UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. FROM THE LIBRARY OF DR. JOSEPH LECONTE. GIFT OF MRS. LECONTE. No. EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES PROBLEMS IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY TOGETHER WITH VARIOUS CHEMICAL TABLES, AND TABLES FOR THE CONVERSION OF COMMON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES INTO THOSE OF THE METRICAL SYSTEM. FOR THE USE OF BEGINNERS. J. G. NORWOOD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF NATURAL SCIENCE AND NATURAL, PHILOSOPHY, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF MISSOURI. COLUMBIA, MO.: PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR'S CLASS. NEW YORK : RICHARDSON & CO., 14 BOND STREET. 1868. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by J. G. NORWOOD, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Western District of Missouri. STEREOTYPED AT THE FBANKLIN TYPE FOUNDKY, CINCINNATI. NOTE. THE following pages were compiled expressly for the use of my own classes, and without any view to general publication. The Principals of two of our neighboring Colleges, however, on being made acquainted with the proposed plan of instruction, desiring copies for the use of their pupils, I have had an additional number printed for them; and, if the method should commend itself to teachers in other institutions, the edition could be extended to meet their wishes. The work is a mere compilation from text-books recently published in England, by some of the most eminent and successful teachers of Ele- mentary Chemistry in the Colleges and Universities of that country. None of the works from which the materials were extracted have, as yet, been republished in this country. They are Prof. FRANKLAND'S "Lecture Notes for Students," Prof. GALLOWAY'S "First Step in Chemistry," and "Second Step in Chemistry," Prof. WILLIAMSON'S "Chemistry for Stu- dents," Prof. ROSCOE'S "Lessons in Elementary Chemistry," Prof. WILSON'S "Inorganic Chemistry," and Prof. HOFMANN'S "Introduction to Modern Chemistry." Most of the Problems have been extracted from Prof. GALLO- WAY'S "First Step," and if that work could have been obtained for the use of my classes, there would have been less necessity for this compila- tion ; but repeated efforts to obtain copies, made during the last year and a half, only resulted in the information that it was "out of print."* The experience of many years, as a teacher of Chemistry, has convinced me that, even in our best Colleges, with all the aids of apparatus, and in the hands of thoroughly qualified teachers and manipulators, a large majority of pupils fail to gain such a knowledge of the principles of the science, as ought to repay them for the time faithfully spent in the at- tempt. This failure is due, I think, not so much to want of qualification in the teacher, or of industry in the student, as to the generally defective plan of teaching. If we put out of view, entirely, the eminently practical nature of this science, considered in its technical relations, and consider it only as part of the general means of mental discipline, we shall find * Since the following pages were in type, I have received a letter (dated January, 1868) from the London publishers of " The First Step in Chemistry," stating that a new edition has just been published. 4 NOTE. the failure quite as great in the last as in the first case. The student has no work to do for himself. All he is required to do, or, in fact, can do, under the methods pursued in many of our Academical Institutions, is to retain in his memory as much as he can of the lecture, memorize the appointed lesson in his class-book, and recite what he can remember of them to his teacher when called upon. Chemistry is a science of numbers, as well as of experiment; and if the arrangements in our Colleges were such (and they ought to be) as to admit of every student using the apparatus and experimenting for himself, still he would foil to master the principles of the science without the aid of mathematics and the blackboard. Exercising the memory only is not the best method, either for making chemists or for disciplining the mind of the pupil. Prof. GALLOWAY, of Dublin, who was among the first to pro- pose a better method of teaching Chemistry, as a branch of general edu- cation, says: "Few persons could learn' arithmetic by simply attending lectures, or by reading ; these important means of deriving instruction require to be followed up by the practice of exercises on the part of the student. Fewer still could become proficient in this branch of useful knowledge, if not only should the use of exercises be denied, but the various opera- tions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division be presented indiscriminately to the mind, and not, as is the invariable practice, treated separately. Strange, however, as it may appear, the method of teaching the language of Chemistry, which is certainly not less difficult to acquire, has been hitherto characterized by the defects just enumerated. Yet, without a knowledge of this important part of Chemistry, no real progress can be made in the science." He says, further, that by the new method he found the elements of Chemistry " capable of being taught even to boys of ten or twelve with as much success as the ordinary subjects of educa- tion." The "PROBLEMS" may be successfully solved by the aid of the princi- ples taught in most of the Text-books used in American Colleges. Among these may be mentioned the elementary works of Silliman, Johnston, Youmans, Draper, Fownes, Eliot and Storer, Graham, Turner, Taylor and Brande, Miller, Abel and Bloxani, Kane, Regnault, Stockhardt, Wells, etc., etc. The work is intended for the use of beginners only, and to aid them, in connection with the Class-book, and the lectures and experimental demonstrations of the teacher, to master the first principles of Chemistry, by a method equivalent to that by which the principles of arithmetic and algebra are acquired, as prerequisites to the study of the higher branches of mathematics. J. G. N. LABORATORY or THE STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBIA, MISSOURI, Nov., 1867. or THE UNIVERSITY or EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS. 1. Fill a small balloon of gold-beater's akin, or collodion, with hydrogen gas. The balloon will rise to the ceiling of the room. Explain the phe- nomenon; and state the weight of hydrogen as compared with that of other bodies. 2. Prepare some carbonic acid gas, by placing in a bottle, furnished with a delivery tube, some fragments of 'marble, or chalk, and pouring upon them, by means of a funnel tube, equal parts of hydrochloric acid and water. The delivery tube in this experiment should dip into a dry glass vessel, and reach to the bottom. As soon as the vessel is filled with the gas. which is ascertained by a candle being extinguished when intro- duced just below the edge of the vessel, pour the gas, as you would a liquid, into another vessel of the same size and shape. Prove that the gas has been really transferred from the one vessel to the other, by intro- ducing a lighted candle, first into the vessel originally containing it (in which the candle ought now to burn), and then into the one into which it was poured, and in which the candle ought now to be extinguished. What does this experiment teach? 3. Fill a wide and deep glass jar half full of carbonic acid gas, the upper half being filled with atmospheric air. Fill a collodion balloon with a mixture of hydrogen and air in such exact proportions that the balloon will just sink in air. When so prepared, let the balloon sink into the jar; and as soon as it reaches the uppermost layer of carbonic acid it will rebound as if it had touched a solid body. Finally, it will float quietly upon the carbonic acid. What does this experiment illustrate ? 4. Place a few fragments of sulphur in a Florence flask, and then heat the flask by means of a gas or spirit lamp. The sulphur will become liquid; and, if the heat be long continued, it will finally be converted into vapor. If the vapor be received into another flask, which is kept cool, it will be reconverted into the solid state. What is proved by this experi- ment? 5. Perform a similar experiment with small pieces of iodine, introduced into a large flask ; and then heat the flask by means of a spirit lamp. Notice the color of the vapor. 6. Fill very nearly a small glass retort with water, and then introduce a little sulphuric ether. The latter liquid will swim above the water in the upper part of the retort. Invert the beak of the retort in a vessel (5) 6 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS. of water. Then apply a gentle heat to that part of the retort containing the ether. The heat will convert the liquid ether into vapor, and more or less of the water will be expelled from the retort. On removing the heat and allowing the glass to cool, the water will flow back into the retort. Explain the phenomena. 7. Half fill a retort with water, place it upon a retort-stand, and insert the beak in a flask. Keep the flask cool by means of a wet cloth or ice. Heat that part of the retort containing the water by means of a spirit lamp. What will take place ? and what is the explanation of the phenomena ? EXERCISES ON THE COMBINATION OF TWO ELEMENTS. 8. Place a piece of phosphorus, about half the size of a pea, in the deflagrating spoon (having previously dried the P. by pressing it gently between folds of blotting paper), and hold the spoon in the flame of a spirit lamp until the phosphorus takes fire. Then introduce it into a jar filled with oxygen gas. What will take place? 9. Dry a piece of phosphorus similar in size, and in the same way, as directed in Expt. 8. Cut it into small fragments, and introduce them unignited, by means of the spoon, into a glass jar filled with chlorine. What will take place? 10. Place a few fragments of phosphorus (dried) upon a plate, and throw upon them a small quantity of iodine. Describe the phenomena. 11. Place a piece of roll sulphur, about the size of a pea, in the bowl of the spoon, hold the bowl in the flame of a lamp or candle until the sulphur takes fire, and then introduce it into a wide-mouthed bottle or jar filled with oxygen gas. What will take place? 12. Introduce, by means of the spoon, a piece of red-hot charcoal into a jar filled with oxygen gas. Describe the phenomena. 13. Coil a thin iron or steel wire around a stick, so as to bring it into a cork-screw shape, and then draw it off Tip one end of the wire with sulphur, by immersing it in melted brimstone, the other end being fixed into a cork which fits the mouth of the gas jar. The sulphur having been ignited, the spiral wire must be immediately inserted into a jar filled with oxygen gas, and the cork closely pressed into the mouth of the jar. Describe the phenomena. 14. Put a little powdered antimony into a small muslin bag, and shake the bag over the open mouth of a jar filled with chlorine, in such a manner Jiat the small particles of the metal coming through the muslin may fall into the jar. What will take place? The Expt. may be varied by substituting powdered metallic arsenic for the antimony. In both cases the experimenter must be very careful not to inhale any of the chlorine gas or the vapors formed. THE CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR COMBINATION. 15. Introduce a piece of dry phosphorus into ajar of oxygen ; notice the result, and then repeat Expt. 8. Explain the cause of the difference in the phenomena. 16. Dissolve some nitrate of lead in water, and also some iodide of potassium in water. Add a part of the solution of iodide of potassium to the lead solution. Explain the reactions. IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 7 17. Dissolve some corrosive sublimate (chloride of mercury) in water. Add to this solution the remainder of the iodine solution. Explain the reactions. 18 Dissolve some sulphate of iron in water, and add to the solution some sulphide of ammonium. Explain the results. 19. Dissolve some sulphate of zinc in water, and add to the solution some sulphide of ammonium. Explain the reactions. CHANGE OF FORM. 20. Place some fragments of marble or chalk in a deep glass vessel, add water enough to cover them to the depth of half an inch or an inch, and then add some hydrochloric acid. Effervescence will ensue on the addition of the acid. Explain the phenomenon. 21. Take two precipitating vessels of equal size (tumblers will do), moisten the sides of one with a few drops of aqua ammonia, and the sides of the other with a few drops of hydrochloric acid. (Ammonia and hydro- chloric acid are gaseous bodies, and they escape from their aqueous solu- tions when exposed to the air. The atmosphere of the jar becomes, there- fore, filled with these gases.) Then bring the mouths or openings of the two vessels together. What will take place ? and what will be formed ? UNION OF ELEMENTS. 22. Introduce into a jar filled with nitrogen gas a small piece of ignited phosphorus, by means of the deflagrating spoon. What will take place ? Explain the phenomenon. 23 Introduce into a jar filled with nitrogen gas a fragment of ignited sulphur, by means of the deflagrating spoon. What will be the result? and why? 24. Introduce a piece of dry phosphorus into ajar of oxygen by means of the spoon. What will take place ? Then introduce a piece of ignited phosphorus into the same jar. What will be the result ? and why ? 25. Introduce a piece of unignited phosphorus into a jar filled with chlorine gas, (as directed in Expt. 9). What do these experiments teach in regard to combination ? 26. Place in a beaker, or other convenient glass vessel, a piece of phosphorus, and half fill the vessel with water. Fill a bladder, or India rubber bftg, which is fitted with a stop-cock and bent delivery tube, with oxygen, and direct a stream of the gas upon the phosphorus. When the two elements come in contact, no reaction will take place. Then increase the temperature of the water 10 F., and again direct a stream of oxygen upon the phosphorus. Continue to increase the temperature of the water 10 F., after each occasion that the oxygen has been directed upon the phosphorus, until the phosphorus bursts into flame. At about what tem- perature will this take place? and what principle does this experiment illustrate ? 27. Form a small metallic spiral by twisting a piece of copper wire around a pencil. Then place it cold over the flame of a wax taper. What will take place ? Then heat the spiral to redness, in the flame of a spirit- lamp, and place it over the flame of the taper. What will be the result ? and why? 8 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 28. Lay a piece of camphor on some wire gauze, and kindle it. The camphor will burn on the surface with a smoky flame, and a portion of the melted mass will pass through the gauze to the under side, but will not burn. Why not? 29. Place a piece of wire gauze over a jet from which an inflammable gas (such as coal gas) is issuing; apply a light to the upper surface of the gauze, and the gas will instantly take fire. Raise the gauze an inch or two above the jet from which the gas is issuing; and, while the gas above the wire will continue to burn, that below will remain unignited. Explain the experiment. 30. What elements do the following symbols stand for: Fe Au Br Mn Cd ? 31. Give the symbols for the following elements: Magnesium Lead Chlorine Copper Platinum Potassium So- dium. 32. How are the Metals distinguished from the Metalloids? 33. Name the elements which are gaseous, and those which are fluid, at the common temperature. 34. Of what elements are the following compounds composed : H O Pb S Na Cl Ca F Fe K Br Ca Zn 1 Co ? 35. What is "weight? 36. In what respect does the attraction of Gravitation differ from the attraction of Cohesion and Chemical Attraction ? 37. What is the difference between a mere mixture of substances and a chemical compound? 38. What is the burning of phosphorus, of carbon, of sulphur, of hydrogen, in the air, due to? 39. Repeat Expt. No. 13; and describe the reactions which take place. 40. Make the same Expt. (No. 39), with the exception, that instead of plun^in; the wire into oxygen gas after the sulphur is ignited, allow it to remain in the air. Explain the result. RESULTS OF COMBUSTION. 41. Introduce a piece of ignited phosphorus into a jar of oxygen, as in Expt. 8. What will be formed. 42. Introduce a piece of unignited phosphorus into a jar of chlorine, in the way described in Expt. 9. What will be formed? 43. Add some phosphorus and iodine together, in the way described in Expt. 10. What will be formed? 44. Introduce a piece of ignited phosphorus into a jar of nitrogen, as described in Expt. 22. What will be formed? 45. Introduce some burning sulphur into ajar of oxygen, as described in Expt. 11. What will be formed"? 46. Take a fragment of sulphur and melt it in the cup of the spoon ; as soon as it is liquid, and before it takes lire, introduce it into a bottle filled with chlorine gas. What will be the result? and what will bo formed ? IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 9 47. Introduce some burning sulphur into a jar of nitrogen, in the way described in Expt. 23. What will be the result? 48. Burn some iron wire in a jar of oxygen, in the way directed in Expt. 13. What will be formed? 49. Make a small ball of turnings of zinc, and inclose in it a small fragment of phosphorus. Place the ball in the cup of the spoon, and set fire to the phosphorus by means of a lamp. Then introduce the spoon as quickly as possible into a jar of oxygen. Describe the phenomena, and state the result. 50. Place a few small fragments of antimony in the cup of the spoon, and then heat them in the flame of a lamp until they take fire. Intro- duce the burning metal immediately into a jar of oxygen. What will be formed ? 51. Introduce some powdered antimony into a jar of chlorine, in the way described in Expt. 14. What will be formed ? 52. Introduce some ignited charcoal into a jar of oxygen, in the way described in Expt. 12. What will be formed? 53. Generate some hydrogen gas in a common round bottle, by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on granulated zinc. Fit a narrow glass tube into a perforated cork, the latter fitting air-tight into the neck of the bottle. The tube should be made of hard infusible glass, and the end which is not fixed into the cork should be drawn out into a fine open point. As soon as the operator considers that all the common air has been expelled from the bottle, but not before, (on account of the violent explosion which occurs when hydrogen, mixed with common air, is in- flamed,) apply a light to the gas issuing from the orifice of the tube. What causes the hydrogen to burn? and what is formed? 54. Fill a soda-water bottle with equal volumes of chlorine and hy- drogen, and inflame the mixture by applying a lighted match to the mouth of the bottle. An explosion will ensue. What will be formed? and what are its properties? 55. Describe the oxyhydrogen lime light, and state the part which the lime plays in the illumination. 56. Introduce a cold body, such as a plate of metal or a piece of glass, or even a piece of card, into a luminous flame; it will speedily become blackened from the deposition of carbon. Intercept the flame, by means of the card, far down, near the wick; then higher up, about the middle of the flame; and then at the top. The deposit of carbon near the wick will be very slight; it will be considerable in the middle of the flame ; and only very slight at the top. Explain the phenomena. 57. Place a piece of sulphur in a long test tube, or flask of hard glass. Heat the vessel, by means of a lamp, until the sulphur melts, and the vessel has become filled with its vapor. Introduce a narrow strip of tin 1 - foil into the sulphur atmosphere, when the metal will instantly inflame. What will be formed ? This Expt. may be varied by employing, instead of the tin-foil, a nar- row strip of sheet lead ; or, very thin iron and copper wires twisted into a coil, and introducing them into an atmosphere of sulphur. What would be formed in the respective circumstances? 58. What elements do the following symbols stand for: Zn--Ni Na Ca-Ba Sb-Hg Sn ? 10 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 59. Give the symbols for the following elements : Cadmium, Chlo- rine, Calcium, Carbon, Chromium, Copper, Cobalt, Caesium. 60. Of what elements are the following compounds composed: Ag Cl Ca F Fb Br Hg O B N Cu Cl ? 61. Name some of the terms employed in ordinary language to ex- press the combination of substances. 62. What conditions are necessary for light to be produced in chem- ical combination ? 63. Name some of the conditions necessary for the combination of phosphorus and oxygen; of phosphorus and chlorine; and the phenomena which accompany the combinations, and the properties of the compounds produced. 64. State the effects which intense heat has upon solid and gaseous bodies, and give examples. 65. Do the light and heat emitted by burning bodies bear any pro- portion to each other ? Confirm the opinion expressed by examples. 66. Why do substances burn more vividly in pure oxygen than they do in atmospheric air ? 67. Upon what facts depends the possibility of artificial illumina- tion? 68. What is necessary for the production of flame ? 69. Name some of the conditions necessary for the combination of antimony and chlorine ; and of sulphur and oxygen ; and the phenomena which accompany the combinations, and the properties of the compounds produced. 70. Of what elements are all materials employed for illumination com- posed, and what changes do they undergo when burned in the air ? 71. Explain the flame of a candle. COMBINATION OF A COMPOUND WITH AN ADDITIONAL QUANTITY OF ONE OF ITS ELEMENTS. 72. Place at the bottom of a long test-tube some crystals of oxalic acid ; add to them some strong sulphuric acid, and then warm the tube in the flame of a lamp. As soon as effervescence commences, apply a piece of lighted paper, or a match, to the mouth of the tube, until the evolved gas takes tire ; it burns with a blue flame. What gas is it ? and what compound is formed by its burning ? 73. Put into a Woulfe-bottle a few small pieces of metallic copper (copper turnings), and add to the metal, by means of a funnel tube, equal parts of nitric acid and water. Effervescence, without the appli- cation of heat, will instantly ensue. On the first evolution of the gas the bottle will be filled with reddish fumes. When they have nearly passed away, the gas may be collected in the usual way, by dipping the exit tube under the mouth of a jar filled with water, and standing inverted on the shelf of a pneumatic trough. Give the name of this gas, and its composition. 74. Pass, rapidly, into a jar half full of the gas formed by Expt. 73 (the vessel containing it being inverted on the shelf of the pneumatic cistern), a quantity of oxygen. As soon as the two gases are brought IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 11 together, the jar will be instantly filled with an orange-red gas, which is very soluble in water; this liquid will, therefore, rapidly ascend in the vessel by dissolving the new-formed gas. (This experiment furnishes a striking example of the difference between a mere mixture of sub- stances and a chemical compound.) What is the orange-red gas? Explain the rationale of its formation. Vary this Expt. by filling a jar with the gas formed by Expt. 73 ; remove it from the pneumatic cistern, and expose it, with its mouth upward, to the air, when the orange-red fumes will be formed, as in the first case. Give the rationale. EVERY COMPOUND SUBSTANCE IS EITHER AN ACID, A BASE, A SALT, OR AN IN- DIFFERENT BODY. 75. Fill three wine-glasses, or other convenient vessels, with water. To one, add a few drops of any acid, as hydrochloric ; to the second a few drops of any base, as soda or potash ; to the third, add nothing, and the water will represent an indifferent body. Explain the means by which it can be ascertained which glass contains the acid, which the base, and which the neutral or indifferent body. 76. Add a little water to some caustic (quick) lime. The two sub- stances will combine and form a solid compound. Name the compound, and state the phenomena attending: its formation. 77. Define the terms, Acid, Alkali, Salt, Base, Neutral, Salt-Radical, Compound, and Mixture. 78. Pass a stream of carbonic acid gas (prepared in the way de- scribed in Expt. 2) through a clear solution of lime (lime-water). What will take place ? Give the rationale. 79. Can more compounds than one be formed out of the same ele- ments ? 80. Give some proof that atmospheric air is a mixture, and not a chem- ical compound. 81. Describe the properties and action of an acid. 82. What produces the blue flame which is frequently seen on the surface of coal fires ? 83. Give examples to prove that temperature influences combination. 84. Why will not carbonic acid burn in the air? 85. Why will not water burn in the air ? SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 86. What is meant by specific weight? Describe the "1000 grains bottle," and the principle involved in its use. 87. Tf a bottle capable of holding 360 grains of distilled water, holds 320 grains of some other liquid, what is the sp. gr. of that liquid ? 88. Tf a bottle capable of holding 400 grains of distilled water, holda 470 grains of some other liquid, what is the sp. gr. of that liquid ? 89. If a bottle capable of holding 700 grains of distilled water, holds 600 grains of some other liquid, what is the sp. gr. of that liquid ? 12 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 90. Required the weight in pounds of a gallon of linseed oil, its sp. gr. being 0.953. (NOTE. An imperial gallon of water weighs 70,000 grains, or 10 Ibs.) 91. .Required the weight in pounds of a gallon of turpentine, its sp. gr. being 0.792. 92 Required the weight of a gallon of the water of the Dead Sea, its sp gr. being 1.172. 93. Required the weight of a gallon of vinegar, its sp. gr. being J. , Uoo. 94. Required the weight of a cubic inch of mercury, the sp. gr. of which is 13.59. (NOTE. A cubic inch of water weighs 252.458 grains.) 95. If 100 grains of a solid be introduced into a bottle holding 500 grains of water, and if after the introduction of the solid the bottle weighs 560 grains, what is the sp. gr. of the solid ? 96. If 160 grains of a solid be introduced into a bottle holding 400 grains of water, and if after the introduction the bottle weighs 500 grains, what is the sp. gr. of the solid ? 97. If 300 grains of a solid be introduced into a bottle holding 700 grains of water, and if after the introduction the bottle weighs 850 grains, what is the sp. gr. of the solid ? 98. If 200 grains of a solid be introduced into a bottle holding 400 grains of alcohol, the sp. gr. of which is 0.870, and the bottle weighs, after the solid is introduced, 570 grains, what is the sp. gr. of the solid, taking water as the standard of comparison. 99. If 300 grains of a solid be introduced into a bottle holding 700 grains of turpentine, the sp. gr. of which is 0.790, and the bottle weighs, after the introduction of the olid, 870 grains, what is the sp. gr. of the solid, taking water as the standard of comparison ? 100. Required the sp. gr. of a solid which weighs 36 grains in air and 26 grains in water. Explain the law upon which the calculation is based. 101. A solid, the weight of which in air is 60 grains, weighs 40 grains in water and 30 grains in sulphuric acid ; required the sp. gr. of the acid. 102. A piece of metal, weighing 36 pounds in the air and 32 pounds in water, is attached to a piece of wood the weight of which in air is 30 pounds; the weight of the combined solids in water is 12 pounds. Re- quired the sp. gr. of the wood. 103. What will be the weight of a block of limestone containing 12 cubic feet; one cubic foot of water weighing 62.5 pounds, and the p. gr. of the stone being 2.64? 104. How many cubic feet are there in a block of coal weighing 1 cwt,, its sp. gr. being 1.232? 105. The sp. gr. of bar iron is 7.788; required the weight of a cubic foot. (NOTE. The volume of a gallon of water is 277.274 cubic inches.) 106. The sp. gr. of flint glass is 3.329, required the weight of a cubic foot. IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 13 107. The sp. gr. of oak wood is 0.845; required the weight of a cubic foot. 108. The sp. gr. of cork is 0.240; required the weight of a cubic foot. 109. The sp. gr. of ice is 0.930; required the weight of a cubic foot 110. The sp. gr. of silver is 10.474; required the weight of a cubic inch. 111. A solid weighs 49 grains in air, and 42 grains in water; re- quired the weight of a cubic foot of the substance. 112. Into how many classes are the properties of matter divided? 113. Name the physical properties of oxygen, chlorine, carbon, and mercury. 114. Name the chemical properties of oxygen, carbon and chlorine. 115. Enumerate the essential properties of matter, and the non-es- sential properties of matter. 116. How many kinds of weight are there? and, what is meant by absolute weight ? 117. What is meant by specific gravity? and, by atomic weight ? 118. Add some nitric acid to copper filings; the copper will disap- pear, and a beautiful blue solution will be formed. What is it ? Does the acid combine with the metal ? 119. Add some sulphuric acid to iron filings. What will take place, and what will be formed ? 120. Add some sulphuric acid to some ammonia, in such proportion that the solution, after the addition, has no action upon either blue or red litmus papers. What does the experiment prove ? 121. Mix some chloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) with some iodide of potassium. The mixture will be colorless. Then dissolve the mixture in water. What will take place ? and why ? 122. Mix some nitrate of lead with some iodide of potassium. The mixture will be colorless. Then add water to the mixture. What will take place ? Explain the phenomena. 123. Place a piece of bright metallic iron in a solution of nitrate of copper (a quarter of an ounce of the copper salt to half a pint of water). What will take place ? and what will be formed ? (Name the first of the four great laws of chemical union, and illus- trate it by solving the following problems:) 124. How much water would be produced from 28 Ibs. of oxygen and 5 Ibs. of hydrogen, and would either of the elements be in excess ? 125. How much hydrochloric acid would be produced from 5 Ibs. of hydrogen and 178 Ibs. of chlorine, and would either of the elements be in excess ? 126. How much hydriodic acid would be produced from 7 Ibs. of hydrogen and 1,000 Ibs. of iodine, and would either of the elements be in excess ? 127. How much hydrosulphuric acid would be produced from 6 Ibs. of hydrogen and 80 Ibs. of sulphur, and would either of the elements be in excf ss ? 14 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 128. How much zinc will combine with 8 parts of oxygen? What compound will be formed, and how many parts ? 129. How much hydrogen will combine with 16 parts of oxygen, and how many parts of water will be formed ? 130. How many parts of potassium will combine with 35.5 of chlo- rine ? What compound will be formed, and how many parts ? 131. How many parts of lead will combine with 48 of oxygen? What compound will be formed, and how many parts? 132. How many parts of lead will combine with 48 of sulphur. What compound will be formed, and how many parts? 133. In 9 parts of the compound H O, what quantity of hydrogen is there, and what quantity of K will replace it ? 134. In 28 parts of the compound Ca 0, what quantity of oxygen is there, and what quantity of sulphur will replace it ? 135. In 20 parts of the compound Mg 0, what quantity of oxygen is there, and what quantity of chlorine will replace it ? 136. Oxygen and potassium unite, in the proportion of 8 of the former element to 39 of the latter, to form 47 parts of potassa. What quantity of oxygen is contained in 100 parts of potassa? 137. Bromine and hydrogen unite, in the proportion of 80 of the for- mer element to 1 of the latter, to form 81 parts of hydrobromic acid. How much bromine is contained in 150 parts of hydrobromic acid? 138. Every 100 parts of a compound of sulphur and oxygen (sulphu- rous acid), are composed of 50 parts of sulphur and 50 parts of oxygen. How much 1 oxygen is united with 16 of sulphur, and how many atoms of oxygen is it equal to? 139. Every 100 parts of a compound of sulphur and oxygen (sulphuric aoid), are composed of 40 parts of sulphur and 60 parts of oxygen. How much oxygen is united with 16 of sulphur, and how many atoms of oxygen is it equal to ? 140. Every 100 parts of a compound of phosphorus and oxygen (phos- phorous acid), are composed of 56.36 parts of phosphorus and 43.64 parts of oxygen. How much oxygen is united with 31 of phosphorus, and how many atoms of oxygen is it equal to ? 141. Every 100 parts of a compound of phosphorus and oxygen (phosXv* v phoric acid), are composed of 43.66 parts of phosphorus and 56.44 parts" of oxygen. How much oxygen is united with 31 parts of phosphorus, and how many parts of oxygen is it equal to ? 142. Every 100 parts of calomel are composed of 84.96 parts of mer- cury and 15.04 parts of chlorine; and every 100 parts of corrosive subli- mate are composed of 73.86 parts of mercury and 26.14 parts of chlorine. What quantity of mercury is combined with 35.5 parts of chlorine in the calomel and the corrosive sublimate? and how many atoms of mercury is it equal to in the two compounds ? 143. A compound of manganese and oxygen contains these elements in the following proportions: 27.6 of manganese and 12 of oxygen. Find the atomic proportions. 144. A compound of manganese and oxygen contains these elements in the following proportions: 27.6 of manganese and 12 of oxygen. Find the atomic proportions. IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 15 145. A compound of manganese and oxygen contains these elements in the following proportions: 27.6 of manganese and 10.66 of oxygen. Find the atomic proportions. 146. A compound of lead and oxygen contains these elements in the following proportions: 103.7 of lead and 12 of oxygen. Find the atomic proportions. 147. A compound of lead and oxygen contains these elements in the following proportions: 103.7 of lead and 10.66 of oxygen. Find the atomic proportions. 148. Write out as complete an answer as you possibly can to the fol- lowing question : How does chemical affinity differ from the attraction of cohesion ? 149. How many modes are there of forming chemical compounds? Write out a full and complete answer, with examples. 150. What elements do the following symbols stand for? and how many atoms, and how many parts by weight, do the symbols signify ? Ba Si Pt As Cu-Mn Ag Au Cd Co Ni B. 151. What compounds do the following symbols stand for? and how many atoms, and how many parts by weight, do the symbols signify? Name also the constituents of each compound. Ba 0-Sr O- Ca 0-Mg O H 0-Co O -Ni O -Zn O -Mn O -Ag O -4 Cu O Cd O. 152. State the number of atoms of each element in one atom of the following compounds, and give the combining proportion of each coin- pound : As O 3 As O 5 Pt 2 Au 3 A1 2 O 3 Mn 2 Pb 3 O 4 . 153. Explain the meaning of the figures attached to the following symbols : 2 Ca O 3 Na 02 C O 2 5 As O 5 . 154. Name the following compounds : Ca F-Ag I K Br Na Cl Co S Ni Cl. 155. Name the following compounds, and if they are named in two wayfi, give both names : ; "Pb S-Ca Cl Ba P Ni N Fe C Fe Si. 156. Name the following compounds; and if any of them are named in two ways, give both names : H S H Br I Cl S Cl. 157. Give the names of the following compounds, attaching the proper prefixes : Fe 2 Cl 3 Cu 2 I-CS 2 -ICl 3 -KS 5 -BaS 4 -PCl 3 -PCl 5 -S 2 Cl FeS 2 . 158. Dissolve some iodide of potassium in water (about a drachm of the salt in half a pint of water), and add to the solution a small quantity of chlorine water, obtained by passing chlorine gas through water. Explain the reactions. 159. Place in a solution of sulphate of copper (about a quarter of an ounce of the salt in half a pint of water), a piece of bright metal- lic iron. Explain the reactions which take place. 16 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 160. Throw a small fragment of potassium into water contained in a dish or plate. Explain the phenomena; and state the effect which will be produced on blue and red litmus papers by the water. 161. Introduce a burning taper into a glass jar filled with chlorine gas. Explain the phenomena which take place. 162. Moisten a piece of blotting paper with spirits of turpentine (C 5 H 4 ) and introduce it into ajar filled with chlorine gas. Explain the reactions, and state what compound is formed. 163. Add some dilute hydrochloric acid (1 part of concentrated acid to 4 of water) to some fragments of zinc. Explain the reactions, and state what will be formed. 164. Prepare some sulphide of hydrogen, by adding to some fragments of sulphide of iron, placed in an appropriate apparatus, dilute hydrochlo- ric acid. Collect the gas as it is liberated, in a jar placed over water, in the manner directed for carbonic acid gas in Expt. 2. Subsequently pass a little chlorine gas into the jar. Explain the phenomena, and state what will be formed. 165. Prepare some nitrous oxide gas (NO "laughing gas"), by plac- ing some solid nitrate of ammonia in a retort, and applying heat. The nitrate is decomposed by heat into this gas and water. The gas may be collected in jars at the pneumatic trough. A proper regulation of the heat, so as to avoid a tumultuous disengagement of the gas, is the only precaution required in preparing this gas. 166. Introduce, by means of the deflagrating spoon, a fragment of lighted phosphorus into a jar filled with nitrous oxide. The gas will be decomposed, not by the mere affinity of the phosphorus for the oxy- gen this is insufficient but by the high temperature of the burning phosphorus and the affinity spoken of. What will be formed? 167. Introduce, by means of the spoon, some burning sulphur into a jar of nitrous oxide. Explain the results, and state what will be formed ? 168. Add to a solution of nitrate of silver a globule of mercury. State the result, and what the solution now contains. Then dip a slip >of clean bright copper into the solution. What will take place? Then add some nitrate of lead to the solution. What will be the result? Then place a slip of clean zinc in the solution remaining. What will take place, and what will the solution now contain ? What do these Expts. teach with regard to the affinity of oxygen for the metals ? 169. Throw a fragment of sodium into a plate of water. What will take place ? and what will be formed ? 170. Repeat the Expt. by using warm instead of cold water. Explain the difference in the phenomena. 171. Add dilute sulphuric acid (1 part of S O 3 to 4 of water) to a hot concentrated solution of biborate of soda (half an ounce of the salt boiled with 2 ounces of water), until the solution becomes sour to the taste. What reactions will take place, and what substances will be formed ? 172. Add to a solution of nitrate of lead (4 drachms of the salt to 4 or 5 ounces of water) a solution of caustic soda. Explain the reactions, and state what will be formed. 173. Add some lime-water to a hot solution of carbonate of ammonia, What will take place, and what will be formed ? IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 17 174. Add some nitric acid, diluted with twice its volume of water, to some fragments of marble. What will be formed? Perform this experi- ment in the apparatus described in Expt. 2, and let the exit tube dip into an open dry glass vessel. The tube should extend to the bottom of the vessel. 175. Fill two bottles, of equal size, one with carbonic acid gas, the other with hydrogen Fix into the mouth of one of the bottles, after it is filled, a glass tube, two or three inches long, by means of a perforated cork ; and, in the same manner, fix the other end of the tube in the other bottle. Place the apparatus on the table, by standing it on the bottom of the bottle containing the carbonic acid, the hydrogen bottle being up- ward. Let it stand for two or three hours. What will take place? Explain the principle, and state what will take place on pouring lime- water into the bottles. 176. Close one end of a wide glass tube, 10 or 12 inches in length, and 1 or 2 inches in width, with a plug of plaster of Paris about half an inch thick. This plug, when dry, is permeated with a multitude of min- ute pores, which are pervious to- gases. This tube (called the diffusion tube), when the plug is dry, is to be filled with hydrogen, by displace- ment. To accomplish this, a plate of glass is placed first of all upon the exterior of the plug; a tube connected with a gas-holder, or some vessel filled with hydrogen, is then introduced into the diffusion tube until it almost touches the plug. Hydrogen is by this means conveyed from the vessel containing it into the tube, and of course it displaces the air con- tained in the diffusion tube. When the tube is entirely and solely filled with hydrogen, close the mouth of it with a piece of glass, and then transfer it, with its mouth downward, into a vessel filled with colored water, subsequently removing both plates of glass. Describe the phe- nomena which take place under these circumstances. Vary this Expt. by filling the diffusion tube with atmospheric air, and surrounding it with an atmosphere of hydrogen. What do these Expts. teach, in relation to gases ? 177. Prepare a solution of carbonate of soda (1 part of the salt to 10 of water), and add to it a solution of sulphate of copper. What will take place, and what new substances will be formed? Show the reactions by a diagram. 178. Add a solution of chromate of potash (1 part of the salt to 10 of water) to one of nitrate of lead. What will be produced ? Explain the rationale by means of a diagram. 179. Project a small piece of phosphide of calcium into a plate of water; this phosphorus compound and water mutually decompose each other. What is formed ? Describe and explain the phenomena attending the Expt. (Note: If the phosphide of calcium has not been recently prepared, employ warm water.) 180. Add a solution of iodide of potassium to one of nitrate of lead. What will be formed ? Illustrate the reactions by a diagram. 181. Add a solution of iodide of potassium to one of chloride of mer- cury. What will be formed ? Illustrate the reactions by a diagram. 182. Fill a tall-stoppered glass jar with binoxide of nitrogen (pre- pared as directed in Expt. 73); add a few drops of sulphide of carbon, and afterward shake the vessel in such a way as to diffuse the carbon com- pound in the atmosphere of the jar. When this has been done, remove 2 18 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS the stopper, and with a lighted taper, which the experimenter must have ready, inflame the gaseous mixture. Its inflammation will be accompanied with a slight explosion. State the results of the experiment, and illustrate them by a diagram. 183. Introduce some binoxide of mercury (Hg 0) into a retort of hard glass, and apply a strong heat, by means of a Rose or Berzelius lamp. What will be formed ? 184. Introduce some red lead (Pb 3 4 ) into a retort of hard glass, and then heat it to redness, by the means directed in the last Expt. Explain the results, and illustrate them by an equation. 185. Introduce a quantity of dry and finely powdered nitrate of lead into an earthenware or hard glass retort, which is then to be heated to full redness. The red vapors which will be evolved, are to be conducted into a receiver, carefully cooled by a mixture of snow and salt, where they condense into a liquid. What decompositions take place, and what compounds are formed ? Illustrate by a diagram. 186. Introduce into a wide tube, or a Florence flask, to which a bent tube is attached, a small quantity of powdered chlorate of potash, and subsequently apply heat. What reactions take place ? Illustrate by an equation. 187. Introduce into a jar of nitrous oxide (prepared as directed in Expt. 165) a lighted taper, which will burn with increased brilliancy in this gas. What is the burning of the candle in this gas due to? What decompositions and combinations take place ? Explain why the decom- positions take place. 188. Introduce into ajar of binoxide of nitrogen (prepared as directed in Expt. 73) a lighted taper, which will be immediately extinguished. Explain why it is that the taper will not burn in this gas, while it burns with increased brilliancy in the protoxide of nitrogen. 189. Introduce, by means of a deflagrating spoon, a piece of dry unig- nited phosphorus into a jar of binoxide of nitrogen, and then touch it with a red hot wire. The phosphorus will not be ignited. Remove the spoon from the jar, touch the phosphorus with the hot wire, and it will immediately inflame ; then introduce the inflamed phos- phorus into the jar of binoxide of nitrogen, and it will continue to burn. Explain the non-inflammation of the phosphorus in the first Expt., arid why it was capable of burning under the conditions of the last Expt. State, also, what new substance is formed. 190. Mix, in a mortar, very briskly, flowers of sulphur and metallic copper in the state of very fine powder, in the proportion of 16 parts of the former to 32 of the latter. Explain the result. 191. Put some tartrate of lead into a tube of hard glass; contract the open extremity, but do not completely close it; heat the tartrate gradu- ally, so as to decompose it in succession, beginning at the end nearest the aperture. In this way dissipate all that is volatile. s The substance which remains in the tube will inflame the moment it is projected into the air, and will continue to burn for some time. State what the sub- stance is; why it burns; and what is produced? 192. Dissolve some phosphorus in bisulphide of carbon, by adding small pieces of phosphorus to that liquid. Draw rapidly the outline of some letter or figure with a camel' s-hair pencil, or feather, moistened IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 19 with this phosphorus solution. In a short time every part of the paper coated with the solution will burst into flame. Explain the phenomena. 193. Add a solution of carbonate of ammonia to one of chloride of calcium. What reactions will take place, and what will be formed? Illustrate by a diagram, and also by an equation. 194. Add a solution of carbonate of soda to one of nitrate of lead. What will take place, and what will be formed? Illustrate by an equation. 195. Add to a solution of sulphate of zinc some sulphide of ammo- nium. What will take place, and what will be formed ? Illustrate by an equation. 196. Add some dilute sulphuric acid to a few fragments of sulphide of iron, in a bottle. State the result; and illustrate by a diagram. 197. Add to an aqueous solution of sulphide of hydrogen, an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid. What will take place, and what will be formed ? 198. Add sulphuric acid to a solution of chloride of sodium. State the result, and what will be produced. Illustrate by an equation. 199. State the properties of platinum sponge; and describe the con- struction and mode of action of Dobereiner's lamp. 200. Boil an infusion of litmus, or of red cabbage, with powdered ivory black, and then pass the liquid through filtering paper. State the results. 201. Boil an infusion of hops with powdered ivory black, and then pass the liquid through filtering paper. State the results. 202. Place a few strips of zinc in concentrated sulphuric acid. In a similar vessel, place a like quantity of zinc, and some dilute sulphuric acid (one part of concentrated acid to 8 of water). Describe and explain the difference of action in the two cases. 203. Add concentrated nitric acid to carbonate of baryta; and, in another vessel, some dilute nitric acid to another portion of the same salt. Describe and explain the results. 204. Add concentrated sulphuric acid to a few fragments of sulphide of iron; and dilute sulphuric acid to another portion of the iron com- pound. Describe and explain the results. 205. Add absolute alcohol, which is saturated with hydrochloric acid gas, to carbonate of potash. To another portion of the potash salt, add water in which the same gas is dissolved (ordinary liquid hydrochloric acid). Describe the behavior of the salt in the two cases, and give the reason why. 206. Chlorine, as has been proved by experiment, combines with phos- phorus, with antimony, and some of the other metals, at the ordinary tem- perature of the atmosphere. Is it probable that at some lower tempera- ture combination will not take place between the chlorine and one or the other of these elements? Give reasons for the opinion expressed. 207. Is the order of affinity constant under all conditions? 208. What is meant by the nascent state ? 209. Name some of the properties of charcoal. 210. Refer to the list of acids given in the " Table of Acid Sub- 20 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS stances/' and then say Avhich, if any of the following acids would set free sulphuric acid from the sulphate of potash at a red heat: hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, nitric acid, silicic acid, boracic acid. 211. Enumerate some of the circumstances which affect the order of decomposition. 212. Name the several circumstances under which decomposition will ensue when acids are added to salts. 213. Will any change take place when sulphuric acid is added to ni- trate of potash, and heat applied ? 214. Name the several circumstances under which decomposition will ensue when bases are added to salts. 215. Under what condition would it be possible for nitric acid to de- compose sulphate of potash ? 216. Ammonia decomposes chloride of lead in solution, and precipi- tates oxide of lead : is it probable that oxide of lead will decompose chloride of ammonium under some conditions? 217. Carbonate of lime is insoluble; lime, therefore, removes carbonic acid from potash when carbonate of potash is in solution. What con- ditions are necessary to render this decomposition complete, and what must be guarded against in order to prevent the potash taking back the carbonic acid from the lime ? 218. Name the several circumstances under which two salts in a state of solution will interchange their acids and bases. 219. Name the several circumstances under which two salts in the solid state will interchange their acids and bases. 220. To a solution of sulphate of magnesia add ammonia, which will precipitate a portion of the magnesia as hydrate. To a solution of the same salt, add chloride of ammonium, and then ammonia ; in this case the ammonia will not produce a precipitate, as the oxides which are in- soluble in ammonia, and yet not precipitated by it in the presence of ammoniacal salts, form with these salts double soluble salts, from w r hich combinations the ammonia can not precipitate them. 221 To a solution of alum add caustic soda, until the precipitate which first forms is redissolved ; then add hydrochloric acid until the solution manifests an acid reaction, and finally ammonia in excess. 222. To a solution of sesquichloride of chromium, add a cold solution of caustic soda, until the precipitate which first appears is redissolved; then boil the solution until the hydrate once more precipitates. 223. Add caustic soda to a solution of protosulphate of iron. Boil another portion of the solution of the iron salt with a few drops of nitric acid, until it becomes peroxidized, which will be indicated by the solution becoming yellow; when this is attained, add caustic soda in excess. Ob- serve the difference in color between the two precipitates. 224. Take three portions of a solution of sulphate of copper ; to one add ammonia until the precipitate which is first formed redissolves. To the second portion add caustic soda in the cold. Boil the third, and add to it caustic soda. 225. Mix together a solution of a persalt of iron (obtained as in Expt. 223), and add a solution of sulphate of alumina (common alum can be IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 21 employed); add caustic soda to the mixed solution to precipitate the iron ; boil and filter. To the filtrate add hydrochloric acid in excess, and, lastly, ammonia, to precipitate the alumina. Required to know whether any precipitation will occur when the follow- ing substances are added together; and if so, what chemical changes must ensue. The student should state what chemical changes will ensue before the experiment is made ; and afterward generalize it. For instance, if he states that sulphate of lead will be precipitated when an aqueous solution of sulphate of copper is added to one nitrate of lead, he must then say whether an aqueous solution of any soluble sulphate, on being added to a solution of nitrate of lead, would pro- duce a precipitate of sulphate of lead ; and then he must say whether sulphate of lead would be formed on adding a solution of any soluble sulphate to a solution of any soluble salt of lead. He should general- ize every question which admits of it in this way. See Table of Solu- bilities, p. 35. 226. If an aqueous solution of sulphate of copper were added to one of nitrate of lead, what would take place ? 227. If an aqueous solution of sulphate of magnesia were added to one of nitrate of baryta ? 228. If hydrochloric acid were added to an aqueous solution of pro- tonitrate of mercury, the solution of the mercury salt containing a small quantity of free nitric acid ? 229. If an aqueous solution of nitrate of potash were added to one of chloride of calcium ? 230. If an aqueous solution of oxalate of ammonia were added to one of chloride of calcium ? 231. If an aqueous solution of chloride of sodium were added to one of nitrate of lead ? 232. If an aqueous solution of phosphate of soda were added to a hy- drochloric acid solution of chloride of calcium ? 233. If sulphide of ammonium were added to an aqueous solution of sulphate of copper ? 234. Ff an aqueous solution of chromate of potash were added to one of chloride of barium ? 235. If an aqueous solution of sulphate of magnesia were added to one of nitrate of potash ? 236. If an aqueous solution of carbonate of ammonia were added to one of chloride of calcium? 237. If an aqueous solution of carbonate of soda (any of the carbon- ates of soda will do) were added to one of protosulphate of iron? 238. If an aqueous solution of chloride of ammonium were added to one of sulphate of zinc? 239. If an aqueous solution of chromate of potash were added to a ni- tric acid solution of nitrate of baryta ? 240. Prepare some sulphide of manganese from the chloride. Explain the process. 241. Dissolve some soluble salt of baryta in water, and prepare from 22 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS that solution the phosphate, chromate, carbonate, and sulphate of baryta. For this purpose, divide the solution into four separate portions; add to one of the four portions a soluble phosphate; to another a soluble chro- mate ; to a third a soluble carbonate ; and to the remaining portion a soluble sulphate. 242. Prepare anhydrous oxide, hydrated oxide, and sulphide of copper, from a salt of that metal which is soluble in water. 243. Prepare a small quantity of sulphate, carbonate, and chloride of lead, from a salt of that metal which is soluble in water. 244. Prepare some sulphate of baryta from the carbonate. (NOTE. Before soluble salts can be prepared from insoluble ones, the latter must, by acids or other means, be brought into a state of solution.) 245. Prepare some carbonate of zinc from the sulphide. 246. Dissolve a salt of baryta and a protosalt of mercury, which can exist together without decomposition, in an appropriate quantity of water. Precipitate the mercury from the solution containing the two salts, by adding to the solution some acid base or' salt, which will precipitate it either as insoluble oxide or as an insoluble salt. Filter off from the pre- cipitate thus formed, and to the nitrate (the liquid which passes through the filter), which ought, if sufficient of the substance employed to precip- itate the mercury were used, only to contain the baryta (disregarding the substances employed to precipitate the mercury), add some acid base or salt which will precipitate the baryta. 247. Dissolve a salt of peroxide of mercury and one of lime in water, and separate them in a similar manner. 248. Dissolve a salt of lime, a salt of zinc, and a salt of peroxide of iron, and separate them in a similar manner. 249. A manufacturing chemist has a quantity of impure chloride of ammonium, which he desires to purify. The impurity is perchloride of iron. If he were to dissolve the impure ammonia salt in water, could he precipitate the iron in such a way that chloride of ammonium would be the only substance remaining in solution ? 250. Describe Ure's eudiometer, and the method and object of its use. Introduce into it the gases requisite to form water in the proper proportions, and cause them to combine. 251. Introduce, in the same way, the elements required to form hydro- chloric acid, and cause them to combine. 252. Introduce, in the same way, one volume of oxygen and two of carbonic oxide, and cause them to combine. What will be produced ? 253. If thin metallic leaves are subjected to the action of an electric current, either from the machine or battery, they inflame and burn with considerable brilliancy. What is formed in such cases? Is the disap- pearance of a metal under the action of an electric current, and attended with the evolution of light and heat, proof that it has undergone combus- tion ; that is to say, oxidation ? 254. Describe " Smee's battery," and the apparatus necessary for the electrolysis of water. To which pole does the hydrogen go? 255. Bend a glass tube, half an inch in diameter and from 8 to 10 inches long, into the shape of the letter V. Fill the tube with a weak solution of sulphate of soda, colored blue with a solution of litmus. In- IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 23 sert a plate of platinum foil soldered to a copper wire into the solution at each end of the tube, and connect the opposite end of each wire with the galvanic battery, by means of the binding screws. Describe the phenom- ena, and state what chemical action takes place. Then transpose the connections of the wires with the binding screws, and notice and describe the resulting phenomena. 256. Fill the V tube with a solution of iodide of potassium, containing some starch paste. Insert the platinum plates into the solution, and con- nect the wires with the battery, as before. Describe the results. 257. Introduce into the V tube hydrochloric acid, colored blue with a solution of sulphate of indigo. What reactions will take place when the current is passed through the acid ? 258. What will take place, if the terminal wires of the battery be dipped into a cup containing fused chloride of lead in solution ? 259. Insert the terminal wires, which must be platinum, into a solu- tion of sulphate of copper. State the results; and then say what would take place if the portions of the terminal wires inserted in the fluid were copper. 260. Let three cups, A B C, be placed side by side, and be connected by means of pieces of candle-wick moistened with a solution of sulphate of soda. Let A be filled with a solution of sulphate of soda; B w r ith a solution of dilute sulphuric acid; and C with water. Let the positive wire (platinum) of a battery dip in A, and the negative in C. The positive current will, of course, enter the fluid in A, pass on through the fluid in B and C, and escape by the wire in this latter cup. State the effects of the current during its passage. 261. If a vessel be filled with a solution of sulphate of soda, and the wires, terminating in plates, of a battery in action be inserted, the acid will collect upon the one and the alkali upon the other plate ; but if, by means of pieces of bladder, the vessel be divided into three compartments, A, B, and C, and the central one being filled with a solution of sulphate of soda, dilute nitric acid is poured into those at the side, in which the plates are placed, in order to afford a conducting medium, no acid or alkali appears at the metallic poles when the current passes. As the compound in B is decomposed, where are its elements evolved ? 262. In what manner can the principle illustrated in the preceding Expts. be demonstrated by the electricity of the machine ? 263. State the nomenclature of Prof. Faraday as applied to a decom- posing cell in action. 264. Mention some of the circumstances which resist the decomposing power of an electrical current ; and state the best means of overcoming the resistances you may name. 265. What are the necessary elements for making a voltaic circuit? 266. In charging a Leyden jar by means of an ordinary electrical ma- chine, explain fully the whole process which goes on, beginning with the rubber and ending with the jar. 267. What does the direction of the galvanic current depend upon ? 268. What means are there of obtaining from a voltaic battery elec- tricity approaching in its intensity to that of electricity obtained by friction ? 24 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 269. State what is meant by the terms electronegative and electro- positive. 270. What is meant by the terms electrolyte and electrolysis? 271. (rive a summary of the more important principles connected with electrolysis. 272. Mix briskly, in a mortar, about four grains of powdered chlorate of potash, two grains of charcoal powder, and two grains of flowers of sulphur. The substances will react upon one another, the reaction being attended with flame and a slight noise. State what chemical changes take place. 273. Mix four grains of powdered chlorate of potash and six grains of flowers of sulphur, very intimately, on paper, by means of a "knife or feather ; and then divide the powder into three parts. Introduce one part, by means of a knife, into a wine glass containing concentrated sulphuric acid; it will immediately take fire. Place another part in a dry mortar, and then rub very briskly. Slight explosions, accompanied with light, will ensue. Wrap the rest of the mixture, in a little tin-foil, lay it on an anvil or a piece of iron, strike it with a hammer, and a loud report will be produced. State the chemical and physical results. 274. Mix equal parts of powdered chlorate of potash and powdered loaf-sugar about 20 grains of each on paper. Place the mixture upon a plate, and touch it with a glass rod which has just been dipped in strong sulphuric acid; it will immediately burst into a flame. 275. Powder coarsely a few crystals of nitrate of copper, lay them on a piece of tin-foil, add enough water to make them into a paste, and then quickly fold up the tin-foil, doubling the sides and corners well together, so as to exclude air: in a short time, nitrous acid gas (NO 4 ) will force its way out of the packet, and the tin-foil will take fire. Explain the insta- bility of the compounds employed in the last four Expts. 276. Add a solution of bichromate of potash to a strong nitric or hydrochloric acid solution of peroxide of barium. Violent effervescence and escape of oxygen ensues, owing to the decomposition of the chromic acid and of the peroxide of barium. What substances result from these decompositions ? 277. Add a solution of permanganate of potash to a strong nitric or hydrochloric acid solution of peroxide of barium, and, as in Expt. 276, a violent effervescence and escape of oxygen occurs. What are the results ? ... 278. Add a little oxide of silver to an acetic acid solution of peroxide of barium : oxygen will be again evolved, owing to the oxide of silver being totally decomposed, as well as the peroxide of barium. What are the results of the decompositions? Illustrate them by an equation. 279. If chlorine water be poured into vessels containing infusion of blue cabbage, of litmus, or of any vegetable color, what will be the result ? 280. Stain a piece of linen or cotton with port wine or fruit juice; and when dry immerse it in water containing a little free chlorine. The stain will be quickly removed. What chemical action has taken place ? 281. Take a piece of dyed cotton or linen cloth, and paint upon it some figure, with a paste consisting of ordinary flour paste to which a little tartaric acid has been added. Dry the cloth, and afterward immerse IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 25 it in a hot solution of chloride of lime (CaO, Cl.) Explain the reactions which cause the bleaching. The student must write out answers to the following questions : 282. What substances are termed fermentescible ? 283. What is the difference between putrescible and fermentescible bodies ? 284. State what is meant by the terms Decay, Fermentation and Pu- trefaction. 285. Does a ferment undergo the same decomposition in the presence of a fermentescible body as it does alone ? 286. Has heat any influence on putrefaction and fermentation? 287. What is meant by the terms Metameric and Polymeric ? Write out the names of the following compounds in your note-book : 288. K Cl. 294. Au Br 3 . 300. Pb I 2 . 289. N H 4 S. 295. B F 3 . 301. Mn S. 290. H F. 296. Zn Pr. 302. Pb S. 291. Fo S,. 297. Sn Cl,. 303. H 8. 292. Na I. 298. I Cl. 304. H Cl. 293. Ba F. 299. I C1 3 . 305. H I. 306. H Br. Write out the symbols of the following compounds: 307. Iodide of potassium. 313. Chloride of ammonium. 308. Bisulphide of ammonium. 314. Subchloride of sulphur. 309. Fluoride of calcium. 315. Terbromide of gold. 310. Sesquibromide of iron. 316. Quadrosulphide of potassium. 311. Terhydride of arsenic. 317. Dinoxide of copper. 312. Iodide of silver. 318. Sesquioxide of manganese. NOTE. Hydrides and Hydrates are two different classes of compounds. The first are compounds of hydrogen with other substances ; the latter are compounds of water with other substances. The formulae for the following salts must be written out, along with the combining proportions of acid, base, and salt: { K II 39 J47 EXAMPLE. Sulphate of potash, KO,SO 3 J g^lfi { I 30 =24 j 40 87 319. Sulphate of soda (glauber's-salt). 320. Sulphate of ammonia. 321. Sulphate of baryta (heavy spar). 322. Sulphate of lime (gypsum). 323. Sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts). 324. Sulphate .of zinc (white vitriol). 325. Sulphate of protoxide of iron (green vitriol). 326. Sulphate of copper (blue vitriol). 327. Sulphite of potash. 328. Sulphite of soda. 329. Sulphite of ammonia. 330. Sulphide of Lime. 26 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 331. Sulphite of lead. 332. Subsulphide of mercury. 333. Sulphide of mercury. 334. Sulphide of lead (galena). 335. Sulphide of zinc (blende, black-jack). 336. Sulphide of barium. 337. Sulphide of ammonium. 338. Nitrate of potash (saltpetre). 339. Nitrate of soda. 340. Nitrate of ammonia. 341. Nitrate of lead. 342. Nitrate of strontia. 343. Nitrate of silver (lunar caustic). 344. Nitrate of suboxide of mercury. 345. Chlorate of potash. 346. Chlorate of baryta. 347. Chlorate of soda. 348. Chlorate of lime. 349. Chloride of sodium (common salt). 350. Chloride of ammonium (sal ammoniac). 351. Protochloride of iron. 352. Sesquichloride of iron. 353. Protochloride of tin. 354. Bichloride of tin. ' 355. Subchloride of mercury (calomel). 356. Chloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate). 357. Chromate of potash. 358. Chromate of baryta. 359. Chromate of lead. 360. Carbonate of soda. 361. Carbonate of ammonia. 362. Carbonate of potash (salt of tartar). 363. Carbonate of lime (chalk, limestone, marble). 364. Carbonate of baryta (witherite). 365. Carbonate of strontia (strontianite). 366. Carbonate of zinc (calamine, dry-bones). 367. Carbonate of manganese 368. Oxalate of potash. 369. Oxalate of soda. 370. Oxalate of ammonia. 371. Oxalate of baryta. 372. Oxalate of lime. 373. Oxalate of silver. 374. Iodide of potassium. 375. Subiodide of mercury. 376. Iodide of mercury. 377. Iodide of lead. 378. Cyanide of potassium. 379. Cyanide of silver. 380. Tercyanide of gold. 381. Protocyanide of iron. IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 27 382. Cyanide of mercury. 383. Cyanide of copper. Write out the names of the following salts : 384. Mn 0, S O 3 . 389. Ba O, N O 5 . 394. Hg Cy. 385 Hg O, Cr O 3 . 390. Sn So. _ 395. Cd 0, S O 8 . 386. Sb C1 3 . 391. Pb O,O. 396. FeCy 8 . 387. Zn O, S O* 392. Sr O, Cl 5 . 397. Ca O, N 5 . 388. Ag O, C O 2 . 393. Hg I. 398. Ni 0, 8 3 . Write out the formulae of the following neutral salts: 399. Sulphate of alumina. 400. Sulphate of binoxide of tin. 401. Nitrate of the sesquioxide of iron. 402. Chlorate of the protoxide of mercury. 403. Silicate of alumina. 404. Sulphate of the teroxide of antimony. 405. Sulphate of the sesquioxide of chromium. Write out the formulae of the following acid salts; the excess of acid in each example being considered present in the anhydrous state: 406. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia. 407. Quadroborate of soda. 408. Bisulphate of soda. 409. Terborate of magnesia. 410. Sexborate of magnesia. 411. Sesquisulphate of potash. 412. Bicarbonate of soda. Write out the formulae for the following basic salts : 413. Bicarbonate of copper. 414. Triborate of magnesia. 415. Bicarbonate of lime. 416. Terbasic subsilicate of magnesia. 417. Bibasic subsulphate of copper. 418. Bisilicate of lime. The names of the following compounds must be written out by the stu- dent, in order that he may become thoroughly conversant with all the rules which have been given : 419. Hg 0. 435. 2 Na O, 3 C 2 . 420. Cr 2 C1 3 . 436. 2 Zn O, C O 2 . 421. Fe S. 437. B. F 3 . 422. Fe O, C 2 . 438. Sn O 2 , 2 S O 2 . 423. Fe 2 O 3 . 439. Mg O, S O 3 + K 0. S 3 . 424. Au Br 3 . 440 Cu 2 O. 425. Zn O, S O 3 + K 0, S 3 . 441. 2 Pb O, Pb Cl. 426. Ca O, Si O 3 . 442. Fe, O 3 , 3 S 3 + N H< 0, S 3 . 427. Ca O, 2 Si O* 443. Na" 0,_S 2 O 2 . 428. 2 Ca O, Si 3 . 444. K O, O + 3 (H 0, O). 429. Ca O, 3 Si O 3 . 445. Mn O, S O 8 + Na O. S 8 . 430. 3 Ca O, Si O 3 . 446. Cr F 8 . 431. K S 3 . 447. 3 Pb O, N O 5 . 432. K O, S O 2 + H 0, S 2 . 448. Pt I 2 , K I. 433. Cr 2 O 3 , 3 S O 3 . 449. Mn* O 3 3 S 3 . 434. K O, 3 Cr O* 450. Ba O. C O 3 + Ca 0, C O fl . 28 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS Write out the formulae for the following substances : 451.- Two equivalents of sesquichloride of chromium. 452. Three equivalents of sulphate of ammonia. 453. Two equivalents of chloride of platinum and potassium. 454. Two equivalents of carbonate of lime and magnesia. 455. One equivalent of phosphate of soda, composed of two equivalents of soda, one equivalent of essential water, and one of anhydrous phos- phoric acid. 456. Two equivalents of silicate of lime. 457. Three equivalents of felspar, which is a double silicate of alumina arid potash. 458. Three equivalents of the oxalate of the sesquioxide of iron. 459. Two equivalents of the protoiodide of iron. 460. Two equivalents of binoxalate of potash. 461. Three equivalents of phosphate o.f silver ; one equivalent of which is composed of three equivalents of oxide of silver, and one of anhydrous phosphoric acid. 462. Dolomite (inagnesian limestone) ; composed of one equivalent of neutral carbonate of lime, and three equivalents of neutral carbonate of magnesia. 463. One equivalent of the sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron and potash (iron alum) ; which contains, in addition to the sulphuric acid, potash, and sesquioxide of iron, twenty-four atoms of non-essential water. 464. Two equivalents of sulphate of copper; one equivalent of which is composed of an equivalent of anhydrous sulphuric acid, one of oxide of copper, one of essential water, and six of non-essential water. 465 One equivalent of the oxalate of the sesquioxide of iron and potash ; which contains, in addition to the bases and acid, six equivalents of non-essential water. 466. One equivalent of oxychloride of antimony (powder of Algarotti) ; composed of one equivalent of terchloride of antimony, three equivalents of teroxide of antimony, and three equivalents of non-essential water. 467. Three equivalents of perphosphate of iron; one equivalent of which is composed of two equivalents of sesquioxide of iron, three equiv- alents of essential water, and three of anhydrous phosphoric acid. 468. The topaz ; composed of one equivalent of alumina, two equiva- lents of fluoride of aluminum, and six equivalents of a silicate of alumina (one equivalent of which is composed of an equivalent of alumina and one equivalent of silicic acid). 469. Serpentine; composed of three equivalents of hydrate of mag- nesia (one equivalent of which contains one equivalent of magnesia and two equivalents of water), and two equivalents of a subsilicate of magnesia (one equivalent of which contains three equivalents of magnesia, and two equivalents of silicic acid). 470. Meerschaum; composed of one equivalent of sesquisilicate of magnesia, and two equivalents of water. 471. If hydrosulphuric acid be added to iodine, hydriodic acid will be formed. What element must be set free ? IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 29 472. If hydrochloric acid be added to /inc, hydrogen will be set free. What compound must be formed? 473. If sulphuric acid be added to iron, sulphate of protoxide of iron will be formed. What element must be set free ? 474. If potassium be added to water, potash will be formed. What element must be set free ? 475. If carbonate of soda be added to nitrate of baryta, what other substances besides carbonate of baryta will be formed ? (NOTE. Instead of repeating the propositions and questions in full, we shall, in the following exercises, name the substances brought together under the head of "Substances added," and the substance or sub- stances formed, under the head of "Substances set free or formed.") Substances added. 476. Hydrochloric acid. Solution of soda. 477. Solution of carbonate of soda. Solution of nitrate of strontia. 478. Sulphuric acid. Chloride of sodium. 479. Solution of chloride of sodium. Solution of nitrate of silver. 480. Sulphuric acid. Nitrate of potash. 481. Sulphide of ammonium. Solution of sulphate of zinc. 482. Solution of chromate of potash. Solution of chloride of barium. 483. Solution of hydrate of soda (Na O, H O). Solution of chloride of man- ganese. 484. Solution of carbonate of am- monia. Solution of sulphate of lime. 485. Hydrosulphuric acid. Solution of nitrate of lead. 486. Solution of sulphate of soda. Solution of chloride of barium. 487. Solution of iodide of potassium. Solution of nitrate of silver. 488. Solution of oxalic acid. Solution of nitrate of baryta. 489. Sulphide of ammonium. Solution of nitrate of cobalt. 490. Hydrochloric acid. Solution of nitrate of suboxide of mercury. Substances set free or formed. Chloride of sodium, And ? Carbonate of stroutia, And ? Sulphate of soda, And ? Chloride of silver, And ? Sulphate of potash, And ? Sulphide of zinc, And ? Chromate of baryta, And ? Hydrate of manganese (MnO, HO), And ? Carbonate of lime, And ? Sulphide of lead, And ? Sulphate of baryta, And ? Iodide of silver, And ? Oxalate of baryta, And ? Sulphide of cobalt, And ? Subchloride of mercury, And ? 30 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS Substances added. Substances set free or formed. 491. Hydrosulphuric acid. Sulphide of mercury, Solution of chloride of mer- And ? cury. (NOTE. Express the chemical changes which take place in the following exercises, both by diagrams drawn on the blackboard, and by equa- tions.) Substances added. Substances formed or set free. 492. Sulphide of ammonium. Hydrate of sesquioxide of chromium, Solution of the sesquichloride And ? of chromium. 493. When solid chlorate of potash is ignited, it is decomposed into oxygen and chloride of potassium. How many equivalents of oxygen will be liberated from one atom of chlorate of potash ? 494. When solid nitrate of ammonia is heated, it is decomposed into nitrous oxide (laughing gas, N O) and some other substance. What will the other substance be, and how many atoms of each will be formed from one atom of nitrate of ammonia? Substances added. 495. Hydrochloric acid. Sesquioxide of iron. 496. Solution of protochloride of copper. Solution of iodide of potassium. 497. Solution of hydrate of potash (K O, H O)'. Solution of protochloride of copper. 498. Solution of arsenious acid. Solution of sulphate of copper. 499. Protoxide of tin. Sulphurous acid. 500. Solution of hydrate of soda (Na O, H O). Solution of sesquichloride of chromium. 501 . Terchloride of antimony. Water. 502. Carbonate of lead. Chromate of potash. 503. Terchloride of bismuth. Water. Substances set free or formed. Sesquichloride of iron, And ? Sub iodide of copper (Cu 2 I), And ? Oxychloride of copper (Cu Cl, 3 Cu O + aq), And ? Arsenite of copper (2 Cu 0, As 3 ), And ? Oxysulphide of tin (5Sn0 2 , SnS 2 ), And ? , Hydrate of sesquioxide of chromium (CroO 3) 3HO), And ? Oxychloride of antimony (Sb C1 8 , 5 Sb O 8 ), And ? Bichromate of lead, And ? Oxychloride of bismuth (Bi C1 8 , 2 Bi O,), And ? 504. Solution of the sulphate of the Sulphate of the protoxide of iron, sesquioxide of iron. Sulphurous acid. And IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 31 Substances added. Substances set free or formed. 505. Solution of hydrate of soda. Hydrate of alumina (Al a O 8 , 3 II 0), Solution of sulphate of alu- And ? mina. 506. Solution of phosphate of soda Phosphate of baryta (2 Ba O, H O, (2NaO,HO, PO 5 ). P U 6 ), Solution of nitrate of baryta. And ? 507. Solution of phosphate of soda. Phosphate of silver (3 Ag 0, P O 5 ), Solution of nitrate of silver. And ? 508. Solution of phosphate of soda. Phosphate of copper (2 Cu O. II Y O*), Solution of sulphate of copper. And ? 509. Solutisn of phosphate of soda. Phosphate of lime (3 Ca 0, P O 6 ), Solution of chloride of cal- And ? cium. 510. Solution the sulphate of the Sulphate of the protoxide of iron, sesquioxide of iron. Hydrosulphuric acid. And ? 511. Solution of the phosphate of Phosphate of magnesia and ammonia soda. (2 Mg 0, N H 4 O, P O 6 ), Solution of ammonia. Solution of sulphate of mag- And ? nesia. 512. Ammonia. Hydrate of the sesquioxide of iron (Fe 2 3 ,HO), Sesqui chloride of iron. And ? 513. Arsenious acid. Terhydride of arsenic (AsA 3 ), Sulphuric acid. Zinc. And ? 514. Hydrochloric acid. Protochloride of manganese, Peroxide of manganese (Mn And ? 2 ). 515. Solution of nitrate of protoxide Subiodide of copper (Cu 2 1), of copper. Solution of sulphate of protox- Sulphate of sesquioxide of iron, ide of iron. Solution of iodide of potas- And ? sium. 516. Solution of carbonate of am- Hydrate of alumina (A1 2 O 3 , 3 H 0), monia. Solution of sulphate of alu- And ? mina. 517. Sulphide of ammonium. Hydrate of seaquioxide of chromium (O 2 O 8 , 3 H O), Sesquichloride of chromium. And ? 32 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS Substances added. Substances set free or formed. 518. Solution of carbonate of am- Hydrate of sesquioxide of iron, monia. Solution of sesquichloride of And ? iron. 519. Solution of phosphate of soda. Perphosphate of iron (2 Fe 2 3 . 3HO,3P0 5 ), Solution of sesquichloride of And ? iron. 520. Solution of carbonate of pot- Basic carbonate of magnesia 3 (MgO, ash. C0 2 +aq.) + (MgO,HO) , Solution of sulphate of mag- And ? nesia. 521. Solution of carbonate of soda. Basic carbonate of zinc (3ZnO, H0)-f 2(ZnO,C0 2 ), Solution of sulphate of zinc. And ? 522. Sulphuric acid. Sulphate of the protoxide of manga. Chloride of sodium. nese, Peroxide of manganese And ? (Mn O 2 ). 523. Find the amount of lead in 100 tons of the sulphide. 524. Find the amount of chlorine, by weight, in 50 Ibs. of chloride of sodium. 525. Find the amount of silver in 1,000 Ibs. of sulphide of silver and antimony (3 AgS, SbS 3 ). 526. Find the amount of platinum in 100 parts of chloride of platinum and ammonium. 527. Find the amount of iron in 360 grs. of sesquichloride. 528. What amount of oxygen, by weight, would one ton of sulphur require to be converted into sulphuric acid ? 529. Find the amount of anhydrous nitric acid in 10 Ibs. of nitrate of soda, and likewise in the same amount of nitrate of potash. 530. How much water must 200 Ibs. of quicklime absorb to become converted into hydrate? 531. A chemical manufacturer delivers to his workmen 50 Ibs. of metallic silver, to be converted into nitrate (caustic). What amount by weight of the caustic ought to be obtained ? 532. If 100 grain measures of dilute sulphuric acid neutralize 47 grains of potash, what amount of carbonate of potash, and what amount of ammonia, lime, soda, and their carbonates, will it neutralize? 533. How much ammonia would 300 tons of coal furnish which con- tains 1.5 per cent, of nitrogen ? 534. If nitrate of potash and nitrate of soda were the same price per ton, which would be the most economical source for nitric acid ? Prove the answer by equivalents. 535. If it requires 100 gr. measures of dilute sulphuric acid to neu- tralize 60 grs. of potash, what amount of real sulphuric acid does it con- tain? IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 33 536. An average crop of turnips removes from an acre of land 54.5 Ibs. of phosphoric acid. If the farmer desires to restore his field to its original fertility, what amount of bone earth (3 Ca O, P 6 ) would he have to employ to give back the phosphoric acid? 537. If I borrowed 300 Ibs. of nitrate of soda of a nitric acid man- ufacturer, what amount of nitrate of potash must 1 return to replace it? 538. What amount of ammonia would be required to precipitate the sesquioxide of iron from 20 Ibs. of sesquichloride ? 539. An average crop of oats removes from an acre of land 198.9 Ibs. of inorganic matter; a crop of barley removes from the same extent of land 213.3 Ibs. of inorganic matter. In the 198.9 Ibs. of mineral matter removed by the oats, there are 23.3 Ibs. of phosphoric acid, 36.5 Ibs. of potash, and 3.8 Ibs. of chloride of potassium: in the 213.3 Ibs. removed by the barley, there are 24.3 Ibs. of phosphoric acid, and 38.3 Ibs. of potash. If the farmer desired to restore his field to its original fertility, what weight of nitrate of potash, chloride of potassium, or sulphate of potash, and what amount of bone earth (phosphate of lime, 3 Ca 0, P O 5 ) would he have to employ in order to give back the potash and phos- phoric acid which have been removed by the oats, and what amount would he likewise have to employ in order to restore fertility after the barley crop ? 540. If mercury be added to a solution of nitrate of silver, the silver will be precipitated and replaced by an equivalent of mercury. The so- lution will now contain nitrate of mercury, from which the mercury may be precipitated by copper; the solution will now contain nitrate of cop- per, from which the copper may be precipitated by lead; the solution will now contain nitrate of lead, from which the lead may be precipitated by zinc. {Suppose we had a solution of nitrate of silver, containing 200 grs. of the nitrate, how much metallic silver would it contain, and how much mercury would it require to precipitate it; how much copper would it require to precipitate this mercury; how much lead to precipi- tate the copper; and how much zinc to precipitate the lead? 541. If, in some chemical process, baryta were employed, and an equivalent of strontia, magnesia, or lime could be substituted for it, what would be their relative cost, baryta costing 24 cents per pound, strontia 48 cents, magnesia 12 cents, and lime 2 cents ? 542. How much disulphide of copper would be required to effect the complete reduction of 40 parts of suboxide of copper, 20 parts of protox- ide, and 30 parts of green carbonate of copper (malachite, 2 Cu O, C O 2 +H O), and how much metallic copper would be obtained ? 543. How much galena would be required to reduce a mixture of 20 parts of protoxide of lead, 10 parts of red lead (minium, Pb 3 O 4 ), and 15 parts of sulphate of lead ; and how much metallic lead would be obtained ? Deduce from the following per centage numbers the relative number of atoms of the different substances, and give the chemical name of the compound : 544._44.44 O f c, 51 86 of N, 3.70 of H. 545. 70 of Fe, 30 of O. 546._44.44 O f S, 55.56 of O. - 547. 52. 14 of Cr, 48.0 of 0. 34 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS. 548. 25.96 of Na O, 66.55 of S O 3 , and 7.49 of H O. 549. 11.92 of Na O, 53.46 of B 3 , and 34.0 of H 0. 550. 34.44 of Sr 0, 35.76 of N O 6 , and 29.8 of H O. 551. 9.82 of NH 8? 18.01 of Na 0, 46.19 of SO 3 , and 25.98 of HO. 552. 18.4 of K O, 15.6 of Mg O, 34.4 of C 2 , and 31.6 of H 0. 553. 54.13 of K 0, 25.23 of C 2 , and 20.64 of H O. 554._68.5 of Ba O, and 33.0 of C 2 . 555. 28.81 of NH 3 , 55.93 of C 2 , and 15.26 of H 0. 556. 8.06 of NH 4 , 44.21 of Pt, and 47.72 of Cl. 557. 23.88 of Cr 2 O 3 , 35.82 of S0 3 , and 40.30 of H 0. 558. 55.48 of Pb Cl, and 44.51 of Pb O. 559._9.42 of K O, 15.56 of Fe 2 3 , 31.92 of S 3 , and 43.1 of H 0. 560. Deduce the rational formula for hyposulphuric acid from the following numbers : Sulphur 44.44 Potash 39.554 Oxygen 55.56 Hyposulphuric acid 60.446 Hyposulphuric acid 100.00 Hyposulphate of potash.. 100. 000 561. Deduce the rational formula of hyperchloric (perchloric) acid from the following numbers: Chlorine 38.7 Potash 34.05 Oxygen 61.3 Hyperchloric acid 65.95 Hyperchloric acid 100.0 Hyperchlorate of potash... 100.00 562. Deduce the rational formula for hydrocyanic acid from the fol- lowing numbers : Hydrogen 3.70 Mercury 79.36 Carbon. 44.44 Carbon 9.52 Nitrogen 51.86 Nitrogen 11.12 Hydrocyanic acid 100.00 Percyanide of mercury 100.00 563. Deduce the rational formula for oxalic acid from the following numbers : Carbon 26.66 Carbon 8.60 Oxygen 53.33 Oxygen 17.19 Water 20.00 Oxide of lead 74.21 Oxalic acid 99.99 Oxalate of lead 100.00 564. Find the formula of a salt having the following percentage com- position : Magn esium 9. 76 Sulphur 13.01 Oxygen 26.01 Water 51.22 100.00 TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS. Fresenius. W 3 - 5 ? tt Oxide of bismuth... ^^^g^^^^^O^J^OOgJ p : ?'~' a BASES. < ||ala||lla||l|| : : gc^ i : S 3 j : >*< : : : P 3 i i i 1 i ; | j Arsenious. i bO bO bO bO to bO bO bO bO bO bO bO bO 1 *-" tObObObObOI-'l-'h- Arsenic. to bobobobo: H- to bo bo bo bo bo bo bO bO bO bO 1 H- h- Boracic bO : bobobototo toboi bobobobo to to bo bo H- t- 1 Carbonic. i Chloric. : bO: bO bobobo^rtobotoi-'i : (-> ! bcbototoi-'i-h-i-') Chromic. K- H- Hydrochloric. 05 tO to : ; : : Hydriodic. : : : : bobobobobobobobotobobototobobo : t->** \ w * >->>- > i > Hy drosulph u ric. bO : ^: Nitric. : bO; bo: bo bo bo to to to i to to i^i bo bo *- to M bo bo bo )- i > H* Oxalic. to: to to to to bo to : bo bo to bo bo bo bo to bo to bo to i-> i h-> Phosphoric. Hi ! I M Z^zmmrz ^ Silicic. r o.o.r Sulphuric. To ascertain the solubility of any salt by the Table, find the name of the base in the upright column, and that of the acid in the line at the top: the numb T placed at the point where the two rows meet shows whether the salt formed by their combination is soluble or otherwise. The figure 1 means that it is soluble in water ; 2, that it is insoluble in water, but soluble in hydrochloric or nitric acid; and 3 that it is insoluble in water and acids: 1-2 signifies a substance difficultly soluble in water, but soluble in hydro- chloric acid or nitric acid : 1-3, a body difficultly soluble in water, and of which the solubility is not increased by the addition of acids: nnd 2-3 a substance insoluble in water, and difficultly soluble in hydrochloric acid and in nitric acid. (35) 36 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS List of the more important metallic oxides possessing Basic properties. NAMES. COLOR. SYMBOLS. Potash White K O NaO Soda., Ammonia Baryta .... Strontia... Lime Magnesia . Alumina.. .NH 4 O .BaO .SrO .Ca O .MgO .A1 2 3 Sesquioxide of Chromium Green Cr 2 O 3 Protoxide of Iron Black Fe O Sesquioxide of Iron Brownish-red Fe 2 O 3 Oxide of Zinc White Zn O Protoxide of Manganese... Greenish-grey Mn O Protoxide of Nickle Grey Ni O Protoxide of Cobalt u Co O Oxide of Silver Brown Ag O Suboxide of Mercury Black Hg 2 Protoxide of Mercury Red HgO Oxide of Lead Yellow, or reddish-yellow Pb O Oxide of Cadmium Brown, or yellowish-brown Cd O Oxide of Copper Black Cu Teroxide of Bismuth Yellow Hi O 3 Protoxide of Tin Black Sn Binoxide of Tin Light straw color Sn O a Teroxide of Antimony Greyish-white Sb O 3 Teroxide of Gold Brown Au O 3 Binoxide of Platinum " PtO 2 List of the Principal Acid Substances. OXYGEN ACIDS. NAMES. FORMULAE. Sulphurous acid, a gas S O 8 Sulphuric acid ) (Oil of vitriol) J a liquid ; freezes at 31 Fah. ; boils at 640 F.. II O, SO, Nitric acid ") a liquid ; freezes at about 40 F. ; boils at (Aqua-fortis) j 184 F HO, NO* Chloric acid, an oily fluid; decomposed at 100 F HO,C1O 6 Oxalic acid, a solid; decomposed above 320 F....HO, C 2 O 3 ^=.... H 0, O Phosphoric acid, a solid ; volatilizes at very high temperatures. ..3HO,PO 4 Carbonic acid, ) (choke-damp) j a gas COj IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. 37 Arsenious acid, a solid; volatilizes at 380 F As O 8 Arsenic acid, a solid; decomposes at a high temperature into AsO :J and O AsO $ Chromic acid, a solid; decomposes, above 400 F., into Cr 2 O 3 andO CrO 3 Boracic acid, a solid; volatilizes very slowly by intense ignition.. Br O 3 Silicic acid, ) (Silica, Quartz, Sand)} a non- volatile solid Si0 8 HYDROGEN ACIDS. NAMES. FORMULA. Hydrochloric acid ) (Muriatic acid, spirit of salts) J a gas H CJ Hydrosulphuric acid ) (Sulphuretted hydrogen) j a gas H S Hydrofluoric acid, a very volatile acid, which boils at about 60 F H F Hydriodic acid, a gas HI Hydrobromic acid, a gas H Br Hvdrocyanic acid ) a very volatile liquid which ) "(Prussic acid) j boils at 80 F. |H,C 2 N= HCy List of the most important Salts. OXYGEN SALTS. NAMES. FORMULA. Sulphites *MO,SO 2 Sulphates M O, S O 3 Nitrates MO, NO 5 Chlorates M O, Cl O $ Oxalates M O, O Phosphates 3 M O, P O 5 Carbonates M O, C O 2 Arsenites 2 M O, As O 3 Arseniates 3 M O, As O 5 Chromates M O, Cr O 3 Borates M O, B O 3 Silicates M 0, Si O* HALOID SALTS., NAMES. FORMULA. Chlorides (muriates) M Cl Sulphides (sulphurets) M S Fluorides MF Iodides M I Bromides M Br Cyanides M Cy *The letter M stands for any metal. TABLE A. Showing the Solubility of the Basic Oxides and their Hydrates. NAMES. SYMBOLS, fl NAMES. SYMBOLS. Soluble in Water. Hydrate oH Hydrate oP Potash 1 ,. KO,HO baryta Ba 0, H Hydrate of f whlte Hydrate of . Soda J Na 0, H O strontia white Sr 0,110 Hydrate of lime Ca 0, II The rest are insoluble in water. Soluble in Ammonia and the Fixed Alkalies. Hydrate of Zinc (w kite) Zn 0, H O Insoluble in Ammonia and the Fixed Alkalies. Hydrate of the ses- Suboxide of mer- quioxide of iron cury (forms no hy- (reddish-brown) Fe 2 3 ,3HO drate) Hg 2 Hydrate of bismuth Hydrate of the pro- (white) BiO,HO toxide of mercury (yellow) HgO,HO Insoluble in Ammonia, soluble in the Fixed Alkalies. Hydrate of Hydrate of the ses- alumina A1 2 O 3 , 3 HO quioxide of chro- Hydrate of mium (bluish- the protox- green). (This is ide of tin , . Sn O, H insoluble in boil- Hydrate off"*"' ing solutions of the perox- the fixed alkalies ) Or, 8 , 3 HO ide of tin Sn O 2 , H O Hydrate of lead Oxide of an- (white). This hy- timony Sb0 8 drate is only very slightly soluble in the fixed alkalies. Pb 0, H O Soluble in Ammonia; insoluble in Fixed Alkalies. The presence of ammoniacal salts prevents some of them from being completely precipitated by the fixed alkalies. Hydrate of cobalt (pale red) Co 0, H Hydrate of copper (whitish-green). Cu 0, II O Hydrate of Nickle (If the fixed alkalies (green) NiO,HO are added to cold Oxide of Silver (forms no hydrate) AgO solutions of copper salts, the hydrate Hydrate of cadmium (white) Cd 0, H is precipitated; if added to boiling solutions, the an- hydrous oxide is precipitated 1 (38) TABLE A. Continued. NAMES. SYMBOLS. NAMES. SYMBOLS. Insoluble in Ammonia and the Fixed Alkalies, but in the presence of Ammonia salts the volatile alkali cannot pre- cipitate them, and the fixed alkalies only do so in part. Hydrate of Magne- Hydrate of protox- sia (white] Mg 0, H O ide of iron is of a Hydrate of Man- white color, which, ganese (white), on exposure to the speedily becoming air, finally be- brown by absorb- comes red, owing ing oxygen from to its being con- the air, and be- verted into the coming converted peroxide. Fe O, H into a higher ox- ide. Mn O, H O Ammonia does not precipitate the hydrate from solutions of the perox- ide of mercury, but a white precipitate having the following composition (Hg N Ho -f- Hg Cl) ; the fixed alkalies likewise throw down the same precipitate, if salts of ammonia are present, but in the absence of these salts they precipitate the hydrate. TABLE B. Contrasting the Properties of Bases. OXIDE OF SILVER. SESQUIOX1DE OF IRON. LIME. (AgO.) (Fe a 3 .) (CaO.) 1. Hydrochloric acid 1. Hydrochloric acid 1. Hydrochloric precipitates silver from its neutral and acid so- produces no precipitate in solutions of sesquiox- acid does not precip- itate lime from its lutions in the form of ide of iron, because ses- solutions, because chloride (Ag Cl), be- quichloride of iron is chloride of calcium cause chloride of silver- soluble. is soluble. is insoluble in neutral and acid solutions. 2. Ammonia precip- 2. Ammonia precip- 2. Ammonia does itates oxide of silver from its solutions ; but itates sesquioxide of iron from its solutions, not precipitate lime from its solutions. an excess of ammonia and it is not re-dis- re-dissolves it. solved by an excess of ammonia. 3. Oxalic acid pro- 3. Oxalic acid does 3. Oxalic acid duces in neutral, but not in ammoniacal solutions, not precipitate sesquiox- ide of iron from its so- precipitates lime a oxalate from its neu- a precipitate of oxalate lutions, as oxalate of the tral and alkaline so- of silver, as oxalate of sesquioxide of iron is lutions. silver is soluble in am- soluble. monia. C39) TABLE C. Contrasting the Properties of Bases. OXIDE OF COPPER. ALUMINA. BARYTA. (CuO.) (A1 2 3 ) (BaO.) 1. Hydrosulphuric 1. Hydrosulphuric 1 . Hydrosii Iphuric acid precipitates from its acid does not precipitate acid does not precip- acid solutions as sul- alumina from its acid itate baryta from its phide (Cu S). solutions. solutions. 2. Ammonia precip- 2. Ammonia precip- 2. Ammonia does itates copper from its itates alumina from its not precipitate bary- acid solutions, but an solutions in the form of ta from its solutions. excess of ammonia re- hydrate (A1 2 O 3 , 3 H 0), dissolves the precipitate. and an excess of am- monia does not redis- solve it. 3. Sulphuric acid 3. Sulpkvrie acid 3. Sulphuric acid produces no precipitate in solutions of copper, produces no precipitate in solutions of alumina, precipitates baryta from its solutions, be- because sulphate of cop- because sulphate, of alu- cause sulphate of ba- per is soluble. mina is soluble. ryta is insoluble. TABLE D. Contrasting the Properties of Bases. OXIDE OF SILVER. OXIDE OF COPPER. OXIDE OF ZINC. (AgO.) (CuO.) (ZnO.) 1. Hydrochloric acid 1 . Hydrochloric add 1. Hydrochloric precipitates silver from causes no precipitate in acid causes no pre- its neutral and acid so- solutions of copper. cipitate in solutions lutions as chloride. . of zinc. 2. Hydrosulphuric 2. Hydrosulphuric 2. Hydrosulphu- acid precipitates silver acid precipitates copper ric acid does not pre- from its acid solutions from its acid solutions cipitate zinc from its as sulphide (AgS). as sulphide (Cu S). acid solutions. 3. Sulphide of ammo- 3 Sulphide of ammo- 3. Sulphide of am- nium precipitates silver from its neutral and al- nium precipitates copper from its neutral and al- monium precipitates zinc from its neutral kaline solutions as sul- kaline solutions as sul- and alkaline solutions phide. phide. as sulphide (Zn S). (40) TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES, WITH THEIR SYMBOLS AND EQUIVALENTS. Name. Sym- bol. Equiv- alent. Name. Svm- bol. Equiv- alent. ALUMINUM Al 13.7 Molybdenum Mo 48. ANTIMONY Sb 120.3 NICKLE Ni 29.6 ARSENIC As 75. Niobium Nb 48.8 BARIUM Ba 68.5 NITROGEN N 14. BISMUTH Bi 210.3 Osmium Os 99.6 BORON B 10.9 X YGEN 8. BROMINE Br 80. PALLADIUM Pd 53.3 Cadmium Cd 56. PHOSPHORUS P 31. Cresium Cs 123.4 PLATINUM Pt 98.7 CALCIUM Ca 20. POTASSIUM K 39. CARBON C 6. RHODIUM Ro 52.2 Cerium Ce 47. Rubidium Rb 85.36 CHLORINE Cl 35.5 Ruthenium Ru 52.2 CHROMIUM Or 26.7 Selenium Se 39.5 COBALT Co 29.5 SILICON Si 21.3 COPPER Cu 31.7 SILVER Ag 108. Didymium D 48. SODIUM Na 23. FL UORINE F 19. STRONTIUM Sr 43.8 Glucinum G 7. SULPHUR S 16. GOLD Au 197. Tantalum Ta 68.8 HYDROGEN H 1. Tellurium Te 64.2 Indium In 35.91 Thallium Tl 204. IODINE I 127. Thorium Th 59.6 IRIDIUM Ir 99. TIN Sn 59. IRON Fe 28. TITANIUM Ti 25. Lanthanum L 47. TUNGSTEN W 92. LEAD Pb 103.7 URANIUM U 60. Lithium Li 6.95 Vanadium V 68.5 MAGNESIUM Mg 12. Yttrium Y 68. MANGANESE Mn 27.6 ZINC Zn 32.6 MERCURY Hg 100. Zirconium Zr 33.6 The twenty-one most important elements are distinguished by being printed in capital letters (as COPPER) ; those next in importance in small capitals (as ANTIMONY); those which are either of rare occurrence, or of which our knowledge is yet very imperfect, are printed in the smallest type (as Cerium). The names of the non-metallic elements are printed in italics (as HYDROGEN, Selfnium}. Several substances supposed to b^ ele- ments are not included in this table, as Erbium and Terbium, on account of their rarity and the little that is known about them. (41) 42 EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS Measures of Length. In English inches. In English feet = 12 inches. In English yards =3 feet. In English fathoms = 6 feet. In English miles = 1760 yards. Millimetre 0.03937 0.39371 3.93708 39.37079 0.003281 0.032809 0.328090 3.280899 32.808992 328.089920 3280.899200 32808.992000 letres. netres. 0.0010936 0.0109363 0.1093633 1.0930331 10.9363310 109.3633100 1093.6331000 10936.3310000 1 yard=0.914 1 mile=1.609 0.0005468 0.0054682 0.0546816 0.5468165 5.4681655 54.6816550 546.8165500 5468.1655000 3835 metre. 3149 kilometre. 0.0000006 0.0000062 0.0000621 0.0006214 0.0062138 0.0621382 0.6213824 6.2138244 Metre 3937.07900 39370.79000 393707.90000 2.539954 centiti 3.0479449 deck Kilometre Myriometre 1 inch= 1 foot= Measures of Surface. In English square feet. In English square yards = 9 square feet. In English poles = 272.25 sq. feet. In English roods = 10890 sq. feet. In English acres = 43. r rtii > sq. feet. Centiare or sq. metre... Are or 100 sq. metres... Hectare or 10,000 sq. \ metres j 10.764299 1076.429934 107642.993418 1. 1960*3 119.603326 11960.332602 0.039-5383 3.9538290 395.3828959 0.0009885 0.0988457 9.8845724 0.0002471 0.0247114 2.4711431 1 square inch=G.45136G9 square centimetres. 1 square foot 9.2899083 square decimetres. 1 square yard=0.83(>09715 square metre or centiare. 1 acre =0.40467102 hectare. Measures of Capacity. In cubic Inches. In cubic feet = 1728 cubic inches. In pints 34.6.'923 cubic inches. In gallons = 8 pints =277.27:584 cubic inches. In bushels = 8 Bilious =2218.19075 cubic inches. Millilitre or cubic cen- 1 timetre j 0.06103 0.61027 6.10271 61.02705 610.27052 6102.70515 61027.05152 610270.51519 o.ooooa5 0.000353 0.003532 0.035317 0.353166 3.531658 35.316581 353.165807 0.00176 0.01761 0.17608 1.76077 17.60773 176.07734 1760.77341 17607.73414 0.0002201 0.0022010 0.0220097 0.2200967 2.2009668 22.0096677 220.0966767 2200.9667675 0.0000275 0.0002751 0.0027512 0.0275121 0.2751208 2.751208-5 27.5120846 275.1208459 Centilitre or 10 cubic ) centimetres j Decilitre or 100 cubic ) Litre or cubic decimetre... Decalitre or centistere Hectolitre or decistere Kilolitre, or Stere, or) Myriolitre or decastere.... 1 cubic inch16.380176 cubic centimetres. 1 cubic foot 28.315312 cubic decimetres or litres. 1 gallon -=4.543358 litres. IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. Measures of Weight. 43 In English grains. In trov ounces=480 grains. Inav.i.du- pois !bs.= 7000 grains. In cwts.= 112 lbs.= 784000 gr . Tons= 'J' REC'D LD 28 1357 REC'D L.D 2'63- lFM LD 21-100m-l,'54(1887sl6)476