GEOGRAPHICAb 
 
 NATURE STUDIES 
 
 SSSSSSS^SSSSSSSSSSSiSS^^ 
 
 I 3flBHaHBVSBffiBnwaHMHBHE / 
 
 B 3 IE E 020 
 
 
 sg38S2^sa^222^^ 
 
 FRANK OWEN PAYNE 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COHPANY 
 
 NEW YORK CINCINNATI CMICAGO 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 GIKT OF 
 
 Received J/"ff~V~ ,1900. 
 
 Accession No. Q/ J O (D . Class No. 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL 
 
 NATURE STUDIES 
 
 FOR PRIMARY WORK IN HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANK OWEN PAYNE, M.Sc. 
 
 NEW YORK-:- CINCINNATI-:. CHIC AGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
T-3 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. 
 
 QEOQ. NAT. STUDIES. 
 E-P 4 
 
PKEFACE. 
 
 No two subjects of study in the primary grades are more closely 
 and naturally correlated than Nature Study and Observational or 
 Home Geography, for all phenomena within our ken, whether they 
 have to do with man or nature, may be classed under some aspect of 
 the many-sided and comprehensive science of Geography. 
 
 In the first three school years these subjects are often taught 
 orally; but with most teachers such oral instruction involves an 
 undue amount of labor in preparing the lessons, and not infrequently 
 leads to but vague and unsatisfactory results. 
 
 This little reading book for primary pupils is designed to lighten 
 the work of the teacher, and by pointing out the often unrecognized 
 relations between familiar phenomena and Home Geography will 
 guide the study of the class to definite and practical ends. 
 
 The various lessons are adapted to the comprehension of the 
 youngest pupils, and are calculated not only to cultivate habits of 
 accurate observation, but to stimulate a desire for more knowledge 
 and broader views of the world about us. They lead directly up to 
 the point where the more formal study of geography from a text-book 
 begins. The form and construction of these lessons is such that 
 they may be used both as reading exercises and also for topical 
 recitations. 
 
 The questions and language work occasionally introduced are 
 designed to assist in cultivating the power of correct verbal expres- 
 sion in the statement of facts. They are for the most part suggestive 
 
 3 
 
rather than exhaustive, and it is expected that the teacher will 
 extend this feature of the work by introducing many additional 
 exercises of the same sort. 
 
 The knowledge gained and the habits acquired through these 
 foundation studies ought to make it possible for the child to begin 
 the study of elementary geography at an early period; and it is 
 confidently believed that they will enable him to pursue that study 
 with a zest and appreciation which would otherwise be wanting. 
 
 The author desires to acknowledge his obligations to Russell 
 Hinman, author of "Eclectic Physical Geography," for valuable aid 
 in the way of plan and subject matter; to Matilde Coffin of Detroit, 
 and Ellen Kenyon- Warner for helpful suggestions ; and especially to 
 Emily G-. W. Eowe of Akron, Ohio, for poems signed with her name. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 x PAGE 
 
 LAND AND WATER . 7 
 
 THE WATER UPON THE LAND 8 
 
 THE CHILDREN IN THE RAIN (Poem) 10 
 
 THE AIR .... . ..... 11 
 
 THE SUN AND THE AIR 14 
 
 CLOUDS (Poem) . .16 
 
 WATER IN THE AIR . .... 16 
 
 GETTING MOISTURE FROM THE AIR . . . . . . .19 
 
 THE MESSAGE OF THE SNOWFLAKE (Poem) * . . 21 
 
 WHERE THE RAIN COMES FROM . . . . . . . 22 
 
 THE LIFE OF A DEWDROP (Poem) . . . . . . . 23 
 
 THE SEASONS . . . . . ... . ... 25 
 
 THE MONTHS . . . . . . . . . .26 
 
 THE ENDLESS STORY (Poem) . . . . . . . .29 
 
 WHAT THE RAIN DOES 31 
 
 SURFACE 32 
 
 SLOPES "..>.-. .33 
 
 VALLEYS . . . .... . . .: . .36 
 
 PLANTS OF THE VALLEYS .41 
 
 ANIMALS OF THE VALLEYS 44 
 
 DIVIDES, HILLS} MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUS . ... . .48 
 
 PLANTS OF THE HIGHLANDS . . . . . L . . .51 
 
 ANIMALS OF THE SLOPES . . . . . . . ... 54 
 
 HOMES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS . . . . . v . . 56 
 
 THE RAIN AND THE DUST . . . . . . . .57 
 
 THE SORTING OF SILT . ... 58 
 
 THE WORK OF STREAMS 61 
 
 THE WORK OF FROST AND ICE 65 
 
 THE VOYAGE OF A PEBBLE (Poem) QQ 
 
 5 
 
6 
 
 PAGE 
 
 STREAM SYSTEMS , . . .68 
 
 THE IMPATIENT RIVER (Poem) . . .... . 70 
 
 WATER IN THE GROUND . . . 71 
 
 THE BUBBLING SPRING (Poem) 75 
 
 POOLS, PONDS, AND LAKES 76 
 
 A REVIEW 78 
 
 A WATER SONG (Poem) 82 
 
 OUR CLIMATE 84 
 
 THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS (Poem) . . . . . . . 85 
 
 MORE ABOUT CLIMATE . . ... . . . . 86 
 
 OUR NEEDS . . . . .... . . .88 
 
 FOOD . . >..- , "-.' --"-:. . . . 90 
 
 OUR FOOD . ..' . * . 92 
 
 CLOTHING . . . 94 
 
 OUR CLOTHING . . . . . . . . . . . 95 
 
 SHELTER .. . . . . . . . . . . . 98 
 
 OUR SHELTER . ... . ... ..... .100 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS: FARMING . . . . \ . j . 102 
 
 STUDY OF A FOOD-PLANT WHEAT . . . . ... 104 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS STOCK RAISING AND DAIRYING . . .. . 105 
 
 STUDY OF A DOMESTIC ANIMAL THE PIG 107 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS LUMBERING 108 
 
 STUDY -OF TREES . > . . . . . . . . 110 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS MINING . . . - . . Ill 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS FISHING . . . .... . 113 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS MANUFACTURING 114 
 
 MAKING FLOUR 117 
 
 MAKING CLOTH 119 
 
 STUDY OF PLANTS COTTON 121 
 
 MAKING IRON AND STEEL ......*... 122 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS TRADE OR COMMERCE 124 
 
 TRANSPORTATION BY LAND . . . . . . . : . 125 
 
 TRANSPORTATION BY WATER . . . . . . ; " . 127 
 
 WHITE PEOPLE AND BLACK PEOPLE . . . . - , . 130 
 
 RED PEOPLE AND YELLOW PEOPLE . . . . . . . 132 
 
 PEOPLE LIVE TOGETHER . . . 137 
 
 GOVERNMENT HOME . . . . ... . . 140 
 
 GOVERNMENT SCHOOL AND COUNTRY . . 142 
 
R A R y 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL NATUEE STUDIES. 
 
 LAND AND WATER. 
 
 When we go out of the house, upon what do 
 we walk ? Do we always walk upon the ground ? 
 How does the ground feel under our feet? Why 
 do we not sink into it? Do we ever come to 
 something on the ground which is not hard or 
 solid, and upon which we cannot walk? What 
 makes these puddles of water on the ground? 
 
 We often call the ground land. Wherever we 
 go we shall be either upon the land or upon the 
 water. We can walk upon the land because it 
 is solid. If we should try to walk upon the 
 water, we would sink down into it. Then, if 
 we could not swim, we might be drowned. 
 
 Copy the following sentences, and fill the blank spaces 
 with the right words : 
 
 We walk upon the . We cannot walk upon the 
 
 . The land is . Water is not . We sink into 
 
 if we try to walk upon it. Some people can in the 
 
 water. Everybody can upon the . Wherever we 
 
 go, there is either or . 
 
THE WATER UPON THE LAND. 
 
 When rain falls upon the ground, what be- 
 comes of it? Why does the water gather here 
 and there in puddles? Do these puddles fill 
 the road? Why not? Does all the water on 
 the surface of the ground stand in puddles or 
 pools? Why does some of it run along in 
 streams instead of standing still in pools? 
 
 Yes, the water runs away because the ground 
 is not even. The land is lower in some places 
 than in others. The water runs down the slope 
 from the higher land to some lower place. 
 
 Why does the puddle not run away, too ? 
 
 That is right. It is because there is no slope 
 from the puddle to some lower place. The water 
 stands in the puddle because the land is higher 
 all around it. We say it is dammed up so that 
 it cannot flow away. 
 
 Did you ever make a dam across the gutter? 
 How did you do it ? See these children making 
 a bank of sand and stones across the little 
 stream. See how the water becomes wider and 
 higher until it runs over and washes the dam 
 
away? When the children are making a dam 
 they are building a slope across the stream to 
 keep the water in. B.ut they cannot make it high 
 enough and strong enough to stand very long. 
 Let us think, now, of what we have learned. 
 
 We have learned that 
 in moving about from 
 place to place, we 
 
 " They are building a slope across the stream," 
 
 Avalk upon solid ground. No matter how far we 
 go, we find either land on which to walk or water 
 on which we cannot walk. If the water is sur- 
 rounded by land, so that it cannot flow away, it 
 will stand in a pool. If there is a slope to a 
 lower place, the water will flow down that slope. 
 
10 
 
 THE CHILDREN IN THE RAIN. 
 
 Out in the rain, with wind-kissed cheeks, 
 Mabel, and Bessie, and Little Boy Blue 
 Were making a world of water and earth 
 Planned like the maps in the books they knew. 
 
 A mimic ocean was hollowed out, 
 Where winding rivers and brooks might flow ; 
 Ranges of mountains stretched by the sea, 
 And islands dotted the bay below. 
 
 "The rivers are running too fast!" cried Bess, 
 "Our ships will be ruined, what shall we do?" 
 "Bring heaps of dirt from the old sand bank, 
 And make a dam," said Little Boy Blue. 
 
 In to dinner went laughing Bess ; 
 Boy Blue and Mabel followed her call ; 
 The rain poured down in a torrent wild, 
 And away went dams and ships and all ! 
 
 Islands and capes were washed away, 
 The whole world was wrapped in a raging flood, 
 And when, next morning, the sun came out, 
 A desert stretched where their ocean stood. 
 
 E. G. W. ROWE. 
 
11 
 
 THE AIR. 
 
 Let all sit up very straight. Place your feet 
 flat upon the floor, and throw your shoulders 
 back. Shut your lips close together and breathe 
 in while I count " One - - two - - three." 
 
 What did you do? What happened when you 
 breathed ? What passed through your noses down 
 into your lungs ? How do you know that air went 
 in ? Could you see it ? No, but you felt it pass- 
 ing through your noses. Could you not also feel 
 that something had gone into your lungs to fill 
 them so full ? Where does this air come from ? 
 
 Yes, it is all around us. Every time we take 
 breath, air enters our noses and is drawn into 
 our lungs. We cannot see the air, but we know 
 that there is air, because we can feel it, and 
 because when we breathe it into our lungs, our 
 chests become larger. 
 
 Did you feel your chests becoming larger when 
 you breathed just now ? Try again to see. 
 
 The Air Moves. - - Air is all about us. The 
 land and the water are covered with air. How 
 high do you think it goes? Can you give a 
 
12 
 
 reason for thinking that the air is among the 
 tree tops ? What do we say when the branches 
 of trees sway to and fro? 
 
 Yes, we say that the wind is blowing. We 
 can hear it in the tree tops. What is wind? 
 
 "How fast the clouds are sailing!" 
 
 It is moving air. We say wind is air in 
 motion. How may we know that the air is as 
 high as the clouds? 
 
 Let us go to the window and look out. See 
 
13 
 
 the clouds in the sky. What are they doing? 
 Why do you think they are moving? What 
 makes them move? The wind is driving the 
 clouds. See how the wind is tearing the edges 
 of those big white clouds ! 
 
 How fast the clouds are sailing ! The air must 
 be higher than the clouds. I wonder how high 
 it does go. It certainly goes up much higher 
 than the highest clouds. 
 
 The Air has Color. Now while we are at the 
 window, let us look far away at the trees over 
 yonder against the sky. See how blue they 
 look. They look blue because the air is be- 
 tween them and us. We see those distant trees 
 through a great deal of air. The air has color, 
 then. Its color is blue. 
 
 Air is everywhere. No matter where we go, 
 on land or water, we shall find air over us 
 and all about us. We could not live without it. 
 
 The air is thin and light. It moves about 
 freely. When in motion it is called wind. The 
 air extends high above us. The clouds float 
 in it. Distant objects look blue because the 
 air is blue. 
 
14 
 
 THE SUN AND THE AIR. 
 
 Is the air cold or warm to-day ? Is it warmer 
 at night, or during the day? Is it warmer in 
 the early morning, or at noon? On which side 
 of the schoolhouse is it warmer, on the sunny 
 side or on the shady side? 
 
 Tell how the air is heated. 
 
 It is heated by the sun. It is the sunny 
 side of the house which is warmer; and when 
 the sun shines highest in the sky we have the 
 warmest part of the day. When the sun does 
 not shine it is colder. Night is colder than 
 day, because the sun is not shining then. 
 
 Wherever we go, we may be sure that the air 
 will be above us and around us. We shall 
 see clouds sailing over us, and we shall feel 
 winds blowing. If we sail upon the water, the 
 winds may help to make us go faster. The 
 sun will shine upon us, and the air will hold 
 the heat of the sun for us. Why is the air 
 warmer in the sunshine than it is in the 
 shfide ? 
 
 Yes, the air is somewhat heated by the sun- 
 
15 
 
 beams, and it does not cool off very quickly. The 
 air is really a great heat holder. If the air could 
 not hold heat, everything would be frozen even 
 in summer. Are you not glad that the air pro- 
 tects us in this way? 
 
 Let us think of some things we have learned : 
 The land is a solid. How do we know it is a 
 solid? 
 
 Because we cannot sink into it. It holds us up. 
 
 Water is a liquid. How do we know it is a 
 liquid? 
 
 It moves about freely. It can be poured. 
 
 But air is neither solid nor liquid. It is 
 much thinner than liquids and moves even 
 more freely. We call such a substance a gas. 
 
 Write answers to these questions : 
 
 Where is the air ? How do you know that there is air ? 
 How do you know that the air moves ? What is air in 
 motion called ? What heats the air ? Is the air as warm at 
 one time of the day as at another ? At what time of day is it 
 warmest ? How does the air protect us from cold ? Why 
 does a gardener cover young plants when they are first set 
 out ? Why does he cover plants in the cool nights of fall ? 
 What is a cold frame ? Why will plants grow in a cold 
 frame earlier than in the open air ? 
 
16 
 
 CLOUDS. 
 
 Clouds that wander through the sky, 
 
 Sometimes low and sometimes high, 
 
 In the darkness of the night, 
 
 In the sunshine warm and bright; 
 
 Ah ! I wonder much if you 
 
 Have any useful work to do. 
 
 Yes, we're busy night and day 
 
 As o'er the earth we take our way, 
 
 We are bearers of the rain 
 
 To the grass, arid flowers, and grain ; 
 
 We guard you from the sun's bright rays 
 
 In the hottest summer days. 
 
 ANNA K. EGGLESTON. 
 
 WATER IN THE AIR. 
 
 Did you ever see a cloud in the house? No? 
 I will make a fine white cloud for you. Let us 
 take a tin can or a teakettle. Put a little water 
 into it. Place it over the lamp or upon a hot 
 stove. 
 
 Oh, you know what will happen ! Yes, we 
 shall have a fine white cloud in a very short time. 
 Did you ever see such a cloud before ? At home, 
 
17 
 
 in the kitchen, you have often seen such clouds 
 coming from the teakettle. 
 
 Is the cloud close to the spout ? No, it is 
 a short way from the end of the spout. 
 We cannot see any- 
 thing between it and 
 the spout. 
 
 What is this white 
 cloud ? It is made up 
 of little drops of water. 
 
 Where does it come 
 from ? It comes from 
 the boiling water. A "w^t is this ^* ci<ma? 
 
 part of the water has risen in tiny vapor drops 
 called steam, and has escaped through the spout. 
 
 If it has come through the spout, how is it that 
 there is no steam close to the end of the spout ? 
 
 There is steam close to the end of the spout, 
 but the vapor drops are so tiny that we cannot 
 see them.- They are scalding hot there ; but 
 when they get a little way from the spout they 
 begin to cool, and float together into larger drops 
 of water which we can see. These form the 
 white cloud floating in the air. 
 
 GEOG. NAT. STUDIES 2 
 
18 
 
 Take a piece of cold glass. Hold it in a jet of 
 steam. See how wet the glass has become. The 
 cold glass has cooled the steam and changed it 
 back to water. 
 
 The clear moisture like that at the end of the 
 spout is called vapor, and we say it is invisible 
 because we cannot see it. When it cools off so as 
 to be white, like the cloud, we say it is visible 
 moisture. 
 
 The little drops of water which form the white 
 clotid are so very small that they float in the air. 
 But what becomes of the little cloud? In a little 
 while it begins to melt away. Soon we cannot 
 see it at all. The tiny particles of water are 
 still in the air, but they have been scattered far 
 apart ; and they are so small that we cannot see 
 them unless many of them are close together. 
 And so the visible moisture has been changed 
 back to invisible vapor. 
 
 What was that upon the glass? Yes, it was 
 visible moisture, for it could be seen. 
 
 Are the clouds in the sky visible moisture or 
 are they vapor ? Do you think that all the mois- 
 ture in the air is in the clouds ? We shall see. 
 
19 
 
 GETTING MOISTURE FROM THE AIR. 
 
 Fill a thin glass tumbler with finely crushed 
 ice. See the outside of the glass. It is getting 
 wet. It is doing as the ice pitcher does in sum- 
 mer. Where does this moisture come from ? It 
 cannot leak through the glass. It must come 
 from the air. 
 
 What happened when the cold glass was held 
 in the jet of steam ? Why ? It is so also with 
 the glass of crushed ice. There is invisible mois- 
 ture in the air, and when this moisture becomes 
 chilled by the cold glass, the vapor particles of 
 which it is made up are brought closer together, 
 and it changes to visible moisture which we see 
 in the form of little drops of water upon the out- 
 side of the glass. 
 
 There is invisible moisture in the air all around 
 us. That is why, after a cool night, we find dew 
 on the cold plants. Did you ever see the beauti- 
 ful dewdrops sparkling on the grass in the 
 morning ? 
 
 A million little diamonds 
 Twinkled on the trees, 
 
20 
 
 And all the little maidens said, 
 
 " A jewel, if you please ! " 
 But when they held their hands outstretched 
 
 To catch the diamonds gay, 
 A million little sunbeams came 
 
 And stole them all away. 
 
 The air always contains moisture. When it 
 floats high over our heads in masses that we 
 can see, we call it clouds. When clouds settle 
 down upon the land, they are called fog. When 
 clouds become very thick, the little drops of water 
 in them unite with one another to make larger 
 drops. These drops are so heavy that they can- 
 not float in the air, and so they fall rapidly 
 to the ground. This is what we call rain. 
 
 Dew sometimes forms in cold nights and freezes 
 as it forms upon plants. It is then called frost. 
 The moisture of the clouds often freezes in the 
 form of beautiful stars or soft flaky masses called 
 snow. Sometimes the winds blow the snow- 
 flakes around and roll them together into little 
 balls ; then these are partly melted, and frozen 
 again into hard little balls of ice. These ice 
 balls are called hailstones. 
 
21 
 
 THE MESSAGE OF THE SNOWFLAKE 
 
 " The snowflake kissed me, 
 
 As on it sped, 
 And told me a story," 
 
 The little maid said. 
 "I didn't mind it, 
 
 So soft and cold, 
 And here is the story 
 
 The snowflake told. 
 
 "'You won't believe it, 
 
 I almost know, 
 But I was a raindrop 
 
 Before I was snow. 
 I fell by the roadside, 
 
 And there I lay, 
 Till the sun drew me up 
 
 Through the air one day, 
 
 " ' On a cloud I floated, 
 
 Till cold I grew, 
 Then I turned to a snowflake, 
 
 And flew down to you. 
 And this is my message, 
 
 So sweet and sure : 
 Be pure, like the snowflake, 
 
 Be pure, be pure.'" E. G. w. K. 
 
22 
 
 WHERE THE RAIN COMES FROM. 
 
 Where does all the moisture in the air come 
 from? Let us see. Suppose we take a small 
 dish of water and put it on the window sill in 
 the sun. After a while, if we look at the dish, 
 we shall find that it is dry. Where is the water ? 
 Yes, it has dried up. The heat of the sun has 
 changed it into vapor, just as 
 the heat of the lamp changed 
 the water into vapor awhile 
 ago. This vapor has gone into 
 the air, leaving the dish dry. 
 The water which was in the 
 dish is not lost. It has only 
 changed its form from water 
 to vapor. 
 
 Much of the water which 
 falls upon the ground or stands 
 in puddles thus passes into the 
 air as vapor. You have often 
 seen how these puddles dry up after the rain is 
 over and the sun has come out again. 
 
 Now, where does the rain come from? It comes 
 
 "It comes from the cloud-,' 
 
23 
 
 from the clouds. The clouds were once vapor in 
 the air. The vapor came from the water which 
 was once flowing over the ground or standing in 
 pools and puddles. 
 
 Much of the rain that fell to-day is rising in the 
 air as vapor. The particles of this vapor by being 
 cooled and brought closer together will become 
 visible clouds or fogs. By being brought still 
 closer together they will form into drops and 
 become rain or dew, or into icy flakes and become 
 snow, hail, or frost. 
 
 In what forms is the water in the air ? How does the air 
 get this moisture ? How can we get moisture out of the air ? 
 What is vapor ? On what kind of nights does dew collect ? 
 
 THE LIFE OF A DEWDROP. 
 
 Clear, shining, and bright, a dewdrop lay 
 In the silent heart of a rose ; 
 Where did the dewdrop come from, 
 And where will it go when it goes ? 
 
 Purest of water, the dewdrop 
 
 Is drawn from the summer air, 
 
 And because the grasses and flowers are cool 
 
 Is the reason it gathers there. 
 
24 
 
 This little dewdrop lay in the rose 
 Could it have a daintier bed ? 
 All through the quiet night time. 
 Till the sun rose up and said : 
 
 " Good morning, shining 
 
 dewdrop ! " 
 Then it stirred with a 
 
 frightened start, 
 For the loving kiss of the 
 
 summer sun 
 Will break a dewdrop's heart. 
 
 Up, up through the shining pathway 
 That led to the higher air, 
 The pure and pearly dewdrop 
 Followed the sunbeam fair. 
 
 A great white cloud enwrapped it, 
 And when it fell again, 
 It was no more a dewdrop, 
 But a drop of summer rain, 
 
 E. G. W. ROWE. 
 
 Of what is a dewdrop made ? Where does the dew come 
 from ? Why does it collect upon the grass and flowers ? How 
 long did the dewdrop lie in the rose ? Who woke it ? Was 
 this drop visible as she went up the " shining pathway " ? 
 How did the dewdrop change ? 
 
25 
 
 THE SEASONS. 
 
 What do we mean when we say the weather is 
 pleasant ? 
 
 We use the word weather in speaking of the 
 air whether it is hot or cold, wet or dry. Thus 
 we hear people say: "This is damp weather," or 
 " This is the hottest weather we have had." What 
 kind of weather are we having to-day ? We also 
 speak of cloudy weather, stormy weather, foggy 
 weather, and rainy weather. 
 
 We have many kinds of weather, but certain 
 kinds usually come at about the same time of the 
 year. The year is divided into four equal parts. 
 We call these parts seasons. 
 
 Do you know the names of the seasons ? They 
 are : Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. 
 
 In spring everything is beginning to grow. 
 We call it spring because plants are springing 
 from the soil. In spring the weather is mild. 
 At first it is cool, but it becomes warm at last. 
 In spring there is usually much rain. 
 
 After spring comes summer. Summer is the 
 hot season. In summer the days are long and 
 
26 
 
 very hot. The summer nights are warm and short. 
 In summer there are many flowers. Boys go 
 swimming when the days are long and hot. The 
 frogs croak during the short summer nights. 
 
 In autumn the weather begins to grow cooler. 
 The nights become longer. Frosts begin to nip 
 the trees, and the leaves turn yellow and red. 
 The fruit ripens, and all the crops are gathered in. 
 Autumn is also called fall because the leaves fall 
 at that time. Autumn is opposite to spring. 
 It begins warm and gets cooler, until at last the 
 ponds begin to freeze over. 
 
 Then follows winter. In winter boys and girls 
 go skating. Christmas comes. The days are short, 
 and the nights long, and oh ! such cold weather ! 
 Now for snow and sleds and the best fun of the 
 year ! 
 
 THE MONTHS. 
 
 Each season has three months. The spring 
 months are March, April, and May. In March 
 there is much windy weather. April is rainy ; 
 and May is a sunny month. We gather wild 
 flowers in May. 
 
27 
 
 The summer months are June, July, and Au- 
 gust. Roses bloom in June. July is the month 
 of harvest. On the 4th of July we shoot fire- 
 crackers and burn fireworks. Why do we do 
 this? In August the days are generally hot and 
 dry, but the nights are often cool. 
 
 September, October, and November are the 
 months of autumn. In September school begins. 
 In October we gather red-cheeked apples from the 
 orchard, and nuts from the woods. In November 
 comes Thanksgiving Day. 
 
 December, January, and February are the win- 
 ter months. Winter is cold because the days are 
 short and we get less heat from the sun then. 
 In summer we get more heat from the sun be- 
 cause the sun is then higher in the sky. 
 
 At what time of day is the sun highest in the 
 sky ? When is it lowest ? When is it hottest ? 
 
 You see that the hottest part of the day is 
 when the sun shines highest in our sky. Now 
 as the year goes by, the sun rises and sinks in the 
 sky. In summer it is highest. Then we have the 
 hottest weather. In winter it is lowest. Then 
 our weather is the coldest. 
 
28 
 
 Let us plant a pole in the school yard. If there 
 is a flagstaff in the yard, it will do. Let 
 us measure the length of the 
 shadow which the pole casts 
 at noon once or twice a week 
 and see how it varies. Keep 
 a record of the length of 
 the shadow and 
 the dates when 
 the shadow was 
 measured. You 
 will soon see that the shadow changes a little 
 each day. It will be long- 
 est in winter because the 
 sun is lowest then, and 
 shortest in summer be- 
 cause then the sun is high- ( 
 est in the sky. 
 
 Name the seasons. In what 
 seasons do boys go swimming ? \ 
 In what season does Christmas V 
 come ? Name the months of each 
 season. How many seasons are 
 
 there ? How many months in each ? That makes how many 
 months in the whole year ? In which season do wild flowers 
 
29 
 
 bloom ? In which do peaches ripen ? In which season are the 
 trees without leaves ? In which season do strawberries ripen 
 here? 
 
 SUGGESTION. It may be useful to keep a record of the 
 conditions of the weather for a week or two, the pupils mak- 
 ing the observations and taking note of : (1) temperature, 
 (2) cloudiness, (3) the wind and its direction. These may be 
 tabulated either upon the blackboard or by each pupil upon 
 paper. 
 
 THE ENDLESS STORY. 
 
 A tiny drop of water 
 
 Within the ocean lay; 
 
 A coaxing sunbeam caught her 
 
 And bore her far away ; 
 
 Up, up, and higher still, they go ? 
 
 With gentle motion soft and slow. 
 
 A little cloud lay sleeping 
 Upon the azure sky ; 
 But soon she fell a weeping, 
 As cold the wind rushed by, 
 And cried and cried herself away- 
 It was a very rainy day. 
 
 The little raindrops sinking, 
 
 Ran trickling through the ground, 
 
 And set the brooklets drinking 
 
30 
 
 In all the country round ; 
 
 But some with laughing murmur said, 
 
 " We'll farther go/' and on they sped. 
 
 A little spring came dripping 
 The moss and ferns among, 
 A silver rill went tripping 
 And singing sweet along, 
 And calling others to its side, 
 Until it rolled a river's tide. 
 
 And with the ocean blending 
 
 At last its waters run. 
 
 " This is the story's ending ? " 
 
 Why no ! 'tis just begun ; 
 
 For in the ocean, as before, 
 
 The drop of water lay once more. 
 
 A. K. EGGLESTON. 
 
 Tell this story in your own words. Was the tiny drop 
 alone ? Was she visible as she went up with the coaxing sun- 
 beam ? 
 
 Did you ever see the " sun draw water " ? What made the 
 little cloud weep ? What kind of noise does the rain make in 
 falling ? What makes the brooklets murmur ? 
 
 Did you ever see a spring ? Describe it. Where did the 
 water in this spring come from ? Where does the water- in the 
 rivers go ? What is the ocean ? 
 
31 
 
 WHAT THE RAIN DOES. 
 
 See how it is raining ! Just hear the rain as 
 it pours down ! See the large drops falling down 
 before the windows. 
 
 What does the rain do when it strikes the side- 
 walk? What will raindrops do when they fall 
 upon the dusty land ? 
 
 Each drop will pick up a little dust. What 
 will happen then ? 
 
 Yes, it will begin to run away. 
 
 Why does the rain run along on the ground? 
 Why does it flow in that direction instead of any 
 other ? 
 
 Yes, it is because the land slopes down that 
 way. Every raindrop is a worker. When a 
 drop strikes the ground, it picks up all the dust 
 it can carry and runs down the slope with it. 
 
 Look out and see how the water is flowing. 
 Does it flow towards the schoolhouse or away 
 from it? Why? Where does it go then ? Why? 
 
 Which way does the water flow in the gutter? 
 Why? We shall soon learn more about what 
 water does. 
 
32 
 
 SURFACE. 
 
 If the surface of the ground were quite flat, the 
 water would lie upon it or soak into it. But the 
 land surface is seldom perfectly level. It usually 
 slopes more or less. We cannot always see that 
 it slopes. 
 
 Even in cities, where the streets seem to be 
 flat, you can see the water flowing from the middle 
 of the street to the sides. It does not stop when 
 it reaches the sides either; for, if you will look, 
 you can see it flowing along in the gutters. 
 
 We call sloping land a slope. The water flows 
 down a slope until it comes to the bottom. The 
 bottom of a slope is the place where the ground 
 stops sloping downward and begins, sloping up- 
 ward again. When you slide down hill in win- 
 ter, the sled stops at the bottom where the land 
 begins to slope upward again. It is the upward 
 slope that stops the sled. So when the water 
 has been running down a slope and has come 
 to such a place, it stops just as a sled does. 
 Then the water must turn in its course or spread 
 out in a pool. 
 
33 
 
 Part of the water that falls upon the ground 
 runs off down the slopes. There is another part 
 that sinks into the ground, and a third part that 
 changes to vapor and rises into the air again. 
 We shall learn more of this after a while, but 
 the part which w^e see runs down the slopes. 
 
 SLOPES. 
 
 I am going to take a walk to-day. Will you 
 go with me? We shall walk down the slope 
 
 "We call sloping land a slope," 
 
 GEOG. NAT. STUDIES 3 
 
34 
 
 where we saw the water flowing. The water 
 must run down the slope. The slope tells the 
 water which way it must go. We shall let the 
 slope tell us which way to go to-day. We shall 
 be like little drops of water, and so we must go 
 down the slope. Then we can see where the 
 water goes. 
 
 Here is the bottom of the slope because the 
 surface changes. It slants from a downward to 
 an upward direction. Do you see why we so 
 often find a stream at such places? 
 
 It is because the slopes on both sides drain 
 towards each other. This makes the water col- 
 lect at the bottom of the two slopes. When 
 the water reaches the bottom of these slopes, it 
 either stands still in a little pond or else it 
 runs along in a trough formed by the meeting 
 of the slopes. If the slope forms a little bowl, 
 the water forms a pool because it cannot get 
 away. On page 41 is a picture of such a pool in 
 the woods. See how clear the water is. Perhaps 
 there are fishes in the quiet pool. If the slopes 
 are not like a bowl, but like a trough, the 
 water turns and runs along in the trough. 
 
35 
 
 Here is a picture of a scene in the country. 
 See the farmhouse and barns on the left side 
 
 "A scene in the country." 
 
 of the picture. There are other farms away 
 back in the distance. The land is rolling here. 
 See where there are pools of water on the 
 ground ! Do you not see that these pools lie 
 where the hollows are? There are gentle slopes 
 here and there. The water flows down them, 
 and so collects in the lowest places between 
 these slopes. 
 
36 
 
 How many pools do you see in this picture? 
 Yes, there are three large pools and some 
 smaller ones. After a while the sun's heat may 
 make these pools dry up, and then the soil 
 will be dry, too. 
 
 Why does the water collect in some places? Why does 
 it change its course ? What becomes of the pools which form 
 during a rain storm ? Where do we usually find streams ? 
 
 VALLEYS. 
 
 Two downward slopes which meet form a val- 
 ley. You can remember this word valley because 
 it begins with a letter " v," which is formed like 
 a valley by the meeting of two side slopes. 
 
 Take a piece of paper 
 and fold it thus. We have 
 made two slopes which 
 meet along the line AB, 
 where you folded the paper. 
 If this were made of tin in- 
 stead of paper, we could pour w^ater on the sides, 
 and it would run down them just as it does down 
 the slopes of a real valley. 
 
37 
 
 The sides of a valley are sometimes very steep. 
 If the side slopes are very wide and almost flat, 
 we say they form a plain. 
 
 Plains are such gentle slopes that they seem 
 to be quite level. Sometimes they are many 
 miles wide and so nearly level that you cannot 
 see that they slope at all. Sometimes the side 
 slopes of a valley are so steep that it is very 
 hard to climb up them. 
 
 1234 
 
 Fold your paper as it is in 1, 2, 3, 4. These 
 show some of the ways in which valleys slope. 
 
 On the. next page is a picture of a valley with 
 gently sloping sides. We are near the top of 
 one of these slopes, and we are looking across 
 this broad valley. Do you see how the land 
 slopes down from us? 
 
 See how it goes up again on the other side ! 
 There is a little brook down in the lowest part 
 of this valley. It runs along singing merrily. 
 When it rains, the little rills run down these 
 
38 
 
 "A valley with gently sloping sides," 
 
 slopes and feed the little brook. But to-day 
 the sun is shining, and the brook runs along 
 very merry and bright. 
 
 There are farms and groves on the distant 
 slope. Down near the brook the slopes are more 
 gentle and the soil is more fertile. Up on the 
 slope nearest us, the soil is drier than it is down 
 in the valley. See the large stones on the ground 
 near us. The lighter soils have been washed 
 down the slope, leaving these bowlders behind. 
 
39 
 
 In the next picture is shown a valley with 
 steep slopes. See the water in this valley. In 
 one place there is a row of big stones crossing 
 the stream, and people who wish to cross from 
 one slope of the valley to the other may step 
 on them. How steep these slopes are ! It is not 
 possible to climb such steep cliffs. Even plants 
 cannot grow on these slopes. Sometimes huge 
 masses of rock and soil fall from the tops of such 
 cliffs and lie at their bases. 
 
 "A valley with steep slopes, 
 
40 
 
 "Are the slopes which you see gentle or steep?" 
 
 Here is another valley, and through it flows a 
 great river. See the boats sailing upon it. At 
 the bottom of the slope where we are standing 
 there is a place where boats can stop. There 
 is a boat there now. Some day we shall take 
 a ride on this boat. Are the slopes which you 
 see gentle or steep? 
 
 What valleys are near you? Have they steep or gentle 
 slopes? Is there a stream in any of these valleys? If not a 
 stream, is there a pond? If the valleys near you have no 
 streams or ponds in them, tell what you can of the soil of these 
 valleys. 
 
41 
 
 PLANTS OF THE VALLEYS. 
 
 Let us go to-day into the valley to see what 
 can be found there. We will go first to the low- 
 est place, down where the slopes meet. There 
 is a little brook there, and perhaps we shall find 
 a pool. In places where the soil is too soft to 
 hold the water, we shall find it moist from the 
 drainage of the side slopes. 
 
 What do we find growing down here in the 
 valley? Ah! here are watercresses growing in 
 
 "Perhaps we shall find a pool," 
 
42 
 
 the clear, running water, and ferns and skunk 
 cabbages in the soft, dark muck. See, here is a 
 jack-in-the-pulpit, and there are white and pur- 
 ple trilliums. How rank the grasses and sedges 
 grow here! Over yonder, where it is too wet for 
 one to go, are yellow marsh marigolds which 
 children call cowslips. And there in the quiet 
 pool grow tall cat-tails and graceful iris. They 
 are children of the valley standing knee-deep in 
 the water. Here are green mosses, 
 soft like a carpet, and full of water, 
 which gushes out as we step upon them. 
 White violets peep up through the 
 mosses, and clumps of pitcher 
 plants may be seen here 
 and there. Willow trees, 
 swamp maples, and poi- 
 son sumach are found 
 growing in the wettest 
 
43 
 
 
 Watercresses. 
 
 places. White and yel- 
 low water lilies are seen 
 growing in the water, 
 with their leaves floating 
 upon its surface. Cran- 
 berries, too, prefer the 
 
 mossy bogs, and so do orchids. 
 Why do these plants grow here? 
 Yes, these plants like plenty of 
 water. They cannot live in dry 
 places. We always find such 
 plants growing in very wet soil. 
 
 Where do you go for huckleberries ? 
 Jacks-in-the-pnipit, Where do you go for water lilies? What 
 plants have you seen growing in wet places ? 
 What do you know about cranberries? What 
 poisonous plant grows in wet places? Why is 
 the vegetation so rank down in the valleys? 
 Why do willows and swamp maples grow in val- 
 leys? Why will not cranberries grow well 
 on hill tops ? Name two plants which grow 
 in the water. Where do you go to gather 
 cresses ? Why are swamp grasses and swamp 
 sedges more rank than other grasses and 
 sedges? In what soil do we usually find 
 cowslips growing? Where are the roots of the water lily? 
 Collect and study arrow-weed, pond-weed, and sun-dew. 
 
 Pitcher Plants, 
 
44 
 
 ANIMALS OF THE VALLEYS. 
 
 Hark! what is that? It 
 is a muskrat. He lives 
 . in a hut which he 
 has built in the 
 water. In sunny 
 places, turtles may 
 be seen lying on 
 the stones, sun- 
 ning themselves. 
 See how they slide 
 off into the water 
 
 when they see us coming. If we look sharp, we 
 
 may see a pretty brown lizard gliding over the 
 
 soft green mosses to its hiding place. 
 See the minnows 
 
 swimming in the brook ! 
 
 There is a green frog 
 
 on that mossy stone. 
 
 If we go near, he will 
 
 leap into the water. 
 
 There are some crayfish hiding among the pebbles 
 
 in the brook. See them dart through the water. 
 
 "It is a muskrat,' 
 
 "A greeu frog. 1 
 
45 
 
 There are plenty of mosqui- 
 toes here, too, and dragonflies 
 go darting about in search of 
 food. There goes a 
 snake into the water; 
 he will not hurt us. 
 He has a hole in the 
 ground somewhere near 
 here. See how well he can 
 swim. He is a water snake. 
 
 Ducks and geese come to the pond to swim. 
 
 Their toes are 
 webbed together. 
 This helps them to 
 
 Dragonflies go darting 
 about," 
 
 "There goes a snake into the water," 
 
46 
 
 paddle through the wa- 
 ter. Their flat bills 
 help them to dig their 
 food out of the mud. 
 
 Snipes, cranes, and 
 herons come here to 
 wade. They are very 
 funny looking birds. 
 Their long legs make it 
 easy for them to wade 
 out into quite deep water, and with their long 
 necks and long bills they can reach far 
 
 down after fishes and other Jlf food. 
 
 "Their toes are webbed together," 
 
 1 Where do lizards live ? " 
 
 What kind of birds live in the 
 valleys? What is the food of x^ 
 these birds ? Why do they seek 
 it in the valley ? What insects are 
 found near the water ? 
 
 Name some animals, not birds and not insects, 
 which live in or near the water. What is their 
 food? Why are there so many mosquitoes in 
 wet places? What brings the dragonflies 
 to such places? Name four living things 
 which you have seen in the water. Which 
 of these always live in the water ? Which 
 sometimes come out and leap upon the ground? Did you 
 
 A Goose's Foot, 
 
47 
 
 ever see a lizard ? How many feet had it ? Where do lizards 
 live? On what do they feed? How does a crayfish move 
 through the water? Why does p 
 the duck have webbed feet? 
 What is the use of the snipe's 
 long bill ? 
 
 Feet of birds are clothed with 
 scales. Wading and swimming 
 would be very hard if the feet 
 and legs were covered with 
 feathers. Procure feet of vari- 
 ous birds, chickens, ducks, 
 and turkeys, and study them 
 as regards shape, size, position 
 and color of scales, and number 
 
 11 Cranes come here to wade. 1 
 
 and position of toes. Compare feet of birds with those of tur- 
 tles, frogs and lizards, as to number of toes and covering. 
 
 Now let us repeat some of the 
 things we have learned. 
 
 Wherever the soil is always wet, 
 water-loving plants and animals 
 are found living and growing. 
 
 We shall not always find the 
 same plants and animals in such 
 places, but we shall always find 
 similar ones. 
 
 In some places the vegetation 
 will be much larger and denser, and 
 the animals will be much fiercer and larger, but they will be simi- 
 lar in most respects. Birds with webbed feet, and birds with long 
 legs and necks commonly make their homes very near the water. 
 
 The snipe's long bill," 
 
48 
 
 "Somewhat like , , , the roof of a house," 
 
 DIVIDES, HILLS, MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUS. 
 
 We have taken a walk down one slope, let us 
 now go up another. Here is a picture of such a 
 slope. Up we go, higher and higher. By and 
 by we shall come to the top. 
 
 Ah, here we are at the top. At last we have 
 reached a place where, if we go on any farther, we 
 must go downward. It is somewhat like the high- 
 est part or ridge of the roof of a house. 
 
49 
 
 What happens to the rain water falling here? 
 That which falls on one side of the ridge will flow 
 one way, that which falls on the other side will 
 run the other way. The ridge of the house di- 
 vides one part of the rainfall from the other part. 
 What shall we call a ridge of land which divides 
 the waters in this way ? 
 
 Yes, we will call it a divide, or v$ate,r parting, 
 because it parts or divides all the water falling 
 upon it. 
 
 You see that the roof of the schoolhouse is a 
 sort of divide. It divides the rainfall into two 
 parts. One part flows down one roof slope ; the 
 other flows down the other. 
 
 If the slopes of the land are steep like those of 
 the roof of a house, we call the line where they 
 meet a ridge, because it is so much like the ridge 
 of a roof. If the slopes make a ridge which is not 
 very high, we call it a ridge or range of hills. But 
 when these slopes are very steep and long so as 
 to make the ridge very high, we call it a range of 
 mountains. 
 
 Sometimes the high land near the top of the 
 slopes is not at all steep, but is almost flat like 
 
 GEOG. NAT. STUDIES 4 
 
50 
 
 the top of a table. We call such high, almost 
 level slopes, table-lands, or plateaus. 
 
 Have you ever seen a mountain? Here is a 
 picture of one. See how steep the slopes are. 
 
 "Have you ever seen a mountain?" 
 
 How very high this mountain must be ! It is 
 higher than the clouds. Think what a long, hard 
 climb it must be to reach its top. 
 
 In this picture we see .a man on horseback. 
 On the man's right there is a deep valley, but 
 on his left there is a wall of rock. How steep 
 the slopes are! Do you think that his horse 
 can climb to the top of this high mountain? 
 
51 
 
 You have all seen hills. Is there a hill in the 
 neighborhood of your home? Is it a high hill? 
 Does it belong to a range of hills ? 
 
 Let us see what we have learned. The meet- 
 ing of two upward slopes is a divide. If these 
 slopes are short and not very steep, they form a 
 range of hills. Very high hills are called moun- 
 tains. Mountain slopes are usually steeper and 
 longer than hill slopes. 
 
 Plateaus often border mountain ranges. Hills 
 and mountains are great piles of soil and rock. 
 Valleys are hollows where the rock has been 
 washed out. Hills and mountains shed the water 
 falling upon them, like a roof. Valleys collect 
 this water and carry it away, or hold it in pools. 
 
 PLANTS OF THE HIGHLANDS. 
 
 As we go up the slopes, the land naturally 
 becomes drier and less rich, because the light 
 rich loam has been washed down into the val- 
 leys, and less water sinks into the steep sides as 
 it runs swiftly down. We shall not see our old 
 friends the trillium, the jack-in-the-pulpit, and the 
 
52 
 
 marsh marigold up here. The 
 slopes are too dry and stony for 
 such plants to grow. They 
 cannot leave the moist 
 places down in the valley where 
 we saw them grow- 
 ing. But we shall find 
 
 G-olden-rod. , , -. 
 
 r other plants quite as 
 
 pretty but not so plentiful. 
 Here grow the daisy, the butter- 
 cup, the arbutus, the violet, the 
 dandelion, and many 
 beautiful grasses. 
 
 Later in the season we The Daisy< 
 shall find the slopes covered with asters 
 and golden-rods. 
 
 The willow is a 
 great drinker. 
 He cannot live 
 on the dry hillsides, but 
 
 Buttercups. ^ s l Q p es are no w ^h_ 
 
 out their trees. Maple, oak, beech, 
 ash, and linden grow upon the 
 high lands. See how the checker- 
 
53 
 
 berry creeps over the ground ! See how the col- 
 umbine and azalea brighten all the woods with 
 their colors ! 
 
 Farther up, where the soil be- 
 comes drier, we find laurel and 
 hazel. Here, too, in the early 
 spring, the trailing arbutus may 
 be seen, covering the ground with 
 large patches of pink flowers. 
 On the broad, gentle slopes are 
 fields of corn, wheat, and other grains. 
 
 Still higher, where the surface is dry and rocky, 
 pines and spruces grow. Farther up the slope 
 
 there are only a few stunted 
 plants peeping out from among 
 the stones. The rocky summits 
 will be found almost bare, cov- 
 ered here and there with patches 
 of dry mosses and lichens. 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 
 Arbutus i 
 
 Write answers to these questions : 
 What plants grow on the slopes ? 
 Are they water-loving plants ? Name 
 
 five trees which you have seen growing on the slopes. Where 
 
 does arbutus grow ? Where do lichens grow ? 
 
54 
 
 A Squirrel, 
 
 ANIMALS OF THE SLOPES. 
 
 What animals do you expect 
 to find living where the nut 
 trees grow? Yes, here is the 
 home of the squirrel. Nuts are 
 the squirrel's food. He makes 
 his home where he can get them. 
 Field 
 mice, 
 
 chipmunks, and rab- 
 bits live on the slopes. 
 Weasels and ferrets 
 make their homes in 
 the thick forests. 
 Skunks and opossums 
 are seldom 
 
 ^^ seen by day, but they 
 make their homes on the 
 wooded slopes. 
 
 Far away from towns 
 \ live bears, wolves, foxes, 
 and many kinds of deer. 
 Sometimes bears are 
 
 Deer, 
 
55 
 
 caught when very young and tamed. Then they 
 may be taught many funny tricks. We some- 
 times see them led about 
 the streets. Bears are fond *4&fc* 
 
 of climbing. ^ 
 
 Wolves and foxes look - 
 very much like dogs. They 
 cannot climb trees as bears I 
 can. The fox is sly. He 
 likes to rob the farmers 7 
 hen roosts. Among the 
 trees live many song birds. 
 Robins, wrens, sparrows, and hosts of other 
 
 birds build their nests 
 ^j T ^ among the branches. 
 
 <*miam. m^-i^&j 
 
 Write answers to these 
 questions : 
 
 Where is the squirrel 
 found? Why does he live 
 there? What do rabbits 
 eat ? Describe a chipmunk. 
 Did you ever see a bear? 
 What was he doing ? Write 
 three statements about foxes. 
 
 Name five song birds you have seen. Why do we set traps 
 for weasels, foxes, and opossums ? 
 
56 
 
 HOMES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 
 
 Plants and animals are always fitted for the 
 place in which they live. The fishes have fins. 
 The birds have wings. The cat has paws. The 
 fish would get on very poorly if it had a shell like 
 the oyster. A duck would make sad work swim- 
 ming if her feet had no webs and were like the 
 feet of a chicken. 
 
 Each creature is suited to its native home. 
 Plants and animals which are fond of water must 
 live where water is to be found. Plants and ani- 
 mals which need less water will live in drier 
 places. So it happens that plants of the valleys 
 differ greatly from those of the drier places farther 
 up the slopes. 
 
 We have seen that the squirrel makes his home 
 in the woods where the nuts grow. He wants to 
 be near his food. Animals always make their 
 homes near where their food is. The dragonfly 
 lives where he can find the mosquito, his food. 
 Birds with long legs usually live near the water 
 because they can wade in the water and catch 
 fish for their food. 
 
57 
 
 No matter where we go, we shall always find it 
 true, that the lowlands have ranker vegetation 
 than the highlands. We shall also find that 
 different kinds of plants bring different kinds of 
 animals because these animals depend directly or 
 indirectly upon plants for their food and shelter. 
 
 THE RAIN AND THE DUST. 
 
 When the rain water falls upon the slopes and 
 runs down them, it does not flow in sheets, but 
 in little streams. These may be very little in- 
 deed. Such streams are called' rills or runnels 
 because the water runs on the ground. 
 
 The water flows faster down steep slopes than 
 it does down gentle slopes, just as your sled goes 
 faster along the steeper slopes. 
 
 Is this water clear when it flows down a slope 
 soon after a rain ? See how muddy it is. Get a 
 glass full of this muddy water and place it upon 
 the window sill for a while. Pretty soon it will 
 settle, and you will find the mud all on the bottom 
 of the glass. 
 
 You have not forgotten how the drops of water 
 
58 
 
 which fell upon the dusty ground, picked up little 
 particles of dust. So it is with rain water falling 
 upon the land. Each drop picks up as much as 
 it can carry and runs away down the slope with 
 it. If the slope be steep, it runs faster and can 
 carry more. If the slope be gentle, the little 
 runnel must go slower and so carries much less. 
 
 THE SORTING OF SILT. 
 
 Take a large glass jar. A 
 candy jar or fruit jar will do. 
 Procure different kinds of soil. 
 There should be coarse and fine 
 gravel, sand, loam, clay, and 
 rich vegetable mold. Put 
 these in the jar and add 
 a large quantity of water. 
 Shake or stir and then set 
 away on the window sill. 
 When the sediment has settled and the water 
 above has become perfectly clear, examine and 
 observe the arrangement of the soils which have 
 been put into the jar. 
 
 "Take a large glass jar,' 
 
59 
 
 Look at the glass jar on the window sill. The 
 mud has settled to the bottom. Look closely 
 at this mud. Where is the finest part; the 
 coarsest part? 
 
 The coarsest part is at the bottom. The finer 
 is above it. The finest is at the top. 
 
 The coarse part is heavier than the fine part. 
 The water must drop the coarse part first, and 
 then the tine part. It always happens so when 
 the running water is stopped in pools. If you 
 dig where such a pool has been, you will find the 
 coarse gravel at the bottom and nearest the mouth 
 of the inlet. 
 
 This is because the quiet water of the pool 
 checks the flow of the stream. Finer gravel will 
 be found above it, and sand or clay on the top, 
 leaving the clear water above the muddy bottom. 
 You can find layers of such mud at the bottom of 
 every pool when the water has gone. 
 
 This sand or mud, brought down by the 
 streams, is called silt, or sediment. Where the 
 slopes are steep, the water runs fast and carries 
 much silt, both coarse and fine. Where the slope 
 becomes less steep, the coarse silt stops, and the 
 
60 
 
 fine silt is carried farther on. Where the small 
 streams flow into hollows and form pools or 
 ponds, all their silt, both coarse and fine, must 
 settle to the bottom. 
 
 Go out and see the rain at work. Raindrops 
 
 and rills are great work- 
 ers, but the rills are by 
 far the greater workers. 
 Put on overshoes and 
 carry umbrellas so that 
 you need not get wet 
 while seeing them work. 
 Running water is never 
 idle. Every part has 
 some work to do. 
 
 Let us first go to 
 where the water is drip- 
 ping from the eaves of 
 the house. How clean 
 the large pebbles are ! What has become of the 
 fine soil ? The rills made by the water that has 
 fallen from the eaves have carried it all away. 
 
 Let us see if we can find where this fine soil 
 has been carried. How small the rills are. Here 
 
 " The rills are the greater workers. 
 
61 
 
 is one. See how yellow it is with mud. Here are 
 others running down the slope towards the gutter 
 carrying their load of fine sand and mud. 
 
 Each little rill carries all the silt it can. Small 
 stones and pebbles are rolling along in the little 
 stream where the slope is steep. 
 
 Now find a place where the slope is not so 
 steep. Do you see any pebbles rolling along 
 here? Why not? 
 
 Here is a place where the slope is so gentle as 
 to seem flat. See what the rills do here. They 
 drop all their load of silt, and it forms a mud 
 bank. The water flows through this mud bank in 
 many channels. Such places are called deltas, 
 and you can find them after every rain storm. 
 
 , THE WORK OF THE STREAMS. 
 
 This is not the only work of the streams. 
 They are wearing out little channels in which to 
 flow. How do they do this ? The running water 
 tears off tiny pieces of soil and carries them away. 
 The rain has wet the ground and softened it so 
 that the little rills can do this. The small grains 
 
62 
 
 which roll along in the rill also help to loosen 
 soil from the sides and bottom of the channel. 
 
 Streams are everywhere doing just such work 
 as this. Up among the hills where the slopes are 
 steep, the rills dig out so much silt that large 
 stones become loosened. These stones roll down 
 the bed of the streams. The rolling stone is 
 carried here and there by the water, knocking 
 against other stones until it becomes a smooth 
 pebble. 
 
 So you see every little brook is a miller who 
 grinds stones. The brook grinds off the rough 
 edges of sharp stones and makes them into fine 
 sand or clay. 
 
 Pick up some pebbles and pass them around 
 the class. See how smooth and round they have 
 become. Once they had sharp corners, but now 
 they are smooth. 
 
 But the pebbles help the stream too. For as 
 they are rolled along by the water, they rub on 
 the bottom of the stream and loosen more soil. 
 You have seen pebbles rolling along in a little 
 stream. They were helping the little stream to 
 dig out its channel. 
 
63 
 
 Nature takes little rills and pebbles to help 
 her in her great work. When the rills flow to- 
 gether, the stream becomes larger and so carries 
 more silt. When the slopes are steep, the streams 
 are bright and active. They work hard, rolling 
 large stones and pebbles along and singing merrily 
 at their work. But when they reach the gentle 
 slopes, they act as if they were tired, for they run 
 more slowly and drop first the largest stones, then 
 the finer gravel, then the sand, and at last the 
 finest particles of silt. 
 
 When the streams flow into a pond, they stop 
 running forward, and then they drop all their 
 load of silt; for the pond is their resting place 
 where the water stands almost still. When the 
 water at last leaves the pond by a single stream, 
 it is pure and clear, and it flows on over its clean 
 sandy bed, singing because that part of its work 
 is done. 
 
 If we look into the gutter on the day after a 
 rain, and see where the silt has been left, we 
 shall always find that where the current has been 
 checked, and a pool formed, a part of the silt 
 has been dropped to form a layer of mud on the 
 
64 
 
 bottom of the pool. We see then that soil is 
 always being carried down the slopes from high 
 lands to lower ones. This will explain why the 
 mountain tops are often bare rocks and their 
 
 slopes become steeper, 
 while the soil of the 
 valleys becomes deep- 
 er and more fertile. 
 
 The rills wear away 
 the soil and pick up 
 little particles. They 
 pass these on to the 
 larger streams. These 
 in turn carry the silt 
 away. The slopes are 
 wearing down - - the 
 
 A Valley cut through a Plateau, Steep, slopes rapidly, 
 
 and the gentle slopes more slowly. Thus the 
 streams are wearing down the high lands and 
 carrying them away. They are therefore building 
 up low places by filling up valleys with silt. 
 
 Streams may be said to be the enemies of 
 pools because they try to fill up the pools where 
 streams run in, and they also cut open the other 
 
65 
 
 end so as to let the water out. We may be sure 
 that wherever there is a stream it is doing just 
 such work as this. Somewhere, back among the 
 hills, the little rills and brooks are feeding it 
 with silt to fill up the pools. 
 
 In the picture we see a valley which has been 
 cut through a plateau by the action of streams. 
 The high level land is the real level of the coun- 
 try. See how much work these streams have 
 done in carving out these valleys. 
 
 Write a story about what a little rill did, telling where it came 
 from, where it went, why it went there, and what it did on the 
 
 way. 
 
 + 
 
 THE WORK OF FROST AND ICE. 
 
 Did you ever leave a glass of water in a cold 
 room over night so that the water was frozen? 
 What happened to the glass ? Did you ever see 
 a wooden bucket or a tub of water which had been 
 left out of doors on a cold winter night? What 
 happened to the bucket? 
 
 What is water changed into by freezing? 
 When a bucket of water is frozen solid, does the 
 ice rise just as high as the water did? 
 
 GEOG. NAT. STUDIES 
 
66 
 
 When water changes to ice it takes up moi 4 e 
 room than it did before. If it is in a small place 
 like a bottle or a glass, it will often burst the 
 sides. How powerful it must be to break such 
 strong things. 
 
 What must sometimes happen when water 
 freezes in a crack in the rock? 
 
 Yes, it sometimes splits huge rocks into pieces. 
 Where there is a very steep hill of rock, you will 
 always find many pieces scattered upon the 
 ground at the bottom. These pieces were broken 
 off by the frost. The frost helps the water to 
 tear down the hills and build up the valleys. 
 
 THE VOYAGE OF A PEBBLE. 
 
 A great rock hung over a river 
 
 And looked down on the shining sands ; 
 It knew that the river journeyed 
 
 To the shores of distant lands. 
 
 And often it thought with longing 
 Of the world beyond its view, 
 
 And wanted to see what the river saw 
 And know what the river knew. 
 
67 
 
 The frost, in the still, cold winter, 
 
 Had pierced its stony heart, 
 So, with the spring's first flood time, 
 
 The great rock fell apart. 
 
 And a piece of its shining granite, 
 
 By the river's current whirled, 
 With branches of floating driftwood, 
 
 Went out to view the world. 
 
 Round meadows and under bridges, 
 
 Past wood and glen and cave, 
 Its corners sharp were rubbed away, 
 
 By arch and stone and wave. 
 
 So the pebble was carried onward 
 
 To the sea it longed to reach, 
 And was thrown by a heavy breaker, 
 
 Upon a sandy beach. 
 
 With the summer's welcome hours 
 From his far-off mountain home, 
 
 A little boy came to the seashore, 
 On the shining sands to roam. 
 
 He found the smooth round pebble, 
 Lying white on the sunny shore, 
 
 And carried it back when summer was gone, 
 To its own old home once more. 
 
 E. G. W. ROWE. 
 
68 
 
 STREAM SYSTEMS. 
 
 Let us go back to the rills and study them 
 
 more closely. 
 Here is one. 
 Here it joins 
 another rill. 
 See how much 
 larger the new 
 rill is. Let us 
 find the little 
 
 " Such a drawing is called a map or plan," divide which 
 
 separates these two rills before they meet and 
 run on together. Here come other rills. 
 
 Draw lines upon a piece of paper to show 
 just how the rills look. Such a drawing is called 
 a map or plan. 
 
 The uneven places on the ground keep the 
 water from flowing down the slopes in sheets. 
 The rills flowing together remind us of the twigs 
 and branches of a tree. The main stream is the 
 trunk. We call these side branches tributaries 
 to the main stream. A stream with all its 
 branches is called a stream system. 
 
69 
 
 The streams flowing down all the slopes of a 
 valley at last meet at the bottom in the stream 
 which drains the valley. All the water falling 
 in the valley must run down its slopes and flow 
 off in this way. Each little rill has its space of 
 ground to drain. 
 
 The land which sends its drainage into one 
 stream, is called the basin of that stream. A 
 large stream must receive water from a large 
 basin. The rill basins are very small, but when 
 all these basins are taken together, they form the 
 basin of the larger stream. Very large streams 
 are called rivers. You see that a river basin is 
 made of many little basins, just as rivers are 
 made of all the tributaries flowing into them. 
 
 Now let us think of some things that we have learned 
 about streams and slopes. We have seen how the tiny rills, 
 running down the slopes, flow together and so form larger 
 rills. These again flow together to make larger streams or 
 brooks, and by uniting at last form rivers. 
 
 You will see that every stream has three slopes ; i.e., the 
 side slopes or banks which keep the stream from spreading out 
 and the main slope down which the stream flows. The side 
 slopes form the river channel. The main slope tells the stream 
 which way to, go. 
 
 Rivers have banks, too, and a main slope, just as the little 
 
70 
 
 rills have. The ground under the water is called the river 
 bed. 
 
 The space between two side slopes is called the channel. 
 
 All the land drained by a stream is its basin. The river 
 basin is the same as the valley in which the river runs. 
 
 A river with all its branches is a river system. Even the 
 smallest rills belong to some river system. 
 
 Rain water does not flow down slopes in sheets, because the 
 slopes are not smooth, and also because the rills quickly cut out 
 for themselves little channels. 
 
 These rills join others as they advance down the slopes of a 
 valley and make larger rills until all the water collects at the 
 bottom as a stream. This stream with all its branches is a 
 stream system, and all the slopes drained by any stream form 
 its basin. 
 
 THE IMPATIENT RIVER. 
 
 It started far up on the hill- 
 top, 
 
 Its shining race to run, 
 A tiny stream of water, 
 That laughed in the face of 
 the sun. 
 
 " I want to go faster, faster," 
 
 It sang to itself in glee, 
 I want to go faster, faster, 
 To reach the deep blue sea." 
 
71 
 
 Wider it grew and deeper. 
 
 But restless still the same, 
 It danced and shone in the sunlight, 
 
 And sang when the moonlight came. 
 
 ^ ; 
 
 " I want to go faster, faster," 
 
 It said to the summer sky, 
 " For surely the sea will welcome 
 
 Such a noble river as I." 
 
 So it shone, and sang, and sparkled, 
 
 And high its waters tossed, 
 But alas ! when it reached the ocean, 
 
 The mighty river was lost. 
 
 E. G. W. ROWE. 
 
 WATER IN THE GROUND. 
 
 We have learned about the water which runs 
 down the slopes. We have also learned that 
 some of the rain water changes back to vapor. 
 You will remember that there is another part of 
 the water which does not run off down the slopes 
 and does not change back into vapor. What be- 
 comes of this part of the water ? 
 
 Oh, yes, it sinks down into the soil. Have you 
 
72 
 
 ever seen water thrown out upon the ground? 
 What became of it? 
 
 Soil is full of small holes or spaces between its 
 particles. We say soil is porous. Water sinks 
 into the soil just as it does into a sponge. It 
 sinks down deeper and deeper until it finds a 
 layer of clay or rock. Water cannot go through 
 these things, so it must flow slowly upon them or 
 collect in hollow spaces below the surface, just as 
 we saw it doing upon the surface. 
 
 Have you ever seen a small stream of water 
 coming out of the ground? That was a spring. 
 Can you tell me where there is a spring ? Is its 
 water clear or muddy? Why? Have you ever 
 seen a filter ? For what do we use a filter ? 
 
 I will tell you how to make a filter. Take a 
 barrel or very large jar, and put gravel or very 
 clean sand into it. If muddy water is made to 
 run through it, the water will come out clean and 
 clear. This is because the tiny pieces of silt 
 cannot pass through between the grains of sand. 
 They are caught in the small spaces among the 
 fine grains near the top, and the pure water 
 passes on down to the bottom of the filter. 
 
73 
 
 "The soil acts as a filter.' 
 
 You see now why spring water is clear. The 
 soil acts as a filter. It lets the water go through 
 it, but the silt cannot get through. At last 
 the water soaks 
 down until it 
 comes to the 
 layer of clay or 
 rock which will 
 not let it pass 
 through. Then 
 the water flows 
 along on this 
 layer under ground until it finds a hillside where 
 it can run out. The place where it comes out is 
 a spring. 
 
 Spring water is usually clear and cold, because 
 it has been so long under ground, where the sun's 
 heat cannot warm it. 
 
 But what shall we do when we want water to 
 drink? It is not always easy to find a spring. 
 If we want to get water without going to a spring, 
 we may almost always find it by digging down 
 deep into the ground. 
 
 What do we call such a hole in the ground ? 
 
74 
 
 Oh, yes, it is a well. Some wells are dug, 
 some are bored, and some are made by driving 
 a pipe, straight 
 down into the 
 ground. 
 
 Try to realize, 
 then, that every 
 time it rains, 
 the ground soaks 
 up large quan- 
 tities of water, 
 that this water 
 passes downward be- 
 not on it as the rills 
 leaves its silt behind 
 pure and clear as 
 down ; and that at 
 layer through which 
 
 low the surface, 
 do; that this water 
 it and becomes 
 it filters farther 
 last, reaching a 
 it cannot pass, it 
 creeps along until it finds an outlet on the side 
 of some slope. Here it comes bubbling forth" as 
 a spring. 
 
 Springs are often the sources of rivers. No 
 matter where we are, if we dig down far enough, 
 we shall find water. Such holes are wells. We 
 
75 
 
 shall find that wells have been dug almost every- 
 where upon the land. If there were no wells, we 
 should suffer for the want of water to drink. 
 
 Copy these sentences and fill the blank spaces : 
 
 We need to drink. Water which comes gushing out 
 
 of the ground is called a . When we do not live near a 
 
 spring we can get water by digging a . We get the water 
 
 out of a well by means of , or . 
 
 THE BUBBLING SPRING. 
 
 Down in the orchard, a bubbling spring, 
 
 Ripples out from its ferny bed ; 
 The water is sweet and cool and pure. 
 'Though the brook run dry you are ever sure 
 
 To find that silver thread. 
 
 Always the same in the fresh May days, 
 
 Or in the summer's burning heat, 
 It bubbles, and flows, and softly sings 
 Of the clearest, purest, loveliest things 
 
 In a voice that is low and sweet. 
 
 Down in the orchard the children go, 
 
 And beautiful lessons learn, 
 
 As they drink of the water, and list to the song, 
 Of the limpid spring as it bubbles along, 
 
 By the side of the waving fern E. G. w. HOWE. 
 
76 
 
 POOLS, PONDS, AND LAKES. 
 
 Did you ever make a dam out of stones and 
 sticks and mud to keep the brook from running ? 
 That made the little stream spread out wide and 
 
 A Pool, 
 
 get deeper until it flowed over the dam. When 
 larger streams are dammed, they spread out in 
 the same way, often filling wide valleys, and then 
 they form what we call ponds or lakes. 
 
 Ponds are small, but some lakes are so large 
 
77 
 
 that men can sail on them for days and not see 
 any land. A lake is formed whenever a stream 
 flowing through a valley, becomes stopped so that 
 it cannot find its way out. Then it rises higher 
 and higher, overflows its banks and spreads out 
 very wide. When the water rises high enough 
 to run over the dam, it flows on. 
 
 Did you ever see a lake? Was it a large lake? 
 
 Streams which flow into lakes are called inlets 
 because they let the water in to fill the lake. 
 Streams which flow away from lakes are called out- 
 lets because they let the water out of the lakes. 
 
 Lakes have several inlets, and yet they sel- 
 dom have more than one outlet. This is because 
 the outlet always is at the lowest place in the 
 dam, and there are seldom two lowest places. We 
 have already learned how busily the inlets are 
 bringing their silt to fill up the lakes, and how 
 the outlets are cutting out their channels deeper 
 so as to lower the surface of the lakes. 
 
 Some lakes are very large. They often cannot 
 be told from the ocean as one looks at them. In 
 mountain regions are often many beautiful deep 
 lakes. 
 
78 
 
 ''Lakes have several inlets and , , , one outlet." 
 
 Here is a pic- 
 ture of a lake. See 
 how quiet the water 
 is. This lake is fed by streams which flow down 
 the slopes of the mountains. 
 
 It is not a very large lake. The outlet is on 
 this side. On the other side you can see two 
 inlets. 
 
 A REVIEW. 
 
 We live on the land. The land is solid. It 
 stretches away in every direction. No matter 
 where we go upon the land we shall surely come 
 
79 
 
 to water sooner or later. This water is either 
 at rest in pools or lakes, or it is flowing in 
 streams on the surface. 
 
 Over us and all about us is the air. Air is a 
 gas. We-breathe it, and we cannot live without it. 
 Clouds float in the air, and when the air moves 
 we call it wind. The air always contains more 
 or less moisture in the form of invisible vapor. 
 
 When the air is cooled, it loses some of its 
 vapor. This vapor may appear in different forms, 
 such as clouds and fog, and also dew, rain, hail, 
 snow, and frost. 
 
 All the heat comes from the sun. The air 
 helps to collect and hold the heat of the sun and 
 so to keep us from freezing. Part of the water 
 on the land is always changing to vapor, and so 
 the air keeps getting back in vapor what it gives 
 to us in rain and snow. 
 
 Part of the w r ater flows down the slopes of 
 the land in rills, which meet and form streams. 
 Another part of the water sinks into the soil and 
 creeps along under ground until it finds an outlet. 
 Openings made down straight into the ground 
 until water is found, are called wells. 
 
80 
 
 If we follow down a slope, we shall at length 
 come to a lowest place beyond which the land 
 slopes upward. Such a hollow is a valley, and 
 since it is the lowest place, water is generally 
 found in it either as a lake or as a stream. 
 
 Valleys usually have three slopes: the two 
 side slopes or banks which keep the stream in 
 its channel, and the main slope which shows 
 the stream which way to flow. 
 
 Slopes, when almost flat, are called plains. All 
 the slopes which conduct water to a stream make 
 up the stream basin. If we follow up a slope, we 
 shall at last come to a highest place, or divide, 
 beyond which the land slopes downward. Steep 
 slopes of the low divides are hills. Very high 
 hills are mountains. When the slopes of very 
 high land are gentle or almost flat, they are called 
 plateaus. 
 
 Long ridges of hills or mountains are called 
 mountain chains. 
 
 A stream with all its branches and rills forms 
 a river system. A river system drains all the 
 slopes of its basin. Anything which keeps the 
 water of a stream from flowing is a dam. Dams 
 
81 
 
 may be made by men, or they may be natural. 
 Dams cause the water to rise and overflow the 
 channels of the streams. When dams stop the 
 flow of small streams, ponds are formed. In 
 larger streams they form lakes. 
 
 "How does this lake differ from the other?" 
 
 Here is a picture of another lake. Do you see 
 the streams flowing into it from the steep slopes 
 on the other side? How does this lake differ 
 from the other shown in the picture on page 78 ? 
 
 Streams do much work : (1) by wearing their 
 beds ; (2) by carrying away the fine silt brought 
 
 GEOG. NAT. STUDIES 6 
 
82 
 
 to them from the side slopes by the rain-formed 
 rills. Dropping the heaviest particles first and 
 the finer ones later, they may flow into quiet pools 
 where they drop all their silt and flow on clear. 
 
 Streams wear away the soil from the moun- 
 tains and carry it to the valleys, leaving the 
 mountains bare and giving to the valleys a deep 
 fertile soil. The real work of the streams is to 
 wear down and carry away the land. 
 
 Differences in moisture and richness of soil 
 cause differences in the plant life of hills and 
 valleys. These differences in plant life make dif- 
 ferences in the animals which go where they can 
 find suitable food. 
 
 You see what a very important and useful w r ork 
 the water upon the land does. Here is a little 
 poem which tells us what water does. 
 
 A WATER SONG. 
 
 Oh, I am everywhere. 
 Water, water clear, 
 
 In the earth and air, 
 Some way I appear. 
 
83 
 
 In the air I fly, 
 
 Rain and snow and dew, 
 Vapor, fog, and cloud, 
 
 In the hailstones too. 
 
 On the earth I flow, 
 
 River, brook, and sea, 
 Everywhere you go, 
 
 You find some trace of me. 
 
 In springs that bubble up, 
 
 In falls that hurry down, 
 In hidden country woods, 
 
 In noisy heart of town. 
 
 In the summer time 
 
 I fall in gentle showers, 
 And sparkling dewdrops gleam 
 
 Among the leaves and flowers. 
 
 New life, new hope, new strength 
 
 To all on earth I give; 
 Without my blessed presence 
 
 No man nor plant could live. 
 
 In the winter time 
 
 I come as ice and snow, 
 As hail and sleet I fall, 
 
 And everywhere I go. E. G. w. ROWE. 
 
84 
 
 OUR CLIMATE. 
 
 Is the weather warm to-day, or is it cold ? Is 
 it always like to-day ? When do we have warm 
 weather? When cold weather? What is the hot 
 season called; the cold season? 
 
 What season comes between summer and win- 
 ter? What do we call the season between 
 winter and summer? How can you tell spring 
 from fall? When do the buds start and the seeds 
 begin to grow ? When do the leaves change color 
 and begin to fall from the trees? 
 
 In what season is it necessary to light fires in 
 our houses? Why do we wear thick clothes in 
 one season and thin ones in another? 
 
 There is a great difference between the heat of 
 the air in summer and in winter. Do you not 
 remember how we tie up our ears and button 
 up our coats in winter to keep out the cold 
 air, and how hot the wind feels blowing across 
 the fields in summer? 
 
 In what form is the moisture which falls in 
 summer ? What form does it take in winter ? In 
 which of the seasons does the most moisture fall? 
 
85 
 
 Yes, in most places, the greatest amount of 
 moisture falls in the summer season. It is not 
 always easy to believe that more moisture falls in 
 summer than in any other season, because we 
 usually have so much snow upon the ground in 
 winter. But in summer the rain sinks down into 
 the soil or runs off so rapidly that we do not real- 
 ize how much has actually fallen. 
 
 THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS. 
 
 What does it mean when the bluebird flies 
 Over the hills, singing sweet and clear? 
 
 When violets peep through the blades of grass? 
 These are the signs that spring is here. 
 
 What does it mean when berries are ripe ? 
 
 When butterflies flit, and honey bees hum? 
 When cattle stand under the shady trees? 
 
 These are the signs that summer has come. 
 
 What does it mean when crickets chirp ? 
 
 And away to the south land the wild geese steer ? 
 When apples are falling, and nuts are brown? 
 
 These are the signs that autumn is here. 
 
86 
 
 What does it mean when the days are short ? 
 
 When the leaves are gone and the brooks are dumb? 
 When the fields are white with the drifting snows? 
 
 These are the signs that winter has come. 
 
 The old stars set and the new ones rise, 
 
 And skies that were stormy grow bright and clear, 
 
 And so the beautiful, wonderful signs 
 
 Go round and round with the changing year. 
 
 M. E. N. HATHAWAY. 
 
 MORE ABOUT CLIMATE. 
 
 If a place is warm all the year, it is said to 
 have a warm climate ; if cold, we say it has a 
 cold climate. 
 
 Some places are neither warm all the year nor 
 cold all the year. The temperature of the air in 
 such places varies from warm to cold and from 
 cold to warm. Such a climate is variable, but we 
 usually call it a temperate climate. 
 
 What kind of climate have we here, cold, warm, 
 or temperate ? 
 
 When a place has much rain, its climate is said 
 to be moist. If little or no rain, it has a dry 
 climate. Is the climate here moist or dry? 
 
87 
 
 What makes the air warm ? Yes, it is the sun. 
 Some times it shines more directly than at others. 
 In the summer the sun at noon is more nearly 
 overhead than it is in winter. Then the earth 
 and air become much warmer. Differences of 
 climate are due to the amount of sunshine which 
 different places receive. 
 
 If we walk out in early spring before all the 
 snow has gone, we shall find that sunny slopes 
 have lost their snow first and that buds and seeds 
 begin to grow on such slopes before they do on 
 land which slopes away from the sun. The cli- 
 mate of a place then depends upon the sunshine 
 it receives and upon the direction of its slope. 
 
 By and by w^e shall see how plants and animals 
 depend upon climate. We shall learn that trees 
 keep their leaves all the year in countries having 
 a warm climate, and that in places having a vari- 
 able climate plants and even some animals must 
 sleep through the long winters. Plants and ani- 
 mals that are not fitted to the climate in which 
 they live are apt to die young, hence we generally 
 find them wonderfully well adapted or fitted to 
 the climate and the surroundings. 
 
88 
 
 OUR NEEDS. 
 
 Did you ever see a plant with its leaves hang- 
 ing limp and withered ? What could you give to 
 
 that plant to make its 
 leaves stand out fresh 
 and green on the stem ? 
 Yes, the plant was 
 thirsty and needed wa- 
 ter. You gave water 
 to the plant, and then 
 it became refreshed. 
 
 When we awake in 
 the morning we feel 
 hungry. We have eaten 
 i nothing since supper 
 the night before, and 
 our bodies have been 
 wearing away during 
 the night. We need food. You all know what 
 it is to feel hungry. Hunger is the feeling which 
 tells us that we need food. 
 
 Plants and animals must have food. The need 
 of food is the principal need we have. But there 
 
 "Birds have nests.' 
 
89 
 
 8. 
 
 are other things which we must have. What, 
 next to food, do we need most? 
 
 Oh, yes, we also need clothing. Nature fur- 
 nishes clothing to most animals, and dresses them 
 in fur, hair, feathers, or scales, as is best fitted to 
 their mode of life. 
 
 Where it is always 
 warm, very little or no 
 clothing is needed ; but 
 we live where it is 
 sometimes warm and 
 at other times cold. 
 We must have clothing 
 then to keep us warm. 
 
 Could we be perfectly 
 happy if we had plenty 
 of food and plenty of 
 clothing, but nothing 
 else? Can you not 
 think of one other thing which we greatly need ? 
 
 Oh, yes, we need some sort of a home to live 
 in. That is called shelter. All animals need 
 shelter. Birds have nests; foxes have dens; 
 snakes have holes. 
 
 
 "Foxes have 
 
90 
 
 We should be very unhappy if we had no 
 houses to shelter us in cold and stormy weather. 
 
 We shall soon see that 
 most of the work which 
 men do is in some way 
 connected with food, 
 clothing, or shelter. 
 
 Snakes have holes.' 
 
 FOOD. 
 
 Did you ever see a 
 robin hopping along 
 with a worm in his bill ? 
 Where did he get the 
 worm ? What will he do 
 with it ? Are other birds fond of worms ? 
 
 Did you ever see two little chickens quarreling 
 over a worm and pulling it between them ? Did 
 you ever see the hens standing around where a 
 man is digging, waiting to pick up the worms as 
 they were dug out of the ground? Tell me some- 
 thing else that birds eat. 
 
 Sparrows sometimes come to the front of my 
 window to pick up crumbs from the ground. 
 
91 
 
 Once I saw a pretty bird with a bright red 
 head, running up the trunk of a tree. Soon he 
 stopped and began to drum on the bark with his 
 bill. He was a woodpecker. What do you sup- 
 pose he was doing on the trunk of the tree ? 
 
 Yes, he was drumming on the bark to find a 
 hollow place where grubs might be hidden. 
 
 Birds must have food. Some birds eat grain, 
 and some live on berries 
 and seeds. 
 
 Do all animals live on 
 the same kinds of food? 
 
 Oh, no ; every living 
 creature has some kind of 
 food of its own. The mos- 
 quito feeds on blood. The 
 dragon fly eats mosqui- 
 toes. The squirrel is fond 
 of nuts. The cat and dog 
 feed on meat. The cow 
 eats grass. Grubs often 
 live on rotten wood, and some worms get their 
 food by swallowing earth and feeding on the very 
 small plants which grow in it. 
 
 He was a woo 
 
92 
 
 Potatoes, 
 
 OUR FOOD. 
 
 Why do we eat? We eat because our bodies 
 are constantly wearing away, and we must make 
 
 up for this loss by eating 
 food. Food also helps to 
 keep us warm and makes 
 us grow. 
 
 Did you ever think that 
 most of our food comes 
 from the ground ? Not only potatoes, sweet pota- 
 toes, onions, turnips, and some other vegetables 
 are dug out of the ground, but all the plant food 
 that we eat grows out of the ground. 
 
 Plants draw much of their substance from the 
 air through their leaves, 
 but some from the ground 
 through their roots. That 
 is the reason why the 
 farmer puts fertilizers 
 upon the soil. Fertilizers 
 are foods for plants. 
 
 But our food does not all of it come directly 
 from the ground. We eat animal food also. We 
 
 Cabbages, 
 
93 
 
 eat beef, pork, mutton, fish, and game. But the 
 
 animals on which we feed get their food from the 
 
 plants. And the plants 
 
 get theirs out of the air 
 
 and the ground. Thus all 
 
 our food comes directly or strawberries, 
 
 indirectly out of the ground and the air. 
 
 What is our food ? We eat a great many kinds 
 of food. Some is .dug from the 
 ground. It is mineral food. Of 
 such foods salt and water are the 
 most common. The greater part 
 of our food is vegetable food. 
 It is prepared from plants 
 themselves, as cabbages and po- 
 tatoes; or it is made from the seeds of a plant, 
 as flour, meal, starch ; or it is the fruit of a 
 plant, as strawberries, melons, apples. All the 
 rest of our food comes from animals. From the 
 cow we get milk and beef ; from the sheep, mut- 
 ton ; and from the hog, pork. Fish, game, and 
 poultry are animal foods. 
 
 Name some game animals. What vegetable food did you 
 eat for breakfast ? What animals are raised for food ? 
 
94 
 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 What kind of clothing 
 has the cat? The fish? 
 The turtle ? Nature gives 
 various kinds of clothing 
 
 to various animals. The dog would look strange 
 
 if he had scales like a perch. 
 
 A robin could not fly if he 
 
 was clothed with a shell like 
 
 the oyster. Most living things 
 
 have some kind of clothing. This clothing is 
 
 always suited to the place 
 where the animals live. 
 The snake wears a coat 
 of scales which help him 
 
 in moving about and make him smooth so that he 
 
 can creep into very small holes. 
 Many animals shed 
 
 their coats in warm 
 
 weather and grow .."a - 
 
 thicker coats when win- 
 ter comes. When does 
 
 the cat's hair come out ? 
 
95 
 
 When does the horse get his fresh coat of hair? 
 When do the hens moult ? 
 
 Nature is very kind to animals. She thins 
 their coats when weather is warm and gives them 
 thicker coats when they need them. Nature 
 does this for the animals because they do not 
 know enough to take care of themselves. 
 
 OUR CLOTHING. 
 
 What do we wear in 
 winter ; in summer ? 
 Of what is our clothing 
 made? Most of the 
 clothing that is worn is 
 made of cotton, wool, 
 silk, or linen. 
 
 Where do we get 
 cotton ? It grows upon 
 a plant in warm coun- 
 tries. It is part of the covering of the cotton seed. 
 
 Linen grows also. It is part of the bark of the 
 flax plant. Did you ever see flax growing? 
 
 Here is an interesting little caterpillar. He is 
 
 A Silkworm, 
 
96 
 
 not a worm, though some people call him a silk- 
 worm. He feeds upon leaves and makes our 
 silk in the form of a covering for himself. It is 
 
 "Wool comes from sheep," 
 
 made of fine threads such as spiders spin. Men 
 spin this fine covering into floss and weave it into 
 cloth, called silk, for our clothes. 
 
 Wool comes from the sheep. You see men in 
 the picture shearing sheep. The wool which 
 
97 
 
 How an Arab dresseSi How a Laplander dressesi 
 
 they cut from the sheep's backs will be spun into 
 threads and woven into cloth. 
 
 All that we wear comes from the ground as our 
 food did. Cotton and flax grow from the soil, and 
 wool and silk come from animals which feed upon 
 things growing out of the soil. 
 
 In different countries people dress differently. 
 Some of these people will look very strange to 
 us because their clothing is so odd. Notice the 
 Arab and the Laplander in the pictures. 
 
 GEOG. NAT. STUDIES 7 
 
98 
 
 j Prairie Dogs' Home, 
 
 SHELTER. 
 
 Nearly all animals 
 must have protection 
 from the rain, the wind, 
 the cold, the heat. Cloth- 
 ing is a sort of protec- 
 tion. But clothing is 
 usually not enough to 
 protect us from the cold 
 
 of winter and the heat of summer. A shelter is 
 needed from hot, cold, and rainy weather. Some 
 creatures creep into -- rN 
 
 holes in the ground 
 for shelter. Did you 
 ever find such a hole 
 in the ground where 
 a snake, or a wood- 
 chuck, or a chipmunk 
 had made his home ? 
 Some creatures 
 build nests, and some 
 build houses. Birds 
 
 build neStS not tO The Oriole's Nest. 
 
99 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 shelter themselves, but their eggs and their young 
 ones. The robin uses a great deal of mud in 
 building her nest. The oriole uses 
 hair, thread, and long grass. 
 
 In the pictures are shown 
 some kinds of shelter which 
 various animals build for 
 themselves. 
 
 Did you ever turn over 
 a big flat stone in the 
 meadow? What did , 
 you find under it? : 
 Find out some creatures 
 which make their homes 
 under logs or under 
 boards lying on the 
 ground, or inside the bark of rotten logs in the 
 woods. 
 
 Fill the following blanks according to your own observa- 
 tions : 
 
 The rat finds a shelter in a . The ant lives in . 
 
 Snails creep into their . The earthworm finds a shelter 
 
 in . Sow bugs live . The bluebird builds a 
 
 of . The , , and find homes in holes in the 
 
 Cliff Swallows' Nests, 
 
 ground. , 
 
 -, and 
 
 live under stones. 
 
100 
 
 American Homes, 
 
 OUR SHELTER. 
 
 But we need protection too. We must have 
 houses to shelter us from the rain and wind and 
 cold. Of what are our houses made ? 
 
 Yes, they are made of stone, brick, mortar, iron, 
 wood, glass, paper, and many other things. 
 
 What materials used in building our houses 
 come out of the ground ? Which grow out of the 
 ground as plants or parts of plants? Make a list 
 
101 
 
 of all the mate- 
 rials used in 
 building houses 
 and tell where 
 each comes from. 
 But houses 
 everywhere are 
 not like our 
 houses. The 
 
 Of differ- 
 
 Japanese Homes, 
 
 ent people differ as greatly as their clothing and 
 food. If you should travel in distant lands, you 
 would find many curious people eating strange 
 
 foods, wearing 
 very strange gar- 
 ments, and liv- 
 ing in very 
 strange houses. 
 But wherever 
 you go, the peo- 
 ple will be found 
 
 African Homes, 
 
 eating food of 
 
 some kind, wearing some sort of clothing, and 
 dwelling in some kind of homes. 
 
102 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS -FARMING. 
 
 We have just learned that we have many needs. 
 Everybody must have food and clothing and shel- 
 ter. Hence, in order to supply these various 
 wants, people have many different occupations. 
 
 "This man is a truck farmer,' 
 
 See this man driving along the road with a 
 
 wagon load of vegetables! Where did he get 
 
 these vegetables? Where will he take them? 
 Why? 
 
103 
 
 This man is a truck farmer. He raises vege- 
 tables for the market. He is going to town to 
 sell his produce. What kind of vegetables do 
 you think he has? Do you not see the fine 
 level farms along the road? Tell what you know 
 of plowing, planting, cultivating, and gathering 
 vegetables. What do farmers raise besides vege- 
 tables? 
 
 We could scarcely live without the farmer. He 
 produces nearly all our food. The farmer gets 
 food for us from the soil. This work of the 
 farmer is called farming or agriculture. Agri- 
 culture is the getting of food from the ground 
 by tilling the soil. 
 
 Copy these sentences, and fill the spaces properly : 
 
 The farmer the soil. He plants in the ground. 
 
 He gathers his and takes them to for sale. The 
 
 farmer raises , , , and , on his farm. The 
 
 farmer's work is called . The farmer plants in the , 
 
 he gathers his harvest in the . 
 
 Write answers to these questions : 
 
 What does your father do ? What does your nearest neigh- 
 bor do? Make a list of what all the boys' fathers do. What 
 will you do for a living when you grow up ? Do you know of 
 anybody who has nothing to do ? What tools does the farmer 
 use in his work ? What use does he make of each tool ? 
 
104 
 
 STUDY OF A FOOD GRAIN WHEAT. 
 
 To THE TEACHER. Procure some grains of wheat. Pass 
 them about the class for observation. This should familiarize 
 every pupil with the form, color, size, and taste of wheat. Let 
 pupils draw the kernel as it appears to them. 
 
 Then plant some in soft moist soil and place a few seeds 
 in wet cotton, where the growth may be observed from day to 
 day. The seed will gradually swell up, and after a short time 
 a radicle will push its way out of the husk, and from this tiny 
 roots will soon begin to grow. Then through a very small slit 
 in the seed just above the radicle, two very slender green 
 leaves, pressed flat together, will emerge. Then growth be- 
 comes more rapid. Have pupils make sketches every two or 
 three days. 
 
 If possible, make observations on wheat fields, on plowing, 
 harvesting, threshing, etc., or read of these operations to the 
 pupils. Study other cereals, as corn, rye, barley, oats, and rice, 
 and require similar descriptions. 
 
 FOR THE PUPIL. Write answers to the following ques- 
 tions, using complete statements : 
 
 How long is a wheat kernel ? 
 
 Of what color is the outside ? The inside ? How do you 
 get wheat " gum " from the wheat ? 
 
 What does the seed need in order to grow ? What did you 
 do with the wheat seed ? What had happened after it had 
 been planted three days ? After one week ? 
 
 How is wheat got from the grain ? What is straw ? Chaff ? 
 
 What does the miller make from wheat? What do we 
 make from flour ? 
 
105 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS STOCK-RAISING 
 AND DAIRYING. 
 
 Here is another picture. See how hilly and 
 stony the land is. It is hard to till the soil 
 here. The slopes are so steep and there are so 
 many rocks in the soil. This is a poor place for 
 farming, but it is a fine place for stock-raising. 
 
 In hilly countries where the land is too rough 
 
 "A fine place for stock-raising." 
 
106 
 
 A Sheep Pasture, 
 
 and rocky for farming, and also in other places 
 where there is not much rain but plenty of pas- 
 ture land, people raise cattle and sheep. They 
 raise these animals and sell them to butchers 
 for our food. They also use the milk for making 
 butter and cheese. Men who raise cattle and 
 sheep for market are called stock raisers. Those 
 who make butter and cheese and sell milk are 
 called dairymen. Stock-raising and dairying 
 are very important occupations. 
 
 The farmer supplies us with vegetable food, 
 but the stock raiser and dairyman furnish us 
 with meat, milk, butter, and cheese. Most 
 
107 
 
 farmers also raise some stock for food. Wher- 
 ever we find land which cannot be cultivated 
 but where grass will grow, we may expect to 
 find many people engaged in stock-raising. 
 
 Copy these sentences and fill the blank spaces with the right 
 words : 
 
 The stock raiser raises , , , and . He sells 
 
 the , , and to the butcher. When the butcher 
 
 has killed and dressed them their meat is called , , 
 
 and . The butcher sells the hides to the . He makes 
 
 these hides into . The shoemaker buys the and 
 
 makes it into . The dairyman uses the milk to make into 
 
 and . Stock-raising and dairying are usually carried 
 
 on in the country. 
 
 STUDY OF A DOMESTIC ANIMAL THE PIG. 
 
 To THE TEACHER. Let the pupils observe, if possible, a 
 living pig. Where this is not convenient, use pictures of pigs, 
 or visit some market where the bodies may be observed. The 
 following features merit special study : 
 
 1. The body : Its shape, size, color, and general appearance. 
 
 2. The skin : Its texture, bristles. 
 
 3. The head: Its shape, and appendages; i.e., ears, eyes, 
 
 snout, tusks. 
 
 4. The limbs : Front and hind legs, their length, feet, number 
 
 of toes. 
 
 5. The tail : Its size compared with the body, its length and 
 
 shape (usually curled). 
 
108 
 
 6. Habits: (a) Of eating, (6) of sleeping, (<?) of grunting 
 
 and squealing, (cT) lack of cleanliness. 
 
 7. Uses : () As scavengers, (5) as food. 
 
 Study the cow, horse, and sheep in a similar manner. 
 
 FOB THE PUPIL. Write answers to the following ques- 
 tions, using complete statements : 
 
 Did you ever see a pig ? 
 
 Where was it? In what did it live? What did it eat? 
 Out of what did it feed ? How did the pig act while eating ? 
 Of what colors are pigs ? What sort of clothing have they ? 
 Of what shape are a pig's ears ? Describe a pig's eyes and 
 nose. How many toes has a pig on the front feet ? On the 
 hind feet ? What noises do pigs make ? When do they 
 squeal ? When do they grunt ? Of what use are pigs while 
 they live? What use do we make of them after they have 
 been killed ? What is pig flesh called ? 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS LUMBERING. 
 
 In the next picture you may see men working 
 in the woods. Can you tell what they are doing ? 
 Why are they cutting down those huge trees? 
 They will cut the trees down and haul them 
 away to the sawmill. The logs will be sawn into 
 boards and timbers. From them will be made 
 houses, boats, and many other things. 
 
109 
 
 " These men are making lumber," 
 
 These men are making lumber. They are 
 called lumbermen. Their work is called lum- 
 bering. Many men work all the time at lumber- 
 ing. Sometimes the logs are cut in winter and 
 hauled or dragged to the streams. When the 
 ice melts, these logs are floated down to the 
 sawmills where they are to be sawn. Men who 
 go along keeping the logs in the streams are 
 called loggers, and their work is called logging. 
 
110 
 
 Sometimes the logs are bound together and so 
 made to float in huge rafts. All this work of 
 getting lumber is called lumbering. 
 
 STUDY OF TREES. 
 
 To THE TEACHER. Study trees first in their winter dress, 
 so that the mode of branching may be more apparent. Study 
 them after the following plan : 
 
 1. Trunks: Undivided, partly divided, much divided. 
 
 2. Bark : Its thickness, color, manner of breaking off. 
 
 3. Interior : Bast, sapwood, dead wood, rings of growth, pith, 
 
 4. Branches : Their position relative to trunk, whether hang- 
 
 ing, sagging, horizontal, arching, ascending, or erect. 
 
 5. Buds : Their shape, size, position on the twigs ; also their 
 
 bud scales and other devices for protection of the young 
 branch, such as down, wax, or wool. 
 
 6. Leaves : 
 
 Should be carefully described. 
 
 7. Flowers: 
 
 8. Fruit: 
 
 9. Seeds : 
 
 10. Uses : Of bark, as cork, tanbark, cinchona, and logwood. 
 Of wood for buildings, cabinet work, and other purposes. 
 
 FOE, THE PUPIL. Write answers to the following questions: 
 Name a tree having an undivided trunk. Is the locust such 
 a tree ? What sort of trunk has the pine ? Name a tree whose 
 branches sag. Name one whose branches droop. What trees 
 have horizontal branches? What protects the buds of the 
 horsechestnut ? Why does the bark of trees crack and peel 
 off ? What is sapwood ? Where is it ? What causes the rings 
 in wood ? 
 
Ill 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS MINING. 
 
 But besides farming, grazing, and lumbering, 
 there are other ways of getting things to supply 
 our wants. Here is a deep hole in the ground. 
 It is not a cave. 
 It is a mine. Men 
 have dug this 
 mine in order to 
 get at the min- 
 erals which are 
 found under the 
 surface of the 
 ground. 
 
 We get coal, 
 iron, copper, zinc, 
 lead, gold, and many other minerals from mines. 
 
 These men are Called miners. Their labor is 
 called mining. See the little lamps on the miners 7 
 hats? It is so dark in the mines that the men 
 must have lamps to give them light. They have 
 to work with both hands. That is why they have 
 their lamps upon their hats. Mining is a very 
 hard and dangerous occupation. 
 
 "These men are called miners," 
 
112 
 
 There are some minerals which lie near the 
 surface. To get minerals of this kind, men do 
 not need to dig mines, but only to take off the 
 
 "We call such a place a quarry," 
 
 top soil and earth and lay the mineral bare. 
 Then they can easily remove it. We call such 
 a place a quarry, and this way of getting minerals 
 is called quarrying. Marble, granite, sandstone, 
 limestone, and slate are quarried. 
 
 Copy these sentences and fill the blank spaces properly : 
 Miners dig deep holes called to get minerals. Quarry- 
 men get for us. Mines are , but quarries are . 
 
 Salt, coal, and gold come from . Marble, slate, and sand- 
 stone come from . Miners wear lamps on their . 
 
113 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS FISHING. 
 
 "The men are fishing with a net," 
 
 Here are some men in a boat. The boat is 
 small. The men are fishing with a net. We 
 hope they will make a big haul. These men 
 go fishing every day. It is their occupation, 
 and in this way they make a living. 
 
 In some places there are many hundreds of 
 people who labor at fishing. Such men are called 
 
 GEOG. NAT. STUDIES 8 
 
114 
 
 fishermen. Their work is of course called fishing. 
 Is it not a dangerous business ? When they have 
 caught the fishes, they clean, salt, and dry them 
 for the market. 
 
 The men in the picture sometimes go out to 
 sea and fish for cod, mackerel, and herring. Men 
 who go far away on long voyages in search of 
 whales are called whalers, and their labor is 
 whaling. Others go in search of seals. This is 
 called sealing. 
 
 Copy these sentences and fill the blank spaces properly -. 
 Men who go out upon the water in search of fish, are called 
 Their business is . They catch 
 
 and . They dry these and cure them. Men who go 
 
 in search of whales are called . Fishermen always live 
 
 near . They fish with . Nets are made of . 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS MANUFACTURING. 
 
 The farmer, the grazier, and the fisherman are 
 getting food and clothing for us from the ground 
 or out of the water. The lumberman, the miner, 
 and the quarryman are getting materials for 
 our shelter and food and fire. 
 
115 
 
 Such things are called raw materials. They 
 come directly from the earth. Very few of 
 them are fit for our use when they come fresh 
 from the land or water. Something must be 
 done to these raw materials before they can be 
 used. 
 
 The wheat must be ground into flour, and the 
 flour must be made into bread. The flax must be 
 spun and woven. The iron ore must be smelted 
 and made pure. The timber cut by the lumber- 
 men must be made into houses and furniture. 
 The stock of the stock raisers must be turned 
 into beef, mutton, or pork. A great deal of 
 milk or cream must be churned into butter or 
 made into cheese. The stone from the quarry 
 must be cut and made into buildings. Even 
 the coal and the salt must be broken, sorted, and 
 sifted before they can be ready for use. 
 
 Thus, many men are required to change these 
 raw materials into prepared ones. This work is 
 called manufacturing. 
 
 Great manufactories are engaged in packing, 
 salting, canning, and preserving fish, lobsters, 
 and oysters, which the fishermen get for our food. 
 
116 
 
 A Great Manufacturing City, 
 
 Others are equally busy working over minerals 
 into various useful articles. 
 
 You can now understand that great numbers of 
 people earn their living by farming, stock-raising, 
 lumbering, mining, quarrying, fishing, and manu- 
 facturing. These are the chief occupations of 
 man. 
 
 Manufacturing is . A factory is . 
 
 , , and are manufactured articles 
 
 made of 
 
 Leather is made of 
 
 Shoes are 
 Candy is made of 
 
117 
 
 . My coat is made of 
 
 This house is made of 
 
 Bricks are made of . Rags are used for making 
 
 MAKING FLOUR. 
 
 Here is a picture of a great farm. It is near 
 the end of the harvest time. The wheat has 
 
 "They are thrashing the wheat," 
 
 been cut down and many men are at work in the 
 field. Do you know what they are doing? 
 
 Oh, yes, they are thrashing the wheat. Near 
 the thrasher stands a load of wheat. The 
 
118 
 
 sheaves of wheat are thrust into the thrasher. 
 The grain is beaten out and separated from the 
 chaff and straw. See the pile of straw. 
 
 Some of the men are filling bags with the grain 
 as it pours out below. Near us is a man driving 
 a four-horse team. He has a load of grain. 
 
 The interior of a flour mill,' 
 
 In this picture we see the interior of a flour 
 mill. The grain is taken to the mill to be ground. 
 
119 
 
 It must be crushed very fine between iron rollers. 
 Then it is sifted through fine silk cloth. At last 
 it is put into barrels or sacks and sent to market. 
 We buy it to make into bread. 
 
 Write answers to these questions : 
 
 From what is flour made ? Name three things which we eat 
 that are made from flour. What is meal ? How is bread made ? 
 What color is flour ? Is raw flour good to eat ? 
 
 MAKING CLOTH. 
 
 Here is another picture. It is of a cotton field. 
 Do you see the cotton pickers at work? They 
 
 "Do you see the cotton pickers at work?" 
 
120 
 
 are gathering the cotton from the cotton plant. 
 They pack it in large baskets and carry it to 
 the gin. 
 
 The cotton gin is a machine which picks the 
 seeds from the cotton. Then the cotton is 
 pressed into bales and sent to the factory. 
 
 In this picture we see the inside of a cotton 
 factory. These large machines are for spinning 
 the cotton into threads. There are many girls and 
 boys who work in this cotton factory tending the 
 
 machines. 
 
 When the cot- 
 ton has been 
 spun into threads 
 it is woven into 
 cloth. 
 
 On the next 
 page is a picture 
 of other ma- 
 chines. Thesema- 
 chines are called 
 looms. The threads are put into the loom in a 
 very peculiar way. Then more thread is placed 
 in an instrument called a shuttle. The shuttle 
 
 These machines are for spinning the cotton," 
 
121 
 
 moves to and fro between the threads in the 
 loom and so the cloth is woven. 
 
 In olden times people wove cloth by hand. 
 Now this is done by machines. In some fac- 
 tories cloth is 
 woven from wool. 
 In others it is 
 woven from silk. 
 Other kinds of 
 cloth are made 
 from flax, hemp, 
 and the hair of 
 various animals. 
 
 Name five different "These machines are called looms," 
 
 kinds of cloth. Name 
 
 five kinds of cotton cloth. How is cotton obtained ? How is 
 the fiber taken from the seed? Tell how it is spun. What is 
 a loom ? For what is it used ? How was cloth formerly woven ? 
 How is it woven now ? Where do we get silk ? Where do we 
 get wool? Where do we get linen ? What are ropes made of ? 
 
 STUDY OF PLANTS COTTON. 
 
 To THE TEACHER. In studying the cotton plant, very little 
 can be done with the plant itself, owing to its limited geographi- 
 cal range ; but cotton in the pod is not hard to get, and pic- 
 tures of cotton in all stages of its growth can easily be had. 
 
122 
 
 It is recommended, therefore, to study about cotton as much 
 as possible from these various sources, and also to encourage 
 the pupils to study the hollyhock, marsh mallow, and other 
 malvaceous plants for comparison. 
 
 Cotton fiber should be seen under the microscope, and com- 
 pared with fibers of silk, wool, flax, and hemp. Talk about 
 the gin and the loom, and find pictures of them. 
 
 Let flax and hemp be planted in the schoolroom and studied 
 as they grow. It is suggested, also, that samples of various 
 fabrics made from these textiles be collected, examined, and 
 labeled for future use. 
 
 FOR THE PUPIL. Where does cotton grow ? What part 
 of the plant is cotton ? What other plants have a growth on 
 the seed ? Of what color is cotton ? Describe a fiber of cotton. 
 
 How is the cotton removed from the seed ? How is it made 
 into cloth ? Name five kinds of cotton cloth. 
 
 MAKING IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 On page 111 of this book is a picture of the 
 inside of a mine. See how dark it is. The men 
 have small lamps on their hats. 
 
 The mine is an iron mine, and the miners are 
 digging the iron ore. The ore will be taken out 
 of the mine and carried to a furnace to be smelted 
 or purified ; for the ore is not pure iron. 
 
123 
 
 "Do you see the melted iron running from the furnace?" 
 
 In the furnace the ore is heated with coal and 
 limestone. These take out the impurities. Then 
 the iron melts and flows out of the furnace. 
 
 Do you see the melted iron running from the 
 furnace? It runs into small trenches in the sand 
 on the floor. It cools there. When cold, it is 
 called "pig iron." Pig iron is rough and coarse. 
 It must be melted again and worked with machin- 
 ery to change it into steel. 
 
124 
 
 Name ten things made of iron or steel. Tell one thing for 
 which each is used. What is ore ? What must be done to the 
 ore to get the iron out ? What things in the schoolroom are 
 made of iron ? What farmer's tools are of steel ? What 
 shoemaker's tools are steel ? What miner's tools are steel ? 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS TRADE OR COMMERCE. 
 
 Is flour made where you live? Is steel 'made 
 here? Are there any cotton factories near you? 
 What is the principal business where you live? 
 
 Everybody must have flour and cloth, and tools 
 of iron. But these things are not made every- 
 where. Some one must take these things from 
 where they are made and carry them to other 
 places where they are needed. 
 
 The farmer raises more fruit and vegetables 
 than he needs. He sells them to the produce 
 man for money. The buyer sends them to the 
 city where there is a ready market for them. 
 
 The mines are among the mountains. The 
 fishes are in the sea. Timber grows in the 
 woods. Some one must carry raw materials 
 from where they are found to the places where 
 they are to be manufactured. Some one must 
 
125 
 
 bring back manufactured articles to the places 
 where people need to use them. This is called 
 trade or commerce. The trader takes what is not 
 needed in one place and carries it to another 
 place where it is needed. 
 
 What did you eat for dinner ? How many of these things 
 are found where you live ? Where did the salt come from ? 
 Where did the pepper come from ? Where do fish, beef, olives, 
 coffee, chocolate, sugar, and tea come from ? What is the table 
 made of ? Does it grow here ? Of what is the tablecloth 
 made ? Does it grow here ? What do you wear on your feet ? 
 Is it made where you live ? Of what is your coat made ? Fill 
 
 blanks : My dress is made of . It comes from . 
 
 Pearl buttons are made of . They come from . 
 
 Sugar is made from . It grows in . 
 
 TRANSPORTATION BY LAND. 
 
 The next picture is of a very busy city. It is 
 a manufacturing city. You can tell that by the 
 great number of factories and shops. See how 
 the black smoke pours out of the many tall fac- 
 tory chimneys. 
 
 But this city is also a commercial city. The 
 people are engaged in many kinds of trade. You 
 may know this by the many boats and trains of 
 
126 
 
 "A very busy city," 
 
 cars to be seen in the picture. These cars and 
 boats bring raw materials here to be made into 
 various articles. They carry away these manu- 
 factured articles to distant places where they are 
 needed. 
 
 There are two principal ways of carrying arti- 
 cles from one place to another. The first way is 
 by land. The second way is by water. 
 
 In our country commerce on land is mostly 
 carried on by railroads. Both people and freight 
 
127 
 
 are transported in this way. In some mountain- 
 ous countries men travel by being carried on the 
 backs of other men. 
 
 Mules and reindeer are used in some countries 
 instead of horses and oxen. In cities cars may 
 be seen drawn by horses or propelled by cables 
 or electricity. 
 
 In very cold countries dogs are used to draw 
 sleds or sledges over the ice and snow. In very 
 hot sandy countries, goods are loaded upon the 
 backs of camels. Large numbers of camels are 
 used to carry things across the great dry plains. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION BY WATER. 
 
 When goods are to be taken on the water, boats 
 are used. There are many kinds of boats. Some 
 go by means of steam. Others sail by wind. 
 Such boats have sails. In the picture on the 
 next page you see many kinds of boats. River 
 boats have huge paddle wheels on each side or 
 a large paddle wheel at the stern. 
 
 Canals are large ditches dug across the land so 
 as to join two streams or two lakes or any two 
 
128 
 
 bodies of water. Where they change their level 
 in going up or down a slope, locks are built 
 to hold the water and keep it from flowing. 
 
 " There are many kinds of boats," 
 
 Canal boats are long and narrow. They are 
 usually drawn by horses or mules. 
 
 Long, flat boats called barges are used for 
 carrying coal, brick, stone, lumber, and other 
 heavy articles. Small steamboats are used often 
 to tow larger boats into port. Such boats are 
 called tugs. In one of the pictures two tugs 
 may be seen. 
 
129 
 
 In small streams only very small boats can be 
 used. Such boats must be paddled or rowed 
 through the water. In this picture you may see 
 two canoes loaded with skins. There are trappers 
 in these canoes. They will take their skins to 
 market. 
 
 Huge rafts of logs are sometimes made to sail 
 by putting sails on 
 them like the sails of 
 a ship. The wind then 
 carries the rafts where 
 the logs can be sawn 
 up into lumber. 
 
 Goods are not trans- 
 ported now as they used to be. Before steam 
 was used, sailors had to depend on the winds. 
 Sometimes it took many weeks to make jour- 
 neys which can now be made in a few days w^ith 
 the use of steam. 
 
 Have you ever been away from home ? How did you go ? 
 Write all you can about the journey, telling how you went and 
 what you saw on the way. 
 
 What are cars? What is a train ? What is used to draw a 
 train of cars ? What makes it go ? Describe a stock car ; a 
 flat car. Name five things carried in the cars. 
 
 GEOG. NAT. STUDIES 9 
 
 "Such boats must be paddled," 
 
130 
 
 Arthur, 
 
 WHITE PEOPLE AND BLACK PEOPLE. 
 
 Here is the picture of a little boy. His eyes 
 
 are blue and his hair is light colored and wavy. 
 His name is Arthur. Arthur's 
 father is a merchant. He owns 
 a large store in the city. Arthur 
 goes to school and reads in the 
 second reader. He plays mar- 
 bles, and ball, and all the other 
 boys' games in their season. See 
 what red cheeks he has ! It is 
 
 because he has been running all the way to school. 
 Arthur has a sister Grace. Grace is a very 
 
 pretty child, with light hair, blue 
 
 eyes, and a fair skin like her 
 
 brother. Grace plays with dolls 
 
 in the house, but Arthur would 
 
 much rather fly his kite or play 
 
 ball in the meadow. 
 
 Here is another boy. How 
 
 does he differ in appearance from 
 
 Arthur? Did you ever see a boy who looks like 
 
 this one? Let us give this boy a name. We 
 
 Robert, 
 
131 
 
 will call him Robert. Robert's skin is not white. 
 His skin is dark brown, almost black. We say 
 Robert is a colored boy. Some people would say 
 he is a negro. The word negro means "black," 
 and is often applied to black people. 
 
 "In Africa they are almost like wild people," 
 
 Robert's mouth is not like a white boy's mouth. 
 His lips are thicker. His nose is broader, and it 
 is quite flat. He has thick curly hair. It curls 
 up very tight and looks like wool. His forehead 
 slopes back. His teeth are very white. 
 
132 
 
 Most of the negroes in the world live in a very 
 hot country far across the sea. A long time ago 
 some negroes were brought here as slaves. Their 
 children and grandchildren were kept as slaves. 
 That is how there came to be so many colored 
 people in this country. Now they are all free. 
 
 In Africa where the negroes first lived they 
 wear very little clothing, cannot read or write, 
 and are almost like wild people. But here, where 
 we know them, they have learned to dress and 
 live much as the white people do. 
 
 Most of the negroes in our country still live 
 in the South but some live in nearly all of the 
 country. They go to school and to church, have 
 shops and stores, work on farms and in the mines 
 and make good citizens. 
 
 RED PEOPLE AND YELLOW PEOPLE. 
 
 Did you ever see a red man? We call the red 
 man an Indian. The Indians once lived here 
 where we do. They were very wild. They lived 
 in strange huts made of skins and the bark of 
 trees. These tents were called wigwams. 
 
133 
 
 The Indians are called red men because their 
 skin is reddish in color. Indians have very 
 strange names. Here 
 is one whose name is 
 Black Bear. See what 
 high cheek bones he 
 has. His nose is 
 hooked, and his eyes 
 are very keen. His 
 hair is long, straight, 
 coarse, and very black. 
 
 The red man, when 
 in his own home in the 
 woods, is a great hun- 
 ter. He is also fond 
 of fighting. He wears 
 feathers in his hair and sometimes paints his 
 face. Some of his clothes are made of skins. 
 
 Black Bear's wife is called a squaw. His 
 babies are called papooses. The squaws do all 
 the work while their husbands hunt or fish. 
 
 See the papoose in the next picture. This 
 papoose is tied up in a bundle against a board 
 and strapped to its mother's back. 
 
 Black Bear, 
 
134 
 
 Many years ago all this country of ours was 
 inhabited by the red men. When the white 
 
 people came across the 
 sea, they found many In- 
 dians here. At first they 
 lived in a friendly way 
 with the Indians. After 
 a while there were quar- 
 rels between the white peo- 
 ple and the Indians about 
 the ownership of the land. 
 The whites were stronger 
 and had better weapons. 
 The red men were driven 
 away to the far west, and 
 now only a few remain in this country. 
 
 What a funny-looking fellow in the next pic- 
 ture ! He is not a negro like Robert, nor is he a 
 red man like Black Bear. He is a Chinaman. 
 His skin is neither red, nor black, nor white. 
 He has a yellowish skin. His name is Sing Lee. 
 He shaves his head, all but the crown, and lets 
 the hair on the crown grow long. He braids this 
 hair into a long tail or cue. 
 
 A Papoose, 
 
135 
 
 At home Sing Lee lives differently from us. 
 His home is a very funny house. His food is 
 
 "His name is Sing Lee," 
 
 mainly fish and rice. In his own land much tea 
 grows, and the Chinaman raises and gathers the 
 tea and sells it. In our own country the China- 
 man is employed mostly as a laundryman. The 
 Chinese wash and iron our clothes, and some 
 people have them for cooks. 
 
 Sing Lee dresses very oddly. He wears a 
 long gown and loose trousers. His shoes are 
 very short and blunt, with wooden soles. His 
 
136 
 
 sleeves are wide and 
 loose. His clothing 
 does not seem to fit 
 him very well. His 
 writing is very strange. 
 The little Chinese 
 boy whom you see in 
 this picture has a very 
 pleasant home. His 
 parents are not poor 
 like Sing Lee. See 
 how prettily he is 
 dressed. When he is 
 a little older he will 
 he becomes 
 
 A Chinese Boy. 
 
 go to school ; and when 
 
 a man he may be a rich merchant or 
 
 an officer in the army. 
 
 A white man's hair is - . His eyes are - . 
 
 His skin is - . A black man is called a . 
 
 This word means - . The negro's lips are . 
 
 His hair is and . The negro came from 
 
 . The red man is called an . He lives 
 
 in a made of . His children are called 
 
 . The Chinaman comes from . He wears 
 
 his hair in a . He eats and . 
 
 Chinese Writing. 
 
137 
 
 PEOPLE LIVE TOGETHER. 
 
 You have seen how different people are : Black, 
 red, yellow, and white. But these are not the 
 only ways in which people differ. They differ 
 according to their occupations. The farmer and 
 the sailor are very unlike each other. Their work 
 makes them different. It is so with the merchant 
 and the mechanic. 
 
 Climate and slope have much to do with mak- 
 
 A Village Street. 
 
138 
 
 A City Street, 
 
 ing people different. People do not live alone. 
 They are fond of society. They are usually found 
 living together in communities. Such communi- 
 ties are called villages, towns, or cities. 
 
 Villages are built in places where the people 
 can find work to do. In villages near the sea, the 
 people are usually engaged in fishing or commerce. 
 Among the mountains, the villages may be built 
 by people who are engaged in mining or lumber- 
 
139 
 
 ing. Other towns grow up where the other occu- 
 pations can be practiced. 
 
 As more and more people come to live in a 
 village, more houses must be built. Streets must 
 be laid out. Water works, lights, and public 
 buildings must be provided. Then parks are laid 
 out and the village becomes a city. The principal 
 difference between a village and a city is its size. 
 
 If people were to live alone, each man would 
 have to be his own farmer, his own fisherman, 
 his own butcher, his own carpenter. In short, 
 each man would have to do everything for him- 
 self. But where 
 people live to- 
 gether, one man 
 does one kind of 
 work and others 
 do other kinds, 
 and then they 
 exchange their 
 wares. Where 
 each person has 
 only one kind of work to do, the work must be 
 better done because the man will become more 
 
 An Indian Village, 
 
140 
 
 skillful. This way of doing is called " division 
 of labor.' 7 Among savages, there is no division 
 of labor. The more civilized people are, the 
 more their labor is divided. 
 
 A few people living together form a village. 
 More people form a city. Many villages and 
 cities, having much trade with each other, are 
 united, together with the country between them, 
 into a larger community called a state. 
 
 GOVERNMENT HOME. 
 
 What do we call the place where we live? 
 Yes, we call it our home. Do all boys and girls 
 have homes ? Are all homes alike ? Who live 
 together in the houses which we call our home ? 
 Yes, there are father, mother, brothers, and 
 sisters living together in our homes. Is it not 
 pleasant to be at home when all the family are 
 there ? How we laugh, and play, and run about 
 when we are all at home. 
 
 Every one at home has some work to do. 
 What does your father do? What is your 
 mother's work? The girls help mother, and the 
 
141 
 
 boys help father in the work about the home. 
 What do you do when you are at home? 
 
 Can you always do just as you please ? Why 
 not? When the children become unruly, who 
 checks them ? When they quarrel and do other 
 naughty things, who punishes them? Who pro- 
 tects the children from harm ? It is not well for 
 children always to do as they please, for some- 
 times children become naughty, and need to be 
 punished, and sometimes there are lazy children 
 who must be made to do their share of the work 
 at home. 
 
 You see, then, that some sort of government is 
 necessary in every home. Father and mother are 
 the officers who execute this government of the 
 home. Both parents and children are the mem- 
 bers of this government. This government ought 
 to be such as to benefit all its members. 
 
 Parents have a right to be obeyed, and they 
 have a right to expect the help of their children. 
 Children have a right to expect food, clothing, 
 and shelter from their parents. They also have 
 the right to be educated. It is our duty to love 
 and obey our parents. 
 
142 
 
 GOVERNMENT SCHOOL AND COUNTRY. 
 
 We have seen that government at home is very 
 necessary. Without it, our homes would become 
 very unpleasant places to live in. Father and 
 mother must use all their authority to govern 
 the home so that the children may grow up to 
 be good men and women. 
 
 But the home is not the only government 
 under which we live. Whenever people come 
 together in large numbers, there is need of some 
 other kind of government. Can you not think of 
 another kind of government somewhat like the 
 home and yet very different from it? 
 
 Oh, yes, it is the school. The teachers are 
 the officers, and the pupils are the members. 
 Each has certain rights and duties. 
 
 What are some of your rights in school ? Your 
 duties? What are the janitor's duties? In some 
 schools the teacher appoints pupils to help her at 
 times. Such pupils are called monitors. What 
 are the duties of monitors? 
 
 There are other kinds of government higher 
 than the school. The children have no part in 
 
148 
 
 The Capitol at Washington, where the Laws of our Country are Made, 
 
 these, for they are governments of the people. 
 Men and women as well as children must have 
 government over them. There are bad men and 
 women as well as good ones. 
 
 Government is needed to make and enforce 
 laws for the protection of good people against 
 the acts of the bad. So parents make rules for 
 the home in order that the good boys and 
 girls shall not be wronged by the bad ones. 
 If children are naughty, they are punished by 
 
144 
 
 their parents. It is right that this should be 
 so. If people are bad, they must be punished 
 by the government. 
 
 Rules made by the government for the pro- 
 tection of the people are called laws. Laws are 
 made against theft, house breaking, fire spreading,, 
 killing, and many other offenses. 
 
 There are many kinds of government. Some 
 of these kinds are the town or township, the 
 county, the state, and the nation. The township 
 comes next to the school. 
 
 Name the township in which you live. The 
 township's officers are a justice of the peace, a 
 constable, an assessor, and in some places a tax 
 collector and town clerk. Can you tell the 
 duties of each of these officers? What are taxes 
 for? Why must there be taxes? Name some- 
 thing for which the tax money is spent. 
 
 We shall soon learn much about our country. 
 The United States is the highest government 
 under which we live. We love it best of all 
 because it is our native land. 
 
[VERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY, 
 BERKELEY 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of 
 50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing 
 to $1.00 per volame after the sixth day. Books not in 
 demand may be renewed if application is made before 
 expiration of loan period. 
 
 M? 19 192? 
 
 20m-l,'22