UC-NRLF B ^ 22t 3aa THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA GIFT OF HORACE W. CARPENTIER a^H i^M w^a^m^mtaitmrnMrntm^i^UBme^m ^y^3^j.^ ^J;-^ 0^-%' a^^ ^iv-^ i^^.'^"^ J-^^ THE MALAY ORTHOGRAPHY HERBERT HENRY HUDSt)N ^ 1 \" i > A p u R I-: Kelly oc Walsh, LlmTieu 1892 [A// KJgkts reserved. '\ f#« 3— THE MALAY ORTHOGRAPHY Printed at the "Koh Yew Hean" Press. THE MALAY ORTHOGRAPHY HERBERT HENRY HUDSON (Deputy Registrar, Supreme Court, Singapore, Straits Settlements) SINGAPORE Kelly & Walsh, Limited i8g2 \^All rights reserved. '^ LOAN STAOC in. TO HIS EXCELLENCY Sir CECIL CLEMENTI SMITH, ■ NiOMT CRA.ND CROSS Or THI MOST DISTINGCISBED ORDER OF ST. MICHAEL AND ST. CKOROK, GOVERNOR OF THE STRAITS SBTTLEUENTS, %\tu jHges ARE, BY PERMISSION. MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR. 658 CONTENTS. Section. I General 11 The Use of the Arabic Letters III The Radical or Primitive Words ... IV The Malay Words in Roman Letters V Pronunciation VI Accent VII Table I— The Alphabet ... (Page 14) Table II — Twenty Letters used in Native Malay Words ... ... {Page 16) Table III — Fourteen Letters only used in Words of Foreign Origin ... (Page 16) Table IV — Forms of the Letters {Page 17) Tables V & VI— Forms of the Letters in Combination ... {Pages i8 & 19) Table VII— Favre's Natural Alphabet of the Malay Language ... {Page 20) Table VIII showing how the Natural Alphabet corresponds with the Letters used in Native Malay Words {Page 21 Vllf Division and Use of the Letters .. IX Vowels X Orthographical Marks XI Numerals XII Punctuation XIII Syllables XIV Prefixed Particles XV Suffixed Particles ... ... ... i XVI Interposed Particles XVII Duplication of Words ... ... i XVIII Union of Two Radicals ... ... i XIX Conclusion ... ... i Appendices. Paras. 1—3 4—7 8 9— II 12 — 14 15—16 ) 17 — 29 30—34 35—49 50-68 69 — 70 71—76 77—93 94 — 1 1 2 13—125 126 27—134 35 — 137 38-151 Errata. Page 25, 15th and i6th lines, — For The Malays call it ^ li" ta panjang or "long /", and often use it incorrectly in place of the Ordinary d^ /. Read The Malays call ity^L U ta bundar and often use it incorrectly for the ordinary ,j^ or a^Ju i- ta panjang. Page 45, 1 8th line, — For r^^ Read j^"*^^ IXTRODUCTORY PREFACE. The ioUowing pages consist of the amplification of certain notes made in studying the Malay Orthographv. The subject being one the principles of which are little understood by most of the persons whose services are available as teachers, great difficulty is commonly experienced by the student in getting from them any reliable information. The spelling in the better known Malay compositions is bv no means con- sistent throughout. There is a native pamphlet dealing with the subject, but it is of little value. The works of European authors meet with more approval, but these are nearly all out of print, and difficult of access. Probably every student of Malay experiences the same difficulty in obtaining instruction on this subject, for it must be remembered that the services of the more highly educated Malays are rarely available for this purpose. The general principles could be explained in a few oral lessons, if a competent teacher could be met with, but it I is the difficulty of finding persons capable of imparting this knowledge, which has induced the offer of this work to the student. There are a number of moot points which must be left for the ultimate decision of the Malays themselves, but by far the larger part of the subject is common ground, and of extreme simplicity. Each writer on this subject has freely used the works of his predecessors, and a very considerable part of the text of this book consists of extracts and quota- tions, mainly taken from the works hereunder mentioned, but, from the necessity of rendering the text consecutive and concordant, the wording has been often changed and adapted ( ii ) i The extracts from the Abbe Favre's book, which has been largely used, though not uniformly followed, have been freely translated, and often intermixed with quotations from other authors, and new matter, and the equivalents in Roman letters of the Malay words and sounds in his book, being written for French readers, are here differently rendered, for, it was thought advisable, in order to avoid complication, to adapt all such to the plan of this work. It was found, that to attempt to mark each quotation, or extract, as such, would render a very large number of notes and explanations necessary, and seriously cramp and confine the text. The author, therefore, humbly apologizes for the liberties he has taken, and testities his sincere admiration for the learning, skill and labour which have produced the works in question, | and, in answer to a charge of plagiarism which might be made, freely and fully admits that, but for them, these pages would never have been written. The whole has been frequently revised and re-written, and carefully compared with every work dealing with the subject, to which access could be obtained. The text has been divided into sections and paragraphs for the sake of making some break, and for convenience of reference, but the various parts are at times so nearly connected, that this arrangement is not in all respects satisfactory. The fact that this subdivision leads to a certain amount of repetition, is not perhaps a great disadvantage in a work of this kind. The transliteration of the Arabic characters in Malay words has been rendered in italics, and the translation placed between inverted commas. The latter has been made as literal as possible, even at the expense'of the English, in order to increase the general utility of the work. The mixture of the different kinds of type has created considerable difficulty in the setting up, especially because ( iii ) great varieties of founts are not available here, and the indulgence of the reader is requested for all deficiencies. Two defects are very apparent — first, in consequence of the large bodies of the Arabic type the vowel signs appear at too great a distance from the letters they accompany ; and secondly, the type used does not admit of the insertion of a hamzah between two joined letters except by employing with it that which appears like a substantive letter ( ■* ) . The sincere thanks of the author are due to Mr. H. L, NORONHA of the Government Printing Office for his kind assistance in seeing these pages through the press. H. H.H. Singapore, 'January, 1S92. European Works quoted. A Grammar of the Malay Language, by William Marsden, F. R. S. London, 1812. An Attempt to eliicklate the Principles of Malayan Ortho- graphy, by W. Robinson. Fort Marlborough, 1823. A Grardiiiar and Dictionary of the Maluy Language, by John CraWfurd, F. R. S. London, 1852. Gvammaire de la langne malaise, par I'Abbe P. Favre. Vienne, 187G. THE MALAY ORTHOGRAPHY Skction I. G E N K R A L . 1. The subject of which this work treats is not free from dif^culty, not on account of any great complexity, but because of its uncertainty, the Malays themselves having in the main neglected to regulate it by rule and principle, and they, for the most part, at the present day, allow themselves a very considerable license in the spelling of words. 2. When the Arabic orthography was first applied to Malay, it was taken as a whole, with its elaborate and cumber- some diacritical points, \owel signs, and orthographical marks accompanying the letters, and it was used, so far as seemed requisite, to reproduce the Malay sounds, A large part of it was quite unnecessary, but no attempt appears to have ever been made to formulate and define a modification of it. The addition of six letters, to meet the sounds for which the Arabic had no corresponding letters, was the most important change. At the present day, however, it may be said that the vowel signs are never used in ordinary writing, and that two only of the orthographical marks are ever applied to native words, but to account for the traditional spelling of [ 2 ] many words, the presence of some of tliem mast be supposed, and without a knowledge of the principles of their application, nothing like correctness in writing Malay can well be attained. 3. The omission of the vowel signs, and an imperfect knowledge of'the use of the other marks, have led to a much freer use of those letters called weak letters, which, in one of their uses, partake of the character of vowels, and it is pro- bable that a charge may be made, that the application of the principles laid down in these pages will result in the spelling of some Malay words in a manner inconsistent with the more general practice of the Malays themselves. If the practice of spelling certain words, in a manner at variance with those principles, were universal, or if there were any recognized authority for such spelling accepted by the Malays in general, or, if the practice were reducible to, or explainable by, any rule or principle, then such a charge would be unanswerable. Not only is the contrary of all three the case, but it is believed that if the principles, with which it is proposed to ■deal, be carefully considered, their application will in no case lead to the spelling of a word in a manner inconsistent with the practice of one or other of the better known Malay writers and for which good authority cannot be found. But the spelling in all native writings varies considerably, and there is no accepted authority to decide which is correct. In those cases in which a conventional spelling seems to have met with anything like general acceptation, it has been carefully noted. [ 3 ] Section II. THE USE OF THE ARABIC LETTERS. 4. Whatever may have been the original characters em- ploved in Malay Orthography (if any native Alphabet ever existed"^), it has, for centuries past, been exclusively written upon the Arabic system, and without some knowledge of that system, it would be impossible to arrive at anything like a thorough knowledge of the language, but it is a system foreign to Malay, and, as commonly written, \'\z., without the vowel signs, insufficient to convey the pronunciation of the words. That these could be rendered by the Roman letters with more precision and clearness than by the Arabic, has the support of Favrp:, but although the Dutch have reduced the Nvriting of Malay in Roman letters to some sort of system, yet the Dutch spelling is misleading to an English reader, and no rendering in Roman letters has been generally accepted. 5. The combined Alphabet, i. e., tht Arabic with the six additions, consists of 34 letters ; of these, one ( 3 ) is now never used, 19 are sufficient for the primitivt^ Malay, and 13 are only found in words of foreign origin. One letter ( ^J ) is used in primitive Malay words as a substitute for another ( w } , when final, but. when used in foreign words, has a different value assigned to it. It. therefore, Hndsaplacein both lists, making the total of the one 20. and that of the latter 14. 6. Of these 14 letters, the sounds are foreign to the * It is snpp( seil that tlit- Korinchi characters were once used. [ 4 ] Malays, and a very wide divergence in their pronunciation will be met with, but the Arabs, or those who who have .acquired a knowledge of Arabic, are the religious, and for the most part also the secular, instructors. Verses from the Koran are taught and expounded in the schools, the prayers are in Arabic, and, though as little understood by the majority as the Latin prayers were in ancient days by the peasantry in England, yet some knowledge of the sounds is acquired, and those who study Arabic delight in displaying their knowledge, either by giving to the Arabic words adopted into Malay their original pronunciation and orthography, or by employing in a somewhat pedantic manner Arabic words, in some instances, notwithstanding that the native Malay words are competent to convey the meaning required. The result is that the Malay may be said to be tinged with Arabic, and the native writers freely use words from the latter language to convey a meaning not readily expressed in their own tongue. The Arabic has, however, had no effect upon the grammatical con- struction of Malay, it has enriched it with a number of words, and has supplied the system of Orthography, but beyond this its influence does not extend. There are indications leading to the supposition that the employment of the Arabic system of orthography in an imperfect form, may have had some effect upon the pronunciation, and caused uncertainty as to the proper vowel sounds in many words. 7. Nearly all the words adopted from foreign languages other than Arabic, for instance, Sanscrit, Persian, Indian, Chinese, European, and . the numerous languages of the [ 5 ] Archipelago, of which it is said that only the Javanese anci Malay are derived from a common stock, have been reduced to the Malay standard, and brought within the compass of the 20 letters above-mentioned — a natural and proper process, for words are adopted for utility, and to enrich, not to complicate or debase, a language. To this process some of the ■adopted Arabic words have already been subjected, though the greater number preserve their orthography, but the opera- tion has been retarded with regard to the remainder by the intimate association of the Arabic language with the Muham- madan religion, which is that of the Malays, tending to keep up a certain connection between them and the Arabic lan- guage, a connection which is further fostered by the venera- tion \vhich the Malays have towards the race from which their religion has been drawn, and by the employment of the same system of orthography in both languages. The latter statement is made as the result of enquiry as to whether any native work on the Malay grammar had ever bee'n written. The invariable answer obtained was : — "We have no grammar but the Arabic," showing that, as regards their own language, Malays have little conception of grammar beyond that part of it called Orthography, for the remainder of the Arabic Grammar can have absolutely no application to Malay, and that ihey consider their Orthograpliy should be regulated by the Arabic rules. [ G ] Section III. THE RADICAL OR PRIMITIVE WORDS. 8. The radical words in Malay are for the most part dis> syHables, with a slight stress or accent on the first, or rather the penultimate syllable. When isolated, the radical word only indicates a general idea, and can rarely be assigned to any particular ' part of speech '. In this state it contains no definition, whether of mood, tense, number, gender, or case. In the course of these pages the word ' radical ' will be found frequently used, but it is inaccurate, and is employed only for want of a better term. The Malay language knows no system^ whatever corresponding to the root and its derivatives in Arabic, and in order, therefore, to avoid misconception, it will be better to define exactly the sense in which the word is here used. ' Radical ' is employed to designate both indigenous and adopted words, in their simple form, •^notv>'ithstanding that such words may have undergone transformation, whether in the language from which they arc drawn, or in the Malay itself, provided that they are not accompanied by prefixed or suffixed particles, and ha\r undergone none of the modifications to which, in theiri derivative forms, they are subject. This deHnition is taken from Favre'S Grammar, and is slightly enlarged from that 1 given by Marsden. ' [7] Section IV. THE MALAY WORDS IN ROMAN LETTERS. 9. In giving the equivalent of the Arabic characters, the following values have been assigned to the Roman letters:-- Voivels* a = the Italian ' a ' or the sound of ' a ' in ' cart, alms, ah ! ' '(an inverted comma) = the unaccented ' e ' in French as in decequejeueme rappelais pas, or nearly the sound of ' u ' in -turn-. ' i ' in • bird, third, ' the ' e ' in * aver, vertical.' (See par. 49 as to the inherent voiuei.) i = the e ' in English as in ' be, queen, Eton.' When occurring in a syllable closed by a nasal letter, its sound is modified nearly to that of ' i ' in ' tin, sing, minim.' e = the ' a ' in English as in • arid, cane.' When occurrmg in a syllable closed by nasal letter, its sound is modified nearly to that of * e ' in ' ten, end, hem.' u = the double ' o ' in English as in ' boon, room.' (Never the sound of ' u ' in 'use.') o = the ' o' in English as in ' only, bone.' Diphthongs* av = a combination of .' a ' and ' i ' (a-ee) nearly the sound of 'ave ', or of * i ' in ' fine, island,' but longer ; the sound of ' ay 'in ' pay ' is often heard, but seems less correct. aw = a combination of ' a ' and ' u ' (a-00) nearly the vowel sound in ' cow, allow,' but longer. -7^^^^-^^^^;;^;;;^;;^-;,;;^^ to be Spxtiox y. > PRONUNXIATIOX. 12. The Malay language, called by them h'ha-sa m'la-yu or h'ha-sa ja-ici, is singularly free from any difficulty of pronunci- ation to a European. Its sounds are soft, pleasant and clear to the ear, there is a constant regularity in the relative employ- ment of consonant and vowel, and. as has been observed by M.ARSDEN, "the attention indeed to smoothness of utterance is " so great that not only in the formation of derivatives are " letters systematically changed in order to please the ear, but "also in words borrowed from Continental tongues the Malays " are accustomed to polish down the rougher consonants to the " standard of their own organs.'" There is hardly a sound in it which the least practised ear cannot distinguish at the first hearing, and which the least pliable tongue cannot articulate as well at the first attempt as a person practised in the lan- guage. For politeness and softness the Malay merits the description applied to it of " The Italian of the East." 13. As follows alnio: - of necessity from the area over which the use of the language extends, numerous variations both in pronunciation and the use of words occur, notable among them are the tendencies in some places to give to vowels in final syllables the sound ' as //rt-.s' for (j(i-ml\ hi-f for h((-ta ( in the latter instance probably correctly as noticed below ). and in others the sound of o as ka-to for /:a-ta. h'sor for b'sar, and to pronounce words ending in k, as for instance bayk ' good,' in some places bay, and in others to sound the k as broadly as in the English ' spike, dyke. ' [12] 14- The written language is, however, fairly regular as has been remarked by Marsden, but the oral tongue, both in respect to pronunciation and the use of peculiar personal pronouns and other words, differs considerably. He gives a considerable list of the principal distinctions of dialect at pages 112 et seq. of his Grammar, but the subject is one outside the scope of this work. [13] Section VI. ACCENT. 15. The accent in Malay is very weak, and may be said to consist merely of a prolongation of the vowel sound in one syllable. The great tendency is to place the accent on the penultimate, or last syllable but one, of the word, and when we speak of the accent being moved by the addition of a suffixed particle, it must be clearly borne in mind that the original pen- ultimate ( i. e., before the addition of the particle ) loses only so much of its length of sound, as naturally follows from the change of the following syllable from a short to a long sound. 16. F'or these reasons it has been considered, that the division of the syllables of the radical in the Romanized Malay, at the point where the long vowel ( if any ) occurs, sufficiently conveys to the reader where the accent will be found, and except in a few instances, where the accent does not follow the ordinary course, no sign has been employed to mark it. \\"here such is the case, the sign used is an acute accent ( ' ), or in some Arabic words the long vowel has been marked as in ikhlds. We may add that the accent is very rarely found on the syllable, if open, where the indefinite vowel sound represented by * occurs, as in p'das ' pungent,' b'sar • large, ' k'nal' to recognize, know, ' but that this forms almost the only exception to the accent being on the penultimate in native bisyllabic radical words. Section VII. THE ALPHABET. 17. The following Table gives the full Arabic-Malay Alphabet : — [14] TABLE I THE ALPHABET. lo^ (jifeu- MvCL Letter Power Name Letter Power N ime 1 a ^!] alif is i IL /r? i__> h b ba li // % tla dj t 'J ta ' £ u^^ ain L±J ths Ki thsa ■ gf^ U^^ ghain r i *j>:s- jiin Itg 'i iiga e ch '.:>- cha 1 9 f 'J fa r h U ha (— > P 'J pa r, kh '^ khi - J k ( s-'i kap J-, d J'^ dal ^ k uJ^ kap j • d3 J'^ ^/^^r?/. g '1 g^ J d , 1^ ^'^ J I r^ lam ^ r ^j rn r 111 i»7}-o mi 771 J z \j saox ^-zi u 11 • in 171 U" s 1 ^K^ Sim '• ^ 7i',7l,0. y.- waiv u- sh iri^ shim \ 3 h u ha <^ s ti'wc sad 4_> y/he. b ya (> dl jU dlad i li) n • 1 iia I. ^ I TO/ To wjiich are sometimes superfluously added f. ^-j^ hamzah, 2a\6. ^ la, ^\] A lam alif. J [15] 1 8. Of the full Alphabet the following six are the additions made to the Arabic Alphabet : — jAj )l(i CJ f/a < — 9 2>(X c nga J (hi^^ — cha which, it will be observed, have been formed from certain Arabic letters, by the simple expedient of increasing to three the number of the diacritical points. 19. It has been already remarked that certain of the Arabic letters are unnecessary to the primitive Malay, and occur only ' in words of foreign origin. Subjoined is a list of each, as well as tables showing the forms which the letters take ac- cording to their position in a word, and their relation to the other letters thereof. 20. The natural alphabet of the language as formulated by F.AVRE is given, followed by his table showing how the sounds required in the primitive Malay correspond to 19 letters of the Alphabet. The utility of this classification will be seen later. * It is difficult to settle at the present day why the character j da was formed, though it must have been to meet some sound foreign to Arab ears. There is a peculiar soft sound sometimes heard from Malay lips nearly corres- ponding to J in Tamil, but difficult of pronunciation by Europeans; it ap-,^ preaches the sound of ' dr '. At the present day this sound is represented by . r, but it is quite possible that it may have been intended by the Arabs to be represented by ^ while the simple ' t IS ta y^ g » ^« . c J (^ P'^' 1 J I j»iS /(7;;/ s ch U cha r m ^-- ;;//7;/ J d J'- dal n ^^y ////// J r b ra y W,lljO. ^1^ 7C'<77£' u^ s (^ sin I & h b //<7 i ng \s> nga "^ y,i,e. U jK'^ f. P 13 p(^ ^ n ^. ^"^(^ TABLE IlL FOURTEEN LETTERS USED IN WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN. Letter Power Name 1 Letter Power Name ULd ths 13- thsa L^ dl jU dlad c h U. ha L t IL ta c kh \^ kha t tl U= //« J dz J'^ dsal t o;^^ nin J> s b za t gf^ ^:P ghain d^ sh /♦ti-^ shim <->» f \h fa ^<'7/> * The Malays generally employ ^3 Word, but without meaning thereby Bound of the former letter, a\ hich it The sound of l\ medial in a ^vord, but dered by j in woi-ds coming from •10,000' (in Hind. 100,000), jLil 'the north, the left,' ,j---ii ilaksi-na ' sa 'force,' &c. Thi^ letter therefore instead of d ^\hen iinal in a to indicate the more guttural has in words of foreign origin, at tlie end of a sylhtble, is ren- the Sanscrit ; as ^jjii hJcsa lal'sa-no 'like,' ^j-^-ftJ" poktii-iia the south, the right,' ,j^'^ j)ak- finds a place in botli tables. [17] TABLE IV. FORMS OF THE LETTERS. Isolated Final Medial Initial Isolated Final Medial Initial ] XT J t A 1 1 J A I A A V iX J AM .'. ! J ii A 5 •• J r J J r i I 1 X •• V 9 t \ i J CD J J a: A MA A t t J A ii £ i [18] TABLE V. FORMS OF THE LETTERS IN COMBINATION. Letter Isolated Final Medial Initial 1 .1, LaJ^ U*^^ 8jUw f} ^1 (^ ^'^ L^^\Ami jlxK^ Lj^^wj _5^l^ Clj'j *JL} t^Uji d^l-J A|.. < — jUj J^^ ^ ^h €^ uS'^^ c^^ ^ s^ ' ^ l5^W J jb Ji cJaj c^^>;^ J > Ji^ ^6;^ u-^ LT ltW^ i^ri' ^*JJ.J ^sU^ A £^' h- ^(X«CAM ^f U-9 cji •■1 A •• j'^/r J^' ^j^UwJi! 'ijd^i CLI ^j^ viU u^^. a tki (3UwO A A * J\^ ^^ V^ J Ji' JiT i^ u^ r r>^ H^ jUlkMi 1^ u UJ3 J^ Jif J^>j J^.'^ ^ ^jy^ r^> CJ|^ tr'^ )S )s^Uw ^^ j^^^ u^-W^ ^> s^ ^' ^-^^Uj^" jU e) ,*,u e;^^*^' u.q.iia] d^L [19] TABLE VI. FORMS OF THE LETTERS IN COMBINATION. Letter Isolated Final Medial Initial CL> C^Jl? c:^jo> JXe c:^'o z rv (T Cl^Jkac*' r^ t t/" ^ c:^^^' JUj>i» j J^^ Jc^b XiJ /^ J j^^ > i;^ uS' A ^f ^^^^*io jj;J^ U^ ^joks>y[ j^^als- J-fli J^ J> u^sf C^.'"^ ij-ifl-s. h^j^ b ]o.tn Lam)^ e;Ua^ ^ li t^As^ 1^ i^iii j»% t l^ c^ v_AJJt^ >^ t t^. ^^ i^*M*^ ui^ C_9 '-'> CAX? IshG Z' •• J^U Jf^ ji>y^ ijSJi [20] TABLE VII. The Natural Alphabet of the Mala); language as formu- lated by the Abbe Favre : — Votvels (6). a ' i e u o Aspirate ( 1 ). h Semi-voivels ( <$ ). y w Consonants (15). k Gutturals Palatals Dentals Labials hard, soft, nasal, hard, soft, nasal, hard soft, nasal, hard, soft, nasal. Liquids 1 Sibilant s NOTE. — This classification may be questioned, and is at variance with those both of Crawfurd and ROBINSON, but it forms an easy means of committing to memory certain changes caused by prefixed particles. [21] TABLE VIII, Showing how the Natural Alphabet corresponds with the Arabic-Malay Alphabet ( the foreign elements as shown in Table III being omitted). Class Weak letters, semi-vowels, and aspirate. Gutturals Palatals Dentals Labials Liquids Sibilant Nature Form of the Letter Isola- ted } A t r J Final Mediallnitial C5 A a c A U r J i Name _5^_5 watv j,^ jim J'^ dal tt>^ wz/« (^^ Sim Power a h y, i, e W, Uj k g ^% hh J ft t d n P b m r I Including ^J when used as a substitute for this letter. [22] 21. The Arabs divide the letters of their Alphabet into- two classes — solar and lunar. The solar letters are :-— a) U ^ is fja ^JC ^ ^^ J , 6 d K±J CL> The lunar letters are :— This classification is of little use in Malay, and is only here- given for the purpose of one feature of pronunciation in Arabic phrases to be explained later ( Par. io6 ). 22. The diacritical points are integral parts of the letters, and are as inseparable therefrom as the dot over the ' i ' or the cross stroke of the 't' in the Roman letters. 22. It will be remarked that the letters are written from right to left and joined, but that the letters 1 J J ^ ^- and y have this distinguishing feature, that, although all of them may be joined to the letters, other than them, preceding them in words, yet when correctly written, they cannot be join- ed to letters following them. 24. The. CJ when final or isolated is written without the long upper stroke, but is accompanied by a miniature of the same letter in its initial or medial form ( L^), to distinguish it from J Z, but this miniature letter must not be mistaken for the mark hamzah ( :: ), which it nearly resembles, nor should it accompany the letter if the long upper stroke be used. The letter ^ g having been formed by the addition of 3 dots to CJ A', the miniature ^ A: accompanies that letter also in a similar way. [ 23 ] 25- Besides the varieties of form and combination above exhibited, there are many others in practice, which will be easily acquired from inspection of Malay writings. Some produced by haste, others by capricious license of the pen, such as an unindented slanting stroke for the >^ s, a curved stroke or semicircle instead of two dots over or under the letter, or, the slight inversion of the extremity of J I, in place of the final ^ or ^> forming merely the syllable la. 26. In reading from manuscript it is very important to mark well the diacritical points or dots, called ths the sound given to this letter by the Arabs is something like our * th ' (as in ' kith '), but is more of a hissing. Malays commonly pronounce it s. ^ h a. strong guttural aspirate proceeding direct from the lungs. Malays do not usually aspirate it so strongly. [ 24 ] ^ kh a strong guttural ; usually modified by the Malays. ijc s is by the Arabs strongly articulated ; the Malays render it simply s . fj^ dl the strong emphatic d of the Arabs ; by the Malays sounded I or dl. )o t is in the mouth of an Arab strong and emphatic, but with the Malays only an ordinary t, they generally employ it to render 't ' in a European word, particularly in proper names. b tl has a peculiar sound with the Arabs, but Malays give it the value of tl or I. c ain indicates a guttural sound w^hich is not imitated by the Malays, with whom this is a vague sign, or mere fulcrum to carry a vowel, as in l-j^ arab ' Arab ' 'iiiic Mat 'custom' ^Az Umu^' knowledge' ^^'*^^ i-sa Jesus ^ imur 'life'. Q^ gh or ghr with the Arabs a strong guttural, but by the Malays usually pronounced g or r. (—9 /. The sound of 73 being foreign to the Arabs, as / is to the Malays, there is often a confusion between the two, the Malays giving it either sound, in fact uJ |> is with them much more frequently written with one noktah than with three, and the great tendency is to give it always the sound of /) . In the same way ^ k\s sometimes confounded with \£J g, and also, though more rarely, -, j with — ch, and ^^ n with a ng. J k with the Arabs is a guttural, stronger than CJ k, but less strong than ^ kh. The Malays usually pronounce it [25] CJ A- and, when final in a word, commonly substitute it for that letter. 28. The final k in Malay words varies considerably in different parts in the value assigned to it. In the Straits Settlements it is nearly silent, or only series to cut short the vowel sound which precedes it. In Sumatra and Java general- ly it is distinctly sounded, whilst in Borneo the sound is very hard and jfJu hayk is pronounced as broadly as * pike, spike, like '. 29. In words deri^-ed from the Arabic the final x ^ is often found surmounted by two noktah ( ^ ) , and the Malays then usually give it the value of t, notwithstanding that the Arabs only so pronounce iLjWhen it is followed by a word which forms a complement to the word in which it occurs. i The Malays call it j^s^ o t(f panjang or 'long /', and often use it incorrectly in place of the ordinary- iJ:^ t. When followed by a suffixed particle, it being no longer final, becomes an ordinarv Ci-' t. [ 26 ] Section VIII. DIVISIOxN AND USE OF THE LETTERS. 30. The Malays like the Arabs call the letters of the Alphabet c_i^ huriif* (Ar. sing. ^^ har'fp]. ^'^^ hunlf), and consider them all consonants^t and only moveable, or susceptible of sound, by means of vowels, which, as we shall proceed to explain, are supplemental to the letters, and are represented by certain signs placed above or below them, to indicate the vocal sound with which they should be arti- culated. It is as if one wrote in English M N M N T L for ' monumental '. It is very important to bear this in mind. Corollary : To represent an articulated isolated sound both a letter and a vowel sign ought to be used. 31. The letters are divided into ^j^J ^^ hnnif k'ms or ' strong letters,' and ^ <-J^=- hunt/ I'mah or ' weak letters'. The first class comprises all the letters, except 1 alif, j ivaw, and j_j ya, which three form the second class. 32. The weak letters are employed in two distinct capa- cities. Firstly, they may be employed as simple consonants, like the strong letters, and in this state, they can only re- ceive movement, by the application of the vowel signs, any of which may be borne upon them. They are then termed like the remainder of the letters moveable, or by the Malays \j^j^f. •— V^ Imruf h'r-ha-ris meaning ' letters carrying a * Tlie Malays do not indicate the plural or singular by declension, and a lar^e proportion of the Arabic words adopted into Malay have been' taken in the plnral form, m accordance with the general tendency in the language, to treat the substantives as primarily rather general, or plural, in their signification, than fcjnigular, miless defined in the latter number by a numeral or tlie context. t This term though not quite accurate is used for want of a better. [27] vowel sign.'* In this state 1 alif has of itself no sound, but serves as a mere fulcrum to carry a vowel, as if one wrote A M P D N T for ' impudent/ or A N F S T N for ' un- i e e fasten', and hence by the application of the different vowels, may in turn represent, either of the sounds a, ', i, e, u, or o, and ^_J ya and j icaw correspond to our letters ' y ' and 'w', when not employed as vowels, and may, by the appli- cation of different vowels, in turn represent respective- I b'' IJ^y y'> y^> y<-% I/^', or yo, and n-a, n', U'i, ive, ini, or wo. j 33. Secondly, these three letters may be quiescent or in a i state of repose, and then they cannot receive the vowel signs, I but may be treated themselves as mere vowels. In this state j they cannot be initial, either in a word, or syllable, but ' must follow a ^^'o^j u-j}^ huruf b'r-ba-ris or moveable letter, and if the vowel borne upon such letter has a sound cor- responding to that of the quiescent weak letter, such two sounds coalesce, and form a long vowel. In this state the , quiescent weak letter is called by the Malays S^ uJ.rv huruf I madd meaning ' extension letter.' ^^ c_i^2^ ^^.\ jc< ..J^ Jj.j h'r-na-ma JtKnif madd arti-ila huruf ixinjanff ' named huruf «mfW meaning long letters'. But the quiescent weak letter may follov.- a letter, bearing a vowel of a different nature to the weak letter, in which case they cannot coalesce, but have an effect which may be described as, either, the forma- tion of a heterogeneous vowel or diphthong, or, the causino-of the weak letter to revert to its character of consonant, and * This term does not iuclude the orthograpical mark Jazm, wliich is the negation of the vowel. [ 28 ] close the syllable. In this state the weak letter is called (V^7- *— !;^ ^i>"'"f h'r-jazni, meaning ' letter carrying the orthographical mark j^^;^ jrr^m ( - ),' which, as we shall see is the negation of the vowel. Ex., ^ h carrying the vowel a and forming the syllable i ha or B is followed by 1 al[f, here, the vowel and the 1 being of the same nature, their sounds coalesce, and form a long vowel'o &« or BA, and the I is ^'* ^=^ hurufmadd. But if the syllable j ha is followed by a J as in _jj half or BW, then the vowel and the _j being of differ- ent natures cannot coalesce, but form a diphthong haw, and the J is then ^^^^^^ c_3^ huruf h'r^azm. These matters will however be more readily understood, when the use of the vowels has been explained ( see Par. 35 ). 34. The vowels may be described as the life of the con- sonants, for, without a vowel, the consonant cannot exist as a sound. If the reader will attempt to articulate h without a vowel, he will find that the nearest approach he can make to it is '& or h' (compare Par. 49 as to the inherent vowel), ( sibilant letters appear to be exceptions, but will be found to be in the same category,' if the sound be analyzed). It will be observed that a consonant can be articulated, in cutting short a preceding vowel, as in ah, or, in opening a vowel following it, as in ha, and this is the distinction be- tween Mjs^ji i^js>. hum/ h'r-jazm and ^^j^^jJ uJ^ httriif h'r- ba-ris, for both must be considered consonants, and the des- cription of ' moveable by the application of vowels' is hardly sufficiently comprehensive, but would be more accurately ren- dered ' susceptible of articulated sound by the application to them of, or of them to, vowels.' [29] Section IX. VOWELS. 35. We have already remarked that by vowels both Malays and Arabs understand certain supplementary signs, placed above or below the letters, and indicating the vocal sound with which they should be pronounced, or by which the letters are rendered moveable. They are called by the Arabs trj^^s- harakat ( plural of Kp- harakat) signifying 'movement', and by the Malays either ^^J^. ba-ris 'lines', orc:-5'.s-^ sinja-t'i ' weapons ' ( perhaps from a resemblance to lances in rest )."^ 36. These signs are three in number : — is*^ fat-hah or ^^j'^\»y i^jy^ ha-ris- di-a -tas 'upper stroke' 'ij*^ k'sjrih or s.oJ o"*/''- ^^"^^^ di-ha-wah ' lower stroke ', '^Avi dlfimiiiah or ^^IjJfcJ uy^ ba-ris di-hada-pan ' front stroke ', Each of these signs has two distinct sounds. 37- ^=s-^ /Vf?-/m/i consists of a short diagonal stroke, placed over a letter, and sloping downwards from right to left. The first sound of *^^ k'srah appear in j^^i ti-tek ' drop,' *i>J j>?-Ze/i ' choose.' 39. ^ gondok ' goitre, wen.' Both sounds of ^U^i dlammah appear in. ^^yi bu-sok J J ' stinking ', yy to-tui- ' talk.' 40. It will be remarked that the sounds of these three signs are homogeneous with those of the three weak letters I' ^j, and y, when quiescent, and the reade* will under- [31] stand that, upon the principle already enunciated ( Par. 33 ),a t\-* I — J,=>- hiiruf madd or ' long vowel ' is formed, by the coalition of is^ fat-hah with 1 as in j^x'J ta-ngan ' hand '; or of '^jM*^ k'srak with ^_g as in ^^J^ ti-r/a ' three ', (^j*jJ de-sa ' village '; or of i.*^ dlammaJi with j as in cl?^j bu-ta ' blind ', hJ no-hat ' drum of State.' And that, when the vowel sign is followed by, or is placed over, a weak letter, the sound of which is dissimilar or heterogeneous to that of the sign, the result is a diphthong, whether at the beginning of a syllable when the weak letter is f^J^ij^ h'r-ha-ris, as in ^, rjang 'which', \.ZJ^^ yii-ta 'a million', CL>.« u'rta ' news ', and c ^^ wi-rang ' sombre ', or at the end of it when it is Aj=>'ji h'r-jazm, in which case we should prefer to describe it as making the weak letter revert to its character of consonant, as in ^'i' im-hny 'to use', -<^J da-may 'peace', ^\ ang-kaw 'you', yJ^ ki-laiv 'shining'. From this the reader will understand why the letters ' ay ' and ' aw ' have been selected to represent the diphthongal sounds nearly similar to those in ' buy ' and ' cow ', even at the risk of their being mistaken for the sounds represented by those letters in the words ' pay ', and ' flaw ', instead of ' ai ' and * au ', which would perhaps better convey the sounds to an English reader, and the advan- tao-e of the selection will be further seen, when the changes in the orthography of a radical word, caused by the suffixed par- ticles ^_^^ J and ^;-^ a«, are commented on (Par. 117). 41. Custom has justified the insertion in certain cases of [32] both the weak letters quiescent, as in »;l»- jawh ' far ', JJ.'^J hayk ' good.' Favre treats these words as bi-syllabic and renders ihtm jawuh and hayih (though he gives the alter- atives ja?^, and consisting of the syllables :=» ja, and ii*\ nh, and j ha and J^} ik, respectively, but this is not only without authority in Malay, but involves the breach of more than one rule, and would have the effect of removing the accent from the a. One educated Malay, whom the writer consulted, considered that the alif should be followed by •* (JSJ^a* hamzali), at least in the derivative forms of these words, the ^ representing a deleted \ alif i^j^J^ji h'r-ha-ris, and this would seem to be the correct solution of the difficulty, and to be the practice of the Arabs to represent similar sounds, and to be recognized by the Malays in writing certain Arabic words, as L.^/^ aja-ih 'wonders, marvels', and ^d^/Sfa-i-dah 'benefit, advantage^ CI^J Ci^j'^ C-^.^'^ j*,.lji^*w./*i L.(j.j haliica s'sunrf-giih-na aja-ih liika-yat i-tii ' though verily marvellous be that story ', ^*>^. JiJj^li eLjl^>^ jl ada s'lca-tu fa-i-ddh yam/ h'sar 'there is one great advantage.' It is not difficult to find instances of Malay words so written, and in the same book, and on the same page, as the latter of the two examples given is found, rOAtj ^ ^^'U^i' Jlt> J.$^" ting gal da-lam p'r -ma -i- nan yang sia-sia ' remain (occupied) in profitless amusements', and later ^_J^^'^ (^/^y. <:L-^^}y^^^ ijy>^^ ada-pnn fahiat-mu i-tu Vr-la-i-nan s'ka-H ' now your nature is entirely [33] different ' (T*7^' p'lc'rja-an-ua i-tn d'ngan in'iiq-ayl dan in'yi-ja-la ( J'.=r^) ' his occupation was fishing with line and fishing with net' {see also Par. 91 below), and the employment oi ^ before the particle ^^ (end oi Par. 115 below) appears to proceed upon a similar principle though the separate vowels are more distinctlv articu- lated in this case. 42. In certain in stances the vowe ls of the diphthono- are found divided by the letter 8 h, as in yfc'J ta-Jiu ' know' ybU ma-hu 'want', but the pronunciation hardly justifies this, and the more modern practice (which it is submitted is still less correct) is to v.rite .j and .U. The separa- tion is retained in ^^s pra-hu ' a. vessel ', but without much reason, and in yb'j ha-hv. 'shoulder', probably to distinguish it from jb haw ' odour '. In the derivative forms of j'o and jU the s is nearly always found, as in ^^y^ P^'^g- tahu-an 'knowledge', ij^yY*^ ka-mahu-an 'will . 43. In a few instances the vowel signs are found doubled, but only in words of Arabic origin, the effect upon the pro- nunciation is that the vowel is closed by a sound of n : for instance A>»>3r^ iiui/ui'iiinuil becomes Aas"* muJuiminadan, A>t.s^ muhainmadin, and i\>^2r* muhammadun. This form is called i^y'^ tannin or ^i) i^j^J^i ha-)is du-va and in Eng- lish * nunnation '. [34] 44- The reader will now begin to understand why it is difficult, without a fairly extensive knowledge of the language, to read from Malay as it is usually written, viz., omitting the whole of these signs. As an illustration, a some- what exaggerated instance is subjoined, in the shape of a puzzle or catch, which even a Malay would require some thought to decipher : — Ji-*^''/. tj'^ J^^V- t^i^ J'^'^ J'^'' J^^' ^^'i But if the vowel signs be employed, the difficulty would dis- appear — c^^}i J''^ j^^y ^.-J^ J**'^ J^ J^*" ^^'^ icaktu tumhuk temhoh di tumhuk o-rang h'r-tomhak dan h'r-tim- hak ' at the time of pounding the walls men fought, stabbing and shooting.' 45. These remarks will also explain how the practice has arisen of employing the weak letters, in the place of the omitted vowel signs, and they are so employed, at the pre- sent day, to a very large extent, and the more ignorant the writer, the more frequent is their recurrence, and in positions in which the pronunciation will not admit of the employment of a long vowel. The spelling of Malay is, at the present day, most arbitrary in this respect {see Pars, it,^ et seq.). 46. There appears to be one position, in which, upon the principle commnnis error facitjus, their employment must be considered compulsory, and this is in words terminating with an open syllable, having the vowel sound of ij^ k'srah, 6 Si ^ -^ or »jL' hii-fu 'stone ' for cr-^'j > [35] .JUi Vntu 'certain' for s£^x'i , but in these cases the 4^ or j must not be considered as tX^ ^J^ ^uruf madd or 'long vowel,' but as a mere substitute for the vowel sign. This convention does not extend to the employment of 1 for «^ *-x^ inlin-una-la was invented : its form is that of a small 4 , and placed over the letter and its vowel mark, it signifies that the vowel sign has in such case its second JO J a sound, as in ^JJli pondok ' hut or shed ', jlL henteng 'battery'. Though so rare as to be almost unknown, the great utility of the mark seems to plead strongly for its recognition, for, without it, or something in its place, Avritten Malay can never adequately convey the pronunciation of the [36] words, nor Avill it be possible to preserve any correct native record of the language, thus ^jSj dindhuj 'a screen' cannot r be distinguished from cA^J den.letuj 'dried meat ', nor t.^ hu-rong ' a bird ' from 2 .^j ho-rong 'wholesale', etc. 49. To render Malay orthography complete, however, it would be also necessary to distinguish between the two sounds of ^^i /at-hah, and subjoined is RobixsON's note upon the subject : — " Were it allowable for a foreigner " to suggest an improvement, it would not be difficult to re- " move the inconvenience, which is felt in consequence of " there being no orthographical character by which one " sound o{fat-h,ah, may be distinguished from the other. The "fat-hall or haris di-a-tas might be employed exclusively to " express the second ( first ^ ) sound of that vowel, as it is " heard in ^Xi^ pfintas, while its first { second * ) sound " might be indicated by the total absence of a vowel, as 1' in the two following words .*«.v hasar ( b'sar ) ^> " hanar (h'nar). As the first (second *) sound of " the fat-h'ih is doubtless that vowel sound, which, in " many of the oriental languages, is considered as inherent " in the consonant, and therefore termed the inherent vowel, " the method here recommended is simply that which is " adopted in the Sungskrit, and its cognate languages. In " these languages no character is made use of to express the " inherent vowel, except at the commencement of a syllable, * In this book. [37] " an exception which cannot apply to the Malay. Many " syllables therefore consist of nothing but a simple consonant, but in which the inherent vowel is of course " understood to be included ^ ^ ^ ^. When it is consi- " dered, too, that several languages ofthe Archipelago, to " which the Malay bears a close affinity, have alphabets, and ' a system of orthography, formed upon the Sungskrit model, " there seems no serious objection against making -the • Malav, though it has assumed a foreign dress, conform " in this particular to the good old custom of its near rela- " tives ^ 4(. 4^ ^ if the ^ ^ ^ ^ method here proposed ^ ^ ^ ^ " were to be adopted, the Roman character might be laid " aside ^(. ^ •(. ^ , and Dr. Marsden might then present the " world with another edition of his Dictionary, without the " labour of writing every word in two different characters. '' ciovex> [38] Section X. ORTHOGRAPHICAL MARKS. 50. These as here given are six in number :— ' [•J^ jazm, JiXe maddah, tXJ.AA) i'skdld, icic. ivaslah, 2^** hamzaJi, and viAil angka. 51- j^J^ i(i_?'H signifies 'cutting', and is called by the Malays ^>U aAJ tanda ma-ti, or ^U i,^j^, ha-ris mi-ti. Its form is ^, ", or ', and it is placed over a letter, in ' the rank of the vowel signs. Its power is to indicate that the letter, over which it is placed, has no vowel sound, of which this mark is the negation, in other words it closes the syllable, as in J^' imng-gil ' to call', c:^=r" lanjut ' to pro- long'. It can be placed over any letter (with the exception perhaps of ^^j fia), capable of receiving a vowel sound ^ [see Pars. 33 and 34 above). Malays rarely use it, notwithstand- ing that it might be extremely useful in writing certain words, like ejj^ bu-icat 'to do', iA«i si-y (( n g ' Vighi', which, without the j»Js- jct-^in, might be taken for ^JiJyi Im-ta ' blind ', and ^-u si-iuja ' a lion ', which latter are often, in order to distinguish them, erroneously written o^j and liJ.*>j. ^.^^ ^ 52. '^'^ j»a(/(/fl/t^ or A^ madd signifies ' prolongation', ^_ its form is - or "^ f. It is placed over a quiescent weak letter,. )Tl~ hunif madd, but, as we have observed, the Malays rarely use it except over rt/?/ initial in certain words. The Arabs so employ it as in ^^^ kha-likun ' Creator,' ^^y^y^ nin-niinu-na ' the faithful", and Jwj3'^ klidli-fah 'a Caliph, or lieutenant '. They also employ it medial in a word but initial in a syllable, as in ^J^,'i },itr-an ' the Koran'. Finally JsJs^ maddah is used over abbreviations, as j* -^ for *1LJ1 aylc alayi-M' ss'ldni 'peace be upon him', and ^^'*' for ^^CjiM*^ ^s'sunggith-na 'vevWy'. 55. 4X>uSAi t'shdjd ( named also tiJi shaddii ) signifies ' re-inforcement '. Its form is ", and placed over a letter doubles it. It can be applied to all strong letters except c nga, -- c/«/, and ^^ na. When a strong letter is so doubled, the first joins the preceding consonant, and forms with it a closed syllable, and the second takes the vowel properly belonging to the letter, and accompanying the mark, as in iUi ^'»»Ha^ 'finis', &^^ fnnat 'paradise'. The S^iSJL") t'shdld is never applied to \ , but when placed over j or |_^ doubles the letter so marked, the first becoming A^i_J^>. hiinif mndcl of the preceding consonant, and forming the long vowel, ■^•" * This rule admits of exceptions in Arabic words, but not, s6far as we li;r been able to ascertain, in ^xm native word. The exceptions in Arabic oci ;, •where the weak letter marked with t' slid id is preceded by a letter having a vowel heterogenous to the weak letter. In this case, as we have seen, the weak letter - may be ti'catod as a simple consonant, ex., J-«" say-yiil "Lord, master, the title assumed by certain Arabs who claim to hv of thf race of IMuhannnail. Trom the Malays writing i-« for the w-ord pronounced viay-ynt 'a corpse it would api)ear that this pecuUarity is known to them, but ' corpse ' is more c rectly rendered »--* maytah, and Malays probably misuse the word »i»-^ Tiuiy't 'death'. [41] and the second becoming ^-■'•^rJ "—';*' hnruf h^r-ha-ris oi the next syllable, and taking the vowel sound, the sign ol which e i J should accompany the Jji^^ t'shdld, as in dj^ hu-ivat 'to do', i^-*^ si-yang ' light '. Were these words written without the JoJ-iJ Vshd'id, or it its presence were not supposed ( Malays usually omitting it ), they would stand thus *-^}yi and f:^:^**' , here it is clear that the first J or ^ is J^ < »tr»- kin-vf madd of the first syllable ^j hii or ij*« si, and the second t^'^J^ri ' — 9/^ hnrufb'r-ba-ris beginning the syllables but ji^ iii-yor ' cocopalm '' is usually written i^j , and *J^ chi-yiim 'to kiss' *y^ . The AjJ-io t'shdid is not always audible in pronunciation, and especially where it would produce any harshness, and, but for the fact that this use of the Roman [ 42 ] letters might mislead as to the proper Arabic letters to be used, it would be better to write hirat or huot than bti-icat for cu>j^ ( see Appendix B ). efi. In the formation of derivatives, as will be hereafter explained, the J^-« < 9;=^ }f,uriif madd is often found in a dif- ferent position to that in which it was in the radical word, hut if such letter should, in the radical, have borne the mark JjjiJlJ fslidld, that mark is, in such case, lost in the derivative, but the loss is equivalent to the deletion of so much only of the duplication, as consists of S^ i 9.s>- hiinif madd. Thus from c:->jj hu-ivat ' to do ' = *^^j is formed ^^\y,J^ p'r-huwa-tan ' the thing done '; here the ^ as the first part of the duplication, and A^ *—*;*■ ^urufmadd of the radical, is omitted in the derivative, and there remains only j wa [^j^iji h'r-ha-ris, following j hu, and 1 as J^ '— *t»- liurufmadd appears in the penultimate of the derivative word, 57. It must be noted ihsLt a ii^ u^j»- htmif madd iormed by the application of 4iJ..:yAj t'shd'ul to ^ , invariably gives it the first sound of ^u^ dlammah, that is u ( not o), and by its application to ^c the first sound of Sjv*^ k'sraU, that is i ( not c ). As some difficulty may occur as to when iiOi^tio Vslidld may be applied to ^ and ^ the following rule has been formulated : — " When they in a radical are followed by a li-o I — »\»- kuriif madd they cannot take this mark ", ex. yj*Uj hiya-sa 'accustomed', ^y hiava-ya 'crocodile'. No further comment on this mark is necessary, for the Malays [ 43 ] rarely use it, except over the word *JJ1 allah ' God ', and it is a refinement introduced from a language, with which the Malay has little in common ; but its presence must be sup- posed to account for the traditional spelling of certain words, such as ^^ i-ija or ^li di-ya ' he, she, they ', t_fA«* s'di-ya ' ready ', 1^ muli-yd ' worthy ', and a number of others in addition to those already given ( Par. 55 ). 58. ilc^ ivaslah or (J^^ icas'l signifies ' union '. , Its torm is " and placed over 1 renders it mute, allowing a junction between the preceding, and succeeding letters. It is only used in Arabic phrases, and mainly in the definitive particle Jl aX^ as in ^^^ '-r'-^ kita-hunnabi ' book of the Prophet' ^__^«4XaI] —^j ro-hul-kiidns 'Holy Ghost', JdJl J^*«, rasu-lullah "apostle of God ', h'srah would be placed [ 44 ] under the final ^ , to denote the genitive case •jJ^^'-r'-^ kita-hiomahi-j/i {st'ePa.r. 1 06 below). Nor must the reader in any case assume that the Arabic words occurring from time to time are grammatically correct Arabic. 60. ^'tJb hnmzah is the most used by the Malays of all the orthographical marks ; its form is ^ being merely the letter c aiti reduced in size. It is either an appendage to \ alif ^v'o.j h'r-ha-ris, properly accompanying its vowel sign, and placed between the letter (if initial) and the sign, and therefore either above or below it, or it is the representative or substitute for the letter. So close is the connection between them, that the Malays say in speaking of the al{f, ^l>«o ( kW \^j^hi ^'^'^ ^^^ li) '•'•>■' ^'♦^ UzMj^' '-^-^'' (W^i^'i-^o ^'''- ba-ris liamzah lUDiia-na jikalaw tiya-da h'r-ha-ris aljf nam.i-ha 'when it ( alif) bears a vowel sign its name is ham.iah when it has no vowel sign its name is alif\ As an appendage to alif it reduces the latter to a sort of imperceptible aspirate, the only power of w^h.ich is to give movement to the. vowel sound ac- A £ O c companying it, thus <-r>^ ah <-->^ ih t—^l uh. 61. In Malay, however, where the weak, or vowel letters, are sparingly employed, the chief use of > is to express the elision of alif [ri'^ji h'r-ha-ris, medial in a word, but at the commencement of a syllable, whether following one of the three weak letters ' _} or ^c quiescent, or a consonant rendered mute by *Js- jaziii, or a prefixed particle consisting of an open syllable. These instances mostly occur in derivatives formed by annexing particles as will be hereafter explained, ex. gr.. [ 45 ] ^j^^U^j ;)'A;*r/rt-flrw 'performance', tj yj^ ka-t'ntu-an ' cer^ tainty ', ^xxxxX^ ka-nanti-an ' expectation ', ci^sAaa^ ka- ampat ' the fourth '. Universal custom at the present day however retains the alif, when following either of the parti- cles J di, ji h'r, Jj 1/1, f t'l', y j/r, or Ji p7, as in £ » 1!!,-^*^'^ di-angkat 'lifted', ^^^^i^ di-oivlik 'on the waves', ^^j3 h'r-0-leh ' to possess', ^'o|J t'r-ata-tna 'most excellent', £ ' £ jj^KLj p'r-ara-kan ' procession', ^j^'^ls p'l-aja-ran ' lesson, instruction ' ( see Pars. 84, 104 and 105 ). 62. ^ supplies the elision of \ before j or ^ at the be- ginning of a word when ^^ sa or s' ( a contraction of ^^1 I asa 'unity, oneness, one, a, an ') is prefixed, as f-jj-^ s^o-rang a man ', .^Q^'*' s'-c-kor ' a tail ', as well as by custom in I certain instances, as f^^^ matii-j'r for js-^] V^Xo maka u-j'r 'and he said", ci^^JoG^ m(u-Tk-i-tu ior c:^.' ^^j-» mari-ka i-tii * they, those people '. It also sometimes niarks the elision of X h initial, when the particles ^ m'ng and «ji p*ng are pre- fixed, as in jdLe m'ng-amhnr 'to sow, scatter ', but the retention of the 5 seems preferable, as ^x*^-* m'ng-ham' hur even though no trace of the aspirate remains in the pro- nunciation of the derivative word. It is used generally whenever such elisions occur. 63. Its use is advocated to mark the elision w^• initial, when that letter is dropped for euphony on the application of the particles ^-c m'ng and %t p'ng, as in ^ J^ m'ng-'rja *tO work' a derivative formed from ^J k*rja 'work'. It is sometimes so used by the Malays, but not generally, though [ 46 ] there are strong reasons for its employment.^ The particles }^ m'ng and -^ p'ncj appear to be closed syllables, and W f- be not employed in the instance ^iven, it becomes neces- sary to divide tlie ^ m'ng, and consider the word as ^Ji< ni'-ng'r-Ja, this is inconsistent with the pronunciation, which IS nVn(i-'r-ja the first and second being closed syllables, and this being so, the opening vowel of the second must, as we shall hereafter see, be borne on a letter or its substitute, and the proper mark is evidently f . To write the syllable alone it must appear either j\ or jS^ and we shall see that 1 is in- admissible. This will be still more apparent from another instance, from S"^ h'ml 'to know', is formed JUi^ m'tuj-'-nal here without ^ the word would probably be pronounced m'ng-nal, which results in the omission of an entire syllable. This reasoning is controverted by F.AVRE, and he has the support of the more general practice of Malay writers.f 64. Sometimes, placed after a weak letter terminating a word, it indicates that such letter takes the place of the nearly silent J or JS, as in ^^d) a-de for Jjl a-dek 'younger sister, or brother', -pUU ma-ma for jj^ ma-mak 'uncle, aunt' -^^^1 inche for jx>] incliek 'Mr.', and sometimes, placed over a weak letter terminating a word, it indicates that such letter is a substitute only for the vowel sign, as in ^^J^i^ ka-ki 'foot' for V^l^ ,in which cases it is called ^^^U ^^s> hvnzah ma-ti, but these uses of it are rare. * But see Ai^pendix A as to tliis and the ensuing observations, t See Appendix A. [ 47-] 6'^. Further ^ marks abbreviations, as in -^'J ta for fc>ujj iiya-c-d or JJ^ ti-dak ' not ', and -^J nd for J^i* handak wish, intend". ^^J^ l^c> jj^j^j j«*;^3 ^^IVJ fa aAvf/j pi-sang b'r-hU'tcali du-n-d kn-li 'The banana does not bear fruit twice' ( Prov.). 66. Lastly ^ as a substitute should be written slightly above the line of the letters, but otherwise as near as cir- cumstances will permit to the place of the letter, the elision of which it marks, and not in the rank of vowel signs and ortho- graphical marks, ex., ^^^^sSS ka-ada-an ' existence '. 67. \>LXc\ angka the Arabic numeral r ( 2 ). Used as an orthographical mark, and placed after a word, and in line w^th the letters, it signifies that the word to which it is applied is repeated, as i'^.'.j h:njk-hayk 'very good, very well'. The re- petition of words is very frequent in Malay, and is usually indicated by this mark, but its use will be better under- stood, from the notes on duplicated words below ( Pars. 127 ct seq. ). It is sometimes met with as the Arabic nume- ral t" (3 ), signifying that the word is repeated three times niaka s'gala khala-ik i-tupun m'ng-angkat-kan ta-ngan-na s'l-a-ya m'ng-ota-kan amln cimln amln 'and all the congregation (crea- tures) thereupon lifted up their hands whilst exclaiming Amen ! Amen ! Amen ! '. 68. The vowel signs and orthographical marks have been treated at considerable length, but from the prominence given to them, it must not be taken, that the writing of every word. [48] with all its vowels, and appropriate marks, is for a moment recommended, but written Malay will never be free from ambiguil}-, so long as they are totally omitted. Some words are easily recognizable in this state, but many must be de- ciphered by the context. Some words might be distinguished as y;^I tii-wan 'master' from ^;^ tu-nu ' burn ', cd^j hU'ivai ' to do ' from cs^^j hu-ta 'blind'. Proper names particularly, if unusual, ought to be written with all their vowels and orthographical marks, as also unfamiliar or foreign words. [ 49 J Section XI. NUMERALS. 69. The practice of writing from right to left does not extend to the numerals, which are grouped as with us. The European numerals are very generally known, and frequently used by the Malays at the present day, but the greater pro- portion employ the Arabic, which are as follows : — i r r i or >* c ^ I 2 3 4 5 6 ),, A c^iJ ,^ r' sa-tii du-ica ti-ga ampat li-ma anam or 'nam > A 1 ♦ ( , 789 O 10 /a.^' ^J^ or ^^:ij JLU4--- \1M\ or J-./ ^j^ tV'jok dvla-pan or la-pan^ samhi-lan angka or ho-sinuf s'-pu-loh • ' ir n r . ^' 12 19 20 s'-&7ff.5t du-wa-h'hi8 samhi-lan b'las dv-wa pii-loh 25 ^ ^)^ !;*> f/«-^';« />M-/o/< li-ma ' two tens, five ' 181 y^ ajy ^3 i^y-^l;- s'-ra-tus la -pan pti-loh sa-tu ' one hundred, eight tens, one '. >*iv 467 jcawy jcl^' ^] ^3]^ eL^iL,! ampat ra-tus anam pu-loh tu-joh ' four hundreds, six tens, seven '. '"♦^ 1309 i^Mf^*" L/^]; *— ^J^*" s'-ri-bu ti-ga ra-tus sambi- lan ' one thousand, three hundreds, nine '. V6 [50] The name of the first numeral is a compound of ^^1 o8(( signifying ' unity, oneness, isolation', and ^'.j ba-ta or ^ilj iva-tii ' stone', the latter word being employed merely as a symbol of numeration ; both yl**! sa-tit and <-2j1^^ s'-tra-tu are in common use. Many other symbols are em- ployed in numeration in place of ^i'lj ha-tu, such as S^} e-kor 'tail' for animals, ^xaI Sj^Xm s'-e-kor Vmhu 'one ox", and <^^ hn-icah 'fruit' ^J^ w ^i«^ tl-ga bii-ivah kapal 'three ships' *^9; *i^ ^1^ tu-Joh ha-icah ra-mah 'seven houses*. | 70. A system exists, the use of which is occasionally met with among the Malays, and which is known to them through the Arabic scholars, termed Js:s^' ahfd. In this the num- . bers are represented by the letters of the Arabic Alphabet in its ancient order, as follows : — I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 In this system the grouping is reversed ; ex. gr :— II 23 115 325 1891 but if the order be reversed, or mixed, the total remains unchanged. [ 51 ] Section XII. PUNCTUATION. 71. No system of punctuation, <:orresponding to our stops, is known in Malay. The subdivision of sentences depends almost entirely, as in our legal documents, upon the gramma- tical construction. This, with the fact that there is little or no declension, leads to a considerable amount of tautology. The beginnings of sentences or new subjects are, however, marked by certain conventional words mainly drawn from Arabic sources. These words are usually written in larger characters than the rest, and are employed without much regard to their actual meaning. They are called ^J^»■>*>^ simj^n-lan 'knottings' or ^^^jSjS yxj} i-ht jf'r-kata-an 'mothers of the discourse '. 72. The word in most common use for this purpose is the native ( ? ) word CX« maliu* which answers the purpose of, and is used with about the same frequency as, the full stop with us, though it marks the beginning, and not the end, of a sentence. It may be roughly translated ' and ' or 'now', but is mostly without meaning, c .^1 >JL>^ \JLX^ viaka ka-ta o-rang ' now people say ' 15^'w^ \j:jL£.\ji \, wLJu ^aIU y;^.'-j» viakat ' to test'. [ 52 ] ever, there are numerous instances in which a certain mean- ing seems attached to it ^Ji) ^*)^'^^-■>'^ »^« ti^^^^ i^^y**" f^ ^. h'lum krini/ s'tca-ta an yjfcji ^Ki>- ■jih:daw ta-ican im-fia 8uka maka h'ra-ni s'ha-ya ma-sok 'if my master wishes it, then certainly I dare enter', ^^>} ^^ i*^**" eii^'ti cLA^ ^i) yjU c^^l o-rang ma-na i-ni maka da-pat samimy ka-rfu-nong i-ni ' what (manner of) man is this, that he should be able to reach this mountain ', j^rt^^M*^ k1X-« maka di-p' r-o-leh-na ' in order that he may obtain it ' (lit. ' that it may be by him obtained '). 74. The word viL« , as marking the beginning of a sentence or paragraph, is found preceded, in an indiomatic manner, bv a number of other words and phrases, which, in their turn, mav be used without it, as CXo J^^mj s'-h'r-mn-la maka ' In the first place', viX^ l^j hahwa maka ' Whereas', vi^ ^Ji^ Jjatta maka ' Thus, when that, until, in order that, according to, therein comprised', viLc y;1<^'i. sh'haddn niaka 'Moreover, thus it is that ', \^..^cs^^ n'si-hat ' Exhortation, a word of advice ', ^Ji^ k'l'ki-yan ' Whenever, so often as, there- upon ', ij^j^ arki-yan ' Moreover, further', ^J»«awj) istime- tya 'Especially', ^^f>i^ ada-pun 'l>iow', J^^^j h'r-mu-la, or J^r**" s'-h'r-mu-Ui ' To begin with ', ^^'^^y■\ci short for hahwa s'sungguh-ua 'Though verily', J^ti dan 'And'. ^?lilUMi s'ha.gay-lagi ' x\nd simiJarly ', J^aj^'^ s'ha- gay-pu-la 'And so also', yL.jS.j^'L^ s'ka-li-2)'r-s'ta-a 'Former- ly '. Besides these many other forms will be met with, ex. [ 53 ] \ maka di ch'rtra-han o-rang yang ampu-na ch'rtra i-ni maka ada-lah. 'The narration. Now It is related by the person whose relation this is, how that there were &c.' 75. The termination of a paragraph is mostly marked by I ^\d) ada-na, and of a subject very often by i^) iw i'mmat iiUcissat 'end of the story', or some high sounding Arabic phrase, such as t_^>UJ)j ^^J;^^ -^^J^J ^^^r^'^ ^^ ^^J \ wallahu aalam hiss'wah ivalai-hil mara-ja walma-ab. 76. Official or formal letters mostly begin with isj} ^JiJ ^ i baJma i-ni warakat ' Whereas this epistle ', followed by high sounding expressions of sincerity or humility, called .fr^^J or ^Jj^s^ piiji-'pnji-an 'compliments', with the name, address, and titles of the person addressed, and of the sender. The opening of the subject matter of the communis t a ^ Hi cation is marked by such words as A>o U amma-badu, or ljs*Jj icabaddn, but commonly written sAxjj icabaadah meaning ' after, and now, furthermore,' to which the Malays often add superfluously ij>.^*^ k'mdi-yan ' after'. The date comes last, and the end of the letter is marked by such expressions as ^KjI Ju3 V mmoAid-kaldm ' the end of the discourse or writing'. [ 54 ] Section XIII. SYLLABLES. 77. >'.=:* hijd or ^} e-ja signifies 'letter of thfr Alphabet', and in Malay also 'syllable', and ^^^ m'ng-eja or ^U:^ m'ng-heja 'to divide into its component parts, reduce to orthography, write or spell a word'. 78. Every syllable must begin with a {^j^ri '—(;*" httiruf h'r-ba-ris, whether it be a strong, or a weak letter, ex., e:jo 3 ka-ia 'to say', ,w*j h'sar 'large', CL^^jl o-hat 'medicine', ^fcAAJ yam-tu-ivan 'ruler', cu.. w'rta 'news'. The only exception to this rule is when such a letter is deleted, and its place is taken by > , »/>«Jfc hamzah. 79. Those words, in which a long a alone forms the initial syllable, as in ji\ a-y'r 'water', look at first sight like excep- tions to this rule, but are not so in reality, for, as we have seen (Par. 52. ), the I should bear the mark SA^ maddah ( " ) indicating that it is equal to two alifs, the first \j*'J^M h'r-ha-ris and the s.econd tX^u- i^*- ^uruf madd, and the word being equivalent to jjII or A^ . 80. The almost invariable omission by the Malays of the vowel signs, and orthographical marks, has led to the latter form being adopted for a large number of words, such as ^cjjs> lia-ri 'day', yU ha-Iaw 'to'^drive', and a very common substitution of « h for 1 movable, as in (JjJb he-la 'to draw', ^y^ hu-lit 'head', and many words are written indiscriminately either way, as ^} a-yain or >jlfc Jia-yam [ 55 ] fowl", ci^jl u-liU or ».:iJyb hu-lat 'worm, maggot' VS-Jl uiita or c:,^ hnnta 'camel'. 8i. It has been stated that every Malay syllable must begin with a ,^_^'oyj u- >js»- ktiriifh'r-ba-ris, and in those words beginning with 1 it is absolutely necessary, for the purpose of writing derivatives correctly, to discriminate between ^-y'o^ w-aJ] alif b'r-ba-ris, and X* i_iJl alif maJd. The I marked with ' is equivalent to two (difs, the firSt ^jy^ji I'v-ba-ris or a mere fulcrum to carry the vowel 'X^r*^ fat-hah, the sound of which is prolonged by the second ) . Custom forbids the use of s^a* hamzah be- fore Xo ' — all a/?/ wmrf(/ as an initial, yet such a practice would tend to perspicuity, and obviate any difficulty as to spelling, ^^llen a particle is prefixed ; thus if instead of j^) a-j'r 'teach', were written t^^^ , it would lead at once to the derivative t^'^^ m'ng-a-j'r ' to teach ', in which the ' is omitted. ( Bi/f8«« Appendix A ). 82. An alif initial, and not marked, nor supposed to be marked, with ', is ^j^hji b'r-ba-ris, and may carry either of the vowel signs. In this case, as we have seen ( Par. 60. ), Malays call it ^AJb hamzah, and it should bear that mark, as in ^_^^ arti 'sense, signification', ^^^\ 'ngga}^ *to refuse', po) untotig 'profit, gain', -^j , we have in the latter instance ^j^^ and this leads at once to the correct derivative [ 56 ] Jfar***^* m'ng-unjok, and it will be observed that the > retains tlie vowel sign, which the \ had in the radical word. 83. It will be seen, therefore, that \ and ^ are of equal value, but they cannot be used indiscriminately. 1 can in general only be used as initial in a radical word,* and when a particle is prefixed (other than H di, y, b'r, l>^ b'l, y t'r, jS p*r, or Jj p'l ) it disappears, and its place is taken by ^ , thus from ci^n^J ampat 'four' is formed \jlJ^ ka-ampaf /the fourth' ; from \.:l^\ umpai 'calumny' ei^XJi^ m'ng- umpat 'to calumniate'; and from Js^l injak 'trampled, trodden down' Jls^^ m'jig-injak 'to trample down'. This explana- tion also accounts for the elision of \ as in ^jj*^ s'-o-rang 'a person', &c., as noticed above (Par. 62). 84. It has been before observed that custom allows the re- tention of \ when following the particles t) di, y h'r, Jj h'l, fJ t'r, J p'r and Ji" p'l, as in ^^^y h'i'-o-leh 'to possess,' etc., but even these will be found at times in the older works written with > , as J^^^y and it would appear to be more systematic so to write them. 85. From these remarks, it will be obvious that every vowel sound must be borne upon a letter, or mark repre- senting the elision of a letter, and there are three letters, and one mark, which can be used for this purpose, and the sounds ' Compare however end of Par, 55. [57] of which are practically (and in the case of two of them, \ and > , entirely* ) imperceptible. The letters are ) ,^j*^Ij.j ( all alifh*r-ha-ris, c ain, and » //, and the mark is ^ s^aA luDiizah. Each of these may carry any of the vowel signs and sounds, and one or other must be employed whenever it is necessary to represent a vowel sound, not borne upon one of the letters which has a definite and distinctive sound. It has been already pointed out that > is but an abbreviated c ain. 86. Syllables are divided into two classes, open, and closed syllables. It is customary to make a third class, that of mixed syllables, but this does not appear necessary for the purposes of this work. 87. An open, or pure, syllable is one terminating with an open vowel sound ; of this nature are the syllables of d;!^ ka-ta 'to say', viAj-i" tl-ga 'three', ^^^^, hina-sa 'destroyed' »j^i ti-ru 'copy', ^rl^J hinca-ya 'crocodile'. It may be either long, like the penultimates in these examples, or short, like the remainder. Beyond the case of the coalescence of a vowel sound with the weak letter quiescent, and forming - hm-uf madd, there is no certam indication whether the syllable be shortj or long. An open syllable penultimate is usually long, but from this must be excepted : — 1st. — Syllables having the vague or uncertain sound ' as * Jilany Malays who have studied Arabic contend that hamzah like ain indicates a guttural pronunciation. This, though true in many instances of its application in Arabic, is not correct as regards Malay. The contention, however, affords a good example of the disadvantage of the indiscriminate adoption of a foreign system of orthography, and of the errors likely to arise if definite rules for its adaptation are not laid down. [ 58 ] in o^ h'n'il 'to recognize', J.L h'^id 'correct', <)clj t'lah 'past', ^i* ui'nang 'win',
    '/m< ' tired', J.*- s'lam 'dive', *-ct^ (VuKim 'lever', ^-^j^- j'rat 'noose', .^^J Vriis 'through', \^j>S.i h'his ' imprint, foot-mark ', CL^ii p'rat ' belly ', U) ma-nikam 'rubies, precious stones', ^^J^ ka-rana 'for, on account of. The tendency is, however, to assimilate such words to the Malay, and the latter is now commonly written ^^^J kara-na. 88. An open syllable ultimate is generally short, nor are the cases, in which (as noticed above. Par. 46) modern custom allows the use of the quiescent weak letter final, as a substi- tute for the vowel sign, exceptions to this rule, as in ^ajJ U-pu 'to deceive*, ^oU' pa-du 'solid', y.>j^ s'rhu 'to sur- prise', is*^ji h'r-henti 'to stop, be stationary', t^^ji b'ra-ni 'bold', i*^"^ hinchi 'to hate, abhor'. But when the [ 59 ] penultimate has the indefinite vowel * open, the ultimate is generally long {sec Par. 47). 89. A closed syllable is composed of two letters, the first having a vowel sign, and the second rendered mute by *3- jazm. Of this nature are both syllables of \::^a.43 t'mpat 'place , i)^ panggil 'to caW, j_^Ja5 pindaij 'clever, ^.^ k'rhaic 'buffalo', ^! aiitok 'drowsy', ^^a^I umbun 'dew', the first in ^liJ Vntu 'certain', i_/*^ hangsa 'nation, race', the second in **::--^J i-kat 'bind', and ^^^yi bu-jok 'flatter, soothe, persuade'. qo. No closed syllable in a native Malay word should have a letter of prolongation of sound, or »X-< *~~*p" huruf madd .* The breach of this rule is the most common cause of discre- pancy in Malay spelling. Two words, however, are almost al- ways written with the letter of prolongation of sound, viz., ^J^ pun 'also', and ^;'j dan 'and', but even these will be found in the older writings ^^ and ^^ii , and more correctly, for there is nothing in the pronunciation to justify the modern innovation. The rule, as above stated, refers to the native words only; in those cf foreign origin, the weak letter quies- cent is often found in closed syllables, whether for the purpose of defining the vowel sound, as in i (in accordance with the rules, which we shall proceed to deal with under the head of 'Suf^^xed Particles'), he would have l^ ja, the first syllable, loose its letter of prc- longation of sound I, and would divide the second syllable .^ u.J^ giving the ^ another ^ , as letter of prolongation of sound, and causing the . to unite with the particle, and form with it a separate syllable ^ ki, ^,^. m^n^awu-kL This may be well as a theory, but it is not consistent with the practice of the Malays themselves, nor does the pronunciation justify the treatment of these words as dissyllables in this manner. 92. Malays appear to pronounce them as monosyllables and generally to subject them to no change by the application of suffixed particles, except that, with the particles ^> an and ^^ /, they exchange a f^nal J , if the word ends with [ 61 ] that letter, for CJ , and consider the aJ^ jazm removed from the final letter. The words of this class, at least those which commonly receive particles, are few in number, the chief being jJo ho if k 'good', x.lsw jaivh 'icLv', e-ryj Imvt 's^^'j iji} layn 'other', ^^>U may a 'sport', and ^U niyh 'to ascend', which Malays write in their deriva- tive forms, as in ^ioU^^ m'm-hay-hi 'to repair', JfcjLsA< m'n-jair-hi 'to recede' (Fr. eloigner), Ji^t law-tan 'seas', ^j/AjJU m'layn-kan 'except' (or ^^^a^^U ), ^J^^Ji Vr-lay-nan difference', ^^.'^3 p'r-may-nan 'sports' (or ^^J-J^^J ), ,^M ka-nay-kan 'the mounting' ; and this appears to be the Drthography recognized by Marsden (who considered them nonosyllabic), though both ^^ U , and ^JX^J^ , appear in his dictionary, as also ^J^^ (and this is the way tiiis \Aord is per-* laps more commonly written). These words must therefore )e treated as exceptions, and their orthography would seem demand that the 3rd and 4th letters in the radical shonld )e considered as (*Js^ji h'r-jazm, as J^.'o !5j'^ l2_>.^ ^i >9 ' CO ^ ' " ' ^,jU and j;jlj . The second letter would appear, by the pro- umciation, to be J^ i—s^s.- huruf madd, but to be simulta- leously used as ^j-^i'-J^J "—'/=" huritf b'r-ha-ris to support he second long vowel. The Malays do not appear to :ave settled what sign should properly accompany this second etter, but It is evident that, failing its being followed by fi I^Bnentioned above (Par. 41), something is necessary to istinguish words of this nature from those, in which similar 2tters occur, without forming a diphthong, as P;'J' im-ivang [ 62 ] 'a hunter', ^jj pa-yony 'an umbrella', isJ3 pq-yah 'difficult', jU^ ja-iva 'Java', &c., or »jU saivh 'anchor', from »jl>- sa-u-ah 'paddy field'. We have seen that in some instances Malays have obviated the difficulty by making the words bisyllabic, as ^a'o ta-liu 'to know', ^aU ma-hu 'to want', and instances arc met with in which c aiii is used to Support the second vowel aA^J JS) >^~^'w« ^] y^^ maka i-ya ptm ma-u-lah ma-Fo aga-ma islam 'and he was' desirous of entering the religion of Islam'. 93, It was at one time considered, and enunciated as an infallible rule, that ' there is no word in the Malay language consisting only of short pure syllables ', and that ' when all the syllables are open, one must contain a A^ < — »»»- huiuf madd'. If this proposition be accepted as correct, and we think that theoretically it should be so, then it is necessary to account for the spelling of the words J^ ada 'to be', ii»j pada 'at', tlA^ maka 'now', i—sl apa 'what'^ ji) d'ri 'from', jpi agama 'religion', Ji^ s'gala 'all', *j1 atama 'chief, principal', ciA*w suka 'joy', CJo duka 'grief, v.^i^»- chita 'sensation', &c., and to obviate a breach of it, the final letter must in each case be considered as accompanied by the sign Jji^Aj t'shdld, making these words equivalent to adda, padda, makka, appa^ d'rri, agamma, s'galla, atamma, sukka, dakka and chitta, respec- tively. Modern practice has removed the dfficulty with regard to some of them, by making them conform to the general practice, and placing a 6', ^ ?'/• or CLJ /', y ^)V Ji ^)'Z or *w-j ;>', CJ or ^^ A?^ and ^^ /tttit;, CLASS 4.— Jl 'I, nl, il or aZ. 95. From the number of changes, which the particles ^ on' and i— * j^* undergo, according to the initial letter of the radical to which they are prefixed, and their effect Upon such initial letter, they are the most important from an orthographical point of view. Though appearing somewhat complex, these changes in reality present little difficulty, for, as soon as the ear is accustomed to the Malay sounds, the tongue forms most of the derivatives correctly by natural selection. 96. The following are the rules which govern these changes, as formulated by Favrr ; they are based uponhis Natural Alphabet of the language, as given in Tables VII and VlII above, to which the reader should refer. It must be re- marked that the euphonic changes of these particles consist in the addition of the nasal letters. * See note under Section XV. Par. 113. [ 65] RLLE I. — Take the nasal of the same class as the initial of the radical, and, RULE 2. — If the initial letter of the radical be hard, delete it (but if soft, retain it). RULE 3. — If the initial letter of the radical be a nasal, liquid, or seInivo^vel, use the particles a m' and 4_5 p'. RULE 4. — When the radical commences with a vowel sound, or 8 h, use the nasal c ng. RULE 5.— With the sibilant ^j^ s, take the nasal ^ il, and delete ^J>H 8. N. B. — With the palatal class, the nasal ^j « of the dental class is more commonly used than m it, and in this case, the hard ^ ch is presersed. 97. The application of these rules will be seen in the following examples : — Ci.'^ Ica-ta ' say ' cl>'A« m'nff-a-ta. \^_/-j^ f/a-ris ' scratch ' ^^j^JSJi.^ m'ng-ga-ris. cjs. nfja-rung ' grumble ' ^J"^ in'-nga-rung. ^^^.s^ in'n-ch'ha-ri. ijj^^^ m'n-ja-ga. J'w»^ m'na-la. 8;o ta-roh ' place ' 8,'a< m'na-i'ok. ^*3 dengar ' listen ' ^Jo^ m'n-dengar. j.iij nanti ' \\2i\t' t^^^* m'nanti. lKj^' _2^j/-A-?^< m'm't-sol:. «-->U ra-ha ' feel ' S-'^r* m'ra-ha. s^Ji la-ri ' run ' u^ m'hi-ri. cl;.) ?(;'/-^(? ' news ' '^-^jy^ mUv'rta. ei-^^ angkat ' lift ' e;,^kiii^ m'mj-angkat. »Jl*U m^ ng-arapiina-i, contain- ing three nasal sounds in the first part of the word, and the deletion of that of a different class seems to follow naturally. Further exceptions consist of, (i) the retention of the hard initial of the radical, (2) the deletion of the soft initial of the radical, (3) the employment of the nasal « ng before [ 67 ] ^ ic. The latter is explained by the j ?r at times in foreign words, partaking of the nature of an aspirate, as in the English ' which '. 99. The following is a further explanation of the employ- ment of these particles : — ^^^< in'n may precede words' with the initials -^ j, -. c^, and J f/, as in ^<'.s^ m'n-ja-nui ' to feast ' e:^lsr^ m'n-cha-bnt ' to pluck out ', iSiSXt m*n-tU-deh ' to boil '. It sometimes precedes cl; t, as in iiSxxx-c m'n-ti-tah ' to order'. «-« m')i(j is used before a vowel sound, an aspirate, and the letter CJ r/. as in ^sj-'Ji^ ?yt'«//-fl-;'r ' to teach', a^xi^ m'ng-u-pah 'to hire", ^jjj^*^^^ m'ng-hampi-ri 'to ap- preach, ^^-<==s*^* m'ng-Jf^adVrkan ' to make ready ', j^^a'oJ^^ in'ng-g'na-}ii ' to complete '. The 1 initial should be omitted in all cases, except when it should, in the radical, bear the iS^ mad(h(h. and its elision is better marked by ^ • lUii^ vi'ng- antok ^ io doze, sleep ', .<>>iiro m'ng-i-ddr ' to revolve ', but if the ^ should properly bear the mark in the radical, this mark is, according to Malay custom, omitted, but the 1 is re- tained, and it would seem more correct that it should be pre- ceded by > , and so from wL)1 a-kii ' I ' is formed yll»to m'ng- a-ku 'to acknowledge'. We shall see later that, by the application of suffixed particles, the initial ^ may lose its »J^ maddah, and the suffixed particle having removed one half of the duplication indicated by this mark, the prefixed particle disposes of the remainder, leaving only > in its place, hence we find ^jf^^SJi^ p'ng-aku-an 'acknowledgment'. [ 68 ] The principle of tliis has been before explained (Pars. 81-3). Malays frequently omit also the ^ initial, and mark its elision by ^ , but this seems less correct, thus from (-*j'j6 ha-his is formed (^^-^ai^ )ii'ng-a-his ' to hnish ' [see Appendix A). A-o m'm precedes the letter *--? h -as in y}-^*--* m'm- ha-y'r ' to pay ', A^ ni'm-hii-noh ' to kill ', and sometimes though more rarely < — 9 p, as in ^J^^*^ m'in-pi-leJt ' to choose '. This is the form of the particle which is used wheti the radical has already received the prefix .s ^j'r. pa-tek ma-soh in'mj-a-dap ha-ha-wah dn-li )ii' m-})' r-s' mhah-kan hdl i-tu ' I come to your Majesty's feet and respectfully com- municate the circumstance'. A m' precedes the letters^ r, J Z, * m, ^J n, ^ w, and jAj il, as in i^^^jjr-* m'ro-sak ' to break, spoil ', (^j^oAaLs m'lintas ' to pass through ', ^^^Ia^ m'mati-kan ' to put an end to ', ^ being pronounced like s forms ^ n, aS in ^jCij'ji.* m'na-bit-kaji ' to prove, substantiate', but j^^Uulc 'ni*n-thsa-hit-kan is met with. ^ h being an aspirate takes ^ m'ng, 3iS ^^^dks*^ m'7ig-hiikum-kan ' to sentence' . ^ kh takes ^^ m'w, as (^^Cxiss^-* 77i'n-khatan-ka}i * to circumcise ,' but i^^isr* m'A-/i«Z/ar ' to recount ' is met with. i3 c^l I avi. shari-ful as'l 'noble race, or lineage'. Which vowel this should be, depends upon the case of the first noun, and if nominative it is ■* w, if genitive . f, and if accusative ' n, thus: — Nom. tjtM^J*^!;:^*^ ami-rul-mu-mini-na 'Commander of the Faithful '. Gen. L^'^' p'r. {See Appendix B). 111. ji j>'r, in general, marks the subject of the action expressed by the radical word, or, the receipt of such action or, the place of such action, whilst ^ p'ng gives the agent by whom the action is performed, the instrument used, or the faculty, the former partaking of a neuter, or passive, and the latter, of an active signification, and corresponding to nouns formed from a verb In English, by adding 'or' ' er ', as ' con- signor', 'seller', &c., as the former ( with J ) do to similar nouns, formed by adding ' ee ', as ' consignee', 'bailee'. If, in , addition to the prefix, the derivative take the suffix ^^f^ an, then a noun is formed, analagous to a participial noun in English, in the case of J p'r, corresponding to that formed from the past participle, as ' the taught ', and in the case of [ 75 ] p p'ng, from the present participle, as ' the teaching ', Thus, from j»-l a-/')* is formed w»-'Jl«^ m'nij-a-j'r 'to teach' , ysAji h'r-a-fr, or ^L b'l-a-j'r ' to receive instruction ' (hence often translated * to learn '), r»-'-i*^ p'ng-a-j*r 'the teacher ', ^»-a* p'l-a-fr ' the pupil, recipient of instruction ', ^n'^i*^ p'ng-aja-ran 'the teaching'. ^o;'-»-*» p^l-aja-ran ' the taught (matter), the subject of instruction", and, as we have seen, ' the place of the action, school '. And so, from *j»j bii-noh to kill", ^y^ p'm-bu-noh 'a murderer', ^^V> p*r-huno-han 'the killed'. From ^.^ hii-ru * to hunt ' ^.^AAJ p*m-6«-r« ' hunter ', ^^.Ji^J |)'jH-6wrt<-fl/t * the hunting'. f^»r^y p*r-buru-an 'the hunted, the game, the field' ada-kah pada Vinpat i-ni p'r-singga-Juin ba-gi o-rang gang h'r-Vlah pada p'r-jala-nan-iix ' Is there, in this place, a place of call for those who are weary on their way f' 112. In those cases in which the forms of the particles coincide, the student must examine the initial of the radical, and, if it would have undergone change had the particle ^ p'lig been used, but has not done so, then he will know that the other particle is employed. Thus ^]j^ p'-p'ra- M^ra/i is 'the field of battle', but i^^j^ p'm'ra-ngau is 'the battle, the fighting'. And so, u^jf*^ p'-suro-han is 'the ordered', but ij^;j^ p'nuro-han is ' the ordering '. The reader is again cautioned, that these remarks apply only to derivative nouns , for J p'r also marks one of the phases of the verb, whilst ii' p'tig always indicates a noun, and further, that these derivatives are by no means [ 7G ] regular in llieir formation, but sho\^- many exceptions mostly depending upon certain peculiarities in the meaning conveyed by the radical word. It may perhaps assist the reader to trace the meanings of these derivatives to explain that the particle y ]>'/• is in all probability taken from the Sanscrit pra (Latin jj/o. P>ench pour) and can often be rendered in English by ' for ', and hence, ij^Sj-.j^ p'r-biiru- rt« is ' a thing, or place, for hunting', i^^V^ p'-p'ra-ngan 'a place for fighting' ij^i'^\^ p'y-:uJii-an 'a place _/b/' repose ', i^\^y lyr-ara-kan ' a thing/o;' procession, a trium- phal car'. The same meaning of this particle is traceable through most of the derivatives verbs formed with it. If, in these cases, the radical word itself describes an act, the em- ployment to the particle mostly indicates, that the action does not proceed immediately from the agent, but through, or by, some other agent, or means, not named, thus from ^^^■*A himjnm ' to assemble ' is formed ^^CUa&^a^ )n'ni-p'r-hi)npnn- kan ' to cause to assemble (by messengers)'. But if the radical word describes an object, then the derivative verb usually means to do some act, not expressed, or render in a certain state, through, by, or by means of, that object, as ^^^^\jL*^ m'm- p'r-a-7iak-kan ' to beget, to cause to be with child, or bear '. And so, from <)Ua*w samhah which means either ' an obei- sance 'or 'to make obeisance ' is formed ^^a^J p'r- sanibdh-kiin meaning ' to do some act (not expressed) respect- fully, or with formal courtesies ' and hence it may mean ' to present, tell, offer, or receive &c.' ' to submit ' . [ 77 ] Section X\'. SUFFIXED PARTICLES. 113. It must be borne in mind that the tendency in the language is to place the accent on the penultimate syllable, whether in the radical, or in the derivative word, and, if the penultimate be an open syllable, the i\^ '"^r*" ^ii^'vf madd, or letter ot prolongation of sound, will generally be found there. If, however, in derivative words, the penulti- mate, or any intermediate syllable, be closed, the long vowel will mostly be found in the open syllable (if any) immediate- ly preceding such closed syllable. NOTE. — Though prefixed and suffixed particles are freely added to words taken from tlie Arabic, it is not usual to alter the orthography of the Arabic word in consequence of the appiiccAion of the particles. Except in the particulars from time to time noted (as in Pars. 29 and 162), it may be taken that such word undergoes no change by their application. The suffixes ^^f^ an and ^^^ /, however, would render open a closed ultimate syllable, as 0^ hLahion ^J*^ hukuvian ' sentence, decree '. 114. The suffixed particles may be thus arranged : — " CLASS I. — ^;^ an and ^^ i or ^ i. CLASS 2. — ^J hin. CJ or J" /.-«. * or ^ mu, ^ ni, ^ lak, s^ hah, and i^ tah. CLASS 3. — Aj^ •//'/". 1 ^^^^^ t- Z/^"*^ kujala-ni a-tas-ila ' whereon I have walked ' {parcou ru) , from /<;^«) dii-ri ' a thorn ' (j^^j'^ duri-an ' thorny, the fruit of this name', ij^y^j (j^*^ ^J^Jt^ cyiM* rjj^j ^y po-hiui hii-ivah hu-wah s'p'rti duri-an dan ramhii-tan ' fruit trees such as durian and rambutan (lit. thorny fruit and hairy fruit)'. By the operation of this rule, an initial ) bearing the mark " *>y< maddah, loses that mark in the derivative, and from ttt-^ a-j'r ' teach ' is formed i<;'^^ aja-ri ; and from Jl a-tur 'to arrange', f^,^) atii-ran 'arrangement'. It has already been explained (Pars. 55 and 56) how these particles [ 79 ] affect a word, having a weak letter marked with JjJJiJ t'shdid, that mark being lost in the derivative word, thus from *J>J di-yani ' to dwell, remain, stay quiet ' equivalent 10 j*JJt> is formed ^;^^^^ ka-diya-man, iy**JU ^^l^^ c:,.X«J Vmpat ka-diya-nmn ma-nusiya ' a place of human habitation '. If the ultimate syllable of the radical be open, it should take a J^ ^j^ hnruf madd homogeneous with its vowel sign, fol- lowed by the mark ^ . Thus from cui^ ka-ta ' to say ', is formed ^^'Jd«-* m'lig-ata-i ' to tell ', and ^jViiyi p'r-kata-an 'words, speech'; from »^3 or »iil la-ku' action', jt^yX* )n'laku-i ' to cause to happen ', and »j;-S^ ^*^- laku-an ' behaviour '; from -.^' or ^_5=»-^ P"-Ji ' praise ' ^^^J^s:^ ka-pnji-an ' praises, compliments '. 1 1 6. It would appear, that in the case of »j.***^ k'srah or «Jt> hamzah might be re- placed by the mark JjiJJUj tshdjd, and the last mentioned two words might be written tjj^ kit-hikn-iran, and ^^j^sr" ka-pvji-yan. This practice is little followed by the Malays, but it seems to have been recognized in sonic words, such as, ^i'^ k'nidi-yan ' then, after ' t^pf^ s'k'U-yan ' all ' ^J^ halu-ivan ' bow, or prow ' and ^^j^d d'm'ki-yan ' such, so,' in *vhich the > is nearly always omitted. The use of an 1 after j as mentioned in the note to Par. 55 is much more common. 117. In radicals of which the ultimate syllable is a diph- thong, and which, for the purposes of this work, has been treated as a closed syllable, the same should follow the rule above laid down as to closed syllabi?.-^, and ^<>'J" pa-knij [ 80 ] * to use ', become j^.^* paka-yan ' clothes, things used ' ; tfL^ ki-hiw 'shining', ^;jK /jj7ct-?rr/« brightness'. This is, however, not strictly followed by the Malays, and one often finds such spellings as t^^j^ and ^J^^ kilmv-an &c., even in the best writings. 1 1 8. Those words containing a diphthong, but consisting of four letters, the first and final being strong letters, and the 2nd and 3rd weak letters, seem, as has been noticed (Par. 92). to undergo no other change, than the carrying of the final letter on to the particle. N. B. — It must be remembered that there is this difference between ^^^ an, and ^f^ ?, that the former is a closed syllable, and acts as a stop, and the addition of sub- sequent particles, makes no further change in the orthography of the derivative word to that point, or of the particle itself; ex. gr. i^^AJf^^J^J p'r'kata-an-mu-lah ' your -words', but that j^^ i, being open, will, if followed by another particle, itself become the accented syllable, and lose its effect upon the ultimate of the radical, so far as the giving it a 1^* t^^jSf ffiO'uf madd is concerned. Thus, from ^jJO ki-j'im * send ', is formed ^^iSH.^ m'ng-iri-jni ' to send ' ^l^y^> di-kirimi-na * there was sent by him ', and from ^^^\^ ka-ta * say ', ^^'oii.* m'ng-ata-i, AAlSd di-katai- lah 'there was said'. It must also be borne in mind, that, though the letter ^ is usually written when the particle ^^^ is employed, it is so, in accordance with common practice referred to in Par. 46 above, but would appear to be more correctly represented by the sign s^ [ 81 ] k'smh placed under the final letter, if that letter be employed as a consonant, or under the ^ , if the final vowel has be- come prolonged by A^ '— V^ hitruf vtadd, and so, it would seem more correct to write ^j^ than ^_y«j.ii^ , and VJT than j_j-^^ , for in these cases it does not appear necessary that the final vowel sound should be prolonged by ,\- t-J.s*- huruf madd. 119. There is one more change to be noted as caused by these two particles, viz., that following a syllable closed by li' A-, this letter is exchanged for CJ , thus from J^S ko-tok ' curse ' is formed ^j^y^ ka-loto-han ' curse ' (pas- sive), and ^^xLe m'ng-oto-hl 'to curse'. There seems no reason for this change, unless upon the supposition that 1^ k is a definite sound with the Malays, whilst ^j k final, as used in the primitive words, is indefinite, and often nearly silent and, in that state, unfit to receive a vowel, but the practice is universal. It certainly tends to raise a diffi- culty for the student, in discriminating between the particles ^J'^ an and ^^^ kan, and it is very common in Malay writing to find such words as ka-ham-kaji written ^^^^^-{^ instead of ^J^•:^J^ showing that the Malays themselves find a difficulty in distinguishing these two particles, and often ren- der their sentences ungrammatical by such mistakes, for the meanings are widely different ; ex. gr., f^^^-^^y p'r-ana- kaii means * the womb ; the offspring, race, the begotten ', hut ^^A^M 2)'r-a-7iak-han, ' to engender, beget, begotten' and ti/'j^^ 2)'r-ara-kan means ' procession ', but {^f^yj* p'r-arak-kan ' form or carry in procession '. Similar [ 82 ] - mistakes are often made with the parliile ^^ , and one often finds ^Co>«.^ m'lii-haij-ki ' to repair, make good ' written ^^Xib'^x^c* )n'in-b(Vjl>-hi, wliich would be meaning, less, for there is no so such particle as ^J hi. 1 20. With regard to the particles ^J^ kan, v^ or ^ ka abbreviation of y^^ a-kii ' I, me, mine ', * or yt, mu abbreviation of ^- fyurnf niahl. S3 far, the rules are simple, and lead to a spelling consistent with the ordinary practice of Malay writers, but wh^n we come to deal with thv: effect of the application of these particles to radical words, having both the ultimate and penultimate syllables open, some little difficulty occurs. The rule which has met with most approval by European writers, and it is easy to quote from Malay writings in support of it, would seem to be, that the ultimate should take a cX-o ( — j^ hnrnf mndd and the penultimate become short and lose its ^-c < — ijs- hnrnf muld (if any), and, if consisting of ^ , lose the mark " . The fol- lowing are examples of derivatives formed in accordance with the above rules: — from ci^^l (imjlat 'lift", ^^Cikcl aiirjhat- han ' cause to be lifted ' ; from '^i\ a-nah- ' child ' CAoJl or Saj\ a -nak-hi ' my child', ^;1 or »-«Jijl a-uak-mn ' your child ', ^Ji')' (i-nik-na ' his or their child ' ; from CI-^vJ [ 83 ] j-Ah^ follow, accompany'. ^^^} i-kitt-lah 'follow', ^^^^} i-kut-kah or SJuL) i-kut-tah ' follow ?' ; from c:^ij pinta request, ask for', j^^'juS" plnta-kan "to ask for', CJ'oia or y'jus pinta-ku ' my request ', J>i« or yo3Ji pinta- inu 'your request', (*j'^' pirda-iia 'their or his request' AiJuS pinUi-kaJt ' is it a request ? ', 'is it asked for ?' ; from CL.;!^ /.vf-f(f 'say'. ^'^ kata-kan 'to say, give out'; from ^JS\s^ jii-di 'become' ^^Ss- jadi-kan 'to create, cause to be'; from ys^ ki-chu ' to cheat' ^^* or /^' kuhii-ka 'my fraud', j*)^* tic'A«-na ' his or their fraud ' JOjsr** kichii-kah 'is it fraud?' The application of the rule appears, however, to lead to results, in the latter in- ?tances, which are not quite satisfactory, and which are so much at variance with the practice of the Malay writers, that it seems necessary, that the rule should be in some way modified. But considering that the rule has been accepted and confirmed by almost even.- writer of autho- rity on the language, it is with very great diffidence that a suggestion is offered, that this treatment of the radical words, having both penultimate and ultimate syllables open, even though supported by such an authority as MarSDEN, is questionable ; some instances of such orthography may occur in native writings, but they seem to be more theoretic deduc- tions than actual phonetic spellings of the words they repre- sent. A more feasible deduction from a general study of Malay writing, and from the accent given by Malays to such derivatives, seems to be that, if the vowel sounds of both * Questionable. [ 84 ] syllables are liomogeneous, the accent is changed to the penultimate of the derivative word, as in ^JS^ kita-na ' he said ', e)^^ cliudiu-na ' her grandson ', ^,id diri-na ^herself', but that, if the vowels are heterogenous, the radical preserves the A^ *— '7^ ^m'"/ madd in the penultimate, unless the sound be that of the vowel ^^^ fnt-J^ah. It is truo however, that the weak letter in the ultimate of the radical is commonly inserted upon the principle stated in Par, 46, but it would seem that this spelling is conventional, and that the weak letter, in the ultimate of the radical, should, notwith- standing the suffix, be still considered as a substitute only for the vowel sign, and not A-^i >^ hio'itf madd. In the following examples the vowels are liomogeneous •^^^J e)'^'^A vJ'^'^y"' ^ J^ ha-rang i)^r-hata-an i/an[i di- hacka-ni i-tii ' whatever words were so read by them ', ^^W' ijt^*^ ii)>?^ ^—^^ »^-U> m'nengar ka-ta chuchu-nt d'ra'ki-yan i-tii ' to hear her grandson so speak ', i^j*^ ij^^ '^^^ *-^^.' ijy. i^'^V^ {i)J^ Ica-rana cWhii-i/a hu-lan i-iii tiya-da ch'lia-ija diri-ii i ' for the brightness of the moon is not her OAvn brightness ', ^^jaJij ^^a^ kjlj.^ s'rta m'm-ha-wa hini-na ' bringing his wife with him ' ^Jji) ^^^y^y ^JJ'*' *^^ j*"^***^ '^^ '^^^1(^'<^ di-U-hat pada shi-na ada s'o-rang p'r-ampu-an du-duk ' he saw b)- his side (there was) a woman sitting'. But in one phrase we find jA;'a^ kata-na and ^^^ gii-naiia, and in another {*)^^j raja-ud and j*jli^ ru-pa-ni, these seem to show that a distinction should be made in the case of heterogeneous vowels, and it would appear more correct not to employ the weak letter in tlie [ 85 ] penultimate of the derivative, but to write ru-pan.i ^Jji • Several educated Malays, who were consulted as to these words, held that the accent should not change in such words as the latter. It is apparently upon this principle that, throughout one entire book, we find the derivatives of ^i} i-ni "' this ', and e:-^J i-ta ' that ', written ^JJl ini-lak and ^^'^ 2^((-ttis ' to break off, cease'. ^^ /^^ Fr^ U'*'^y- '^'':^^- y^^"^! tiija-da h'r-putu- San ha-ra.^: (J s'bafiVr ju-ga ' which did not cease even for a single instant ', and i^jyj^'^' p'-totu-ran horn J^I to-titr ' to speak, converse, ' ^^^f^s^Js^ *— ^^ ^i^^ y^j9^ cJ^*^' '^^ ^d\ ^^iK,:L^i} yAJAjkj^-jaS maka ada-imn p'-totu-ran-mu i-tnlah ju-ga m'mtnjok-kan ka-p'r-chaya-an-mii i-tu ho-hong ado-na * furthermore thy conversation also proveth, that wherein thou trusteth, to be false', ^»^U«*^ ^♦'*' e>^ '^J^ "^J^ d'ripada p'jd Wula-cm-fia sampay ka-suda-han-iia 'from the beginning thereof even unto the end thereof, SJ^} JuuCi ^c^y^ ci^j./^Ks- jikalaw ki-fa m'lcdu-i ti-tak ayahanda ' if we exceed our august father's commands ', ^dJ^ .axaw (^'Ju*^ ci^SUA^ (w^^A^ly aJ^j 4^'*^*" topa-ya bK-Ieh" tii-wan-hamha m'n-da-pat ka-s'na-ngan s'-umiir hi-dvp ' that my master may obtain comfort for his life long', ^^•i) i^];*^ J" [j*'^y*' ij^'^^ i—si? g^nap hila-ngan s'ra-tus ka-li d'ra-ni i-tu 'complete was the reckoning of the hundred blows of his castigation.' 121, ^^> kan has the same effect as ^;^ ah (Par. 118) in closing the derivative word, and the subsequent addition of particles causes no further change therein, but with regard to y) At/, ye mu, and ^x) iia, they, like ^c^ i, being Open syllables, would seem to be liable, by the addition of subsequent particles, to lose their power to give a A^ ^j>- |ti(??// ??iac/rf to the ultimate syllable of the radical, and they may in their turn become long, in which case they must carry a S^ I — !j=- huruf madd ; thus, from ^so\ a-nak-ku ' my child', ^l^CsJl a-nak-hii-lah 'my child!'. As an instance of [ 87 ] three suffixed particles, where the first closes the derivative word, a^'wUiU^J di-kata-han-na-lah. The particles i^ lah, ^ hah, and ^ t^ I ij^ }f,uruf madd being found in the penultimate syllable of a word, whether radical or derivative, are caueed by the presence of closed syllables, and this should be borne m mind, throughout the comments upon the duplication of the radical, and compound words formed of two radicals. 123. tX>^ 'nda is a suffix applied in the courtly style to terms of relationship, &c. It is probably an abbrevia- tion of ScJjl indah signifying 'rare, precious, uncommon ', and this supposition is supported by the fact that these derivatives are often found written with a llnal S h saKj saaj iSJu^A ( iSla* adijlj da-taug-hh m'ng-a-dap fiyahauddh hondah hagindah ' came into the presence of the royal father and mother'. Its application is sometimes governed by the same rules as the first class of suffixed par- ticles, but in most cases a conventional spelling, with abbre- viation, has grown up. Thus, from lii a-nak 'child' is formed s'iiS' (inahanda, AajI a-nau-do, or sAxil afUi^i-I'ifi, c:^. cUCjl j^.i! »-.^«j eJ^-r^*^ di-hri-rm su-sii a-lcan anik- anda i-tn "she grave her breast to the roval infant', ^^/OJj» j^J (J^ Aill anak-da tiiig(iida ' mother ' is a corruption of %^) i-hu ' mother ' and J.j 'nda. sXi ^^d Ax^j^ js.U^ SSi tlya-da m'na-roh aynltondcb [ 88 ] dan honda ' not possessing father or mother ' ( io} a-yak 'father'). From Jfjl rt-f?g^- * younger brother or sister ' is formed cXJol adinda. From ^'^ ka-kak ' elder brother, or sister' tJo^ hakanda. From Jf-eU ma-mali 'uncle, or aunt ' J>jUw« mamanda. aKj haginda 'His Highness' is a corruption of ^__J^ h'hagTya ' beatitude, majesty ', and the same particle. iiS^ sanda ' I, we ,' appears to be formed by the application of the same particle to ^c^•'*• s^ha-yA ' ser- vant, slave ' (but used commonly as a pronoun of the first person). This term, however, is essentially different in its composition from the other instances given ; in them, the particle is used as a sort of qualifying adjective to the word to which it is annexed, but in iXiwj sanda the particle must be taken to apply to the personage addressed, and not to the speaker, and therefore, though ^^-^jj ayahanda might be translated ' August Father ' 61^ sanda must be rendered ' slave of the august (person addressed) ', and not ' august slave'. 124. It has not been thought necessary to treat the de- fining words ^^}. i-ni ' this ' and ei^j i-tii ' that ', as suf- fixed particles, though, if they follow a radical, the ultimate syllable of which ends in JUx^ fat-fyah open, they are usually joined to it, the only change which takes place is that the 1 is omitted, and its elision is marked by s;>o> hanir eah, asci^uia-!^ ra-ja-i-tn 'that king', ^^i^^]; ra-ja-i-ni 'this king', {j^jd^i,^ mariha-i-tu 'they, those people '. ^.^^M. ya-i-tu ' that is to say, that, that is ' appears, however, to be a convention. [ 89 ] 125. Similarly ^J^ jnin 'also' (but more frequently employed apparently as an expletive ) is commonly joined to a word preceding it, but in no case is any change in the ortho- graphy of such word caused. As, ^Jy^} i-tii-piin ' thereupon ', JclijLs ^jJb.'jb VifX« maka ha-ri-pun p'tang-lah ' the night came on ' (lit. 'the day eveninged'), aiit'JjJ ^^^ajuIG^ \y}S \JLX< maka l-ada-ica mari-ha-i-tu-pim dti-duk-lah 'the two of them sat down', «icl!' cXoi Jj^ -ytc ^J)^l; \^X< maka ra-ja-pun m'lig-u-chap- iih shn-kur hajjada allah ' and the king uttered his thanksgiving to God". And so also, as has been already remarked (Par. 107), %i yang ' who, which' is sometimes joined to a word preceding it, as, f^)^ o-rang-yang * person who ', but the practice is mere license of the pen, and is not recommended. [ 90 ] Sl-CTIOX XVI. intp:rposp:d particles. 126. 'I'lujse have no place in the ordinary Malay construc- tion, but a few words in which they occur, are in common use. Tlicy are mostly taken, or imitated, from the Javanese, and must be considered as distinct words for orthographical purposes. They mainly consist of the interposition of a syl- lable, after the initial of the radical, by means of one of the letters . r, J /, or * )n, which commonly takes the vo.vel belonging to the initial of the radical, and the accent, in accordance with the common practice of placing the latter on the penultimate syllable. In some instances the radicals have fallen into disuse, or only survive in a few districts. Exam- ples of interposed particles : — Jr**J" t'la-puJc from iS'j' tu-pak ' sole of the foot, or palm of the hand ', J^^^ i'bni' joli ' the index, or fore finger ', from Jf^"*^ iirnjok ' to point out ', d^j/ k'r'nnat ' to grind the teeth ', from Cl-^i^ k'n-niit ' grimace ', j"^^ fi'lincliir ' to slip ', from .=sr*^ ^i«cAir (not used), »J^ knna-ri^ kitli-Uiuf ' around ', from ^^ ku-llng (not used, though iy U"-^'"!/ Mo roll' is in common use), s.k-O ff'hin-roh 'roaring, resounding ', from ^jyi gn-roh ' a deep sound ', And several instances occur in which both forms are used to give a sense of intensity, reciprocity, or frequencv, as ^j.^^J ^JJ>^'i ta-riui Vmu-run ' descending (from generation to generation)', p-J^*^ ^■i^ (ji-hiuij (fm'i-hdnj ' shining, flashing (to and fro) '. [ 91 ] It may not be out of place to notice here, that when ^\ a-JciL * I, we ', Sc] (inglcaw ' you, thousand ^^1 i-ya ' he, she, they ', follow a word ending in an open vowel, or a nasal letter, the letter ^ d is often interposed for euphony, forming /!j du-hi, ^dj} di-kaw, and ^J di-ya, respectively. ^\^ ^Jjo Ct3 ^\sjS\j^U^ ^JcO'o— «. ^/l j ^^^iOJiJSJi) di-tinggal-kan-na da-Jai si-apa-hah m'mlihara-hui ( ^L^.U^ ) da-kt( pada ha-ri tuwa-ku ' (if) I be deserted by him, who will (there be to) cherish me in the days of my old age?' ^d iAjJo'-^^4> di-p'r-Jaha-ti-iia di-Jcaw '(lest) thou be evilly treated by them ', ^^J ^jCd \J:^^ jd'X*r^.j yuS t'ntii h'r- Jiimpa-lah ki-tn d'nfjan di-ya ' surely we shall meet with him '. But the form ^J di-ya is often used quite irrespectively of what letter or vowel precedes it, and the particle ^^ ila is but another euphonic change of the same pronoun. The use of the latter form is, however, more idiomatic, and it cannot in general be employed when it forms the subject of the action of a transitive verb. It is invariably used in the possessive, as ,*fc^X) ru-mah-iia ' his house ', ^^ n'gri-fia ' their country ' ; and in the peculiar impersonal, or passive form of expression so common in Malay, as, j*j^«-i>*-'i iji^ t^>^ di-p'lok-ua dan di-chi-ynm-na this would generally be translated * he embraced her and kissed her ' but would, however, be more accurately rendered * then kissed he , and embraced he '. [ 92 ] Sf.ction XVU. DUPLICATION OF W(3RDS. 127. The duplication of the radical is most often indicated by the mark CAcl aufjka r , as already noticed, ex. gr., rcj'i' hi-danrf ki-dincf 'sometimes'. Though such words may be, and often are, written at length and joined, as cjlilcj'i' , vet it seems preferable, in all cases in which they, if doubled, have the same orthography and pronun- ciation, to indicate the duplication by r , but, whenever the orthography and accent should change, to write them at length and joined. Malays appear to write them according to caprice, but with a marked preference for the use of f . 128. We shall proceed to consider how :— F'irstly, the isolated radical. Secondly, the radical with jjreHx, Thirdly, the radical with suf^x, - is dealt with. 129. If both the syllables of the isolated radical are open, each long syllable (if any) becomes short, and its vowel letter, or J>^(_j^ }f,itnif niadd, is dropped in the first part of th^^ doubled word, whilst the second part preserves its orthography; thus, from r J'} /^-/.i ' male ' is formed JK\* lakilu-hi ' husband, male ', from •rr]; ?""-J<' ' lm ,s'/7/ 'to call ', ^^J■i h" 1 ■ * Questicua'ilc. Imt ihimI. [ 03 ] jive ', prcnuncialicn would require, that the long vowel be jtained in the first part, and the duplication is therefore better idicated by i" as, t-t.^ s'ni-s'rii, ^ ^^J^> h'ri-h'ri. It ^ould seem also that, upon the principle stated in the note to Par. 1 20, those words having heterogeneous vowels in the ultimate and penultimate syllabL^s should be similarly treated, and that rjy hn-fla hn-da would be more correct than dyiSi huAaku-l(, and ''15*-^' 7^"-./' i^":/') ^^a" es?"^*?^ liuji])H-ji. 130. If either of the syllables, of the isolated radical, and so much the more if both, be closed, the duplication should be indicated by i- . ex. gr., ^ ? j^^ o-rancj o-?vr>ig ' people \ r^^J*.ilj■ pul.f'.a priksa 'forces', ru__Axij iatuikap tangkap I* catch '. 131. When both syllables of the radical are open, the f duplication is sometimes formed by merely repeating the first 'letter, as i«^ k'lii-rd for r.^ or ,<^S kiirahu-ra 'tortoise', and ^ ^J'^ I'li-ki ior r^^Pj or ^"^^ laki-^ la-l,i " husband, male '. 132. When the radical has a prefixed particle, the radical alone is repeated, and so, from i-iy^ hn-nolt ' to kill ', is formed rJcj^4.^ ni'.ii-hii-noh-hu-itoh, but if the initial letter i of the radical is strong, and has disappeared by the_- applica. tion of a particle with a nasal sound (Pars. 96-7), this nasal is preserved in the duplication, and from V-i hi-ranrj ' to set, compose, indite ' is formed r a J.ii^ or cj-^ t_J^^ nt'nrja- ratui >nin-)-(i)iir, and from >-y i>u-jt ' praise r ^^ ?"^'*"* * This luciilirti-itv supplies the principal argument against marking the elision of k in tlii-c v.on\< h\ luimach. See Pars. 6 and 100 above, and Appendix A. [ 94 J tfi'mi>ji-mu.Ji. A snailar effect is apparently produced u hen such a particle Is annexed to a radical, which both begins and ends with a vowel sound, and thus, from ^] c-lu is formed r^Ui* or ^iU, m^nge-lu-mie-lu, and from S\ ada SldX^ m'ngada-ngada, but where the radical begins with a vowel sound, but ends with ^J^^j uj)^ hmifh'r^ ja^ni, the radical alor.c is repeated, and r should be used, thus, from ^1 a-lh ' to flow ' is formed r^lU^ rn'mi-a-lir' «4?V, and from c:^?,f w-^«r fear, terror ', rv^^yi< ^n'ng^ U-fjut-u-gut. ^33' When the particle is to be prefixed to the second part, r cannot be employed, and both parts of the dupli, cated word must be written at length, and it is better that they be not joined. Thus from ^JS ka-rang is (ormed ^^-0 l^j^ ka-rang m'ng-a-rang, and from j!^' to-long ^ tV to-long m'no-long. The following quotation contains a number of exatr.ples .— adAiUl^ y^^ ^J^.^ ^,j ^^ b' <^''^ J"^^-- J-i' ^-^j e^-1 /i;i- c^.^j ^^>o ^^J ^4j JC^^^ JC=w/ J J ^^ ^y ^,^j^ '^.^^- ^^^^ &'t'l((h t'rbit mataha-ri maka ka-liha-tan-lah o-rang b'r-p'rang i-tu t'r-la-lu a-mat I'a-mag-na u-sir m'ng-u-sir dan y'rang m'm'rang tumbuk m'mimbiik ti-kam m'ni-kam dan gn-joh m'ng-gu-joh tamp'r in'namp'r t'ndang in'n'ndang dan im-la m'ma-lu sa-ma ma-ti-iia ka-diiiva-ila ' when the sun rose, there were seen the men engaged in battle, in exceeding crowds, pursued and pursuing, attacked and attacking, struck and striking, slapped and slapping, kicked and kicking, [ 95 ] beaten and beating, dying together, boih parties *. 134. When the duplicated radical is fo'Iovi/ed by one or more suffixed particles, the second part of the duplicated word should be subject to change following the rules already laid down for the application of suffixed particles, and, if the first suffixed ( particle applied causes no change in the radical, and the I duplication of the radical is capabl-^ without the suffixed particle of being expressed by r , thit form should be preserved, and the particles placed aft-^r the i* , but where the particle causes any change in i.e radical, then, though w ithout the particle, the duplication ?night be indicated by r , as rsXc mudah-mmJah 'very easily', yet with th« particle, this form should not be ^-rnployed, but the whole should be written at length, as ^^X^S*JbXt mmlah-mudM-han ' perchance, perhaps it may be tt. -.t '. The following are further illustrations : — r_ ii\ n-naTi-a-uak. jfc^r ij] a-nah-a-nah-u I. j^'Jl ijl (i-nak-ana-l.a.'.. j*jr (JXijfc) di-panggil-piua^il-il I. ^LxXiiiiXi'J di-puugg'd-p.incfCfi-li. p^;!'.?- j <— ^>- hiuri'/ macld or long vowel, ex. gr., ^J'^ mataJia-ri 'the sun', from ci^U ma-ta 'the eye', ^o'jt ha-ri ' of day', j|V* huluha-lang ' a chieftain, commander ', fron:i y^5> hu-lu ' head ', and ^I'o ha-lang a corruption of J'^ ha-la* ' people, soldiers ', 'Tr\i-* mdhara-ja ' great king ', from U« ?H«Aa ' great (superlative) ' and -.|^ ya-ja*k'mg\ j^l^Vc marah'ha-i/a ' danger, evil, misfortune ', from lU ina-ra and ^^'-^ h' ha-ya (syn.). It would seem that if the Vo\vels of the first word are heterogeneous, it should preserve Its primitive orthography, retaining the tX-« <— (;^ huruf madd (if anv), and in this case it is better not to join the two words. Ex. I'jbj-.'Jb ha-ru ha-ra 'tumult, disorder', ^U ha-ru 'trouble ', and .-i ka-ra ' disorder', (compare Par. 120), but the words ^JL^ii daka-chita 'grief' and c:^vs^'*' sitka-chita ' joy ' are more correctly written without the j . because as we have seen (Par. 93) the words CJd duka, and CA«^ suka. though usually written with j , should not properly have a * This is the etymology giveu by Favre, but there is a kind of two masted vessel called ba-lang, and it seems more probable that the Malays, being essentially a maritime nation, called the commanders of vessels by this term, and in time of war tliey would be important sectional commanders, whether by sea or land. [ ^7 ] long vowel, even when isolated. The modern practice is, l.owever. to assimilate these combined words to the Malav standard, and write vi^>s^j (Itihachi-tn. and \,z^Ji-::^~^ snh(- rhi-t(t. 136. If the first word has a closed syllable it preserves its primitive orthography, as u_ *-Xa«c.'.j ha-ratHf-siajut 'whoso- ever*. 9*'^i ha-hnj-rU'Wang ' hall of audience ' (lit. hall of columns). iJ'«*^W harnng-ka-U 'perhaps, very likely". j'jjL 5'jyj ta-(hi-pat-t'iii'i-il.y^»- chmhu chu-rn ' toying and chattering ', j**^ f*'*^ chumpaiiff champinti ' torn and ragged ', %x*3 ^»3 puntimj pantimj ' headlong sprawling". «^^ «Ia! lintaug ini-hang 'pell-mell'. iXil^J tnngnanij langgong ' topsy-turvy '. ^'a> p\ a-lang kapa-laug ' insignificant '. ^^jJ fjJJb hi-na di-na ' poor and lowly ". and many others. In addition to these the Malays are very partial [ 98] to the use of synonyms, and often borrow a foreign word, and use it in combination with a native word of nearly similar im- port. In these cases, however, the two words almost invariably remain separate, the following are examples: — J^l J^^ mu-la as'l ' origin, source ', (.^t^^J ij^ hbt.1 bti-di ' intelligence^ sagacity', ;,j-^Jy J^-^^ distil prcksa 'circumspect', j_^l*l ^^l^ da-ya iipa-ya ' device, stratagem, ways and means ', c:,^.**' *^' I'moJi Viiihut ' soii and sweet', d^ 5^^ j^s-^-^' Vlanjang hii-lai 'naked', ^jUi' *^!ij yatlm piyc-ta. 'orphan', j>S':d ^sij r'ndn d'ndam ' \owg\\\g\ . .^s aA^ sanda gu-raw 'jest', iuA ^ Ji'lu h'sah 'sigh ', \^^^^ - ,40. Where the derivative words are in as common use as • -f .- thPv are mo'^tlv found written correctly, the primitives, tne\ are mL>-.Li> [ 100 ] because \.]\:y have he.Mi handed d jam from thase, who u uler- stood the jji-iiiciples of iheir formation, but derivatives formed by the writer are, as often as lot, incorrect, from ignorance of the rules by which their formation is governed. The follow- ing passage occurs in the ilikayat Abdullah, after speaking of the many old writings and books he studied, and used as his models, he says:— ^3^^ y^\ xl^h) 'ij>^^ji «> ^^r^*^ ^Ilj {S< ^'j JUy ^Oj ^Ij JliJ ^-.[Q Jj JlLy- J>J.^^ ^^.'-o ^iJ J^ U^'y^ U "^ U ■^y'^ ^^-^XH, luaLa da-lum aliup in aiiiipa- naii yatifi Vr-s'hut iui lih a-kii p'r-o-l'li kn-haua-kaii sinipo-lau p'f-kafa-uii dan iict-t iii p'r-Jatti-nn d:in roif/kii/ p'r-huda-an dan r'nijk is-k III p'r-k tla-an d'ln I otjut-kin p'r-k it i-aii ' from the stores mentioned, I obtained many connectings of words, and bindings of words, and unions of words, and abbreviations of words, and prolongations of words', showing tolerably clearly that he merely copied derivatives, and did not analyse them. This short sentence contains at least 7 peculiarities of ortho- graphy, not to say of grammar, for which it is difficult to account. Correctly written it would read : — ^J^*'^ (»''«^ t-lAc ^^S'il ^j;b ^j-f'ay JiyJA.^ ^^j^ ^^yt yi\ ^;1 c:^._v^i ^; ^;'i«^ 141. And so throughout the book frequent variations and mistakes of spelling occur*. Nothing can possibly excuse the writing of '->-;->" for ^'-ic**" s'Jrx-i/iC ' servant, slave, ( used as a pronoun of the first person) '. Opening the book * Some of the errors may have arisen on the reproduction of the book. The edition quoted from is the lithographed one, published under the auspicc- of the Stiaitb Brauch of the Royal Asiatic Society in 18. '0. [101 ] 0*";^^^ cJ^*^ l*^* c^^'*^ //<'f-Aru/< 7/l/-/<» // (?«rt nrnn-lis; here are three words, each jjroperly having the long wel and accent in the open penultimate, and the ultimate -I each a closed syllable, with instances of the thre^ vowels, and for what possible reason should the last alone have a w eak letter in the ultimate syllable ? Nor is the author consistent in the formation of derivatives, for. in one phrase we find ^^l; rii-ja-tla (for ,*)'>^^ ) and j*,'^ Inma-na. \n one place we find kd-inhi-dii ' t- xistence ' written ^'^^ > , and two pages later ^^f^SS instead of ^^'j^i . Take another instance, \.;:^j.« J^jj y 'i ^t) Vv-ha-rmi'i dan i'r-i'tnr di dudam ■si-ugnpii-yd. 143. The student will however i\nd. that, especially in the older writings, a large proportion of the words are correctly and consistently written, and will find in tliem authority for the rules of orthography contained in this book, the excep- tions mainly tending to show, either a want of knowledge of rinciple, or a capricious departure therefrom. The phrases [ 102 ] quoted in this work are nearly all transcribed from books, and, beyond correcting the forms of the letters, the orthography has not been changed witliout sho^^ ing how the words were spelt in the original. 144. The following is a sample of Malay Orthography literally transcribed, followed by its equivalent in Roman letters, showing where some of the letters seem to have been VvTongly applied, and a translation. The same extract is re- peated in lithographed manuscript, and a few other specimens of Malay handwriting have been added: — ml,...) jdi' ^^1 ji^ 'ii} ^^ji ^j}^ ^^^ ^^:^^^^ Jj^'l ^-f j*;'*^'-* j£i^« ^^1 ^'J^ ^ji\ C^ ^^f. ^'i" J'i ^^y^ji ^J^Cjy] ^CJ ^.j.cl J^5 ^^^si^ L^^^a Ai^O ^^y ^«*J ^^.1 ^i;:^^l ^'.i^ lJ:< ^^'^ ^) Jyi J^-i ^- JrS'^ b^- '^v-^ ti;*'^"'^ P [ 103 ] \j^ xL^y SA^ jdjL. CJ.« ^j"^^ --'^- iicUliijJ U[« ktj'"^.?^=* Il'ttta b'bra-p(t lamn-na should be employed, ' Par. 29) d'ngun h<(}fk pa-ras-rui maha opahi-la di-li-hat o-hh o-nnifi h'r-ta-pa i-ft( n-Jcfin a-tiak-iut t'lah b'sar-lah mthi i-yx b'r-ki-lti ( eu ) kipatla i-^tri-ni adn-pun a-nak-ka i-ni pqrtitt- hih ki-t:i jyi'-siiicami-kiu d'ligia o-ranfj-ymg b'l'-kiara-si la-gi ga-gali b'ra-ni inakx o-ruuj b'r-ta-pa i-tu-pnn m'nuin^i n^ >■'-'• ] matdha-ri maka iya-piin da-t'Hig-lah maka ka-ta o-rany V ^ : i-tu nmbil-lah tu-ican-hamba a-kin a-nakhamba i-ni m'nja-U 'stri tii-wan-hamba maka jawah-na bii-kcin-na a kn kun\i-s(k of- ooodly appearance, and when the hermit saw his child was grown up, he said to his wife, ' It were well we married our child to a person of power, strength and courage ', so the hermit thereupon called King Sun, who came, and the hermit said, ' Let My Lord take his servant's child to wife", but In replied ' It is not I, who am powerful, but the Clouds, they can shut me in, and are more powerful thin I '. So he (the hermit) summoned the Clouds, and said, ' Marry m\ daughter '. But the Clouds replied, • It is not we, who an- po.verful, but the Wind, its power is greater than ours ', so he caUed the Wind also, but the Wind said, ' I am not powerful, however great the Wind mavbe, a single Mountain can arnst il ', so he called King Mountain, who said, ' I have no power, a single Mouse can rend me, it is he whose power is greatest '. So he called King Mouse, and uhen they had taken counsel, King Mouse was willing to marry the child, but said, ' II she become even as I am, then could I marr\ her. but at preseiu she is luinian, what would m\ circumstance be. married t^ her ? ' />sr I vij>* 6VVJjl>JC)^^Ji ^J^J Sy ja ^jU«*a! j^l iXJjl [ LijAi J LijU J^A^ ^Sb ^ju>M. ^^yA^ Jo^ (JUj'J jyj ^JJ3■ CU>,»*^ v-lA^ jJ^ lJjj ^1 rjj'j AJjl lJj'J ^^'^AM. c^J cJO^ ^JJ'.--J ^;^<;t)J Jtiwl^ jJU ^.J ^AJui' jib ty ■■ y> (V • . ~ y (^ - ^^! s^^ fc^jJ^-* u^"^ <^^^^ pj u^^' '^■^ '^■^ c^^.^'-^^ Cic'^ Jl^ ^^aj iit)'ja«jl diULct) j*;:^^;*'^ ^^cj ^^'-.«u-*iiJ ^^. .a'.A.^ o'aJ ^^C4i iCj^jiA^ c:^5b "ci^jI i-iJLc ^^^C Jljj. [ no ] 146. The Arabic system of orlhograpliy is intended to he strictly phonetic, but is too complex for a language of such , simplicity of sound as the Malay, and the attempt to apply it I in its entirety has had a result, which is not surprising when one considers the small opportunities for systematic instruction which have generally been available for the bulk of the Malay race. That a modified form of the Arabic system would have sufficed is probable, but no attempt was made to formulate one. The earlier writers evidently attempted to follow the Arabic, and knew, and understood, its peculiarities. As civilization spread, and the necessity for a knowledge of reading and writing became more general, the difficulty of teaching such an elaborate and refined system as the Arabic, more particularly as it was very unsuited to Malay, seems to have soon led to the omission of the vowel signs and orthographical marks, which are integral parts of the Arabic system, though the spelling dependent upon their use, and which, without them, is incomplete, continued to be used, and has resulted in what is little better than a shorthand of consonants. As elementary education becomes more general, however, the knowledge of the system upon which the Malay orthography was based does not appear to keep pace with it, and it may be said that, at the present day, a comparatively small proportion of Malays look upon the rudimentary principles of the Arabic system as part of the Malay orthography. From the slight means of intercommunication^ or for the exchange of ideas, and from the tendency of the Malays not to form large communities, and hence the [ 111 ] absence of any recognized seat of native learning, numerous conventions have grown up independently, some of them ! perhaps depending upon peculiarities of local accent and pronunciation, but more arising from independent attempts to remedy the defects of the existing system of orthography. 147. It is not difficult to understand that a person [ whose elementary education has not gone much beyond learning the letters of the Alphabet, and who hears them called ba, ta, &c., and not having been taught that the vowel is not necessarily part of the letter, will naturally assume that the sound of ' a ■ accompanies the letter unless the presence of another vowel be by some means indicated, and so, ; he will write correctly ^x»^ k'mbahg ' to expand, bloom, flower ', but will probably insert a j in the first syllable, and write ff in all these instances {see Pars. 55, 60, 61 and 116). (4.) To employ j or ^5 in any closed syllable at the discretion of the writer, in place of the vowel sign, whenever he may consider that it is possible the word may be mistaken, v/ithout it, for another, as ^_/**>Jy tii-lis Svrite' and \^^^ tu-lus ' sincere '. 151. It follows of necessity that any work, dealing with so indefinite a subject, must be open to a large amount of adverse criticism, but it is hoped that these pages may, at least, direct attention to a very interesting subject, and, in praying for leniency for their faults and imperfections, the reader is asked to remember that no one can be more sensible of their incompleteness than the author. THE END. [ 115 ] Appendix A. The whole question as to the employment or omission of * after the particles j^ m'ng and iJ> p'rifi to denote the -elision of the hard letter, aspirate or ^ , as the case mav he, turns upon a very simple issue. Are they to be treated as closed syllables or not ? ROBINSON expressed himself de- cidedly in the affirmative. If he be right, then, whenever the syllable following the particle begins with a vowel sound, whether origjnally, when this vowel is borne upon 1 . or whether by the deletion of an initial hard letter, or aspirate, then it follows that a ^ must be used, to support the vowel of which the fulcrum is thus lost. MarSDEX'S Grammar (at page 53) contains the following remark : — " When the primitive *' begins with 1 " or ^ Ji followed by a quiescent letter, o*" «' what we term a long vowel, those previous letters ane ' suppressed, and the particle unites with the long vowel, a>S " from CI-X;] Ikat 'to bind' ci^C^-« nVng-lkat, from ,^^'j^ " hdbis • to finish ', . ^^SjU m'ng-clbis ; the elision being *' commonly denoted by the orthographical mark hamzah. '* Favre quotes this passage in support of the contention that the vowel of the deleted letter is properly borne upon the c ng of the particle, and that no ^ is necessary ; he, however, [ 116 ] not quite fairly, concludes his quotation at the words ' long vowel ', and omits to state that in MarSDEN's remarks upon the employment of the mark hamzali (at pp. 22 and 23), in every instance of the particles f-< in'ng and jj> p'ng, the c is marked with a (> J~^ jazm ; ^^»lt\-^ jjeng-addp-an presence, r*:^-*^' jJCWfy-T^Hr comforter, dAwj^-ii.* vieng- ilsik ' to tease, ' .ju.-iU meng-amhur to scatter, ,^_^ij-«^ mong-unus to unsheath, ;^j-.j'. i< meng-ahls to consume, ^..jU vicng-alau to drive out . (It is only fair to state that the Abbe Favre does not appear to have quoted from the original w^ork, but from a translation of if^.) Marsdex, how- ever, does not, in the remainder of his book, employ the > when a long a follows the particle, as in <)cJjtJ> lyng-a-soh ' nurse ', nor, to the best of our belief, in any single instance to mark the elision of ^ /c initial. His work must be taken as on? of the highest authority, and bears upon it the stamp of careful study, and a long and wide examination of Malay writ- ings, and, though he may not have treated this part of the sub- ject with so much careful theory as the Abbe Favre, yet his conclusions are more likely to be in accord with the practice of the Malays themselves, even if not strictly defensible, and with them must rest the ultimate decision. Though published 80 years ago, MarSDEX'S work still stands pre-eminent among English works upon the subject, and remains a lasting monument to his genius and labour. The translators of the Bible employ the > to denote the elision of the * \V. Mursclen. Grammaire de la langue malaie, tracUiite de raiiglaij. par C. P..J. Elout. [ 117 ] C-J k initial, and, after a very careful study of the pro- nunciation given by the Malays to these derivatives, we incline to the opinion that when they take the forms «^ and p they are always closed syllables. Favre, however, makes out a strong case to the contrary, and his work is one of very careful compilation and great utility, and it is to be regretted that he should have allowed his attachment to theory to suggest a doubt as to its authority.'^ The strongest point in favour of his view is undoubtedly the re- petition of the nasal sound only, in the duplications mentioned in Par. 132, the initial letter of the particle being omitted in the repetition. ROBlXSON, on the other hand, who went more deeply into the principles of Malay Orthography, than any other author, and probably had better opportunities of study- ing older native writings than are readily available at the present dav, makes the following observation : — " C-^ takes ^ ^' pcmg and i^ mdng, but is itself changed into liamzah ; as " ej'«i*5 pdngarang a composer of a book. " So strongly does he advocate the treatment of these and all the other pre- fixed particles, consisting of two letters, as closed syllables, that he appears to insist that, if the particle lose its second * The re-arrangement of the order of the letters of the Alphabet is extremely usefirl to the student in explaining certain of the euphonic changes, but the basing of the whole superstructure of Ms Dictionary upon this theoretical classification impairs the utility of the work, and thro^rs considerable difficulty in the way of those who consult it. The order of the letters of the Arabic Alphabet is well known, and is accepted by the Malays, as well by every nation employing the Arabic system of orthography. Any additional letters foimd to be necessary, being formed by increasing the number of diacritical points of cognate Arabic letters, are placed next in order to those letters to which the new letters are affili- ated, and any one, knowing the Arabic Alphabet, has little difficiUty in referring to a work, the arrangement of the references in wliich is based upon that order. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that Favbe has committed a, grave error in judgment in making the change. [ 118 ] letter, a closed syllable must nevertheless be formed by employing a AjAAi' t'sJnhd to double the hiitial of the radical word. He says :— " It seems proper to observe here, once " for all, that whenever an abbreviation of the prefix takes " place, as when uJ j^a is used for ^i' pan or J pdr, -. ' ^ ■ " ' ' *' * " (♦ mcl for ^^^ man, (-_> hd and lzj td for ,j hdr *'and y tdr, the first letter of the primitive takes a " tashdid, as compensation for the rejection of a letter " from the prefix." The letter c , however, cannot take a t'shdld and the only exceptions to the c ?i(/ after i— 5 2^' ^i^d A 7?i' being succeeded by a vowel sound not borne upon hamzah would appear to be in the few derivatives formed from radicals, the initial of which is c ng, and thus, from c'^ nga-nga is formed cUi' js'n^rt-n^rt ' a gaper ', cU-o m'nga- nga 'to gape, yawn'. Robinson further says : — " It is a gene- " ral rule that the prefixes form so many separate syllables, " and that no letter of a prefix can be joined, in the same " syllable, with any letter of the primitive word. This remark, "though it may seem superfluous, is really necessary, in order "to obviate an error, into which the Malays themselves fre- " quently fall. For example : a person seeing ci^^ , written " as it stands here, which is the way in which it is commonly " written by careless or ignorant scribes, and being told that " it should be pronounced mdngarti would naturally divide the " syllables thus : clj.jU ma -jigar-ti, p\a.c\ng the fat-kah over " the c , and thus combining that and the , into one syllable ; *' for who should know, unless he had been previously informed, [ 119 ] '• that there is an omission of the hamzah, over which the faU " hah ought to be placed, and that this word should be written " K:UjitU mang-ar-Wi " Appendix B. There seems to have been a doubt, at the time ROBINSON Ayrote, as to whether i-J p' in nouns of place was a distinct particle, or an abbreviation of y p'r, and, after stating that he consulted native authority, he gives the following note (slightly abbreviated) :— " The person whose opinion was re- " quested on this point, is reputed to be the best Malay scholar " in Batavia, and is also said to be a very good Arabic scholar. " He stated that ^ par is the proper prefix to nouns of place, " and that when it is contracted to ^ pd the first letter of the " primitive ought in strict propriety to have a tashcUd. It is " however very true that the tashdid is not always audible in " in pronunciation, and especially when the pronouncing of it "would produce any harshness. Thus though from 0^ "judi, to gamble, is formed ^JJ.^ puj-ju-di-yan*, a gambling " place, by prefixing uJ pa, placing a tashdid over the ^ «« and affixing ^j , yet no native, I believe, ever pronounces it " as if written with a double ^ ; for two ^ s {Jims ), without * Apparently a printer's error. If harn^ak be employed in the final syllable, the correct transliteration would be paj-jitdi-an. [ 120 ] " an intervening vowel, would not only sound very harsh and " unpleasant to a native ear, but also be very difficult to arti- " culate. It may be observed, that in many other instances, " where harshness of sound cannot be an object of dread, the " tashdid is but slightly observed in pronunciation. This " discrepancy between the spelling and the pronunciation^ " may be partly accounted for from the orthography being " foreign, which perhaps does not, in every case, perfectly " accord with the pronunciation. " The above note is quoted to show the tendency to follow the rules of Arabic orthography and to indicate how certain of the peculiarities of Malay ortho- graphy have arisen, which, unless the presence of the ortho- grapical marks is supposed, are entirely misleading, and one i is not surprised to find such words as jJ>* ni-yo7', ' coco- palm,' commonly written, by persons unacquainted with the Arabic rules, jyJ^ , and it must be admitted that nior would more nearly convey the pronunciation of this word to an English reader than i1i-yor, but a person acquainted with the Arabic, and not knowing the Malay word, would probably read j^jj as fii-ivar. ■'m /" 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are sub m- d books are subject 20 IMG E : to immediate recall. FEB23iaeR t KEc ^'JV^ED D£C2 7*(;6-1)AP^ LC^N l?-f=:/r€jVL:D LOAN DFPT. RECn LOAN DEPT OCT 1 0'67 -1 f>Wc'ddrc.MAR 8t984 OCT 2 8 1968 70 Ml DEC2 8196? , ' -i^EfO — OEC 1 9 1 98 3 LD 21A-60 (G4427sl0 _. . General Library 5 1984 "^^s^Kii^"""" ilSlllS,^,t-.^^ LIBRARIES