 
 the total population goes to school each year a remarkable 
 showing when you remember that tradition in Germany has 
 only lately permitted of the secondary and higher education of 
 women, and that to a very restricted degree. Nearly all the 
 school population had direct vocational instruction for a part 
 of the time at least, and about ten per cent, of all the students 
 were in purely vocational schools. The facts give rise to certain 
 
3 7 1 j The Place of Vocational Training in the Kingdom 2 1 
 
 questions. Subsequent chapters will show the historical neces- 
 sity for these schools, and their development. Also the part 
 played by the state, community, and by private individuals in 
 their organization and maintenance ; the attitude of individuals 
 and of employers and labor unions; the important problem of 
 securing efficient vocational teachers as met by Wuerttemberg ; 
 how it is that the kingdom has come to take an advanced position 
 in favor of compulsory attendance, and in favor of day instruction 
 as opposed to evening schools ; how in common with other Euro- 
 pean nations it has been driven to establish an agency essentially 
 separate from the ordinary educational administrations, for the 
 direction of the industrial schools . 1 For history clearly impeaches 
 the ordinary educational administrations for the failure to fur- 
 nish adequate instruction in the industries. It is European ex- 
 perience that they even fail in many cases to do all that lies 
 within their power in this regard until forced to adopt a practical 
 attitude by the fact that the major responsibility for providing 
 such instruction has been placed upon another ministry (in- 
 dustrial or commercial) or body closely in touch with the 
 industries and the commercial needs of the country. As 
 evidence of the non-practical tendencies of the schools in our 
 own land also, witness the general failure, from the point of 
 view of industries, of instruction in drawing or manual training, 
 subjects introduced originally out of highly practical considera- 
 tions. 2 Immediately, however, they came under the sway of 
 a body of cultural theory that is very good in its way, but 
 has been allowed to defeat the original purpose of the voca- 
 tional training. Unfortunately, too, the field of vocational in- 
 struction in the United States has been largely under the 
 control of a heterogenous variety of organizations and of 
 correspondence schools the ordinary schools having shifted the 
 responsibility. 
 
 1 Under separate ministries in the majority of the larger States of Eu- 
 rope, the lower industrial schools are nominally under the educational 
 ministries in Wuerttemberg and Austria, but are quite as much under the 
 control of the industrial departments (Interior Ministry) through their in- 
 fluence in appointing members of the central vocational school boards. 
 
 2 Cf . the Report of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial and 
 Technical Education. 
 
22 Teachers College Record [372 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE RISE OF VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 
 
 The tendency toward state aid in financing industrial 
 schools not only the higher technical institutions, but those of 
 elementary grade, for the common workman has received its 
 greatest impetus during the last half of the nineteenth century, 
 and especially during the past thirty years. So far as the 
 European states are concerned, this tendency amounts to an 
 established custom that finds greater favor with the increasing 
 years. In France, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, England, the 
 German states, Switzerland, and Italy, such action is looked upon 
 as a national duty. Even in the United States, precedents of 
 the kind are found, both in the national grants of lands and of 
 money for the agricultural and mechanical colleges, and in state 
 appropriations to these and to special technical schools. Not 
 only has the national grant been used for the maintenance of 
 such a higher school as the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
 nology, but in other states for such industrial purposes as are 
 subserved by the Kansas Agricultural College, and by the 
 preparatory departments of several mechanical colleges in 
 which elementary trades instruction is given, and where the 
 total enrolment often exceeds that of the mechanical college 
 proper. The recent introduction in state legislatures of bills 
 providing for further financial aid to industrial education on the 
 part of the states, emphasizes the growth of a well-established 
 world principle. For those statesmen who have long held that 
 it is the duty of the body politic to see to it that the com- 
 ponent units of the state individuals are fortified for their 
 part in society by having at least the elements of a general 
 education, are coming to maintain that it is the duty of the state 
 to assist in equipping all for their practical share in the common 
 life. This growing attitude is a natural result of the increasing 
 complexity of modern economic conditions. During the middle 
 ages, when the guilds regulated the handicraft trades, state 
 initiative in behalf of industrial education did not seem neces- 
 sary. Instruction in a trade was given by the master in whose 
 house the apprentice resided. It extended over a long term of 
 years, and was broad and thorough, covering all the features of 
 the trade. The apprentice was frequently obliged to assist the 
 
373] The Rise of Vocational Schools 23 
 
 master workman in his book-keeping and other business, hence 
 instruction of a general nature was also provided. Further 
 industrial insight was obtained when the apprentice could take 
 his place as a full-fledged member of the fraternity, an honor 
 much coveted and hard to win. In many a thriving "city- 
 state" of the early modern era the guilds seemed indispensable 
 to the community. However, their political strength proved 
 to be their weakness. Ambitious princes fostered independent 
 industries to the undoing of the guilds. The elementary, trivial 
 and Latin schools, introduced and encouraged by the church, 
 assumed the work of giving instruction, although it was very 
 limited in amount and did not concern itself with vocational 
 teaching. In the face of the competition offered by the stimulated 
 industries under princely patronage the guild masters were often 
 obliged not only to neglect the general information of their 
 apprentices, but to limit the vocational instruction to the meagre 
 necessities of the moment. With the introduction of piece- 
 work, apprenticeship failed any longer to furnish an all-around 
 vocational training. Neither were there any other agencies for 
 the purpose. 
 
 At the outset, the organization of special schools to supply 
 this demand for a broader vocational training came about 
 slowly, largely through private initiative, and with instruction 
 mainly on Sunday. At first, the Sunday schools did nothing 
 more than to continue the teaching of the elementary schools, 
 or to supply what they had failed to give. The Sunday school 
 in Wuerttemberg, the oldest institution of its kind which has 
 had a continuous existence, was outlined in the church ordinance 
 of 1559. The scope and functions of Sunday schools were more 
 explicitly set forth by the church authorities in 1695, and in 
 1739, these schools were made universally compulsory by a 
 synodal order which stated that "all young people must attend 
 the Sunday and holiday schools until the time of their marriage, 
 so that they will neither so easily forget what they have learned 
 in school, nor spend the leisure of Sundays and holidays in a 
 sinful manner. " In the Sunday schools they were required to 
 "sing a sacred song, read the Bible, repeat the Proverbs and 
 Psalms, recite from the catechism, produce their compositions, 
 read a letter, and then close with a prayer and the benediction. " 
 Arithmetic, too, was soon introduced into the curriculum. 
 
24 Teachers College Record [374 
 
 But important as the Sunday school has been in the development 
 of industrial training in Wuerttemberg, it was nearly a hundred 
 years later, when the schools were more directly under the 
 authority of the state, that Sunday schools were made use of for 
 such instruction in that kingdom. The general school regula- 
 tions promulgated in 1763 by Frederick the Great of Prussia gave 
 directions for the building of Sunday and "repetition" schools 
 so that "the masters might send to school for four hours a week 
 those apprentices who did not have the necessary knowledge of 
 reading, writing, and religion, " but went no farther in providing 
 vocational instruction than did the earlier Sunday schools of 
 Wuerttemberg. 
 
 While the great educational leaders of the eighteenth century 
 strove chiefly for the advancement of general culture, and while 
 the parochial instruction was confined to narrow limits, a few 
 beginnings of vocational training were undertaken, both on the 
 part of the states and of individuals or associations. Austria, 
 in the early sixties of that century established a precedent by 
 sending abroad for skilled technicians who were despatched into 
 the provinces to visit and instruct the workers, thereby in- 
 augurating the "travelling instruct orships " (with which the 
 duties of an inspector are often combined) that have played an 
 important part in industrial training in several European states. 
 Under government protection a "manufacturer's drawing school " 
 was founded in Vienna (1758), a lace-making school at Prague 
 (1767), and the first secular drawing school in Hungary (1770), the 
 Royal Drawing School of Buda-Pesth. At about this time Austria 
 decreed that "all the royal cities and market towns shall main- 
 tain spinning schools throughout the winter, and the children 
 of tradespeople shall be obliged to visit them from the seventh 
 to the fifteenth year of their age. " 
 
 In Germany, it was through private initiative that the first 
 industrial school was established in the north in Hamburg 
 (1767), at first for architectural drawing alone. Its pro- 
 moters were the members of the local "Society for the Pro- 
 motion of the Industrial and Useful Arts." The school 
 gradually extended its course, and grew in enrolment from 
 12 individuals in the year of its founding, to 3256 in 1892. 
 Through the initial influence of this institution, the Hamburg 
 type of school and of industrial art became the model for North 
 
375] The Rise of Vocational Schools 25 
 
 Germany, just as that of Munich in Bavaria, Stuttgart in 
 Wuerttemberg, and Karlsruhe in Baden became the types for 
 South Germany, whereas Middle Germany took advantage of 
 both influences, and in some respects worked out its own in- 
 dividuality, as in Saxony, for example. The Hamburg school 
 was unique in the fact that it commenced with evening instruc- 
 tion, instead of the Sunday courses alone which characterized 
 the majority of the elementary industrial schools. In Bohemia, 
 it was the common school with manual instruction brought in 
 to an unusual extent the "Industry School" that promised 
 to be of the greatest general assistance in the development of 
 vocational teaching. Introduced by Pastor Kinderman, there were 
 soon one hundred of these schools in (1787) and 232 by 1790. 
 
 In France, where drawing and other elementary industrial 
 schools had long been in existence through private initia- 
 tive, the state committed itself to the policy of actively aid- 
 ing industrial education at this period, but began at the top, 
 or with the higher technical schools, just as it commenced with 
 the universities in establishing a general system of education 
 after the Revolution. At Berlin, the Union for the Erection of 
 Sunday Improvement Schools for Apprentices founded the first 
 improvement school of that city, in 1797. Two years before this, 
 a spinning institute at Birkach near Hohenheim in Wuerttem- 
 berg, established by the local pastor, marked the initial point 
 for the " industry schools" (Industrieschulen) that have since 
 become consolidated with the common schools of that kingdom. 
 Munich, in Bavaria, had a drawing school under royal protection 
 in 1792, and in 1793 an industrial school with holiday instruc- 
 tion. An industrial school for girls was organized at Nurem- 
 berg in 1792. Instruction in sewing, knitting, spinning, and 
 housework was given. Similar schools were soon established 
 in a number of Bavarian localities, and in 1804 these "work- 
 schools" were combined with the common schools by general 
 regulation, after the manner of the present "industry schools" 1 
 of Wuerttemberg. 
 
 Isolated cases of this type of instruction are found earlier 
 in many communes of France in the sixteenth century, 
 
 1 The so-called "industry schools" of recent times in Bavaria (which 
 have lately been abolished) were different. The four schools of this type 
 at Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Kaiserslautern dated from 1868 
 
26 Teachers College Record [376 
 
 while in Germany an institution of the kind was carried on 
 at Hamburg in 1604 in connection with an orphan asylum. 
 In Baden, which had an industry school in a "poor and 
 orphan home" in 1718, this was followed by other industry, 
 or "economy" schools, established at different intervals of 
 time. In 1803, a Baden edict declared that girls should be 
 taught spinning, sewing, and knitting, in industry schools, and 
 that attendance on such schools should be compulsory unless 
 suitable instruction of the kind were provided at their homes. 
 A yearly test was to determine what progress had been made. 
 But in consequence of the political and industrial uncertainty 
 of the times, neither did the industry schools of Baden and 
 Bavaria meet with continued success, nor did the plans of those 
 countries for industrial and technical schools of higher grade 
 come into prompt fulfilment. The spinning schools of Austria 
 received a setback for the same reasons. With the re-established 
 stability of governments after the Napoleonic era, the states 
 turned their attention first to general education, and vocational 
 instruction, except that of the higher grade, was left to private 
 initiative for the most part, until the middle of the nineteenth 
 century. Baden and Wuerttemberg were to be the chief ex- 
 ceptions to this general rule. In the case of the polytechnic 
 schools, or higher industrial institutions, the chief dates for the 
 state foundations are as follows: Paris, the first, 1795; Prague, 
 1806; Vienna, 1815; Berlin, 1821; Karlsruhe, 1825; Munich, 
 1827; Dresden, 1828; Stuttgart, 1829; Hanover, 1831. Several 
 of these Stuttgart and Hanover, for instance started as 
 trades schools, but were later raised to the standard of fully 
 equipped polytechnics. 
 
 The first movement toward the general introduction of 
 Sunday industrial instruction in Wuerttemberg was the prelim- 
 inary inquiry set on foot in 1818 by the Educational Ministry, 
 The Society for the Promotion of the Useful Arts at Frankfort. 
 a-M. had already founded an industrial Sunday school. The 
 problem for Wuerttemberg was to introduce such instruction 
 into the regular Sunday schools. In 1825, the Royal School 
 Board, in charge of the higher classical and "realistic" schools, 
 
 and although originally intended to prepare graduates directly for in- 
 dustrial occupations, they became chiefly preparatory schools for the 
 higher technical institutions. 
 
377] The Rise of Vocational Schools 27 
 
 was entrusted with the duty of propagating Sunday industrial 
 schools (in lieu of some of the regular Sunday schools), and of 
 determining their programs and administration. The courses 
 of study of the following year placed emphasis on the teaching 
 of drawing free hand, geometrical, and architectural; indus- 
 trial arithmetic, industrial geography, practical geometry, and 
 mechanics, elementary technology, bookkeeping and estimating. 
 The number of the schools increased rapidly because of the 
 recognized need which they attempted to fill. There were 
 thirty Sunday industrial improvement schools in Wuerttemberg 
 in 1827, and thirty-seven the following year. But the schools 
 could not give entire satisfaction because of the difficulty in 
 obtaining fully prepared instructors, and because the same 
 books and other materials that had been employed for the 
 common and Real- schools were used for the specialized in- 
 struction. Improved from year to year, the schools were 
 established in sixty-nine Wuerttemberg towns by 1846, and 
 enrolled a total of 4500 pupils. The meagre character of the 
 instruction given may be measured by the fact that forty-six 
 of the schools only occupied two hours a week each, while in 
 thirty-eight there was only a single teacher. Despite all efforts 
 of the Royal School Board, little ground was gained until after 
 the organization of the Central Bureau for Industry and Com- 
 merce under the Interior Ministry in 1848, and its subsequent 
 activity in the development of industrial schools. 
 
 Before continuing to outline the growth of industrial im- 
 provement and special trades schools in Wuerttemberg, four 
 or five movements that were especially active during the first 
 half of the nineteenth century should be mentioned. One of 
 these is concerned with the growth in Germany and Austria of 
 the Real- schools with their emphasis on science, mathematics, 
 and modern languages in lieu of the classics of the Gymnasien. 
 For the middle classes they furnished the nearest approach to 
 the vocational-school type, and were destined to be the chief 
 recruiting ground in later years for the higher technical schools 
 of university rank. Their share in the preparation of com- 
 mercial leaders has always been considerable. 
 
 A second important movement was the gradual freeing of 
 industry from the destructive effects of a system of innumerable 
 taxes and customs duties. At the commencement of the nine- 
 
28 Teachers College Record [378 
 
 teenth century there were in the ancient province of Prussia 
 alone " sixty-seven different tariffs for almost three thousand 
 kinds of merchandise, and these were to be reckoned in any 
 one of seventy-one officially established coinages." Not only 
 were the German states separated from each other by tariff 
 walls, but the towns within each land had each its own city- 
 customs duties, as Paris now in the case of provisions. Signi- 
 ficant of the conditions of the times was the proud proverb of 
 South Wuerttemberg (Ulmer Geld geht durch alle Welt, )"The 
 money of Ulm will pass anywhere" a fact not true of a 
 great many German towns whose exact financial status could 
 not be ascertained. At the beginning of the nineteenth century 
 the guilds also possessed many exclusive privileges which tended 
 toward the restriction of trade. Prussia was the first to break 
 away from the toils which retarded industrial enterprise, and 
 its customs law of 1819 brought free and unrestricted trade to 
 the interior localities. The clever political influence of Prussia 
 succeeded in extending the benefits of such legislation to other 
 German states, and led to the Universal Customs Union of 
 1834, a union that later included not only all the German 
 states, with the exception of a few of their communes, but also 
 the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg and several communes in 
 Austria. The advantages that accrued from the removal of 
 inter-city and inter-state restrictions caused commerce to go 
 forward by leaps and bounds, with the resultant benefit to 
 industry. 
 
 Closely interrelated with the movements already cited was 
 the complete abolition of the guilds, as in France (1791), or 
 their restriction, as in Austria by imperial decrees, and in 
 Prussia through the celebrated edict of 1810; the organization 
 at a later date of industrial unions, and the share these associa- 
 tions took in the founding of special trades and industrial 
 schools, and in inspiring state initiative in this direction. A 
 further stimulus to the industrial institutions of Germany came 
 from the influence of France, exercised not only directly, but 
 also through its effect on English, Belgian, and Austrian in- 
 dustry. It was in France that the early introduction of 
 geometry a subject that was to have a far-reaching influence 
 in industrial education met with especial favor. It was here 
 also that in both the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries not 
 
379] The Rise of Vocational Schools 29 
 
 only were the common schools developed to a degree not found 
 in other countries, but vocational instruction had been in- 
 troduced in many communes through private initiative. Here, 
 again, the development of art as applied to industry early 
 reached a high state of perfection. France was the first to 
 found a polytechnic school, and, although the central govern- 
 ment paid little attention to the establishing of elementary 
 industrial schools until the last quarter of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, it had special facilities for the training of technical teachers 
 before the end of the eighteenth century. Industrial taste and 
 industrial intelligence were widely disseminated by the experts 
 sent into the provinces. 
 
 Paris was in the eighteenth century , as it is now, the heart of 
 a centralized nation whose industrial life current was constantly 
 revivified by comiminication and contact with the capital. 
 However, it was not until the London Exposition of 1851 that 
 the eyes of the industrial world, and especially of the English, 
 were fully awakened to the superior excellence of the French 
 products of industrial art and to the causes of their supremacy 
 in the markets of the world. England became alive to the lack of 
 facilities for industrial education. The newly organized Science 
 and Art Department took up the problem, and within a few 
 years a vast system of industrial drawing schools was organized, 
 with the Industrial Art School of South Kensington Museum as 
 the center and chief source of instructors. By 1873, England 
 and Scotland had 173 industrial schools of art, with 22,000 
 pupils, and 460 evening art classes. Also, in over 2000 elemen- 
 tary schools drawing was a compulsory subject. There were 
 besides, in England, Ireland, and Scotland, nearly 1400 indus- 
 trial schools and several hundred chemical laboratories, with a 
 total of nearly 50,000 students who were preparing themselves 
 for the building, mechanical, or chemical industries. Under the 
 protection of the Prince Consort, elementary industrial educa- 
 tion was organized with more system than any other type of 
 instruction in England. The consequent benefit to English 
 trade is a matter of history. Yet in recent years Germany has 
 done much more than England in the direction of elementary 
 industrial instruction. The result is already shown in the 
 relative commercial position of the two nations. 
 
 Somewhat earlier than England, Wuerttemberg was the 
 
30 Teachers College Record [380 
 
 other European state to attack seriously the problem of in 
 dustrial training. It was spurred to action not only by local 
 needs but by the example of France and Belgium. In 1848, 
 the agitation in favor of industrial betterment led to the forma- 
 tion in Wuerttemberg of the Central Bureau for Industry and 
 Commerce, under the Interior Ministry, which had charge of 
 the handicrafts schools, while the Sunday industrial institutions 
 still remained under the charge of the Royal Board. What 
 followed has been duplicated in other European countries. 
 Business interests pressed for a more practical administration 
 of the improvement schools. The final result was a permanent 
 Royal Commission (appointed in 1853 to represent both the 
 Educational and Interior Ministries), under the presidency of 
 the head of the Central Bureau. This commission, under a 
 recent law, is superseded by a Higher Industrial School Council 
 similarly organized. 
 
 Since the Sunday industrial schools did not allow sufficient 
 time for thorough industrial training, the Royal Commission 
 soon took the first step in advance by providing also evening 
 industrial schools for the more capable candidates. Two 
 courses were given. The apprenticeship course was to comprise 
 the introduction to industrial composition and correspondence, 
 industrial arithmetic, and whatever geometrical principles are of 
 greatest importance in industry, and finally drawing, both 
 mechanical and decorative; in the higher course, the mathe- 
 matical subjects and drawing (with the addition of modelling) 
 were to be continued, and, as new material, physics and mechan- 
 ics, industrial chemistry, and lastly bookkeeping, and the prin- 
 ciples of industrial economy, were to be taught. Attendance 
 upon industrial schools was to be optional, although those who 
 came under the provisions of the Sunday school compulsory law 
 were still obliged to attend the Sunday general improvement 
 school or the Sunday industrial improvement school in the event 
 that they did not elect to follow the courses of the evening 
 industrial establishments. These provisions continued in force 
 until the Imperial Industrial Ordinance came into effect with 
 the entrance of Wuerttemberg into the confederation of Ger- 
 man states in 1871. Then a small but ever increasing percentage 
 of the local cities took advantage of the privilege therein con- 
 
381] The Rise of Vocational Schools 31 
 
 ferred upon them of making attendance upon industrial im- 
 provement schools compulsory. 
 
 The industrial improvement schools were made local (Ge- 
 meinde) institutions from the outset. Their immediate inspection 
 and direction was left to the communal school board, which was 
 required to constitute a special commission for industrial im- 
 provement instruction through the appointment to the com- 
 mittee of capable industrialists, and of the principal of the 
 school. The state agreed to furnish one half of the expense 
 remaining after the locality had provided the building and 
 equipment and the amount of tuition collected had been applied 
 on the remaining liabilities. The industrial guilds and unions 
 helped, by advancing the tuition of poor pupils wherever it 
 seemed advisable. The president of the Central Bureau and 
 the members of the Royal Commission proceeded to visit the 
 communal councils and to urge in every way within their power 
 the establishment of the schools. The great difficulty, as every- 
 where, at the first, was to secure instructors who could give the 
 vocational work. For the very important subject of industrial 
 drawing, some had already been trained in the special school 
 founded by the commission. In 1854 there were twenty-five 
 industrial improvement schools, and by 1856 forty-five, with 
 both Sunday and evening instruction. By 1861-62 the schools 
 had been established in 84 localities, with 7273 pupils; and in 
 1871-72 in 155 places, with 9763 in attendance. Several 
 important results of the first experiment were soon evident. 
 First, the increased efficiency of those workers who attended 
 the fully equipped schools was so marked as to win for all time 
 the influence of industrial employers and unions in favor of the 
 improvement schools. Second, it was found impracticable and 
 unnecessary to separate the school programs into apprenticeship 
 and journeymen courses, except in the large cities. Third, it 
 was found that the payment of tuition, however small, in the 
 case of adolescents and adults, increases the self-respect and 
 self-dependence of the pupils and adds to the value put upon 
 the instruction. Fourth, the compulsory-attendance require- 
 ment is not satisfactory if the locality is not prepared to equip 
 the school with a capable teaching personnel and with the material 
 necessary to give the best results. Soon after the organization 
 movement was fairly started, several communes hastened to 
 
32 Teachers College Record [382 
 
 enact a compulsory law on the principle that what is good for 
 some is good for all. Since they were unable to obtain in- 
 structors sufficiently qualified for the new work, or to provide 
 suitable quarters and the other desiderata, the outcome of this 
 zeal was disastrous and in some cases discredited the schools for 
 a time. 
 
 Wuerttemberg now leads all German states in the extent of 
 the development of its industrial improvement schools. Other 
 states are not far behind in this respect, the growth in the past 
 five years being especially marked. Bavaria followed Wuerttem- 
 berg, in 1864, with a general ordinance for the organization of 
 industrial improvement schools. Saxony did likewise in 1873, 
 although in that kingdom the system of special technical schools 
 for a variety of industries is the most noteworthy feature of a 
 well-planned scheme of industrial training. Baden, which in 
 1834 commenced to pay much attention to the organization of 
 higher industrial schools, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha passed state 
 laws in behalf of industrial improvement schools in 1874. Saxe- 
 Meiningen-Hildburghausen did similarly in 1875. It was well 
 along in the eighties before the movement became general. 
 Saxony, Baden, Wuerttemberg, and Hesse early passed com- 
 pulsory laws for attendance at general improvement schools. 
 In Prussia, the increasing strength of the Polish constitutency 
 of West Prussia and Posen led to the law of 1886, in which the 
 Minister of Commerce and Industry was empowered to make 
 attendance at the improvement schools (semi-industrial) com- 
 pulsory for all workers under eighteen. In 1 1 5 localities such in- 
 stitutions were established, but the law failed through lack of a 
 penalty or because the industrial program could not thrive in 
 agricultural districts, without modification. When in 1891 the 
 Prussian state assumed a large part of the financial responsibility 
 for improvement schools, they were soon introduced in all 
 quarters of the kingdom. However, a great many of the so-called 
 industrial schools of Prussia, and the industrial improvement 
 schools of Bavaria up to the year 1900, were merely general 
 improvement institutions with industrial drawing added to the 
 regular schedules. The whole tone, purpose, and content of the 
 northern industrial improvement schools, especially in Prussia 
 and Saxony, has been strengthened through the efforts of the 
 German Union for Improvement Schools, organized in 1892. 
 
383] The Rise of Vocational Schools 33 
 
 Not alone in regard to the improvement schools, but in many 
 other directions, the Educational Ministry and the Royal Com- 
 mission of Wuerttemberg busied themselves for the attainment 
 of industrial efficiency. Toward and after the middle of the 
 nineteenth century these activities were most pronounced. 
 The schools were to reach everybody dependent on industrial or 
 commercial pursuits the child in the "industry schools," the 
 apprentice or journeyman in the improvement schools or in 
 the special drawing schools or courses, the prospective foreman 
 or superintendent in special technical schools (mechanical, 
 textile, or building trades) , the engineer in the technical univer- 
 sity. Training for girls and women was provided in the "in- 
 dustry schools," in "women's work" schools, and in the special 
 and improvement schools. 
 
 In order to furnish facilities for the education of foremen, 
 the Stuttgart Trades School had been founded (in 1829). By 
 1840 the school had attained such scope and grade of work that 
 it was called the Polytechnic. In 1845 the courses in secondary 
 technical instruction were classified separately and the present 
 Royal Building Trades School was founded. In 1862 the Poly- 
 technic was made a Technische Hochschule, or Technical College 
 of university rank. 
 
 Of the special technical schools (Fachschuleri) Reutlingen 
 had the first one the now famous Technicum, or Technical 
 Institute for the Textile Industries founded in 1855 by the 
 Weaving-school Union and later subsidized by the state. In 
 Reutlingen, also, the movement in favor of "women's work" 
 schools began, in the sixties. The technical weaving schools at 
 Heidenheim (1860), Sindelfingen (1869), and Laichingen (1873) 
 were monuments of the earlier years of the industrial move- 
 ment. The other special technical schools are of comparatively 
 recent founding, and in their plan give expression to the results of 
 long experience. The older schools have been many times 
 remodelled in keeping with current requirements. 
 
 It is about thirty years since the "industry schools" those 
 in which sewing, spinning, knitting, and similar work is taught 
 were united with the common or "people's" schools. The 
 latest separate statistics for the "industry schools" date from 
 1895-96, when in 1929 schools a total of 120,377 pupils received 
 such instruction. Only 283 of these were boys, the number of 
 
34 Teachers College Record [384 
 
 male pupils allowed to take the work compulsory for girls 
 having diminished steadily from the outset. The total attend- 
 ance in the "people's" schools during the same year was 
 approximately 142,000 boys and 156,000 girls. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE REORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL IMPROVEMENT 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 The new industrial improvement school law of Wuerttem- 
 berg deserves an extended analysis here. It embodies not only 
 the experience of the kingdom in which the elementary in- 
 dustrial school has been most thoroughly developed, Wuerttem- 
 berg itself, but that of the other German states as well, since a 
 commission which was sent out to study the conditions in the 
 neighboring states gave the Central Bureau and the Educational 
 Ministry the benefit of personal investigations. Moreover, rep- 
 resentatives of the industrial boards of trade and of the unions 
 participated in the preliminary studies. Finally every detail 
 was examined thoroughly in the offices of the Central Bureau 
 and of the Ministry, as well as in the ultimate committee of the 
 Parliament and on the floors of the houses themselves. The law 
 naturally represents an advanced position with regard to in- 
 dustrial training, a position so advanced that even in America, 
 where everything is possible, we may not hope to put several of 
 its fundamental principles into general practice here for many 
 years. I refer especially to the requirements for compulsory at- 
 tendance and day instruction. And it is interesting to note that 
 these stipulations, together with the determination of a satisfactory 
 minimum of hours of instruction, were considered the most im- 
 portant in the Wuerttemberg bill. The requirement for day in- 
 struction, as opposed to evening, was counted the most important 
 of all. The other main issues of the Bill as heartily indorsed by 
 Parliament were the reorganization of the industrial improve- 
 ment schools as strictly vocational institutions, and the prepara- 
 tion of teachers especially trained for the work of these schools 
 It was because of the lack of teachers sufficiently equipped to 
 carry out the new plans a lack that the state is meanwhile 
 attempting to fill by granting scholarships for instruction to a 
 
385] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 35 
 
 chosen corps that the most vital requirements of the act do not 
 go into effect until April i, 1909, and even then the compulsory 
 law is to become effective only a year at a time, beginning with 
 the youngest who fall within the stipulated ages. Those parts 
 of the act which are operative after January i, 1907, relate to 
 the appointment of teachers and to the organization of the 
 governing boards. 
 
 The chief provisions of the law, to be discussed more fully 
 farther on, are as follows: Every locality, or commune, in which 
 for three successive years an average of at least forty male 
 workmen under eighteen years of age are engaged in commercial 
 or industrial pursuits, is obliged to provide an industrial improve- 
 ment school to be called an "industrial school" or a "com- 
 mercial school" under the new law for their reception and 
 instruction, and to maintain the same as long as the number of 
 workmen of the stated age does not fall below an average of 
 thirty for three successive years. The ordinary school under 
 the law will be an "industrial school," but if the needs of the 
 community are such as to require a "commercial school" also, 
 it is to be erected in addition. Decision concerning the extra 
 school lies with the local school board, the community council, 
 and finally the Higher Industrial School Council. In the case of 
 very poor communes, the building of the industrial school may 
 be postponed for as long as ten years by action of the Ministry 
 but they must support a general improvement school at ali 
 events. 
 
 Every young man in a commune, who is engaged in an industrial 
 or commercial pursuit, and is of the required age, under eighteen 
 they are usually through the common schools at fourteen 
 is obliged to attend the school for three years. If the eighteenth 
 year is finished in the course of a school term the obligation 
 extends until the end of the semester. Communes which provide 
 for a four-years' course of study may make the attendance com- 
 pulsory for the fourth year also, in the case of all or of certain 
 industries. Those workers whose employment ceases at given 
 periods of the year, or is interrupted for other reasons, may be 
 authorized to attend school in the locality where formerly 
 employed, or if this is not their home commune they may attend 
 at the latter place. Those may be freed from the compulsory 
 attendance requirement who attend a guild school or other 
 
36 Teachers College Record [386 
 
 idnustrial institution whose instruction is considered by the 
 Higher Industrial School Council to be the equivalent of 
 that outlined by law. Likewise, those who show exceptional 
 training may be excused. Workers in certain branches of 
 unskilled industries, such as the bakers, the barbers, market men, 
 may be excused from the instruction in drawing, or by vote of 
 the common council, with the approval of the Ministry, may be 
 turned over to the general improvement schools. Those not of 
 the compulsory age may be allowed the privileges of the schools, 
 as has heretofore been the case. The local school board passes 
 on such matters, and the persons admitted are under the usual 
 school regulations. 
 
 The common councils may authorize the erection of indus- 
 trial schools for girls, or the creation of departments for girls in 
 the regular industrial schools. In accordance with the imperial 
 law of 1900, the communes are allowed to make these schools 
 compulsory for employed girls under eighteen years of age- 
 The authorization of the common councils for the erection 
 of special industrial schools for girls, or for the creation of 
 a special industrial department for girls, must be approved by 
 the Higher Industrial School Council the new name for the 
 body formerly known as the Royal Commission for Industrial 
 Schools. Through similar procedure, those communes which 
 do not come under the requirements of the law because they 
 do not have forty workers of the stipulated age may never- 
 theless be authorized to build industrial schools. Communes 
 may unite to establish an industrial school if the total number 
 of workers within the compulsory law is at least sixty, on the 
 average, for three consecutive years. 
 
 With the approval of the Higher Industrial School Council 
 the communes may be authorized to collect tuition from the 
 pupils. The stipulation may be made that the employers 
 must advance the amount of the tuition. The state pays 
 half of the amount required for maintenance after the tui- 
 tion and gifts are applied toward it. The minimum number 
 of hours of instruction, that is the hours each obligated 
 student must attend, for each of the three years, is 280, to be 
 further reduced only by action of the Higher Industrial School 
 Council. The instruction is to be given throughout the year 
 if possible, although in the case of industries- which have a 
 
387] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 37 
 
 regular shutdown season, the instruction may be lumped at 
 this time, with due regard to the minimum requirement. The 
 compulsory instruction is to be given in the daytime, not later 
 than 7 P.M., although the Higher Industrial School Council may 
 in individual cases permit it to be given as late as 8 P.M., for a 
 period of three years, and for a period of seven years may allow 
 the instruction in drawing to be given on Sunday forenoon dur- 
 ing the two hours preceding or following the chief divine services. 
 
 The general course of study to be followed will be issued at 
 a future date, since two years must elapse before it is strictly 
 needed. Employers are obligated to inform the industrial school 
 principal as to each and every worker of the compulsory age who 
 enters or leaves their employment, within four days after such 
 time. They are further required to release these workers for 
 attendance at school at the necessary periods, as well as to see 
 to it that such attendance is punctual and regular. Fulfilment 
 of the latter requirement is also made the duty of parents and 
 guardians. The penalty to be inflicted upon employer, parent, 
 or guardian responsible for violations of the attendance law 
 is to be up to $4.00 for each offence, or imprisonment for as much 
 as three days. The pupils responsible for such derelictions are 
 punished under the regulations applicable to the general im- 
 provement schools, that is, a fine of at least $.24 or "school 
 arrest" imprisonment in the school jail. As in the case of the 
 general improvement schools, students of the industrial schools 
 who are under seventeen years of age are forbidden to enter 
 drinking places unless accompanied by an older responsible per- 
 son, or else when on a journey, or at the parent's place of business. 
 Penalties for the transgression of this law are the same as for 
 non-attendance at school. 
 
 The instruction in the industrial school is preferably given 
 by teachers employed for the school exclusively, but also by 
 those who teach in other schools or who engage in some other 
 occupation as a chief employment. Those employed to 
 teach principally in the industrial schools must be appointed 
 by the state. In case the state appoints for life, the com- 
 mune is allowed to propose names. Appointment to part 
 time positions is made by the commune, with the approval of 
 the Higher Industrial School Council. Those men employed as 
 full time teachers have all the rights of state employees as to 
 
38 Teachers College Record [388 
 
 pension and other emoluments. Women employed for life have 
 the same privileges as those instructing in the higher schools for 
 girls, except that they must be unmarried at the time of ap- 
 pointment and are under the authority of the industrial school 
 principal, of the industrial school board and of the higher 
 authority. 
 
 Each industrial or commercial school is under the direct local 
 supervision respectively of an "industrial school board" or a 
 "commercial school board." The mayor and the principal of 
 the school concerned are ex-officio members of this body. A 
 special advisory committee of eighteen members instructors or 
 school principals and representatives of industries is appointed 
 by the Ministry for a term of four years, to assist in preparing 
 the course of study for the industrial and commercial schools 
 and for the purpose of advising in other matters of importance 
 This committee as well as the Higher Industrial School Council 
 is presided over by the President of the Central Bureau. 
 
 The Act above outlined expressed the results of years of expe- 
 rience, and the careful thought of industrial employers, workers, 
 and educationalists. Naturally enough the first statement of 
 the need for more thorough industrial training originated outside 
 of the ranks of schoolmen. Wuerttemberg, lacking coal and 
 water-power and the other special facilities that tend to aid indus- 
 trial expansion, was forced to rely upon a better quality of manu- 
 facture instead of looking to quantity alone. It was necessary 
 to lead in this respect to avoid industrial ruin. Earlier expe- 
 rience had taught what the industrial schools might be expected 
 to accomplish in the way of promoting efficiency. The experi- 
 ment of day-school classes, for the same length of time, produced 
 results immeasurably greater than did the evening classes held 
 in the same cities. The day vocational school proved to be as 
 far ahead of the evening school as the latter was in advance of 
 the limited Sunday instruction. It was argued that the business 
 of learning is a delicate one, requiring for its complete success 
 an active, unwearied brain. The pupils were too fatigued 
 to accomplish the best results in the evenings that they put 
 forth supreme efforts, all agreed. The evening classes are as 
 successful as could be expected, in Wuerttemberg, as in the other 
 German states, in France, and in England. But it was agreed 
 that Wuerttemberg must take an advanced position in respect 
 
389] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 39 
 
 to vocational training if it would keep well to the fore in the in- 
 dustrial contest. 
 
 The compulsory attendance requirement was not planned 
 wholly as a means of increasing the number of students in the 
 vocational schools it was pointed out that only four or five 
 thousands more would be added to the school attendance through 
 this provision, it was rather intended to make the day schools 
 possible by removing the restraints that might be imposed by 
 certain employers, parents, and guardians who might otherwise 
 not be willing to release the young workers each week at a 
 period in which they could be profitably employed in the busi- 
 ness. Also it was desirable that the Higher Industrial School 
 Council should be able to say to a commune: "You must provide 
 the opportunity for industrial training, by the erection and 
 maintenance of a vocational school." Wuerttemberg already has 
 a considerable number of industrial schools made compulsory 
 by vote of the localities. Several of them owe their origin to 
 the fact that the communities are chiefly industrial, and that 
 the state appropriation to the industrial schools is more than 
 that made to the general improvement schools hence by making 
 attendance compulsory the general improvement school may be 
 done away with altogether. 
 
 By I9o4-'o5, there were 22 compulsory industrial improve- 
 ment schools out of a total of 150, and two compulsory com- 
 mercial improvement schools, in a total of four. However > 
 the attendance in the non-compulsory schools of Wuerttem- 
 berg has been very fair. They have been more common in 
 the larger places. While the 22 compulsory industrial schools 
 of 1905 averaged about 61 enrolled, the 128 optional schools 
 averaged 134. Similarly, the two compulsory commercial 
 schools averaged 112, to the average of 510 in the two non- 
 compulsory commercial improvement schools. A large per- 
 centage of the communes in Baden have succeeded in passing 
 the compulsory requirement made possible under the Imperial 
 law. 1 In 1904, Baden had 47 highly developed industrial 
 
 1 The Imperial ordinance made it possible for a commune to decide 
 upon compulsory attendance for industrial improvement schools without 
 the necessity of awaiting the action of the state. A committee of 
 the Imperial Reichstag in 1906 outlined a further step by calling for 
 suggestions from the various governments looking toward the final en 
 
40 Teachers College Record [390 
 
 schools, 102 lesser industrial improvement schools, and n com- 
 mercial improvement schools, of which only three of the in- 
 dustrial schools had not been made compulsory. Likewise in 
 Prussia, in 1903, out of 1209 industrial improvement schools with 
 189,068 students, 1082 with 156,757 students had been made 
 compulsory, and of 273 commercial improvement schools with 
 2 9>765 pupils, 182 with 18,509 in attendance had been made 
 compulsory. Berlin, notably, has introduced compulsory at- 
 tendance for young workmen, and has entered upon a similar 
 project in the case of young women employed in the industries- 
 Bavaria, in 1904, had local compulsory attendance provision for 
 217 of 301 industrial improvement schools. Munich, with its 
 constant quota of 6000 apprentices, has for several years en- 
 forced a compulsory attendance regulation for industrial schools. 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin, through an ordinance which went into 
 effect on April 13, 1905, has succeeded in making the industrial 
 schools compulsory to about the same extent as Baden. 
 
 The recent Wuerttemberg law goes farther than the others 
 and makes attendance compulsory for all communes having at 
 least forty workmen under eighteen years of age. While the new 
 law will apply to several communes that have not yet established 
 industrial improvement schools, it affects only 101 of the 136 
 communes which had such schools in 1903. That does not 
 mean that the remaining localities may not continue to maintain 
 industrial improvement schools they only need to comply with 
 the provisions of the law and to- secure the approval of the Higher 
 Industrial School Council in order to receive a share in the state 
 funds devoted to the purpose. The compulsory requirement 
 takes into account the number of workers employed in a com- 
 munity. This seemed more practical than to take the total 
 population of a locality as a basis, because of the differences in 
 the development of the various industries and because of the 
 greater convenience in obtaining attendance at school in the 
 same locality in which the worker is employed. 
 
 Local conditions are to determine whether young men work- 
 ing in certain unskilled industries or as apprentices to butchers, 
 bakers, tanners, dyers, barbers, and hotel men, shall be held 
 to attendance in the industrial, or in the general improvement 
 
 actment of an Imperial compulsory law that will not be optional a law 
 similar to that of Wuerttemberg to be applied everywhere in Germany. 
 
391] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 41 
 
 schools. There is no question but that the apprentices in indus- 
 tries requiring greater skill will be given first attention in the 
 industrial improvement schools. Those belonging to unskilled 
 industries will at least be excused from drawing, in many in- 
 stances, although an argument against such a move has been 
 advanced in some localities. It is claimed, for instance, that the 
 bakers' apprentices rarely stay in the business until the age of 
 thirty, because the wages are too low to permit them to marry, 
 and so they change to some more remunerative trade requiring 
 greater skill. The principles of industrial drawing are considered 
 most practical for application in almost any skilled industry. 
 Hence many communes will require industrial drawing to be 
 studied by all. Those communes which do not do so will be 
 influenced chiefly by financial reasons. 
 
 The day attendance and compulsory features of the new law 
 received some opposition from small industrial employers who 
 feared that their business would be disadvantaged through the 
 loss of the time of their employees. The opposition of these 
 men was more than counterbalanced by the action of the 
 Handwerkskammern, or unions of small industrial employers, 
 which voted overwhelmingly in favor of the law. 
 
 Commercial schools will be opened side by side with the 
 industrial schools in the larger cities only perhaps in none other 
 than those already equipped with similar schools. In some 
 smaller places, commercial classes may be organized in the 
 industrial schools. The German states have long been accus- 
 tomed to make commercial education a matter of government 
 concern. Bavaria, by law of 1873, directed that private com- 
 mercial schools should only be erected after the approval of the 
 government had been obtained. Saxony decreed likewise in 
 1880, and Baden has a similar law. 
 
 The work of the industrial improvement schools in Wuerttem- 
 berg has hitherto been chiefly in the hands of a body of in- 
 structors who, though very excellent in their special lines (and 
 holders perforce of state certificates in proof of this fact), have 
 been principally employed in other schools or in business 
 vocations, 1 and have carried on the industrial teaching as a side 
 
 *In 1905, there were 654 drawing instructors connected with Wuerttem- 
 berg industrial improvement and "women's work" schools, and 952 
 teachers of other subjects engaged in these and the commercial improve- 
 
42 Teachers College Record [392 
 
 issue. Under the new system the standards, ever high, have 
 been raised considerably. The teaching of elementary in- 
 dustrial subjects has been elevated to the dignity of a profession 
 sufficient unto itself. In order that only those with the highest 
 qualifications may be permanently placed, it has been considered 
 inadvisable to establish the schools on the new basis until pro- 
 vision for an even better trained corps of teachers has been made. 
 Herein lies the all-important reason for setting the period for the 
 principal reconstruction of the industrial improvement schools at 
 1909 to 1912. School boards that anticipate the new regulations 
 by petitioning to have their institutions put on the new basis at 
 once are frowned upon. Wuerttemberg, a country which has 
 afforded the opportunity for elementary vocational teaching 
 for several generations, confesses that it has not a force suffi- 
 ciently trained to equip the schools under the new standards. 
 The excellent vocational instruction of the present is branded 
 as wholly inadequate. What is to be done? 
 
 The state, through the Central Bureau for Industry and 
 Commerce, and with the co-operation of the Educational 
 Ministry, is providing for the further training of a chosen corps 
 of teachers, selected. by the Higher School Boards. Thirty- 
 eight such candidates for the industrial improvement schools 
 were sent to the Normal Training Division for Industrial Teachers 
 of the Grand Ducal Building Trades School of Karlsruhe, 
 Baden, in 1906, and twenty or more other individuals will be 
 added to the number each year until a full and sufficient quota 
 has been obtained. About one hundred such trained instructors 
 are needed for the first year of the operation of the new law. 
 The candidates sent to Karlsruhe are from the best of the men 
 teachers in the common schools, as a rule, though the "realistic" 
 schools and expert practitioners are also represented in the lot. 
 The ages are twenty-six to thirty. At Karlsruhe the course is 
 
 ment schools. Only a few of the teachers of drawing (20 men and 2 
 women) alone, were chiefly occupied in these schools. The others were 
 performing the work as a secondary occupation (Nebenamt), The handi- 
 crafts associations of Wuerttemberg were unanimously in favor of chang- 
 ing these conditions so that the great majority of the teachers of the 
 industrial improvement schools especially in the larger towns and cities 
 should be permanently appointed (in Hauptamt} by the state to devote 
 their chief attention to this work. Under the new law this is a settled 
 policy. 
 
3931 Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 43 
 
 three and one-half years in duration. The candidates from 
 among the teachers have already had the pedagogical training 
 of a normal school course. The men are also obliged to spend 
 six months in practical work. This is done during the vacation 
 months August and September of the ensuing summers. 
 
 The choosing of common-school teachers, for the most part, 
 for this work is rather the outcome of reasons of expediency than 
 of any other causes. Skilled practitioners in the vocations, men 
 at the same time of broad intelligence, who would make good 
 instructors, are equally desirable but harder to get. Such men 
 would be obliged to take a course of at least one year in ped- 
 agogical subjects, whereas the ordinary teacher, lacking thorough 
 technical training in vocational subjects, is obliged to attend a 
 higher vocational school for three and one-half years, with an 
 added six months of practical working experience. In Prussia, 
 teachers have been prepared for vocational instructing in three 
 or four months, but the Wuerttemberg employers of skilled 
 labor would not agree to this. They desire that the teachers 
 shall be practical in the highest degree, since they (the em- 
 ployers) must make sacrifices under the new law. The can- 
 didates at Karlsruhe receive an annual stipend of $240 from the 
 Wuerttemberg government, a sum quite sufficient for their 
 actual needs, since living expenses and tuition are low, and the 
 two capitals are only two hours apart by fast express. 
 
 It is natural to ask why the industrial teachers do not receive 
 their higher training at the Building Trades School of Stuttgart, 
 a school which in many particulars is rated as the best of its 
 kind in Germany. The answer is not far to seek. It is not in 
 disparagement of the work of the Stuttgart Building Trades 
 School many of whose graduates are already in vocational 
 teaching in Wuerttemberg that the candidates are sent to an 
 adjoining state, but simply because Karlsruhe has developed 
 an unusually good Normal Training Department (established in 
 1882) and is better equipped for undertaking the preparation 
 of teachers of elementary industrial subjects. The Stuttgart 
 school does not seem to care to undertake this work. At Karls- 
 ruhe those in the Normal Department also take up subjects in 
 the Electrical, Mechanical, or Constructive Engineering Depart- 
 ments, according to the specialty chosen. In addition the 
 students have extended courses in higher mathematics, physics, 
 
44 Teachers College Record [394 
 
 descriptive geometry, industrial drawing, and designing. Stu- 
 dents entering the Normal Division are required to have had a 
 common normal school course, or the equivalent of the sixth 
 year's course of a "middle school." The earliest age for entrance 
 is eighteen. Graduates of a normal school must have taught, 
 also, and must produce evidence that they have worked at in- 
 dustrial employment for at least eight weeks. Others are 
 required to show evidence of at least six months' practical work, 
 The matriculation fee at Karlsruhe has been $1.20; the tuition. 
 $7.20 per semester; the laboratory fee, $4.80 per half-year. 
 
 The teachers intended for the reorganized commercial im- 
 provement schools will be sent to such German universities] as 
 Leipzig, which is especially strong in commercial subjects, for 
 their training. Also, a preparatory course for such teachers, of 
 about three semesters in duration, was established^, at^ Stutt- 
 gart in the spring of 1907. Commercial teaching candidates 
 will be selected from among the teachers in Realsckulen, or from 
 practical workers of rare ability. A few will be sent to America 
 for training in commercial school methods. In electrical 
 engineering, too, Wuerttemberg is looking to the United States 
 for ideas, and already has a student teacher here, with others 
 to follow. 
 
 In the future, as in the past, drawing will be by all odds the 
 most important subject taught in the industrial schools. In 
 both industrial and commercial schools the other basic subjects 
 will continue to be: (i) Arithmetic (industrial or commercial); 
 (2) German (including business correspondence and forms, 
 suited to the special school); (3) bookkeeping (industrial or 
 commercial). With these as a basis, the instruction will be 
 differentiated in the necessary directions. As far back as 1889, 
 the subjects studied most were free-hand drawing and paint- 
 ing taken by 50 per cent, of the students in the 168 industrial 
 improvement schools for men in .Wuerttemberg at the time ; in- 
 dustrial arithmetic, 35 per cent.; German (including business 
 forms, etc.), 32 per cent.; special technical drawing, 29 per cent.; 
 geometrical drawing, 21 per cent. At the same time, in the 168 
 industrial and commercial improvement schools, the 1 5 industrial 
 improvement schools for women, and the 16 "women's work" 
 schools, instruction was given in the following subjects in the 
 number of schools indicated by the figures : industrial arithmetic, 
 
395] Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 45 
 
 142; commercial arithmetic, 19; geometry and geometrical com- 
 putation, 33; descriptive geometry, 76; geometrical drawing, 
 152; special technical drawing, 138; free-hand drawing, 179; 
 theory of style and color, 4; modelling and woodcarving, 22; 
 engraving and chiselling, 3 ; physics, 47 ; chemistry, 5 ; engineer- 
 ing, 3; mother tongue (esp. business forms), 152; penmanship 
 and orthography, 60; stenography, 7; industrial bookkeeping, 
 99; commercial bookkeeping, 12; exchange, 6; French, 38; 
 English, 19; Italian, 2 ; politico-economic subjects, 34; com- 
 mercial geography and history, 20 ; German literature, 6 ; house- 
 keeping materials, 2; hygiene, 2. The various subjects were 
 still further differentiated into courses intended for single or 
 allied industries. 
 
 The program of the Stuttgart Industrial School at the present 
 time, one of the best of its kind, is outlined in another chapter. 
 When the new plan is, in force, what are known as common 
 school subjects will be eliminated from the programs wherever 
 possible. That is, when arithmetic is taught, it will be in- 
 dustrial or commercial arithmetic, and similarly in the case of 
 the other subjects. At the time the recent law was enacted an 
 effort was made by representatives of the Church to introduce 
 obligatory instruction in religion such as the common schools 
 of Wuerttemberg and the other German states require into 
 the programs of the industrial improvement schools, but the 
 attempt failed. In general the policy was adopted of excluding 
 all general culture subjects. In Baden, Bavaria, and Prussia, 
 an effort in the same direction to exclude the general culture 
 subjects from the curriculum of the industrial improvement 
 school has'recently been made. As late as 1 905 Prussia repulsed 
 a proposal to introduce the teaching of religion as an obligatory 
 subject in the industrial improvement schools. 
 
 The Higher Industrial School Board of Wuerttemberg will insist 
 that the instruction given shall be spread over the ten months of 
 school if possible, in order that the theory gradually acquired may 
 be reinforced step by step through practical work in the industry, 
 and that the whole curriculum may not be hurled at the luckless 
 students during the off months of the season, when there is 
 neither the opportunity for theory and practice to go hand in 
 hand, nor the time to grasp thoroughly the instruction offered. 
 Effectively opposing the few near-sighted employers who would 
 
46 Teachers College Record [396 
 
 have the instruction lumped into the dull months of the year 
 the Higher Industrial School Board recommends, and will enforce 
 in so far as is practicable the provision that instruction shall be 
 given throughout ten months at the rate of at least seven hours 
 per week, preferably on two afternoons out of each seven days. 
 The minimum of 280 hours per year for three years is in lieu of 
 the present average of 180 hours for each of two successive 
 years. The practical work is to be done, in general, in the 
 workshop of the employer. However, the industrial improve- 
 ment schools of the larger towns will be equipped with their own 
 workshops, for special purposes. 
 
 The industrial and commercial improvement school boards 
 will continue the general policy of demanding a small tuition 
 fee, although this will be altogether done away with in a few 
 communes. The fees will average only 24 to 48 cents per term 
 in the majority of the schools. As it is, the state will have an 
 increase in the annual expenditure of about $60,000 to meet, 
 according to Minister Weizsaecker, by the year 1912, when the 
 law will be in full operation. This does not include the extra- 
 ordinary items appropriated for building. Wuerttemberg has 
 for many years paid more per head of population for industrial 
 improvement schools than the neighboring states. The central 
 apportionment for these institutions a few years ago averaged 
 in Wuerttemberg approximately $0.06; in Baden $0.05; in 
 Bavaria $0.03 ; in Saxony $.0075. At present the Wuerttemberg 
 central government pays out $73,000 to $75,000 a year for the 
 industrial and commercial improvement schools and for the 
 "women's work" schools. The amount of tuition paid in is 
 somewhat less than this and the communal share in the mainten- 
 ance is practically the same as that of the state. All three items 
 must be added together to give the total expenditure upon the 
 schools of this kind. Tuition fees in general have not changed 
 materially since 1888- '89, when the Stuttgart commercial im- 
 provement school demanded $12 to $14 per year, 1 and the 
 industrial improvement schools were charging as follows: three 
 of them, a tuition of $3.57 to $9.33 yearly; one, $2.86; one, $2.38 ; 
 one $2.15; two, $1.90; three, $1.42; two, $1.19; fourteen, $1.02 
 
 i Now $3.60 for compulsory course, or $1.44 per single hour weekly 
 running through the year, when subjects are chosen, but in no case to 
 xceed $Q per year. 
 
3971 Reorganization of Industrial Improvement Schools 47 
 
 to $1.25, thirty-six, $0.58 to $0.71; fifty-nine, $0.24 to $0.58; 
 forty-five, less than $0.24, or even no charge at all. The chief 
 argument advanced in behalf of the tuition fee is its beneficent 
 effect on the pupils themselves, who are said to appreciate more 
 thoroughly that which they pay for, even if the fee be very small. 
 However, the principle of charging a tuition fee is carried out in 
 connection with all the public schools of Wuerttemberg, in 
 general, of whatever nature. Communes have the power of 
 doing away with the tuition, with the approval of the higher 
 boards. They are usually expected to assume the deficit that 
 such action would cause. Stuttgart has in recent years done 
 away with the tuition in the common or "people's" schools. 
 In such institutions the tuition is often as low as $0.24 per year, 
 and in no case is it what one might term a high fee. 
 
 The question of the increase in efficiency through attendance 
 at an industrial or commercial school has long ago been placed 
 beyond the pale. of doubt in Wuerttemberg. It is now accepted 
 as a matter of course, and some statistics gathered at first hand 
 from employers, apprentices, and parents, by the present writer, 
 confirm the soundness of this belief. In a word, the employers 
 are uniformly enthusiastic over the results obtained through 
 these schools and the workers are similarly minded. The 
 institutions make it possible for all, who are willing, to obtain 
 employment. The higher quality of the work that is done 
 enables the manufacturers to compete successfully in the 
 markets of the world, and even in times of general depression to 
 keep their workers employed at a wage which, for Europe, is 
 very good, and advances according to skill. For years it has 
 been extremely difficult for the few young men who have not 
 had the advantages of a vocational school training, and who 
 do not show a disposition to avail themselves of its opportunities, 
 to obtain work from intelligent employers. As final proof, we 
 must remember that the vocational school laws of Wuerttem- 
 berg have ever been chiefly instigated by business men, and 
 that the recent advanced legislation in this direction is mainly 
 the work of employers, guided by the helpful counsel of Pres- 
 ident von Mosthaf of the Central Bureau for Industry and 
 Commerce, a department of the Interior Ministry in this little 
 Kingdom which is in more effective relations with the producing 
 interests of the country than any other agency I know of the 
 
48 Teachers College Record [398 
 
 world over. The Educational Ministry, it might well be said, 
 merely furnished the pedagogical trimmings of the Bill. 
 
 Some further discussion of the part taken by the state and 
 by the commune in the maintenance of industrial and com- 
 mercial improvement schools, and concerning the salaries of 
 the individual teachers, the sale of objects manufactured in the 
 industrial schools, the attitude of the unions, and kindred topics 
 will be found in the succeeding chapters. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL OF STUTTGART, AND THE COMMERCIAL 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 Located in the metropolis of a kingdom that is distinctly in 
 the lead for the universality of its elementary industrial train- 
 ing, the Stuttgart Industrial Improvement School, as an example 
 of a highly developed institution of its kind, is worthy of close 
 study. In this industrial center and capital there is every 
 advantage for obtaining skilled instructors. And the quality 
 of the work done here is not to be measured by the character of 
 the plain building an anomaly in Stuttgart school architecture 
 in which the classes are for the most part housed. That it is 
 opportunity that draws students hither is evidenced not alone 
 by numbers, but by the earnestness of the work that is done and 
 by the attendance of many pupils of advanced years. In 1906, 
 1600 men and 346 girls and women were in attendance. The 
 commercial improvement school is aii institution entirely 
 separate in Stuttgart. The Industrial School offers the oppor- 
 tunity to fulfil the conditions of the compulsory improvement 
 school law, and in addition gives extended courses for all in- 
 dustries and ages. For some time it has afforded: (i) day 
 courses on working days; (2) evening courses on the evenings 
 of working days; (3) special technical courses for the separate 
 trades and industries; and (4) evening courses for girls and 
 
THE KINGDOM OF WUERTTEMBERG 
 
 Map showing the Jo cation of the Industrial 
 Improvement Schools Il68f>r men. and \5for 
 girls and women] and"Womeris Work' Schools 
 (16 in number) in the year 1889. Wherevera. 
 school was attended also oy students coming 
 from outside the central town, the fact is in- 
 dicated ty d line ccnnecti-ng the tu/o localities. 
 Only those towns supporting vocational 
 schools are found on this map. 
 Wuerttemberg is about the size of Nw Jersey. 
 
399] Industrial School of Stuttgart and Commercial Schools 49 
 
 women. The evening courses classify into elementary and 
 special technical divisions. Pupils under seventeen are at 
 present obliged to consult the direction of the school as to 
 choice of subjects studied. Any course taken up must be 
 continued to the end. Those in the elementary course must 
 study all subjects belonging to the division. The compulsory 
 improvement school law is at present complied with when a 
 pupil is: (i) enrolled in the elementary division; (2) in the 
 special technical division, and taking at least 100 hours of 
 scientific subjects per year; (3) in the day courses, or in the 
 special courses. Pupils are required to be punctual and reg- 
 ular in attendance. Fifteen minutes after the session com- 
 mences the doors are closed and tardy students are not admitted 
 thereafter. But, for that matter, regularity and punctuality 
 in attendance have long since become automatic in Wuerttem- 
 berg. The courses begin October i. Summer holiday months 
 are August and September. 
 
 The 1600 boys and men in attendance at Stuttgart in 1906 
 represented 85 separate trades and industries. Only 15 in- 
 dividuals had not yet chosen a vocation. The following trades 
 and industries were represented in greatest numbers: mechan- 
 icians, 175; locksmiths, 171; cabinet-makers, 150; painters, 94; 
 upholsterers and paper-hangers, 62; printers, 51; bookbinders, 
 49 ; servants and errand boys, 46 ; fine mechanics, 45 ; gardeners, 
 43 ; typesetters, 43 ; carpenters, 41 ; electrical engineers, 41 ; 
 architects, 35; sculptors, 33; tinsmiths and braziers, 25; zinc- 
 ographers, 24; engravers, 24; lithographers, 23; glaziers, 22; 
 masons, 21. .Each of the other trades and industries was rep- 
 resented by less than twenty. 
 
 In the special technical divisions were 236 male students under 
 17, and 270 over 17; in the elementary division, 881 males 
 under 17, and only 4 over 17; in the day and special courses, 
 158 males under 17, and 51 above that age. Fifty-eight pupils 
 came regularly from beyond the city limits. 
 
 The following table, showing the training received by the 
 1946 students in the Stuttgart Industrial School, prior to their 
 confirmation in the church, is interesting as indicating the source 
 of those engaged in industrial occupations: 
 
 
Teachers College Record 
 
 [400 
 
 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 Latin 
 
 
 
 Pupils Enrolled 
 
 Common 
 School 
 
 and 
 ' ' Buer- 
 ger"- 
 School 
 
 Real- 
 School 
 
 School 
 and 
 Gym- 
 nasium 
 
 Higher 
 Girls' 
 School 
 
 Total 
 
 In the Special Tech- 
 nical Division 
 
 353 
 
 74 
 
 66 
 
 *3 
 
 
 506 
 
 In the Elementary 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Division 
 
 822 
 
 33 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 
 885 
 
 In the Day and Spe- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cial Courses 
 
 155 
 
 27 
 
 2 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 209 
 
 In the Courses for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Girls and Wo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 men 
 
 208 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 117 
 
 346 
 
 Totals 
 
 L538 
 
 *55 
 
 "5 
 
 21 
 
 117 
 
 1,946 
 
 It will be seen that fully 79 per cent, of the industrial pupils 
 are from the common schools, and about one per cent, had early 
 training in a classical school for boys. 
 
 The day courses are divided into : (a) the instruction given 
 in the public drawing salon for free-hand drawing, industrial 
 art drawing, and decorative painting; (b) afternoon instruction; 
 (c) instruction in water color. 
 
 Each subject in the first-mentioned division is given in two 
 courses, the one throughout the year and the other a six months' 
 course from October to May, exclusive. The drawing salon is 
 open daily from 8 A.M. to 12 M., and from 2 P.M. to 4.30 P.M., 
 Saturday afternoon excepted. The public drawing salon is 
 found in the larger towns of Wuerttemberg. The instructors 
 have their studios in adjoining rooms, and inspect and direct as 
 needed the individual work that is being done by pupils in the 
 larger hall. The instruction given in free-hand drawing in the 
 Stuttgart day course is intended for advanced pupils. That 
 given in special technical drawing presupposes practical voca- 
 tional experience. The ten months' course was given to 15 
 pupils in 1906, and the six months' course to 8 pupils. The 
 tuition in this division is $2.40 to $3.57 per semester (depend- 
 ing on time of entrance) for all subjects. The day courses in 
 technical drawing are for carpenters, stone cutters, masons, 
 locksmiths, and gardeners geometrical and projective drawing 
 with reference to the trade concerned. Then comes the working 
 
40 1 ] Industrial School of Stuttgart and Commercial Schools 5 1 
 
 out of plans and working drawings in accordance with models 
 and sketches taken as subject-matter. 
 
 The afternoon instruction is given on four week-days from 
 5 to 7 P.M., and on one from 4 to 7 P.M. All branches of free- 
 hand drawing are taught, as also arithmetic, composition, and 
 bookkeeping. Tuition $1.20 to $2.40 per semester, giving 
 access to all subjects. 
 
 The evening courses have hitherto been divided into an 
 elementary division and a higher technical department. The 
 former was especially intended for pupils coming under the 
 provisions of the industrial improvement law, and will in the 
 course of events be transferred to the daytime. The instruction 
 was given in 1906 during the six winter months, from 7 to 9 
 P.M., in two successive yearly courses (to be increased to three). 
 In the first course, those pupils engaged in industrial pursuits are 
 received at the age of fourteen directly after their confirmation in 
 the church, and subsequent release from the common schools. 
 In the second course are either graduates of the first, or pupils 
 who have elsewhere received the requisite instruction. Pupils 
 of the elementary division are obliged to take all the subjects in 
 a given yearly course. For bakers, waiters, cooks, butchers, 
 musicians, dentists, clerks, vintners, coachmen, servants, and 
 errand boys the instruction in drawing is optional. The 
 elementary courses prepare for the special technical courses. 
 The tuition is $1.43 per year. The first year's course was given 
 in 19 parallel classes in 1906, with two hours each weekly in free- 
 hand drawing, geometric drawing, industrial arithmetic, and 
 composition, and one hour each per week in bookkeeping and 
 penmanship. The average number in each one of the parallel 
 classes was 27. The second year's course was given in 16 par- 
 allel classes, averaging 21 each, with two hours weekly in pro- 
 jective drawing, arithmetic, and composition, four in free-hand 
 drawing, and one in bookkeeping. A course without drawing 
 (with civil government added) was given to 29 pupils. 
 
 The courses of the "technical" division, in the evening, offer 
 the opportunity for intensified instruction along higher special 
 lines. Pupils of this division, whose age is seventeen or more, 
 and who are sufficiently prepared, may choose their own sub- 
 jects. Instruction is given in the months from October to May, 
 exclusive, from 7 to 9 P.M. The instruction in drawing and 
 
52 Teachers College Record [402 
 
 modelling, however, is continued throughout the year. Tuition is 
 $2.40 for six or eight months, and somewhat less for fractional 
 periods. On the list of subjects are: free-hand drawing, or- 
 namental drawing, blackboard sketching, modelling, geometrical 
 drawing, protective and descriptive geometry, from two to six 
 hours each per week; mechanical drawing (6), business forms 
 (2), industrial arithmetic (4), elementary geometry (4), engineer- 
 ing (4), physics (4), electrotechnics (4), French (6), ornamental 
 penmanship (2), industrial art ornamentation and style (2), 
 industrial bookkeeping (i), stenography (i), penmanship (i), 
 civic instruction (i), and industrial drawing (4 to 6). The last- 
 named subject is taught in five divisions and eight classes as 
 follows: (a) For cabinet-makers, glaziers, turners, tinsmiths, 
 etc.; (b) for architects, carpenters, stone-cutters, and masons; 
 (c) for locksmiths, etc.; (d) for skilled mechanics, electricians, 
 and watchmakers; (e) for upholsterers, paper-hangers, and 
 decorators. 
 
 Under the heading of special technical work, courses are 
 established for gardeners, printers, and compositors, with 
 especial reference to the needs of such students. The courses 
 for printers and compositors are given in the daytime (from 7 
 to 10 A.M.) and the courses for gardeners partly during the day 
 (Sunday, 10.30 A.M. to 12.30 P.M.) and partly during the evening 
 (on work-days, from 7 to 9 P.M.) The former courses continue 
 throughout the ten months, whereas the instruction for gar- 
 deners is of only four months' duration. Tuition $1.20 and 
 $1.44, respectively. The gardeners study drawing, painting, 
 composition, industrial arithmetic, bookkeeping, and penman- 
 ship. The courses for printers and compositors are of two years, 
 duration, and comprise work in Latin and French (for compos- 
 itors), German, bookkeeping, industrial arithmetic, and drawing. 
 
 The courses for girls and women are given in a "scientific" 
 and an industrial art division. The "scientific" department 
 affords the regular industrial improvement work for girls and 
 women, whereas a special industrial art division occupies the 
 place that is filled for the other sex by the Industrial Art School. 
 In the scientific division, composition, bookkeeping, arithmetic, 
 and penmanship must be taken together. The other subjects 
 French, geometric drawing, stenography, English, geography, 
 history, hygiene, and German literature are optional. The 
 
403] Industrial School of Stuttgart and Commercial Schools 53 
 
 instruction lasts throughout six months except in the case of 
 the language subjects, which extend over eight months. On 
 work-days the instruction is given between 2 and 6.30 P.M. 
 The group subjects named above were taught in 1906 in eight 
 divisions, with a total attendance of 210. Each of the four 
 subjects required two hours weekly, except penmanship, one 
 hour. 
 
 The industrial art division for girls and women is established 
 in a separate building, but like the scientific division is under 
 the same management and direction (Rector) as the department 
 for men. A large proportion of the students of the industrial 
 art division for girls undertake the work for their own pleasure, 
 although many of the graduates find profitable employment in 
 art industries, and others, after a four years' course, take the 
 state examinations and become teachers of drawing or of in- 
 dustrial art. The winter course extends over six months, and 
 the summer course for four. The instruction is given in the 
 daytime. The tuition depends on the subjects chosen, but 
 cannot exceed $6. A workshop, for practical application of 
 the theory learned in the classroom, is attached to the institution. 
 Fine lacework, wood-carving, and the making of pottery are 
 the principal subjects for practical effort. The pupils pay for 
 the colors. Other materials are furnished gratis. Spine of the 
 products are sold for the profit of the school, but the amount 
 made in this way is small. Such sales occasion no adverse 
 comment on the part of those regularly employed, as the school 
 does not manufacture articles in large quantities. It is all 
 individual work, done by hand. Pupils are paid a percentage 
 on what is sold. Courses are given in this division in elementary 
 geometrical drawing, projective geometry, perspective, free 
 hand, the study of draperies, industrial art drawing and paint- 
 ing, landscape drawing and water color, wood-carving, art em- 
 broidery, ceramic art and painting on glass, studies of the state 
 collections, sketching in the Industrial Museum and in the Royal 
 Cabinet of Natural Curiosities, figure drawing, drawing from the 
 nude, theory of ornamental and architectural structure, and the 
 history of art. 
 
 An examination of the official programs discloses the fact 
 that thirty -six of the instructors (out of about 125) in the division 
 for male students of the Industrial School of Stuttgart and 
 
54 Teachers College Record [404 
 
 three instructors in the division for girls and women are skilled 
 individuals engaged in the active practice of the chosen work, in 
 addition to teaching. Among the other instructors are a few 
 principals of Real- and common schools, a few Real-school 
 teachers, and a larger number of instructors from the common 
 schools. All are specialists. 
 
 The fifteen industrial improvement schools and divisions for 
 girls and women in 1905, in Wuerttemberg, enrolled 1042 
 pupils. The number of these institutions is about the same as 
 it was twenty years ago. However, the "industry schools" for 
 girls enroll upwards of twice as many now as then, and are 
 much more efficient. A larger number of the female sex also 
 go in for the "women's work" schools, which have a total enrol- 
 ment over six times as great as that of the industrial improve- 
 ment schools and divisions for girls and women. Opportunities 
 for higher commercial instruction are offered in the higher girls' 
 schools. 
 
 Summary of the chief events in the history of the Stuttgart 
 Industrial School: In 1825, the Sunday Industrial School opened 
 in two separate parts of the city, and united, 1828. Evening 
 Industrial Improvement School established, 1854. Separate 
 division for girls and women (first in kingdom under public 
 schools system) opened 1861. Day courses for male students 
 grew out of earlier "public drawing salon" courses of the Central 
 Bureau for Industry and Commerce, and have been an integral 
 part of the City Industrial School since 1879. Elementary 
 division organized, 1883. 
 
 The receipts and expenditures of the Stuttgart Industrial 
 School, in the estimates for 1906, were as follows: Income from 
 tuition, $4308; expenditures, $36,607.72 (salaries $30,788.84; 
 other maintenance, $5818.88). The city paid special items 
 (tuition remitted, etc.), to the amount of $785.60, and the bal- 
 ance, $31,514.12, was paid for equally by the city and by the 
 state. There were nearly 3150 industrial school pupils in the 
 greater city. Leaving the expenditures of the state out of con- 
 sideration, the average cost per pupil to the city itself was about 
 $6.71 in the older city, $3.57 in the included suburb of Unter- 
 tuerkheim, and $2.32 in the newly annexed Cannstatt. 
 
 The principal of the Stuttgart Industrial School is paid a 
 salary of $1024 per year, with additional "indemnities" amount- 
 
405] Industrial School of Stuttgart and Commercial Schools 55 
 
 ing to $190. Next to the principal, the instructor in charge 
 of the public drawing salon receives the highest salary only 
 $1095 P er year. The instructors are in general paid according 
 to the number of hours taught, at the usual rate of about $0.75 
 per hour (in Stuttgart), ascending to $0.85 or in rare cases to 
 about $1.00 per hour. These prices seem very low in comparison 
 with American rates, but compare very favorably with other 
 pay in a country where living expenses are low. The usual pay 
 in the general or Sunday improvement schools in Wuerttemberg 
 is $0.24 per hour. 
 
 The commercial improvement schools in Wuerttemberg are 
 five in number at Stuttgart, Cannstatt, Esslingen, Heilbronn, 
 and Ludwigsburg. Besides these there are commercial divisions 
 in connection with 17 industrial improvement schools of the 
 kingdom. The school at Stuttgart is the most important 
 one. It was founded in 1854, and was taken over by the city in 
 1892. The most interesting faot in its regard is that it became 
 a compulsory school in 1905. Like three of the other cities hav- 
 ing commercial improvement institutions, Stuttgart passed a 
 local law making all young men under 18 years of age engaged 
 n commercial pursuits liable for attendance during three years 
 at the institution named. The state law of 1906 included the 
 commercial workers in the general compulsory law which goes 
 into full effect from 1909 to 1912. The Stuttgart commercial 
 improvement school will have its third year added to the com- 
 pulsory course in 1907. The attendance required is six to eight 
 hours per week, depending upon the year of the course. The 
 minimum will be the same as for the industrial improvement 
 schools after 1909. Merchants in Stuttgart express their dis- 
 pleasure at being obliged to do without their employees for the 
 required time each week, but it is evident that the sentiment is 
 becoming more favorable to the new regime with the lapse of 
 time. The employers are obliged to pay the tuition of their 
 apprentices of the statutory age. The amount is only $3.57 
 per year. 
 
 The school is coeducational and has about one thousand 
 pupils, of whom about seventy are girls. The latter are said 
 to be very diligent pupils. The students are housed in one 
 building, instead of being divided among several as in the case 
 of the industrial improvement school. In addition to the day 
 
56 Teachers College Record [406 
 
 courses for compulsory subjects there are optional courses given 
 in the mornings (6 to 7 in summer, and 7 to 8 in winter) and 
 evenings (7 to 9). Summer holidays extend from July 25 to 
 September 5. The compulsory students may be freed from 
 attendance if they frequent another school of equal rank in 
 commercial subjects, or whenever they are able to pass the final 
 examinations. Non-attendance is punishable by fines up to 
 $36 in cash, or four weeks in prison. Note that the fines are 
 levied against the employer, parent, or guardian responsible for 
 the non-attendance. 
 
 The lower year of the compulsory division contains three 
 subjects, each requiring two hours per week. They are: busi- 
 ness penmanship, mother tongue, and commercial arithmetic. 
 In the middle year, courses are given in commerce, commercial 
 correspondence, commercial arithmetic, and bookkeeping. The 
 higher course is to be established in I9o7-'o8. Elective sub- 
 jects are: German style, French, English, Italian, French 
 commercial correspondence, English commercial correspond- 
 ence, commercial geography and commercial history, com- 
 mercial and exchange law, political economy, tariff, stenog- 
 raphy, drawing, and physics. The subjects of the compulsory 
 division may also be elected. There are twelve classes in French 
 and five in English at present. Tuition for the electives is $1.43 
 per week hour carried through the year, with a maximum 
 charge of $8.57 per annum. Because of the higher tuition 
 charges, the deficit in the budget of the Stuttgart commercial 
 school, in 1906, was, in proportion to attendance, much smaller 
 than that of the industrial school. The tuition for the former 
 institution amounted to about $6000, and the final deficit 
 paid by the city was about $5000. To this add the $500 deficit 
 of Cannstatt. The state's share in the maintenance is on the 
 same basis as in the case of the industrial improvement schools. 
 The Higher Commercial School (or College) of Stuttgart is 
 an institution occupying in the three years of its lower courses 
 the same rank as a Wuerttemberg Real- school with a six years' 
 course, and in the particular alone that it is authorized to give 
 a certificate, upon completion of the lower division, releasing 
 from all but one year of military service, it is under the super- 
 vision of the Ministerial Division for Higlier Schools. Otherwise 
 it is a private school administered by a body of merchants and 
 
407] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 57 
 
 industrialists. While the lower division is entitled to add but a 
 few special commercial subjects, the higher department affords 
 a thorough theoretical training for commercial pursuits. The 
 school receives a state subsidy of $500 annually, and a city grant 
 of $300. The tuition is $37.50 to $75 per annum. The institu- 
 tion was founded in 1871 with 25 students in attendance. 
 There were about 125 at the time of the last report a fifth of 
 them in the higher division. Similar schools without state 
 support are found in Calw, Kirchheim, and Ulm. They are 
 allowed to prepare for the granting of the special military 
 certificate. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 OTHER INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, AND THE CENTRAL BUREAU FOR 
 INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 
 
 It has been seen that the lowest form of industrial training 
 in the Wuerttemberg school system is that of the "industry 
 school" the name for the industrial instruction given in the 
 common or "people's" schools, chiefly to girls. For boys, the 
 manual training in the common schools is confined mainly to 
 drawing. Together with the opportunities offered in the lower 
 grades of the Real- schools this represents nearly all that is done 
 by the state in the direction of industrial or commercial instruc- 
 tion for those under fourteen years of age. Up to this period the 
 industrial teaching is systematic, but somewhat restricted in 
 point of time. Each species of school in the Wuerttemberg 
 system has a very special purpose. That of the common schools 
 is thorough instruction in religion, and together with this a 
 comprehensive grounding in the "three R's." The authorities 
 insist that this program shall be adhered to, and that the purpose 
 of the common schools shall not be defeated by the introduction 
 of an undue amount of vocational instruction. Early differentia- 
 tion of courses is brought about in the choice of a school, the 
 "realistic" type of institution introducing early the study of 
 modern languages, more mathematics and science, whereas the 
 gymnasial type begins early with the classical languages. Both 
 are altogether different from the common schools, yet none of 
 these schools gives early vocational instruction. The proposal to 
 introduce "preparatory industrial schools," such as may be in- 
 
5 8 Teachers College Record [408 
 
 stanced by the Imperial Handwerkerschulen of Austria, or the 
 "pupil's workshops for the eighth classes" of the boys' schools in 
 Munich, admitting students from the age of twelve, has not met 
 with favor in Wuerttemberg, although for nearly thirty years the 
 state and the city of Stuttgart have subsidized a private venture 
 of this kind in the metropolis the Ritter Industrial Preparatory 
 School. This institution receives pupils at the early age of 
 eleven, and affords them opportunity for training in industrial 
 drawing and theoretical subjects until they enter upon the 
 active practice of an industry. Practical manual training in 
 wood and metal working, which forms a feature in the curricula 
 of the Austrian and Bavarian schools cited, is not found in the 
 program of the "Ritter" establishment. 
 
 The industrial and commercial improvement schools, already 
 described, take pupils under the compulsory law up to the age 
 of eighteen, and in the larger localities offer optional courses in 
 special technical subjects for all individuals, having the pre- 
 requisite training, who wish to attend. Similar in technical 
 rank are the "women's work" schools. With the exception of 
 two or three which are under the auspices of unions, they are 
 communal institutions, and like the industrial and commercial 
 improvement schools are under the Royal Commission for 
 Industrial Improvement Schools, and receive state as well as 
 communal support. The Royal Commission is as it were a 
 committee of the Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 
 (Interior Department), although nominally under the control 
 of the Educational Ministry. The influential President of the 
 Central Bureau presides over the Royal Commission (and its 
 successor the Higher Industrial School Council). Its offices are 
 in the magnificent Royal State Industrial Museum, (see 
 frontispiece) the triumphant creation and the headquarters of 
 the Central Bureau, as well as the abode of the Royal Com- 
 mission for Agriculture, in charge of the agricultural schools. 
 Directly under the Central Bureau come the middle industrial 
 schools the special technical institutions (mono-technical) for 
 the textile industry, weaving, embroidery, watchmaking, electro- 
 technics and fine mechanics, and other industries, and special 
 courses given by experts under its auspices. The Building 
 Trades School, Industrial Art School, and Technical College are 
 directly under the Educational Ministry. 
 
409] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 59 
 
 The purpose of "women's work" schools is to train grown 
 girls and women in the field indicated by the title of the insti- 
 tutions. The work in these schools includes everything from 
 plain sewing to artistic embroidery requiring the skill that is 
 exacted of those in industrial positions or of instructors in these 
 subjects. There are 33 of these schools in the kingdom, and in 
 1905 they enrolled 6858 students. Drawing is the basis for 
 all work done here. The "women's work" schools originated 
 in Reutlingen. The first one grew out of the embroidering of a 
 flag designed by a local artist, in 1863. When the work of em- 
 broidering the standard was attempted the artist found that 
 his designs were not comprehended by the women assigned to 
 the task. Nor did the artist understand all the features of the 
 practical side involved. As a result, a short course in drawing 
 was given to those women who became interested. Soon in- 
 structors were secured to give courses in embroidery, crocheting, 
 and knitting. When in 1865 the industrial stress made it 
 difficult for the workers to spare the necessary time, the Central 
 Bureau came to their relief by affording stipends for attendance. 
 In 1868, an "industrial drawing school for grown girls," with 
 a six-months course, was established. Not until the following 
 year were the drawing and the practical instruction united in a 
 satisfactory manner. Within five years, as many classes for 
 plain needlework, machine stitching, dressmaking, knitting, and 
 embroidery were established. Courses in bookkeeping, corre- 
 spondence, and commercial arithmetic were also adjoined. 
 The Central Bureau equipped the school with up-to-date ma- 
 chines. From about this time the present name was adopted. 
 The Reutlingen school established a training department, soon 
 to be visited by students from other German states and abroad. 
 Other "women's work" schools were established throughout 
 Wuerttemberg, the cities and towns and the state each taking 
 a share in the maintenance. 
 
 The local common councils name the members of the special 
 board for each of these schools, and the Royal Commission desig- 
 nates the chairman. The state pays from one fourth to one 
 third of the deficit in the budget of each school. The total 
 expenditure for such purposes from the capital is $10,000 to 
 $12,000 annually. Tuition is $3 to $5 for all-day instruction 
 throughout a three-months course, $2 to $3.50 for morning or 
 
60 Teachers College Record [410 
 
 afternoon instruction during a quarter, and corresponding rates 
 for a lesser period. Sewing machines are sometimes rented. 
 
 The program of the Stuttgart school (under the control of 
 the "Swabian Women's Union," and with city and state sub- 
 sidy) includes the various features of the following subjects: 
 plain sewing, mending, machine stitching, dressmaking, pattern 
 cutting, industrial work, embroidery, geometrical drawing, 
 free hand drawing, industrial art drawing, pedagogy, and methods. 
 This school, like the one at Reutlingen, prepares candidates for 
 the state examinations for instructors in women's handiwork. 
 Three kinds of state certificates are issued: (i) the lower certifi- 
 cate, qualifying for the giving of instruction in the women's 
 handiwork subjects and in the required drawing connected 
 therewith, in the middle schools and higher girls' schools; (2) 
 the higher certificate, admitting to teach in the "women's work" 
 schools; and (3) the certificates issued for the special subjects, 
 dressmaking, embroidery, and drawing, and available in the 
 "women's work" schools. The higher and special examinations 
 come under the jurisdiction of the Royal Commission, whereas 
 the lower certificate test is supervised by a representative of 
 the Educational Ministry. Candidates for the higher certificate 
 and the special certificate in dressmaking must show proof, of 
 having spent two years in preparation since obtaining the lower 
 certificate, and those examined for the special certificate in 
 embroidery and drawing must give evidence of a further twelve- 
 months study in addition to the above. For the lower certificate 
 examination, the candidate must be at least eighteen years of 
 age, and is required to pass satisfactorily in all the details of 
 the following subjects: practical skill in knitting, crocheting, 
 stitching, hemming, underwear manufacture, mending, linen- 
 marking, and simple machine stitching, drawing of plain orna- 
 ment, German composition, arithmetic, and methods in the teach- 
 ing of handiwork. The subjects of the higher examination are: 
 fine sewing, machine stitching, dressmaking, lacemaking and 
 embroidery, geometrical and free-hand drawing, and German 
 composition. In each examination there is an oral quiz on the 
 practical work. The special certificate in dressmaking is issued 
 after a satisfactory showing in the details of designing and the 
 making of the more difficult costumes. Likewise the test in 
 special embroidery and drawing requires an expert knowledge 
 
4i i] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 61 
 
 and practical skill in these lines as applied to the general field. 
 In drawing, for instance, the history of art, method in the teach- 
 ing of drawing, and the theory of ornamentation are added to 
 the previous stipulations. The scholastic requirements are low. 
 The salaries of instructors in women's handiwork appear to be 
 very moderate. In Cannstatt, for example, the instructors in 
 the "women's work" school commence with an annual salary 
 of $240. The present head of the school is paid $360, and the 
 highest salaries possible in this locality are $360 for regular 
 instructors and $410 for the principal. In the "industry school" 
 work in the heart of Stuttgart salaries appear to be about $25 
 less for corresponding positions. 
 
 Of the mono-technical schools under the higher supervision 
 of the Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce, by far the 
 most important is the Technicum for the Weaving Industry, at 
 Reutlingen. Its purpose is to furnish opportunity for the 
 thorough theoretical and practical training of textile experts, 
 manufacturers and factory superintendents, pattern designers, 
 and master workmen in spinning and weaving, as well as to 
 familiarize workers in the textile industry with the best machines 
 for use in textile manufacture, and their care, and to afford to 
 young merchants the training essential for the buying and selling 
 of raw materials, yarn and other goods. The buildings are the 
 property of the commune of Reutlingen. The direct super- 
 vision is in the hands of the Reutlingen Weaving Association, 
 and is exercised through a supervisory council consisting of 
 members of this body and the director of the schools. 
 
 The South German Cotton Manufacturers' Association takes 
 a lively interest in the welfare of the institution, and is repre- 
 sented on its board of trustees, to which belong also the mayor 
 of Reutlingen, the president of the Central Bureau, and the 
 chairman of the local weaving association. From 140 to 150 
 students are constantly in attendance. The faculty numbers 
 nine regular instructors, including the director, who also lectures 
 at the Technische Hochschule, and there are besides seven master 
 workmen to assist in the giving of instruction. The institution 
 is in full operation from 7 to 12 M. and from i to 6 P.M. 
 
 At the disposal of the students is a fine technical library, and 
 a remarkable collection of materials and models that is kept 
 
62 Teachers College Record [412 
 
 up-to-date through close relations with the State Industrial 
 Museum at Stuttgart. Frequent class visits to shops and 
 factories, and the opportunities of the Reutlingen Industrial 
 Improvement School for the study of modern languages, natural 
 science, mathematics, and commercial branches, afford special 
 facilities for study. Students entering must be at least 16 years 
 of age, with a previous education equivalent to that of the com- 
 mon school. October is the usual entrance month. The courses 
 given are: 
 
 (1) Spinning, one year; theoretical and practical instruction 
 in the spinning of cotton and woolen goods. Tuition, $60 for 
 German citizens and twice as much for, foreigners. An extra 
 half-year, for Germans only, requiring three years' practical 
 experience for entrance, is given as a "master's course." 
 
 (2) Weaving, one half-year theoretical, and one half-year 
 with practical application. The second semester, open only 
 to Germans, presupposes three years of practical work, and is 
 intended for weaving masters. The two half-years may be 
 taken at once by those who have finished the course in spin- 
 ning. Tuition same as above, but doubled if two semesters are 
 combined. 
 
 (3) Operation. A course of one year, the first half theoretical, 
 dealing with materials, etc., the second half with practice in the 
 operation of looms, etc., and with knitting. Tuition as above. 
 For Germans there is a further three-months course in practical 
 work. 
 
 (4) Pattern designing. A two-years course in decorative 
 painting and designing, with practical application to the weav- 
 ing industry, with instruction as to use of machines, and other 
 necessary details. Those students in the spinning, weaving, and 
 operation courses are given instruction in mechanics, the use 
 of machines, mechanical drawing, and textile chemistry, as well 
 as in the various subjects which come more directly within the 
 sphere of their courses. All students are instructed in raw 
 materials, and have access to the technological laboratory. 
 Certificates are issued upon examination at the end of each 
 year. Students pay $10.75 to $ I 7- 8 5 P er month for private 
 board and lodging. The state contributes about $10,000 annu- 
 ally to the support of the Technicum, and the city of Reutlingen 
 pays the greater part of the remaining deficit. The weaving 
 
413] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 63 
 
 association markets the products of the shops in so far as 
 they are salable. 
 
 Several other weaving schools of lesser grade, and confined 
 more closely to one branch of the industry, are under the pro- 
 tection of the Central Bureau. They are intended rather as 
 apprenticeship schools and pay especial attention to the de- 
 velopment of local industries. Attended by from twenty to 
 ninety pupils each year, they receive annual appropriations from 
 the Central Bureau of from $110 to $2400 (besides machinery 
 and materials) and are located at Heidenheim (handloom weav- 
 ing of cotton) , Laichingen (linen damask industry of the Swabian 
 Alps), Sindelfingen (Jacquard weaving of cotton) and Sontheim 
 (weaving workshop for production of smooth linen cloth). 
 Wolfschlugen, near Stuttgart, has an embroidery school under 
 similar control, for the development of the household industry 
 in hand embroidery, for which the locality is famous. Likewise 
 the lace-making school at Koengen receives state support. 
 Several small industrial schools of similar purpose are entirely 
 in the control of merchants, societies, and private individuals, 
 without aid from the state; such, for example, as the Laichingen 
 School for Hand and Machine Embroidery, under the auspices 
 of a stock company, and the South German Tailoring Academy in 
 Stuttgart. 
 
 At the town Schwenningen, situated in a section of Wuerttem- 
 berg that is almost enclosed by Baden and which lies not so very 
 far from Switzerland, is the Technical School for Skilled Me- 
 chanicians, which includes courses in watch- and clock-making 
 and electro-mechanical work. Unlike the other technical in- 
 stitutions described above, this is a purely state school. Here 
 the ordinary conditions are reversed, and the commune pays 
 the state a yearly appropriation of about $500 toward the main- 
 tenance. When the building was first erected and equipped 
 the commune paid over to the state $13,090, and a Schwen- 
 ningen merchant contributed $2400 toward the enterprise- 
 The annual appropriation of the state is about $9000. The 
 school was established in 1900, and has grown rapidly (about 
 seventy pupils now). It takes the place of apprenticeship. 
 The aim is to prepare skilled workmen, foremen, and independent 
 industrialists in the various branches that come within its scope. 
 A further unique feature is that the institution is also destined 
 
64 Teachers College Record [414 
 
 to furnish the Central Bureau expert advice and reports, and 
 duplicate models all to be used for the promotion of the in- 
 dustries concerned, in Wuerttemberg. 
 
 The faculty consists of the director, one other principal in- 
 structor, three assistant teachers, and four master workmen. 
 These with the mayor and two representatives of industry make 
 up the local school committee. Instruction is given in a threel 
 years course, and an additional improvement course of one year 
 for those who already have the journeyman's certificate, and who 
 have done practical work for at least two years. Entrance to 
 the first year of the regular course is by examination. Candi- 
 dates are required to be at least fourteen years of age and to 
 have completed a course of training equivalent to that of the 
 common school. The final examinations of the first and second 
 years are the entrance tests for the succeeding terms. The 
 examination at the end of the third year gives to the successfu- 
 candidates (n skilled mechanics and 4 watchmakers in 1906) a 
 certificate permitting them to undertake the direction of appren- 
 tices, and the final examination for the improvement course is 
 equivalent to the state test for master workmen (4 skilled me- 
 chanics successful in 1906). Tuition, $6 annually for Germans, 
 $24 for foreigners. "Guests" and "listeners" are also admitted 
 to certain courses, by paying the fee. The total cost of board, 
 lodging, and school tuition and expenses for a German resident 
 is from $95 to $167 per annum. The school begins in May, 
 Summer holidays are August 15 to September 15. Nearly all 
 the materials used in the school are furnished gratis to the pupils. 
 The products of the institution are retained by it. (Further 
 description and the program omitted). 
 
 The Technical School for the Book Printing Trades, at 
 Stuttgart, is under the auspices of the Union of Proprietors of 
 Book Printing Establishments in that city, but receives about 
 $500 yearly from the state and the municipality respectively. 
 The balance of an annual expenditure of some $2500 is borne 
 by the Union. Tuition fees are $3 per annum for apprentices 
 one half of this to be paid by the employers. The members 
 of the Union have obligated themselves to send their apprentices 
 to this school. Others may attend also. The school is not 
 destined to take the place of apprenticeship, but to complete 
 and augment the practical shopwork. It is attended chiefly 
 
415] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 65 
 
 by pupils in the third and fourth years of their apprenticeship, 
 since during the first and second years they attend the printing 
 division of the City Industrial School. Courses are given in the 
 Technical School on two evenings of the week, from 6 to 8 or 
 from 7 to 9. There are about 108 pupils, almost equally divided 
 between the sections for typesetting and for presswork. 
 
 The Apprenticeship Workshop for the Tanning Industry 
 (1906), at Metzingen, is intended to take the place of apprentice- 
 ship and to prepare foremen for this vocational field. The 
 special instruction has been arranged for in connection with a 
 private industry, and it is left to the head of that industry to 
 furnish the necessary materials and to sell the product. The 
 course is three years in duration, but the theoretical instruction 
 of the first two years is given in connection with the local in- 
 dustrial improvement school. The state makes an annual grant 
 of $1700. 
 
 The Technical School for the Working of Precious Metals, 
 at Gmuend, is the creation of the present year (1907). It has 
 some of the features of an industrial art school. As at Schwen- 
 ningen, the greater part of the product will be kept for exhibition 
 purposes. The most of the remainder will be remelted. Like 
 the other special technical institutions this is a day school. 
 
 The sale of the products of the various state schools, on the 
 whole, amounts to very little. There is not much opposition 
 to such sale, on the part of unions or employers. In the interest 
 of the schools the product must constantly change in character, 
 so as to give diversity of experience to the students. This action 
 forestalls any possible wholesale production. There is no ob- 
 jection whatever to the sale of objects made by hand. 
 
 To complete the list of lower industrial schools under the 
 Central Bureau, it is only necessary to add the names of the Prac- 
 tical Engraving School at Heilbronn and of the Winter Building 
 Trades Schools at Biberach and Heilbronn, which still form a 
 part of the industrial improvement schools of those localities. 
 Some industries not represented by a school are nevertheless 
 aided by means of special courses given through the agency of 
 the Central Bureau. The carriage industry is unimportant in 
 Wuerttemberg. There is no school for shoemakers, but courses 
 of about -four weeks' duration, eight hours per day, are given to 
 master- workmen and to the older journeymen in such centres 
 
66 Teachers College Record [416 
 
 as Ulm and Stuttgart, and especially at Tuttlingen. There is no 
 tuition fee. The pupils furnish the materials. There is no 
 machine work, although instruction for the prevention of acci- 
 dents is a part of the course. 
 
 There are a few private industrial schools in Wuerttemberg 
 in connection with large corporate industries, and wholly main- 
 tained by the proprietors, on the plan of the schools of R. H. 
 Hoe & Company or of the National Cash Register Company 
 of this country. Such, for example, is that of the Daimler 
 Automobile Company at Untertuerkheim. The plant here 
 employs 3000 men, and is reputed to be the greatest of its kind 
 in Germany. At Esslingen the Maschinenfabrik also has its 
 own school. Likewise the Metalfabrik of Geislingen and the 
 Bruderhaus Furniture Factory at Reutlingen. No extended 
 theoretical courses are given by the private industrial institutions. 
 
 Not content with the work of the vocational schools alone, 
 the Central Bureau has for many years devoted much attention 
 to the giving of special industrial courses in the chief centres 
 of technical activity. Historically, the plan is very old in 
 Wuerttemberg. Over fifty years ago, travelling instructors 
 were sent out to give courses in handloom weaving, of two 
 months' duration, in the localities where this industry had at- 
 tained some importance. About ten years later chemical 
 courses were established here and there for metalworkers and 
 soapmakers. During the last ten years a great many "the- 
 oretical-technical" and "practical-technical" courses on the 
 plan of Baden's have been conducted throughout Wuerttem- 
 berg by the agency of the Central Bureau. Also, industrial 
 art courses and instruction for the building trades, for master- 
 workmen, are under its auspices. Among others, "practical- 
 technical" courses are given in the following branches; hand- 
 gilding, horse-collar making, interior decoration, shoemaking, 
 cutting, graining, marbled binding, electrical and interior 
 installation, cabinet-making, bookbinding, tailoring, watch- 
 making. The courses are from three to twenty -one days in 
 duration (eight hours per day) , and are open only to those already 
 possessing considerable skill in the special branch. The in- 
 structors are exceptional master handicraftsmen or professional 
 teachers. The "practical-technical" courses cost the state 
 in the neighborhood of $1300 yearly, with the addition of 
 
417] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 67 
 
 about $700 for stipends to those attending. The duration of 
 the courses is not as long as it is desirable to have them from 
 the point of view of the instruction, but considering the needs 
 of both workmen and employers the golden mean has been 
 chosen. In Austria, the work of this kind is carried on for 
 from six to eight weeks, and in such cities of Germany as Han- 
 over and Cologne the Austrian model has been imitated. In 
 Wuerttemberg, up to the present, it has seemed impracticable 
 to lengthen the courses. 
 
 The "theoretical-technical" courses are given on holiday 
 afternoons, and not, like the "practical-technical " work, through- 
 out successive day periods. In one branch of the work, the 
 different industries have been taken up in successive years, and 
 the instruction is given to the lite of each type: soapmakers, 
 metalworkers, house painters, photographers, coopers, and dis- 
 tillers, brewers, bakers, builders, decorative painters. Special 
 chemical courses are also established. Industrial art for decora- 
 tive painters is taught. Courses for janitors and building su- 
 perintendents are given. 
 
 Under the Central Bureau there are also courses for teach- 
 ers, master- workmen, and merchants, in industrial bookkeeping. 
 These are continuous throughout ten or twelve days. 
 
 A considerable number of industrial courses are conducted 
 under the auspices of unions. The Central Bureau aids by paying 
 about one-third of the deficit after tuition and donations have 
 been applied toward the expenditures. About a dozen courses 
 are established annually by the Central Bureau in the manner 
 of conducting handicrafts associations, with especial attention 
 to the importance of such unions for the industries, instruction 
 in bookkeeping, etc. 
 
 Annual stipends paid out by the Central Bureau for attend- 
 ance at industrial schools in various localities amount to about 
 
 $1000. 
 
 There are in Wuerttemberg eight boards of trade (Handels- 
 kammern) and four great handicrafts boards of industry (Hand- 
 werkskammerri) , at Stuttgart, Heilbronn, Ulm, and Reutlingen, 
 the boards of industry representing over one hundred unions 
 of small industrialists scattered throughout the kingdom. The 
 boards of industry, organized by the state, have fixed upon 
 
68 Teachers College Record [418 
 
 three years as the usual term of apprenticeship. Since 1899, 
 in imitation of Baden and Switzerland, the state has supported 
 a number of apprenticeship workshops, in connection with 
 various industries, and largely equipped with up-to-date tools 
 and machinery through the Central Bureau. There were 185 
 such workshops in 1905, with 201 apprentices, representing 27 
 industries as diversified as could well be imagined. The state 
 expends $3000 per year for the upkeep of the workshops, and 
 besides furnishes an inspector, the " travelling instructor." 
 The master-workman having a state-aided apprenticeship 
 workshop must give board and lodging in his own household to 
 the apprentice, and must not require many errands outside 
 of the regular work in the industry. He must instruct the 
 apprentice and demand good conduct and regular attendance 
 at church. Each increase in the number of apprentices must 
 have the approval of the Central Bureau. Samples of work 
 must be furnished to the Central Bureau each year for the ex- 
 hibit at Stuttgart. Prizes are given. Over 800 apprentices 
 take part annually in the exhibit all, except those having the 
 privileges of the state-installed workshops, of their own volition. 
 In order to be eligible the apprentice must have worked at the 
 industry for at least nine months. Between 50 and 60 industries 
 are represented each year, and the exhibits are carefully in- 
 spected by about 10,000 interested persons. The industries 
 having the greatest number of exhibits are usually those of the 
 cabinet-makers, locksmiths, mechanics, painters, smiths, barbers, 
 braziers, wagon-makers, tailors, turners, bookbinders, wood- 
 carvers, coopers, saddlers, and shoemakers. 
 
 At the end of his apprenticeship the young workman is 
 obliged to take the examinations in industrial (or commercial) 
 subjects and to produce a specimen of his handiwork. The 
 yearly cost of the latter test amounts to about $8000. Of this 
 sum the state contributes something over $2000 each year. 
 The remaining cost is borne by the boards of industry. The 
 latter receive an appropriation from the state (for adminis- 
 trative purposes mainly) of $5000 annually. 
 
 In choosing a trade, the tendency in Wuerttemberg, as in all 
 Old World countries, is to follow in the footsteps of the parent. 
 However, advice is usually sought from the head of the local 
 improvement school, who is kept informed as to the needs of 
 
419] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 69 
 
 the country by the Central Bureau, or from the head of a special 
 school, the "travelling instructor" or inspectors. No country 
 has a better system for keeping tab on the new demands that 
 arise in industry and commerce and communicating its findings 
 to the localities. 
 
 For the further dissemination of industrial instruction and 
 of news in this domain the Central Bureau issues a weekly 
 periodical, Das Gewerbeblatt, which reaches 12,000 subscribers 
 and is on file in every workmen's club or industrial headquarters 
 in the land. It is a most useful publication, in close touch with 
 the- needs of the country through the state inspectors and the 
 representatives of unions and boards of industry who are its 
 contributors. The yearly cost of the journal is only $.24 in 
 clubs of three or more. The state pays the annual deficit of 
 about $5000 for its publication. 
 
 One of the most important agencies of industrial instruction 
 under the Central Bureau is the "travelling industrial instructor" 
 (Wanderlehrer) . This official gives about seventy lectures in the 
 various centres annually. He inspects the apprentice workshops, 
 takes notes of the use to which they are put, and determines 
 what additions of machinery, tools, or exhibit material are 
 necessary. He is the advisory agent and industrial barometer of 
 the Central Bureau. He helps to arrange the state exhibits 
 of apprenticeship work, supervises the courses for master-work- 
 men, and in some cases himself gives instruction. On invitation 
 he meets with the unions, and at all times urges them to give 
 special industrial courses for master-workmen and for industrial 
 teachers, and furnishes information as to the available special 
 instructors. He investigates household industries, writes weekly 
 for the state industrial journal, and is altogether as busy as a 
 man could well be. For his expert services in this country the 
 state pays only $1800 annually. 
 
 Besides the magnificent State Industrial Museum at Stuttgart, 
 under the direct management of the Central Bureau, there are 
 four other industrial museums in Wuerttemberg receiving some 
 aid from the state. These are the Special Industrial Museum 
 for the Fine Metal Industry, at Gmuend, and the industrial 
 museums of Ulm, Spaichingen, and Heilbronn. The remarkable 
 thing about any and all of the Wuerttemberg industrial museums 
 is the fact that they make a strong point of the best in up-to 
 
70 Teachers College Record [420 
 
 date industrial methods, use of material, and workmanship; 
 and, while they are repositories of much that is classic, they 
 appear to have purposely neglected those exhibits which have 
 chiefly an antiquarian rather than a practical interest. 
 
 Other aid in the direction of industrial betterment afforded 
 by the Central Bureau includes the following: (i) Books are 
 loaned from the library of the State Industrial Museum to local 
 libraries and to unions, or are purchased outright for them by 
 the same agency; (2) free technical advice is furnished (especially 
 to builders) ; (3) the instructive yearly reports of the Wuerttem- 
 berg boards of industry are published and given a wide circu- 
 lation; (4) tests of boilers and engines are made gratis by the 
 engineering laboratory of the technical college, through the 
 aid of an appropriation granted by the Central Bureau; (5) new 
 and valuable models and patterns are made known to the various 
 industries through illustration and description in the industrial 
 journal of the state, or by advertisement; (6) local industrial 
 expositions are arranged for, and the state takes part in foreign 
 expositions of the kind; (7) large stipends are afforded for the visit- 
 ing of foreign industrial expositions ; (8) grants are made for the 
 stimulation of industries, or for their introduction (recently these 
 have been fewer and smaller) ; (9) travelling stipends are allotted, 
 especially for the visiting of the industrial exhibits at Stuttgart, 
 Karlsruhe, Munich, and other places easily reached, and also 
 for trips to Paris, London, and America; (10) medals are given 
 for long and efficient service in industries (in 1904 bestowed 
 upon no industrial workers); (n) finally, there is an extensive 
 industrial inspection system costing $18,000 per annum, and 
 (12) the work of collecting and publishing industrial statistics. 
 
 In this abbreviated report, the crowning glory of the Central 
 Bureau, mentioned frequently in the above paragraphs, may 
 only be given a word. I refer to the State Industrial Museum 
 at Stuttgart. Having had occasion to visit the principal mu- 
 seums of all kinds at home and abroad, I know of none that is 
 more efficient, nor which houses more diversified and helpful 
 activities held together by one consistent and unique purpose 
 the universal instruction and industrial betterment of the 
 people. The entire range of industrial propaganda discussed 
 above has its effective headquarters in this building, and it 
 
42 1] Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce 71 
 
 manifold functions are co-ordinated and made mutually helpful 
 through the Central Bureau. Though established in a mag- 
 nificent new building, and now as always making much of the 
 display of latest productions in the realm of industry and in- 
 dustrial art, this museum is in reality the oldest of its kind in 
 Germany (1849), an( i i ts pedagogical exhibit is the oldest per- 
 manent display of the sort in existence anywhere. An in- 
 spection of the museum soon convinces that the central thought 
 governing its organization and management is the application 
 of the best ideas of both past and present to present needs. It 
 is a rare illustration of what a live and vital institution a museum 
 can be. The collections are chiefly concerned with raw and 
 partly manufactured materials; the chemical indu stries; in 
 dustrial and industrial- art objects from the precious and baser 
 metals; pottery, glass and crystal ware; furniture, and interior 
 decoration; clocks and musical instruments (if anything more 
 artistic and poetical than the special music room has been caught 
 in wood or metal, I have not seen it) ; wood and ivory carving; 
 work in leather; bookbinding and artistic books; the graphic 
 arts; weaving and knitting, laces, embroidery; carpets and 
 tapestries; power and hand machinery; devices for protection 
 against accidents; instruments of precision; weapons; electro- 
 technical machinery and apparatus; models in the greatest 
 variety . 
 
 Especially important is the collection of textile materials, 
 French and English weaving patterns, etc. 300,000 samples, 
 catalogued and indexed. There are about 10,000 Chinese 
 and Japanese industrial art objects, selected with rare 
 discernment. An interesting collection is that of the Black 
 Forest wall clocks ("grandfather's clocks") of various periods. 
 There is, besides, one of the best collections of watches in the 
 world, and an equally valuable collection of building materials. 
 For the business man or the student of industry there are 100 
 directories from all over the world, about 500 catalogs of ex- 
 positions, and 10,000 price lists arranged according to industry 
 and country. A vast number of art models in plaster serve 
 for the industrial art schools throughout the country. They 
 are manufactured in the building. There is no charge for ad- 
 mission to the museum, free guides are furnished, and Wuerttem- 
 berg industrialists may have the services of experts without 
 
72 Teachers College Record [422 
 
 cost. The library is a well chosen collection of technical ma- 
 terial, consisting of 75,000 bound volumes and 55,000 pamphlets. 
 The library department is classed in five divisions: science, art, 
 collection of photographic art material, educational museum 
 with especial reference to the industrial and commercial im- 
 provement schools, and the reading-room for industrial news- 
 papers and magazines (300). The chemical laboratory, with 
 its three or four experts constantly employed in making tests 
 of raw materials, etc., for the various Wuerttemberg industries, 
 is worthy of more than passing notice. The popular chemical 
 courses given in the lecture room of the museum prove invalu- 
 able to the pupils of the City Industrial Improvement School, 
 and to the other individuals who are admitted. It is the appli- 
 cation to industry that is always emphasized here. 
 
 Principal References: Die Gewerbebefoerderung im Koenigreich Wuert- 
 temberg, Stuttgart, 1905; Die allgemeinen Grundlagen der Kultur der 
 Gegenwart, Lexis and others, Berlin, 1906; Die Entstehung und Ent- 
 wicklung der Gewerblichen Fortbildungsschulen und Frauenarbeitsschulen 
 in Wuerttemberg, Stuttgart, 1889; Consular Reports of England and 
 America, esp. since 1900; Consular Year Book; Regierungsblatt juer das 
 Koenigreich Wuerttemberg, esp. since 1900; Statistisches Jahrbuch juer das 
 deutsche Reich, 1906-' 7; Wuerttemberg Statistik, and Schulstatistik; Pub- 
 lications of the K. Wuertt. Statistischen Landesamts; Jahresberichte of the 
 various city systems of schools, and of each special type of school; Ent- 
 wurf eines Gesetzes betreffend die Gewerbe und Handelsschulen, Beilage 195, 
 January 20, 1905, Wuertt. Chamber of Deputies; Bericht der Volksschul- 
 kommission (concerning the preceding) May 26, 1906; V erhandlungen der 
 Wuertt. Kammer der Abgeordneten, esp. Sitzungen Nos. 141, 142, i6p, 170, 
 171, and 172 February to June 1906; Lexis, Das Unterrichtswesen im 
 Deutschen Reich, Berlin, 1904; Uebersicht ueber die Verwaltung und den 
 Stand der Gemeindeangelegenheiten, Stuttgart, from 1901; Official Publica- 
 tions of educational Ministries in Europe for the year 1906; Encyclopaedias 
 of Rein, Schmidt and Buisson; Publications of the Wuerttemberg Histori- 
 cal Society; Programs, etc., of various schools in Wuerttemberg, and in 
 other states; Private administrative records of certain schools and organi- 
 zations; Personal notes. 
 
ALUMNI DEPARTMENT 
 
 Committee of the Alumni on Publication 
 
 Ernest N. Henderson, Ph.D., 1903, Chairman. 
 
 Adelphi College, Brooklyn. 
 Ellen Yale Stevens, Diploma, 1893, 
 
 Brooklyn Heights Seminary, 18 Pierrepont St., Brooklyn. 
 Emily Brinckerhoff Brown, Diploma, 1901. 
 
 Bretton Hall, Broadway and 86th St., New York City. 
 Ruth E. Dowling, B.S., 1903. 
 
 New York Training School for Teachers, New York City. 
 
 The Teachers College Library Compared with European Institutions 
 of the Kind. The writer of the industrial education monograph in this 
 issue, who has enjoyed exceptional opportunities for a study at first 
 hand of the principal educational libraries and museums of America and 
 Europe, as a student of comparative education, European agent of 
 Bryson Library, and European Commissioner for the Carnegie Founda- 
 ion for the Advancement of Teaching, writes of the Bryson Library: 
 
 "Bryson Library, of Teachers College, is best compared with the 
 Musee Pedagogique of Paris, the Pestalozzianum at Zurich, and the 
 Central-Bibliothek, or Comenius-Stiftung, in Leipzig. In the brief space 
 allotted, the less important though very excellent pedagogical libraries 
 of London, Brussels, Berlin, Dresden, Copenhagen, Munich, Prague, Buda- 
 Pesth, Vienna, Berne, and Madrid, not to omit Breslau, Freibourg, and 
 Amsterdam, may merely be mentioned. 
 
 " Teachers College leads in the number of professional books used per 
 annum. The M.usee Pedagogique, next in importance in the loaning of 
 professional works, gave out a total of 28,796 books last year. Of these, 
 a total of 10,021 were consulted in the library. Bryson Library does 
 not record the number of books consulted in the library except in the 
 case of certain reference works since the students have free access to the 
 library stacks. However, Bryson Library loaned nearly 42,000 works 
 last year, whereas the number consulted on the premises is probably 
 much in excess of this figure. At Paris, Leipzig, and Zurich, all books 
 used, whether at home or sur place, are registered at the desk except the 
 new arrivals at the Pestalozzianum and the Central-Bibliothek. The 
 inestimable advantage of free access to the library shelves, enjoyed by 
 Teachers College students, is almost unknown in the pedagogical libraries 
 of the European Continent. More graduate students investigate Amer- 
 ican and foreign state and city systems of education at Teachers College 
 
 73 
 
74 Teachers College Record 
 
 than at any other institution in the world, and doubtless appreciate the 
 special advantages afforded by the excellent library facilities. If com- 
 plaint is made here, try the European libraries and learn contentment 
 with Teachers College Library. As helpful and courteous as one might 
 expect, the employees of the European libraries labor under systems that 
 make it impossible for them to bring the seeker and the book together with 
 promptness, in many instances. However, conditions in the European 
 pedagogical libraries are better than in the large general libraries. For 
 example, one afternoon, in Berlin, I had need of a book which could only 
 be obtained in the Imperial Library. Provided with a special letter from 
 a higher authority, I sought out the head-librarian, who kindly informed 
 me that he would break down the barriers of convention and secure the 
 book for me with unusual promptness. It was then two o'clock. To 
 avert the inconvenience of my waiting a day or so, he agreed to have the 
 book for me by four o'clock a two-hours delay. It is thus that the student 
 learns in the European library 'to labor and to wait.' 
 
 " Of the four libraries under comparison here, the one at Leipzig has 
 by far the largest number of books. The Musee Pedagogique, with a 
 little over one half as many volumes as Leipzig, contains more works 
 strictly professional in character. Bryson Library, third in the total 
 number of books, stands easily first in the completeness of its collection 
 of educational volumes issued in the various countries during the past 
 six years. It rivals Paris and Zurich in the number of current educa- 
 tional periodicals on file. The Musee Pedagogique has at one time or 
 another given a trial subscription to every educational periodical pub- 
 lished, but only retains a few of the best. All are under lock and key, to 
 be obtained only by filling out a bulletin. Each reading table at the 
 Musee Pedagogique is supplied with paper-knives, and readers are obliged 
 to cut the leaves of the books when first used. Imagine the amount of 
 actual work you can do when it has been found necessary to consult a 
 half-dozen volumes that have not been called for previously! 
 
 " The best-selected libraries are at Teachers College and the Musee 
 Pedagogique. Teachers College now manages to secure each new educa- 
 tional publication of importance within a short time after it is issued. In 
 this respect the other libraries have not been successful in the same 
 degree. But it is none the less surprising to learn that Bryson Library 
 has a better collection of French educational books of the past half-dozen 
 years than Paris, and that it is better supplied with similar German 
 works than any German library, and the same applies to England and to 
 several other countries. At least the statement was true at the time 
 this was written. 
 
 " Those who have noted that the employees of the European libraries 
 are invariably men, will be interested in the fact that the Prussian gov- 
 ernment is conducting a library training school for women, who will 
 eventually be added to the library staffs." 
 
 Present opportunities for Industrial Education in the United States: 
 
 In Charities and the Commons for October 5th, which is a number devoted 
 
Alumni Department 75 
 
 to the "Movement for Industrial Education," one obtains a good re'sume' 
 of the opportunities for industrial training which are open at present to 
 the American boy and girl. Public instruction provides a few manual 
 training high schools, and in addition there was established in 1898 in 
 Springfield, Mass., an evening trade school which serves chiefly as a shop- 
 continuation school, as its general policy is to admit only those with some 
 experience in the trades. Other cities, notably Cambridge and Phila- 
 delphia, have followed the example of Springfield. 
 
 The private trade schools for boys in this country are reviewed by 
 Professor Richards. He divides all these schools into two classes, the 
 short-course trade school and the long-course trade school. The problem 
 for all these schools alike is the economic one of support. Even where a 
 tuition fee is charged, this can usually only partially meet the expense 
 of the school, and private endowment is necessary. To the student as 
 well there is the problem of maintenance during the years of training. 
 
 Six of the most important short-course trade schools, including the 
 first one established, in 1881, the New York Trade School, are described, 
 their means of support, requirements for admission, and the results ob- 
 tained by their students. To quote from Professor Richards:] 
 
 "These schools do not attempt to turn out the fully equipped journey- 
 man, but rather to lay a foundation of skill and knowledge sufficient for 
 wage-earning, leaving further skill, speed, and judgment to be acquired 
 in trade practice. 
 
 "The great demand for mechanics in the building trades, at the present 
 time, undoubtedly often leads to a too rapid advancement of the graduate 
 of the short-course trade school and to his too early recognition as a 
 journeyman. That this reacts unfavorably upon the school, the union, 
 and the individual can hardly be questioned, and that the best good of 
 the employer, the labor organization, and the beginner would be gained by 
 a common agreement which accorded a liberal recognition to the school 
 training, but which at the same time required a definite and considerable 
 period before journeymen's wages are obtained, would seem to be one of 
 the clear lessons of the present situation." 
 
 It is interesting to note that the citizens of Milwaukee have voted to 
 incorporate into the public school system of that city the Milwaukee 
 School of Trades, opened Jan. 2, 1906, by the Merchants and Manu- 
 facturers Association. 
 
 "The growth and promise of this school during its short history offer 
 one of the most encouraging chapters in the trade school movement. 
 During the past year, which is the first full year since the foundation of 
 the school, the applications for admission were so largely in excess of 
 the capacity of the equipment that the executive committee in charge 
 applied for assistance to the State Legislature. As a result of this applica- 
 tion a bill was introduced in the last session empowering any city in the 
 State to establish and maintain 'a school or schools for the purpose of 
 giving practical instruction in the useful trades to persons having attained 
 the. age of sixteen years, as a part of the public school system of such 
 city.' The bill also provides for the levy of a tax, not exceeding one 
 
76 Teachers College Record 
 
 half of one mill, on the total assessed valuation of the city for the sup- 
 port of such schools this tax to be known as the trade school fund and to 
 be used strictly for the purpose of establishing and maintaining trade 
 schools." 
 
 The long-course trade school by offering more extended courses aims 
 to prepare its students for responsible positions in the highly skilled 
 trades. With this object in view training in purely academic branches is 
 included in the course. In some cases these institutions are highly en- 
 dowed, sufficiently so to offer full support to the boy during his training. 
 The eight most important schools of this type are described. The follow- 
 ing statistics concerning the graduates of the Hebrew Technical Institute 
 give an example of the results of schools of this type. 
 
 "In 1906 the total number of living graduates was 630, from 575 of 
 whom reports as to occupations had been received. Of this number 
 seventy-five per cent, were following various lines of industrial work 
 directly related to their school training. The average weekly earnings 
 varied from $8.00 for the class of 1906, which had been graduated less than 
 a year, and $12.00 for the class of 1905, to $50.00 for the class of 
 1886." 
 
 The private trade schools for girls in the country, which are described 
 by Mrs. Woolman, are few as compared with those for boys. The 
 two pioneer schools are the Manhattan Trade School, founded November, 
 1902, of which Mrs. Woolman is director, and the Boston Trade School, 
 which followed in July, 1904. In order to meet existing problems the 
 courses in these schools were planned only after a careful study of the 
 economic conditions in the two cities. The following quotation gives an 
 idea of the results which have been achieved at the present time. 
 
 "Statistics kept at each school show that the students trained there 
 have a great advantage over the shop-trained girl in the wages received 
 on entrance into the market, the kinds of places taken, and the constant 
 rise to better and more highly paid positions. The attitude of employers 
 is shown in the demand for the girls trained at the schools, the induce- 
 ments offered to obtain them, and the fact that even in slack season when 
 other workers are dismissed the trade school children are held over." 
 
 These results are encouraging when we consider that all private 
 trade schools are looked upon as "an experiment station in which the 
 many contending educational, industrial, ethical and social ideas may 
 be tested. The solution reached by such institutions will enable public 
 instruction to more readily take up the work when the call from the 
 people becomes too insistent to refuse." 
 
 Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics. The department of 
 domestic economy of Teachers College was represented on the program 
 of the Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics by several important 
 papers. This Conference, which was held at the Lake Placid Club in the 
 Adirondacks, July first to sixth, is a national gathering of persons in- 
 terested in the improvement of the American home, whether through 
 education, club-work, legislation, or the formation of public opinion. 
 
Alumni Department 77 
 
 The conference was organized some nine years ago and has each year since 
 brought together a small number of leaders in this work. 
 
 The following papers were read by members of Teachers' College 
 Faculty and staff: 
 
 " Report of the Teachers Section of the Conference, held Dec. 3i-Jan. 
 i, at Pratt Institute, including subsequent reports of its two committees, " 
 by the chairman of this section, Professor Kinne; 
 
 "Report of Committee on Trade Schools," Professor Woolman, 
 chairman ; 
 
 "The Mineral Matter required by the Human Body," Professor 
 Sherman ; 
 
 " Nomenclature and Terminology in Home Economics, " a preliminary 
 report from a Teachers College committee, Professor Snedden chairman ; 
 
 "Psychic Factors affecting Home Economics," Mr. Andrews. 
 
 It will be a matter of interest to teachers of domestic science, domestic 
 art and other branches of home economics to know that the Conference 
 cordially approved the report of the first meeting of the "Teachers' 
 Section," which was held at Pratt Institute last Christmas in connection 
 with the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of 
 Science, and resolved that a second meeting of this section should be 
 held at Chicago next December, again in connection with the American 
 Association. All persons interested in the teaching of domestic subjects 
 will be welcome at that time. 
 
 The president of the Conference continues to be Mrs. E. H. Richards. 
 Among the committee chairmanships for next year are the following: 
 
 Committee on Teachers Section, Professor Kinne ; 
 
 Committee on Trade Schools, Professor Woolman; 
 
 Committee on Household Appliances, Miss Barrows; 
 
 Committee on Training Schools and Colleges, Mr. Andrews. 
 
 The next Lake Placid Conference will be held, it is expected, in 
 September, 1908. 
 
 A Bibliography of Works on Industrial Education: A selected bib- 
 liography on industrial education has been issued by Professor Charles 
 R. Richards, secretary of the National Society for the Promotion of 
 Industrial Education, and copies may be obtained by addressing him, 
 care of Teachers College, New York. The material selected relates mainly 
 to the problem in the United States, but a number of titles of special 
 value upon the organization of industrial education in European countries 
 are included. The bibliography includes not only books and public 
 reports, but articles, addresses, and proceedings of societies. The editor 
 solicits titles that may add to the value of a subsequent edition. The 
 division of the general subject index will be of interest to those whose 
 interests lie in this field. It includes: Apprenticeship system, in- 
 dustrial education in Europe of girls, public schools in relation to in- 
 dustrial education, social aspects, technical education for industrial 
 workers, trade schools (arguments for, organization, and statistics), and 
 studies of the general problem. 
 
7 8 
 
 Teachers College Record 
 
 Fall Appointments of Teachers College Students. Over one hundred 
 new appointments of Teachers College students are reported for this 
 fall, the great majority of which have been arranged by the Appoint- 
 ment Committee of .the College. Seventeen of these appointments are 
 in universities and colleges, and include one acting dean, two professors 
 of education, one professor of sociology, and an associate professor of 
 history. Twenty-five are in high or normal schools, and represent work 
 in the subjects of history, language, science, and education. Nineteen 
 positions in domestic science and art alone have been filled, including 
 one professor and two supervisors. Of the other appointments, nine are 
 in manual training, thirteen in elementary work, and four in kinder- 
 garten, including in each case supervisors and principals. 
 
 It is interesting to note that the partial list given below includes also 
 the president of a state normal school, two superintendents of schools, 
 the educational manager of the publishing house of Houghton, Mifnin & 
 Co., and the Commissioner of Education in Porto Rico. 
 
 Adams, E. Louise, Dip., Kinder- 
 garten Supervision. Primary 
 Critic, Public School, DeKalb, 
 111. 
 
 Anthony, Hettie M., A.M. '06. 
 Domestic Science, Throop Poly- 
 technic Institute, Pasadena,Calif. 
 
 Bassett, Harry Kendall. English, 
 Instructor, University of Wis- 
 consin, Madison, Wis. 
 
 Bennett, Chas. J. C., Ph.D. '05. 
 President, State Normal School, 
 Fairmont, W. Va. 
 
 Bigelow, Luna E., B.S. '07. Ele- 
 mentary Critic, State Normal 
 School, New Paltz, N. Y. 
 
 Binzel, Cora E., student 'o5-'o6. 
 Domestic Science, Public School, 
 La Crosse, Wis. 
 
 Bower, Geneva, B.S. '07. Head 
 Kindergarten Dept., Ep worth 
 University, Oklahoma, Okla. 
 
 Brison, Mary T., B.S. '05. Fine 
 Arts, Ohio University, Athens. 
 Ohio. 
 
 Calef, Evelyn L., Dip., Domestic 
 Art, '06. Supervisor Domestic 
 Art, Public Schools, Superior, 
 Wis. 
 
 Caldwell, Rush M., A.M. '07. Head 
 Elementary School, Newman 
 
 Manual Training School, New 
 Orleans, La. 
 
 Clark, Myra B., A.M. '05. Domestic 
 Science, James Milliken Uni- 
 versity, Decatur, 111. 
 
 Crocker, Nellie J., B.S. '07. Ger- 
 man, Friends' Central School, 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Curtis, Mrs. Maud L.B., student 'oo- 
 '01, Summer '07. Primary Super- 
 visor, Public Schools, Utica, N.Y. 
 
 Dexter, Edwin Grant, Ph.D. '99. 
 Commissioner of Education, 
 Porto Rico. 
 
 Hastings, Montana, Dip., Elemen- 
 tary Education, '07. Education, 
 Head of Dept., State Normal 
 School, Fairmont, W. Va. 
 
 Highsmith, J. Henry, A.M. '05. 
 Professor of Education, Wake 
 Forest College, Wake Forest, N.C. 
 
 Hoyt, Franklin S., A.M. '05. Edu- 
 cational Dept. Houghton, Mif- 
 flin & Co., Boston, Mass. 
 
 Hubbell, Geo. A., Ph.D., '02. Chair 
 of Sociology, Kentucky Uni- 
 versity, Lexington, Ky. 
 
 Hughes, Percy, Ph.D. '04. Pro- 
 fessor Philosophy, Psychology, 
 Education, Lehigh University, 
 So. Bethlehem, Pa. 
 
Alumni Department 
 
 79 
 
 Kellogg, Florence, B.S. '07. Critic, 
 i stand 2nd grades, Normal and 
 Industrial College, Milledgeville, 
 Ga. 
 
 Kent, Ernest B., Ph.D. '03. Man- 
 ual Training Supervisor, Public 
 School, Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Kinkaid, Eula M., B.S. '06. Pri- 
 mary Critic, State Normal School, 
 University of Utah, Salt Lake 
 City, Utah. 
 
 Lanman, Faith R., B.S. '07. Do- 
 mestic Science Supervisor, Public 
 School, Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 MacLear, Anne B., B.S. '02. His- 
 tory, Normal College, New York 
 City. 
 
 McRae, Frances E., B.S. '02. 
 Physics, Tutor in High School 
 Dept., Normal College, New 
 York City. 
 
 Meriam, Junius L., Ph.D. '05. 
 Acting Dean, Teachers College, 
 University of Missouri, Colum- 
 bia, Mo. 
 
 Palmer, Herriott C., A.M. '06. 
 History, High School, Marion, 
 Ind. 
 
 Pett, Mrs. Clara G., Dip., Domestic 
 Science, '07. Domestic Science, 
 Illinois Wesleyan University, 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Pierson, Clementine M., B.S. '06. 
 Domestic Science and Domestic 
 
 Art, Public School, Cincinnati, O. 
 
 Fletcher, Nuba M., Ph.D. '06. 
 Associate Professor of History, 
 Alfred University, Alfred, N. Y. 
 
 Proudfoot, Mary A., student '06- 
 '07. Principal, and Supervisor 
 of Kindergartens, Cohoes Train- 
 ing School, Cohoes, N. Y. 
 
 Prouty, Iris G., student 'o5-'o6. 
 Manual Training, State Normal 
 School, Millersville, Pa. 
 
 Robertson, Kate L., B.S. '07. 
 Domestic Science, Public Schools, 
 Cincinnati, Ohio. 
 
 Robinson, Mabel L., A.M. '07. 
 Professor of Zoology, American 
 School for Girls, Constantinople, 
 Turkey. 
 
 Rogers, Lester B., A.M. '07. Edu- 
 cation, Tri-State College, An- 
 gola, Ind. 
 
 Simmons, Mary P., B.S. '07. 
 Domestic Science, Public School, 
 Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Thomson, John, Bach. Dip. Manual 
 Training '02. Manual Training, 
 Public School, Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Waugh, Louise, B.S. '06. State 
 College, State College, Pa. Do- 
 mestic Science. 
 
 Wiggin, Ralph L., A.M. '07. Supt. 
 of Schools, Falmouth, Mass. 
 
 Wilcox, Felix Eugene, B.S. '07. 
 Supt. of Schools, Hudson, Mich. 
 
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 sional courses for teachers, that lead to a 
 diploma of the university. 
 
 1. THE SCHOOL OF LAW, established in 
 1858, offers a course of three years, in the 
 principles and practice of private and public 
 law, leading to the degree of Bachelor of 
 Laws. 
 
 2. THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS AND 
 SURGEONS, founded in 1807, offers a course 
 of four years, in the principles and practice 
 of medicine and surgery, leading to the de- 
 gree of Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 3. THE SCHOOL OF MINES, established in 
 1864, offers courses of study, each of four 
 years, leading to a professional degree in 
 mining engineering and in metallurgy. 
 
 4. THE SCHOOLS OF CHEMISTRY, ENGI- 
 NEERING, AND ARCHITECTURE, set off from 
 the School of Mines in 1896, offer respect- 
 ively, courses of study, each of four years, 
 leading to an appropriate professional de- 
 gree, in analytical and applied chemistry ; in 
 civil, sanitary, electrical, and mechanical en- 
 gineering ; and in architecture. 
 
 5. TEACHERS COLLEGE, founded in 1888 
 and chartered in 1889, was included in the 
 university in 1898. It offers the following 
 courses of study : (a) graduate courses lead- 
 ing to the Master's and Doctor's diplomas 
 in the several departments of the College ; 
 (b) professional courses, each of two years, 
 leading to the Bachelor's diploma for Sec- 
 ondary Teaching, Elementary Teaching, 
 Kindergarten, Domestic Art, Domestic 
 Science, Fine Arts, Music, and Manual 
 Training ; (c) a collegiate course of two 
 years, which, if followed by a two-year 
 professional course, leads to the degree of 
 Bachelor of Science. Certain of its courses 
 may be taken, without extra charge, by 
 students of the university in partial fulfil- 
 ment of the requirements for the degrees 
 of Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, and 
 Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, LL.D., 
 
 President. 
 
fteacbers College 
 Columbia 
 
 Teachers College is the professional school of Columbia University for the study 
 of education and the training of teachers. The purpose of the College is to afford 
 opportunity, both theoretical and practical, for the training of teachers of both sexes 
 for elementary, secondary, and normal schools, of specialists in various branches of 
 school work, and of principals, supervisors, and superintendents of schools. 
 
 The College offers 56 courses in Education, including 6 courses on the History 
 and Principles of Education, 4 courses on Educational Administration, 7 courses on 
 
 Educational Psychology, and 25 courses on the theory and practice 
 Courses of teaching Biology, Domestic Art, Domestic Science, English, Fine 
 
 of Arts, French, Geography, German, Greek, History, Kindergarten, 
 
 Instruction Latin, Manual Training, Mathematics, Music, Physical Science and 
 
 Physical Education. Other courses of instruction supplementary 
 to those above are as follows : Biology, 6 courses ; Domestic Art, 5 courses ; Domestic 
 Science, 10 courses; English, 6 courses; Fine Arts, 14 courses; French, 3 courses; 
 German, 2 courses ; Geography, 4 courses ; History, 4 courses ; Kindergarten, 4 courses ; 
 Manual Training, 9 courses; Mathematics, 3 courses; Music, 5 courses; Physical 
 Science, 4 courses, and Physical Education, 6 courses. Qualified students of Teachers 
 College may also pursue University courses in History, Language and Literature, 
 Natural Science, Mathematics, Philosophy, Psychology, Ethics, Anthropology, Music, 
 
 Economics and Social Science. Teachers College maintains two 
 Teachers schools of observation and practice: one, the Horace Mann School, 
 
 College the other known as the Speyer School. The Horace Mann School 
 
 Schools comprises three departments a kindergarten for children of three 
 
 to six years of age, an elementary school of seven grades, and a 
 high school of five grades. The Speyer School consists of a kindergarten, elementary 
 school, and special classes in sewing, cooking and manual training. 
 
 Courses of Study are as follows: (i) A two-year Collegiate 
 Courses Course which if followed by a two-year professional course leads 
 
 of to the degree of B.S. ; (2) Two-year professional courses lead- 
 
 Study ing to the Bachelor's diploma in (a) Secondary Teaching, (b) 
 
 Elementary Teaching, (c) Kindergarten, (d) Domestic Art, (e) 
 Domestic Science, (f) Fine Arts, (g) Music, (h) Manual Training, and (k) Physical 
 Education; (3) Graduate courses of one and two years, respectively, leading to the 
 Master's and Doctor's diplomas in the several departments of the College. Student! 
 holding the degree of B.S. or A.B. may become candidates for A.M. and Ph.D. 
 
 The requirements for admission are as follows: (i) To the Col- 
 Admission legiate Course completion of a high-school course; (2) to the 
 Require- two-year courses (a, b, c, and k above) completion of the Collegiate 
 ments Course or its equivalent in an approved college or graduation from 
 
 an approved normal school; (d, e, f, g, h) same as for (a) and (&) 
 or two years of technical training or experience in teaching; (3) to the graduate courset 
 college graduation or its equivalent. 
 
 Tuition in graduate courses and courses leading to a degree, $150; 
 
 in other courses, $100. The faculty annually awards 5 Fellowships 
 
 of $650 each, i Scholarship of $400, 12 Scholarships of $150 each, 
 icholarships and 4 Scholarships of $75 each 
 
 For circulars and information, address the Secretary. 
 
 JAMES E. RUSSELL, LL.D., Dean. 
 
TeacHers College Record 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I 1900 
 
 No, i The History and Function of Teachers College. Papers by DEAN Rus- 
 
 January SELL and EX-PRESIDENT HERVEY. (Out of Print.; 
 
 No. 2, March Nature Study. 
 
 No. 3, May English. (Out of print.) 
 
 No. 4 Syllabi of Education Courses. PRESIDENT BUTLER, DEAN RUSSELL 
 
 September and PROFESSORS MONROE and DUTTON. 
 
 No. 5 November Hand Work. (Out of print.) 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME II 1901 
 
 No.i Biology in the Horace Mann High School. PROFESSORS LLOYD and 
 
 January BIGELOW. 
 
 No. 2 Geography in the Horace Mann School. PROFESSOR DODGE and Miss 
 
 March KIRCHWEY. 
 
 No. 3 Child Study. Sources of Material and Syllabi of College Courses. PRO- 
 
 May FESSOR THORNDIKE. 
 
 No. 4 Syllabi of Courses in Elementary and Applied Psychology. PROFESSOR 
 
 September THORNDIKE. 
 
 No. 5 November Manual Training. (Out of print.) 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME III 1902 
 
 No. i Horace Mann School: Dedication Number. Papers by PRESIDENT 
 
 January OILMAN, PROFESSOR DUTTON and others, on Present-Day 
 
 Problems in Education. (Out of print.) 
 
 No. 2 Chemistry and Physics in the Horace Mann High School. PRO- 
 
 March FESSOR WOODHULL. (Out of Print.) 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4 Helps for the Teaching of Ccesar. PROFESSOR LODGE and MESSRS. 
 May, September HUBBELL and LITTLE. 
 
 No. 5 The Speyer School. Part I.: Its History and Purpose. DEAN RUSSELL, 
 
 November PROFESSOR McMuRRY and MR. BURKS. 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME IV 1903 
 
 No. i The Speyer School. Part II : Its Curriculum and its Relation to Teachers 
 
 January College. PROFESSOR McMuRRY and MR. BURKS. 
 
 No. 2 Mathematics in the Elementary School. PROFESSORS SMITH and 
 
 March McMuRRY. (Out of print.) 
 
 No. 3 New Methods of Teaching Modern Languages. DOCTOR LEOPOLD 
 
 May BAHLSEN. 
 
 No. 4 September University Extension. PROFESSOR SYKES. 
 
 No. 5 The Philosophy and Psychology of the Kindergarten. DEAN RUSSELL 
 
 November and PROFESSORS THORNDIKE and 
 
 ^ 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME V 1904 
 
 No. i January Music in the Schools. PROFESSOR FARNSWORTH and Miss HOFER. 
 No. 2 The Curriculum of the Elementary School. PROFESSORS DUTTON, PEAR- 
 
 March SON, RICHARDS, WOOD and WOODHULL. 
 
 No. 3 Experimental Work in Elementary Schools. PROFESSOR McMuRRY and 
 
 May others. 
 
 No. 4 Syllabi of Education and English Courses. PROFESSORS MACVANNEL, 
 
 September ABBOTT, BAKER and SYKES. (Out of Print) '** 
 
 No. 5 Kindergarten Education. PROFESSOR RUN Y AN, Miss O'GRADY and 
 
 November Miss MILLS. 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME VI 1905 
 
 No. i January Educational Psychology. PROFESSORS ELLIS and THORNDIKE. 
 No. 2 School Hygiene. PROFESSORS WOOD and KINNE, and DOCTORS JACOBI, 
 
 March WEEKS and KERLEY. 
 
 No. 3 May City School Expenditures. DR. STRAYER. (Out of Print.) Reissued 
 
 as No. 5 Teachers College Contributions to Education.price $1.00. 
 
 No. 4 The Educational Theories of Herbart and Froebel. PROFESSOR 
 
 September MACVANNEL. (Out of print.) Reissued as No. 4 Teachers Col- 
 
 lege Contributions to Education, price $1.00. 
 
 No. 5 Some Fiscal Aspects of Public Education in American Cities. PROFES- 
 
 November SOR ELLIOTT. (Out of Print.) Reissued as No. 6 Teachers Col- 
 
 lege Contributions to Education, price $1.00, cloth bound. 
 
XeacKers College Record Continued 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME VII 1906 
 
 No. i January Elementary School Curriculum First Grade. (Out of print.) Reissued. 
 Price 500. 
 
 No. a March Secondary School Curriculum. Part One. Language, History, Mathe- 
 matics. 
 
 No. 3 May Secondary School Curriculum. Part Two. Science and Art. 
 
 No. 4 September Elementary School Curriculum. Second and Third Grades. (Out of 
 Print.) Reissued. Price 500. 
 
 No. 5 November Studies in the Teaching of English. Grammar i 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME VHI 1907 
 No. i January Elementary School Curriculum- Fourth and Fifth Grades. (Out of Print.) 
 
 Reissued. Price 5oc. 
 
 No. 2 March Experimental Studies in Education. 
 
 No. 3 May Elementary School Curriculum. Sixth Grade. (Out of print.) Re- 
 
 issued. Price 5oc. 
 
 No. 4 September Elementary School Curriculum. Seventh Grade. (Out of print.) Re- 
 issued. Price 5oc. 
 No. 5 November The Industrial Improvement Schools of Wuerttemberg. 
 
 Subscription price, $1.00 per annum; single numbers, 30 cents; postage pre- 
 paid. On 5 or more copies a discount of 20% is granted. Address TEACHERS COLLEGE 
 RECORD, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 
 
 TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 The Constructive Interests'of Children. ERNEST B. KENT. 78 pages. Price SQC. 
 Formal Discipline. C. J. C. BENNETT. 76 pages. Price SQC. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL REPRINTS 
 
 Report of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial and Technical Education. Price 
 
 5oc. 
 Idiocy and its Treatment by the Physiological Method. DR. SEGUIN. 202 pages. 
 
 Price $2.00. 
 
Columbia University Contributions to Philosophy, Psychology and Education 
 
 Sent unbound, postpaid on receipt of price by Teachers College 
 
 VOLUME I. 
 
 1. Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi. NORMAN WILDE, Ph.D. 60 cents, net. 
 
 2. Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770. W. J. ECKOFF, Ph.D. 90 cents, net. 
 
 3. The Ethical System of James Martineau. JOSEPH H. HERTZ, Ph.D. 60 cents, net. 
 
 4. Friedrich Eduard Beneke. FRANCIS BURKE BRANDT, Ph.D. $1.00, net. 
 
 VOLUME II. 
 
 1. Hegel as Educator FREDERIC LUDLOW LUQUEER, Ph.D. $1.00. net. 
 
 2. Hegel's Doctrine of the Will. JOHN ANGUS MACVANNEL, Ph.D. $1.00, net. 
 
 3. The Basis of Early Christian Theism. LAWRENCE T. COLE, Ph.D. 50 cents, net. 
 
 4. Early American Philosophers. ADAM LEROY JONES, Ph.D. 75 cents, net. 
 
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 Ph.D. 60 cents, net. 
 
 2. A Syllabus of Psychology. JAMES H. HYSLOP, Ph.D. $1.00, net. 
 
 3-4. A Syllabus of an Introduction to Philosophy. WALTER T. MARVIN, Ph.D. $1.25, net 
 
 VOLUME IV. 
 
 1. On Sensations from Pressure and Impact. HAROLD GRIFFING, Ph.D. (Out of print.) 
 
 2. Mental Imagery. WILFRID LAY, Ph.D. (Out of print.) 
 
 3. Animal Intelligence. EDWARD L. THORNDIKE, Ph.D. (Out of print.) 
 
 4. The Emotion of Joy. GEORGE V. N. DEARBORN, Ph.D. $i.ia, net. 
 
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 1. Conduct and the Weather. EDWIN G. DEXTER, Ph.D. (Out of print.) 
 
 2. On After Images. SHEPHERD I. FRANZ, Ph.D. Si.ia, net. 
 
 3. Inhibition. BURTIS R. BREESE, Ph.D. (Out of print.) 
 
 4. On the Accuracy of Movement. ROBERT S. WOODWORTH, Ph.D. (Out of print.) 
 
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 1-4. Educational Legislation and Administration in the Colonies. ELSIE WORTHINGTON 
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 3. Education in India. WILLIAM I. CHAMBERLAIN, Ph.D. 75 cents, net. 
 
 4. Horace Mann in Ohio. GEORGE ALLEN HUBBELL, A.M. 50 cents, net. 
 
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 2. Historical Development of School Reading Books and of Method in Teaching Reading 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 LIBRARY 
 
 This is the date on which this 
 book was charged out. 
 
 APR 1 fi 
 MAY29197090 
 
 69* 
 
 
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