DICTIONARY, PRACTICAL, THEORETICAL, AND HISTORICAL, OF COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION. BY J. R. M c CULLOCH, ESQ. EDITED BY HENRY VETHAKE, LL.D. OWE OF THE PROFESSORS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA ; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHI- LOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; AUTHOR OF A TREATISE ON POLITICAL ECONOMY; ETC. Tutte le invenzioni le piii benemerite del genere umano, e che hanno svillupato l'ingegno e la facolta dell' animo nostro, sono quelle che accostano 1' uomo all' uomo, e facilitano la communica- zione delle idee, dei bisogni, dei sentimenti, e riducano il genere umano a niassa. erri. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. PHILADELPHIA: THOMAS WARDLE, 15 MINOR STREET. STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON. 1841. FRINTKD BY T. K. St. P. O. COLLINS, PHILA A DICTIONARY OF COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION. 1. AND J . J ALAP, or JALOP (Ger. Jalapp ,■ Fr. Jalap ,■ It. Sciarappa ,■ Sp. Jalapa), the root of a sort of convolvulus, so named from Xalapa, in Mexico, whence we chiefly import it. The root, when brought to this country, is in thin transverse slices, solid, hard, weighty, of a blackish colour on the outside, and internally of a dark grey, with black circular stria;. The hardest and darkest coloured is the best; that which is light, spongy, and pale coloured, should be rejected. The odour of jalap, especially when in powder, is very characteristic. Its taste is exceedingly nauseous, accompanied by a sweetish bitterness. — (Lewis's Mat. Med. ; Brandos Pharmacy.) The entries of jalap for home consumption amounted, at an average of 1831 and 1832, to 47,816 lbs. a year. JAMAICA PEPPER. See Pimento. JAPANNED WARES (Ger. Japanische ware ,• Du. Japansch lakwerk ,■ Fr. Mar- chandises de Japori), articles of every description, such as tea-trays, clock-dials, candlesticks, snuff-boxes, &c. covered with coats of japan, whether plain, or embellished with painting or gilding. Birmingham is the grand staple of this manufacture, which is there carried on to a great extent. Pontypool, in Monmouthshire, was formerly famous for japanning; but it is at present continued there on a very small scale only. It is prosecuted with spirit and success at Bilston and Wolverhampton. JASPER (Ger. Jaspiss ,■ Du. Jaspis ,• Yx.Jaspe; It. Diaspro ; Sp. Jaspe ,• Rus. Jaschma). This stone is an ingredient in the composition of many mountains. It occurs usually in large amorphous masses, sometimes in round or angular pieces ; its fracture is conchoidal ; specific gravity from 2 to 2-7. Its colours are various ; when heated it does not decrepitate : it is usually divided into four species, denominated Egyptian jasper, striped jasper, porcelain ; asper, and common jasper. It is sometimes employed by jewellers in the formation of seals. JERSEY. See Guernsey. JET, on PITCH COAL (Du. Git, Zwarte barnsteen ; Fr. Jais, Jayet ,- Ger. Gagat ; It. Gagala, Lustrino ,■ Lat. Gagus, Gagates), of a black velvet colour, occurs massive, in plates; sometimes in the shape of branches of trees, but without a regular woody texturp. Internal lustre shining, resinous, soft ; rather brittle; easily frangible ; specific gravity 1*3. It is used for fuel, and for making vessels and snuff-boxes. In Prussia it is called black amber, and is cut into rosaries and necklaces. It is distinguished by its brilliancy, and con- choidal fracture. — (Thomson's Chemistry.) JETSAM. See Flotsam. IMPORTATION and EXPORTATION, the bringing of commodities from and sending them to other countries. A very large portion of the revenue of Great Britain being derived from customs duties, or from duties on commodities imported from abroad ; and drawbacks being given on many, and bounties on a few articles exported ; the business of importation and exportation is subjected to various regulations, which must be carefully observed by those who would avoid incurring penalties, and subjecting their property to confiscation. The regulations referred to, have been embodied in the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52., which is subjoined 3 ' 4 IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. General Regulations. JVo Goods to be landed nor Bulk broken before Report and Entry. — No goods shall be onladen from any fhip arriving from parts beyond the seas at any port or place in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of .Man, nor shall bulk be broken after the arrival of such ship within 4 leagues of the coast thereof, before due report of such ship and due entry of such- goods shall have been made, and warrant granted, in manner herein-after directed ; and no goods shall be so unladen except at such times and places, and in such manner, and by such persons, and under the care of such officers, as is and are herein- after directed ; and all goods not duly reported, or which shaH be unladen contrary hereto, shall be fi>rfeited ; and if bulk be broken contrary hereto, the master of such ship shall forfeit the sum of 100/. ; and if. after the arrival of any ship within 4 leagues of the coast of the United Kingdom or of the Isle of Man, any alteration be made in the stowage of the cargo of such ship, so as to facilitate the unlading of any part of such cargo, or if any part be staved, destroyed, or thrown overboard, or any package be opened, such ship shall be deemed to have broken bulk : provided always, that the several articles herein-after enumerated may be landed in the United Kingdom without report, entry, or warrant; (that is to say,) diamonds and bullion, fresh fish of British taking, and imported in British ships, turbots and lobsters fresh, however taken or imported. — { 2. Manifest. Jill British Ships, and all Ships with Tobacco, to have Manifests. — No goods shall be imported into the United Kingdom, or into the Isle of Man, from parts beyond the seas, in any British ship, nor any tobacco in any ship, unless the master shall have on board a manifest of such goods or of such tobacco, made out; dated, and signed by him at the place or respective places where the same or the different parts of the same was or were taken on board, argl authenticated in the manner herein-after provided ; and every such manifest shall set forth the name and the tonnage of the ship, the name of the master and of the place to which the ship belongs, and of the place or places where the goods were taken on board respectively, and of the place or places for which they are destined respectively, and shall con- tain a particular account and description of all the packages on board, with the marks and numbers thereon, and the sorts of goods and different kinds of each sort contained therein, to the best of the master's knowledge, and of the particulars of such goods as are stowed loose, and the names of the respective shippers and consignees, as far as the same can be known to the master; and to such par- ticular account shall be subjoined a general account or recapitulation of the total number of the packages of each sort, describing the same by their usual names, or by such descriptions as the same can best be known by, and the different goods therein, and also the total quantities of the different goods stowed loose : provided always, that every manifest for tobacco shall be a separate manifest distinct from any manifest for any other goods, and shall, without fail, contain the particular weight of tobacco in each hogshead, cask, chest, or case, with the tare of the same ; and if such tobacco be the produce of the dominions of the Grand Seignior, then the number of parcels or bundles within any such hogshead, cask, chest, or case, shall be stated in such manifest. — } 3. To be produced to Officers in Colonies, fyc. — Before any ship shall be cleared out or depart from any place in any of the British possessions abroad, or from any place in China, with any goods for the United Kingdom or for the Isle of Man, the master of such ship shall produce the manifest to the col- lector or comptroller of the customs, or other proper officer, who shall certify upon the same the date of the production thereof to him : provided always, that in all places within the territorial possessions of the East India Company the servant of the said Company by whom the last despatches of such ship shall be delivered shall be the proper officer to authenticate the manifest as aforesaid ; and in all places in China the chief supercargo of the said Company shall be the proper officer for such purpose. — # 4. To be produced to Consuls. — Before the departure of any ship from any place beyond the seas not under the British dominions, where any tobacco has been taken on board such ship for the United Kingdom or for the Isle of Man, the master of such ship shall produce the manifest of such tobacco to the British consul or other chief British officer, if there be any such resident at or near such place ; and such consul or other officer shall certify upon the same the date of the production thereof to him. — {5. If wanting, Master to forfeit 100/. — If any goods be imported into the United Kingdom or into the Isle of Man, in any British ship, or any tobacco in any ship, without such a manifest, or if any goods con- tained in such manifest be not on board, the master of such ship shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — $ 6. Manifest to be produced within 4 Leagues. — The master of every ship required to have a manifest on board shall produce such manifest to any officer of the customs who shall come on board his ship after her arrival within 4 leagues of the coast of the United Kingdom or of the coast of the Isle of Man, and who shall demand the same, for his inspection ; and such master shall also deliver to any such officer who shall be the first to demand it, a true copy of such manifest signed by the master; and shall also deliver another copy to any other officer of the customs who shall be the first to demand the same within the limits of the port to which such ship is bound; and thereupon such officers respectively shall notify on such manifest and on such copies the date of the production of such manifest and of the receipt of such copies, and shall transmit such copies to the collector and comptroller of the port to which such vessel is first bound, and shall return such manifest to the master ; and if such master shall not in any case produce such manifest, or deliver such copy, he shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — $ 7. Report. Master, within 24 Hours, and before breaking Bulk, shall report. — The master of every ship arriving fioni parts beyond the seas at any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, whether laden or in ballast, shall, within 24 hours after such arrival, and before bulk be broken, make due report of such ship, and shall make and subscribe a declaration to the truth of the same, before the collector or comptroller of such port ; and such report shall contain an account of the particular marks, numbers, and contents of all the different packages or parcels of the goods on board such ship, and the particu- lars of such goods as are stowed loose, to the best of his knowledge, and of the place or places where such goods were respectively taken on board, and of the burden of such ship, and of the country where such ship was built, or, if British, of the port of registry, and of the country of the people to whom such ship belongs, and of the name and country of the person who was master during the voyage, and of the number of the people by whom such ship was navigated, stating how many are subjects of the country to which such ship belongs, and how many are of some other country; and in such report il shall be further declared, whether and in what cases such ship has broken bulk in the course of her voyage, and what part of the cargo, if any, is intended for importation at such port, and what part. if any, Is intended for importation at another port in the United Kingdom, or at another port in the Isle of Man respectively, and what part, if any, is prohibited to be imported, except to be warehoused for exportation only, and what part, If any, is intended for exportation in such ship to parts beyond the seas, and what surplus stores or stock remain on board such ship, and, if a British ship, what foreign-made sails or cordage, not I >« - i 1 1 slt standing or running rigging, are in use on board such ship ; and the master of any ship, who shall fail to make such report, or who shall make a false report, shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — $ 8. IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 5 Masters of Vessels coming from Africa to report how many Natives they have on board. — The master cif every vessel coming from the coast of Africa, and having taken on board at any place in Africa any person or persons being or Appearing to he natives of Africa, shall, in addition to ail other matters, state, in the report of his vessel, how many such persona have been taken on hoard by linn in Africa; and any such master failing herein shall forfeit the sum of 1002. : provided also, thai the master or owner or owners of such vessel, or some one' of them, at the time of making such report, he required to enter into bond to his Majesty in the sum of 10(1/ . conditioned to keep harmless any parish, or any extra-parochial or other place maintaining its own poor, against any expense which such parish or other place may be put to in supporting any such person (luring their stay in the United Kingdom; and any such master, owner or owners refusing or neglecting to enter into such bund shall forfeit the sum of" 200/. — i 9. Packages reported "Contents unknown" may he opened and examined. — If the contents of any packages so intended as aforesaid for exportation in the same ship to parts beyond the seas shall be reported by the master as being unknown to him, it shall he lawful for the officers of the customs to open and examine such package on board, or to bring the same to the king's warehouse for that purpose ; and if there he found in such package any goods which may not be entered for home use, such goods shall he forfeited; or if the goods he such as may be entered for home use, the same shall he chargeable with the duties of importation ; unless in either case the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, in consideration of the sort or quality of such goods, or the small rate of duty payable thereon, shall see tit to deliver the same for exportation. — $ 10. Matter to deliver Manifest, Sec. — The master of every ship shall, at the time of making such report, deliver to the collector or comptroller the manifest of the cargo of such ship, where a manifest is required, and, if required by the collector or comptroller, shall produce to him any hill or bills of lading, or a true copy thereof, for any and every part of the cargo laden on hoard ; and shall answer all such questions relating to the ship and cargo, and crew and voyage, as shall he put to him by such collector or comptroller; and in case of failure or refusal to produce such manifest, or to answer such questions, or to answer them truly, or to produce such bill of lading or copy, or if such manifest, or bill of lading, or copy, shall be false, or if any hill of lading he uttered by any master, and the goods expressed therein shall not have been bona fide shipped on hoard such ship, or if any bill of lading uttered or produced by any master shall not have been signed by him, or any such copy shall not have been received or made by him previously to his leaving the place where the cods expressed in such hill of lading or copy were shipped, then and in every such case such master shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — J 11. Part of Cargo reported for another Port. — If any part of the cargo of any ship for which a manifest is required be reported for importation at some other port in the United Kingdom, or at some other port in the Isle of Man, the collector and comptroller of the port at which some part of the cargo has been delivered shall notify such delivery on the manifest, and return the same to the master of such ship. — ? 12. Ship to come quickly to Place of unlading, Ik ided in any man- ner within the outward package, provided such outward pack- age he a hogshead, cask, chest, or case, and contain 450 lbs. nett at least. and unless the particular weight of tobacco or snuff in each hogs- head, cask, chest, or case, with the tare o( the same, he marked thereon. and unless into the ports of London, Liverpool, Bristol, Lancaster, Cowea, Falmouth, Whitehaven, Hull, i 1 ..< . Leith, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Plymouth, Belfast, Cork, Dro- gheda, IJuldiu, Gahvay, Limerick, Londonderry, Newry, Sligo, Waterford, and Wexford. or into some other portorports which may hereafter be appointed Treasury; such appointments in Great Britain being published in the /.outrun (in:ci'r,and such appointments in Ireland being published in the Dublin Gazttte. but any ship wholly laden with tobacco may come into the ports of Cowes or Falmouth to wait for orders, and there remain 14 days, provided due report of such ship be made by the master with the collector or comptroller of such port. And all goods from the Isle of Man, except such as be of the growth, produce, or manufacture thereof. article, so as to he complete and perfect, if such article be sub- ject In duly according to the value thereof. Silk; manufactures of silk, being the manufactures of Europe, nnlesa into the port of London, or into the port of Dublin direct from Bordeaux, or into the port of Dover direct from Calais, and unless in a ship or vessel of 70 Ions or upwards, or into the porl of Dover in a vessel of Ihe burden of 60 tons at least, with I the oiiimi-sioncrsnf the customs. Spirits, not being perfumed or medicinal spirits; viz. all spirits, unless in ships of 70 tons or upwards. rum of and from the British plantations, if in casks, unless in casks containing not less than 20 gallons. all other spirits, if in casks, unless iu casks containing not less that, 40 gallons. Tea; unless from the place of its gmwlh, and by the East India Company, and into the port of London, during the continuance of their exclusive privileges of trade. Tobacco and snuff; viz. unless in a ship of the burden of 120 tons or upwards, tobacco of and imported from the state of Colombia, and made up in rolls, unless iu packages containing at least 320 lbs. weight of such rolls, segars, unless in packages containing 100 lbs. weight of segars. all other tobacco and snuff, unless in hogsheads, casks, chests, or cases, each of tt hich shall contain of nett tobacco or snuff at least 100 lbs. weight if from the East Indies, or 450 lbs. weight if from any other place, and not packed iu bags or packages Forfeiture.— And if any goods shall be imported into the United Kingdom contrary to any of the prohibitions or restrictions mentioned in such Table in respect of such goods, the same shall be for- feited.—;? 58. But Goods may be warehoused for Exportation only, although prohibited.— Any goods, of whatsoever sort, may be imported into the United Kingdom to be warehoused under the regulations of any act in force for the lime being for the warehousing of goods, without payment of duty at the time of the first entry thereof, or notwithstanding that such goods may be prohibited to be imported into the United Kingdom to be used therein, except the several sorts of goods enumerated or described in manner fol- lowing; (that is to say,) goods prohibited on account of the package in which they are contained, or the tonnage of the ship in which they are laden ; tea and goods from China in other than British ships, or by other persons than the East India Company during the continuance of their exclusive privileges of trade; gunpowder, arms, ammunition, or utensils of war; dried or salted fish, not being stock-fish; infected hides, skins, horns, hoofs, or any other part of any cattle or beast; counterfeit coin or tokens ; books first composed or written or printed and published in the United Kingdom, and reprinted in any other country or place ; copies of prints first engraved, etched, drawn, or designed in the United King- dom ; copies of casts of sculptures or models first made in the United Kingdom ; clocks or watches, being such as are prohibited to be imported for home use.— $ 59. Goods to be entered to be warehoused for Exportation only.— If by reason of the sort of any goods, or of the place from whence, or the country, or navigation of the ship in which any goods have been imported, they be such or be so imported as that they may not be used in the United Kingdom, they shall not be entered except to be warehoused, and it shall be declared upon the entry of such goods that they are entered to be warehoused for exportation only. — $ 60. Entry Outwards. ' Goods not to be shipped till Entry of Ship and Entry of Goods, and Cocket granted ; nor till cleared.— No goods shall be shipped, or waterborne to be shipped, on board any ship in any port or place in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, to be carried to parts beyond the seas, before the entry out- wards of such ship and due entry of such goods shall have been made, and cocket granted, nor before such goods shall have been duly cleared for shipment in manner herein-after directed ; and no stores shall be shipped for the use of any such ship bound to parts beyond the seas, nor shall any goods be deemed or admitted to be such stores, except such as shall be borne upon the victualling bill duly granted for such ship; and no goods shall be so shipped, or waterborne to be so shipped, except at such times and places, and in such manner, and by such persons, and under the care of such officers, as is and are herein-after directed ; and all goods and stores which shall be shipped, or be waterborne to be shipped contrary hereto shall be forfeited. — J 61. Ships to be cleared, or Master to forfeit 1007.— No ship on board of which any goods or stores shall have been shipped in any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, for parts beyond the seas, shall depart from such port until such ship shall have been duly cleared outwards for her intended voyage, in manner herein-after directed, under forfeiture of the sum of 100Z. by the master of such ship. — $ 62. . Victualling Bill for Stores— The master of every ship which is to depart from any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, for parts beyond the seas, shall, upon due application made by him, receive from the searcher a victualling bill for the shipment of such stores as he shall require, and as shall be allowed by the collector and comptroller, for the use of such ship, according to the voyage upon which she is about to depart ; and no articles taken on board any ship shall be deemed to be stores except such as shall be borne upon the victualling bill for the same.— J 63. Muster to deliver Certificate of Clearance of last Voyage, and to make Entry Outwards. — The master of every ship in which any goods are to be exported from the United Kingdom or from the Isle of Man to parts beyond the seas shall, before any goods be taken on board, deliver to the collector or comp- troller a certificate from the proper officer of the clearance inwards or coastwise of such ship of her last voyage, specifying what goods, if any, have been reported inwards for exportation, and shall also deliver to the collector or comptroller an account, signed by the master or his agent, of the entry out- wards of such ship for her intended voyage, setting forth the name and tonnage of the ship, the name of the place to which she belongs if a British ship, or of the country if a foreign ship, the name of the master, and the name or names of the place or places for which she is bound, if any goods are to be Shipped for the same, and the name of the place in such port at which she is to take in her lading for such vovage ; and if such ship shall have commenced her lading at some other port, the master shall state the name of any port at which any goods have been laden, and shall produce a certificate from the searcher that the cockets for such goods have been delivered to him; and the particulars of such account shall be written and arranged in such form and manner as the collector and comptroller shall require ; and such account shall be the entry outwards of such ship, and shall be entered in a book to be kept by the collector, for the information of all parties interested; and if any goods be taken on board any ship before she shall have been entered outwards, the master shall forfeit the sum of lOOi. : providedalways, that where it shall become necessary to lade any heavy goods on board any ship before the whole of the inward cargo is discharged, it shall be lawful for the collector and comptroller to issue a stiffening order for that purpose, previous to the entry outwards of the ship. — { 64. Bill of the Entry to be delivered. — The person entering outwards any goods to be exported to parts beyond the seas, or from any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, shall deliver to the collector or comptroller a bill of the entry thereof, fairly written in words at length, expressing the 12 IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. name of the ship and of the master, and of the place to which the poods are to be exported, and of the person in whose name the goods are to be entered, and the quantities and proper denominations or descriptions of the several sorts of goods, and shall pay down any duties which may be due upon the exportation of any such goods; and such person shall also deliver at the same time 1 or more dupli- cates of such bill, in which all sums and numbers may be expressed in figures ; and the particulars to be contained in such bill shall be written and arranged in the form and manner, and the number of duplicates shall be such as the collector and comptroller shall require; and thereupon the collector and comptroller shall cause a cocket to be written for such goods, making it known that such goods have been so entered; and every cocket shall be signed by such collector and comptroller, and be delivered to the person who shall have made such entry, and such person shall keep and be respon- sible for the proper use of the same. — { 65. Goods for Drawback or Bounty. — If any drawback or bounty be allowable upon the exportation of any such goods, or any duty be payable thereon, or any exemption from duty claimed, or if any such goods be exportable only according to some particular rule or regulation, or under some restriction or condition, or for some particular purpose or destination, such goods shall be entered and cleared for shipment by such denominations or descriptions as are used, mentioned, or referred to in the granting of such drawback or bounty, or in the levying of such duty, or granting such exemption, or in the directing of such rules, regulations, restrictions, conditions, purpose, or destination ; and if the goods in such entry are charged to pay duty according to the value thereof, such value shall be stated in the entry, and shall be affirmed by the declaration of the exporter or his known agent, to be made upon the entry, and attested by his signature ; and if any person shall make such declaration, not being the exporter of such goods, nor his agent duly authorised by him, such person shall forfeit the sum of 10(M. ; and such declaration shall be made in manner and form following, and shall be binding upon the per- son making the same ; (that is to say,) "I, A. B. of [place of abode] do hereby declare, that I am the exporter of the goods mentioned in this pntry, [or, that I am duly authorised by him,] and I do enter the same at the value of . Witness my hand the day of . - A. B." — $ 66. Goods undervalued detained. — If upon examination it shall appear to the officers of the customs that such goods are not valued according to the true value thereof, the same may be detained, and (within 2 days) taken and disposed of for the benefit of the Crown, in like manner as is herein-before provided in respect of goods imported, except that no sum in addition to the amount of the valuation and the duties paid shall be paid to the exporter or proprietor of the goods. — } 67. For Drawback, or from Warehouse, or Duties to be first paid. — The person intending to enter outwards any foreign goods for drawback, at any other port than that at which the duties inwards on such goods had been paid, shall first deliver to the collector or comptroller of the port where the duties on such goods were paid, 2 or more bills, as the case may require, of the particulars of the importation of such goods, and of the entry outwards intended to be made; and thereupon such collector and comptroller, finding such bills to agree with the entry inwards, shall write off such goods from the same, and shall issue a certificate of such entry, with such particulars thereof as shall be necessary for the computa- tion of the drawback allowable on such goods, and setting forth in such certificate the destination of the goods, and the person in whose name they are to be entered for exportation, and also the name of such other port ; and such certificate, together with 2 or more bills of the same, as the case may require, in which all sums and numbers may be expressed in figures, being delivered to the collector or comptroller of the port from which the goods are to be exported, shall be the entry outwards of such goods ; and such collector and comptroller shall thereupon cause a cocket to be written and delivered for such goods, in manner herein-before directed. — $ 68. Coals Export Bond to Isle of Man and British Possessions. — No cocket shall be granted for the exporta- tion of any coals to the Isle of Man, or to any British possession, until the exporter thereof shall have given security by bond in a penal sum of 40s. the chaldron, with condition that the same shall be landed at the place for which they shall be exported, or otherwise accounted for to the satisfaction of the commissioners of the customs; and also with condition to produce (within such time as the said commissioners shall require, to be expressed in such bond,) a certificate of the landing of such coals at such place, under the hand of the collector or comptroller or other proper officer at such place : provided always, that the bond so to be given in respect of coals shall not be liable to any duty of stamps.—} 69. Clearance of Goods. Packages to be indorsed on Cocket. — Before any part of the goods for which any cocket shall have been granted shall have been shipped or waterborne to be shipped, the same shall be duly cleared for shipment with the searcher; and before any goods be cleared for shipment, the particulars of the goods for each clearance shall be indorsed on such cocket, together with the number and denomination or description of the respective packages containing the same; and in the margin of each such indorse- ment shall be delineated the respective marks and numbers of such packages; and to each such indorsement shall be subjoined, in words at length, an account of the total quantities of each sort of goods intended in such indorsement, and the total number of each sort of package in which such goods are contained, distinguishing such goods, if any, as are to be cleared for any bounty or drawback of excise or customs, and also such goods, if any, as are subject to any duty on exportation, or entitled to any exemption from such duty, and also such goods, if any, as can only be exported by virtue of some particular order or authority, or under some particular restriction or condition, or for some par- ticular purpose or destination ; and all goods shipped or waterborne to be shipped, not being duly cleared as aforesaid, shall be forfeited.— $ 70. Cocket. indorsed, Sec. — The person clearing such goods for shipment shall upon each occasion produce the cocket so indorsed to the searcher, and shall also deliver a shipping bill or copy of such indorse- ment, referring by names and date to the cocket upon which such indorsement is made, and shall obtain the order of the searcher for the shipment of such goods ; and the particulars to be contained in such indorsement and in such shipping bill shall be written and arranged in such form and manner as the collector and comptroller 6hall require. — } 71. Coals brought coastwise may be exported without landing. — If any coals shall have been brought coast- wise from one port of the United Kingdom to another, and the master shall be minded to proceed with such coals, or any part of them, to parts beyond the seas, it shall be lawful for such master to enter such ship and such coals outwards for the intended voyage, without first landing the coals intended for exportation, provided the officers of the customs shall be satisfied that the quantity of coals left on board does not exceed the quantity so entered outwards. — $ 72. Account of Value to be delivered to the Searcher. — Upon the clearance for shipment of any goods, the produce or manufacture of the United Kingdom, not liable to any export duty, an account, containing an accurate specification of the quantity, quality, and value of such goods, together with a declaration to the truth of the same, signed by the exporter or his known agent, shall be delivered to the searcher by the person clearing such goods ; and if such declaration be false, the person signing the same shall forfeit the sum of 20*. ; and it shall be lawful for the searcher to call for the invoice, bills of parcels, and such other documents relating to the goods, as he may think necessary for ascertaining the true IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 13 value of the same : provided always, that if such exporter or agent shall make and subscribe a decla- ration before the collector or c ptroller, thai the value of the g Is cannot be ascertained in limn t"<-r the hipment of the same, and such declaration Bhall be delivered to the searcher, at the tim< o ance, a further time of 3 months shall he allowed for the delivery of such Beparate shipping bill, on failure whereof such exporter or agent shall forfeit the sum of 20/.— # 73. <, ' for Exeis( Drawback. — No drawback of excise shall be allowed upon any goods so cleared, unless the person intending to claim such drawback shall have given due notice to the officer of excise, in form and manner required by any law In force relating to the excise, and Bhall have obtained, and have produced to the searcher, al the time of clearing such goods, a proper document, under the hand of the officer of excise, containing the necessary description of the goods for winch such draw hack is to lie claimed ; and it' the goods to he cleared and shipped tinder the care of the searchers shall, upon examination, be found to correspond in all respects with the particulars of the goods contained in such document, and such floods shall be duly shipped and exported, the searcher shall, if required, certify such shipment upon such document, and shall transmit the same to the officer of excise. — i? 74. Officer of Excise may attend Examination. — It shall be lawful for the officer of excise, if he see tit. to attend anil assist at such examination, and to mark or seal the packages, and to keep join! charge of the same, together with the searcher, until the same shall have been finally delivered by him into the toh' charf f tie searcher, to be shipped and exported under his care. — $ 75. a,,,, ils for Duty, Bounty, or Drawback, $c. broughtfor Shipment. — If any goods which are subject to any duty or restriction, in respect of exportation, or if any goods, which are to be shipped for any drawback or bounty, shall be brought to any quay, wharf, or other place, to be shipped for exportation, and such goods shall not agree with the indorsement on the cocket,or with the shipping bill, the same Bhall be forfeited ; and if any goods prohibited to be exported be found in any packages brought as aforesaid, such package and every thing contained therein shall he forfeited. — j 76. Searcher may open any Package; but if correct, mvst repack. — It shall be lawful for the searcher to open all packages, and t'ullv to examine all goods shipped or brought for shipment at any place in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man ; and if the goods so examined shall be found to correspond in all respects with the cocket and clearance purporting to be for the same, such goods shall be repat I ed at the charge of such searcher, who maybe allowed such charge by the commissioners of the customs, if they shall see fit so to do. — $ 77. Clearance of Ship. Content to be delivered to Searcher, r place where such pacjcer shall reside ; ami if such bales be not cleared as being press-packed, then the searcher, having opened any Buch bale, shall nol be required to repack the same at his charge.— { 93. Licensed Lightermen, 8fc- No g Is cleared for drawback or bounty, or from the warehouse, shall be carried \\ atcrborne, to be pin on hoard any ship for exportation from tbe United Kingdom, by any person, unless such persons shall be authorised for that purpose by licence under the hands of the com- missioners of the customs ; and before granting such licence, it shall be lawful for the said commie Blotters to require such security by bond for the faithful and incorrupt conduct Of such person as they shall deem necessary ; and after granting such licence it shall be lawful for the said commissioners to revoke the sa if the person to whom the same shall have been granted shall be convicted of any Offence against the laws relating to the customs or excise: provided always, that all such licences Which shall be in force at the time of the commencement of this act shall continue in force as if the sa had been afterwards granted under the authority of this act.— # 94. Warehouse or Debenture Goods not exported.— U any goods which have been taken from the ware- house to be exported from the same, or any goods which have been cleared to be exported for any drawback or bounty, shall not be duly exported to parts beyond the seas, or shall be relanded in any part of the United Kingdom (such goods not having been duly relanded or discharged as short-shipped under the care of the proper officers), or shall be landed in the islands of Faro or Ferro, or shall be carried to any of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man (not having been duly entered, cleared, and shipped to be exported directly to such island), the same shall be forfeited, together with tbe ship from or by which the same had been so relanded, landed, or carried, and any other ship, vessel, boat, or craft which may have been used in so relanding, landing, or carrying such goods ; and any person by whom or by whose orders or means such goods shall have been so taken or deared, or so relanded, landed, or carried, shall forfeit a sum equal to treble the value of such goods. — $ 95. Drawback of Duties on Wine allowed for Officers in the Navy— Drawback of the whole of the duties of customs shall be allowed for wine intended for the consumption of officers of his Majesty's navy, on board such of bis Majesty's ships in actual service as they shall serve in, not exceeding the quan- tities of wine, in any 1 year, for the use of such officers, herein-after respectively mentioned ; (that is to say,) Gallon t. For ever; admiral ..... 1.260 — vice-admiral ..... 1,050 — rear-admiral - S40 — caplaiu of the first and second rate . * 630 Gallons. For every captain of the third, fourth, and fifth rate - 420 — captain of an inferior rate ... 210 — lieutenant, and other commanding officer, and for every marine officer . • - 105 provided always, that such wine be shipped only at one of the ports herein-after mentioned ; (that is to say.) London, Rochester, Deal, Dover, Portsmouth, Plymouth, Yarmouth, Falmouth, Belfast, Dublin, Cork, Leith, or Glasgow. — $ 96. Persons entering Wine for Drawback to declare the Name and Rank of Officer claiming same. — The person entering such wine, and claiming the drawback for the same, shall state in the entry and declare on the debenture the name of the officer for whose use such wine is intended, and of the ship in which he serves ; and such wine shall be delivered into the charge of the officers of the customs at the port of shipment, to be secured in the king's warehouse until the same shall be shipped under their care ; and such officers having certified upon the debenture the receipt of the wine into their charge, the debenture shall be computed and passed, and be delivered to the person entitled to receive the same. — $ 97. Officers leaving the Service, Sec. such Wine permitted to be transferred to others. — If any such officer shall leave the service or be removed to another ship, it shall be lawful for the officers of the customs of any of the ports before mentioned to permit, the transfer of any such wine from one officer to another, as part of his proportion, whether on board the same ship or another, or tbe transhipment from one ship to another for the same officer, or the relanding and warehousing for future reshipment ; and it shall also be lawful for the officers of customs at any port to receive back the duties for any of such wine, and deliver the same for home use: provided always, that if any of such wine be not laden on board the ship for which the same was intended, or be unladen from such ship without permission of the proper officer of the customs, the same shall be forfeited. — $ 98. Pursers of his Majesty's Ships of War mail ship Tobacco for Use of Crew free of Duty, on giving Bond. —It shall be law ful' for the purser of any of his Majesty's ships of war in actual service to enter and ship at the ports of Rochester, Portsmouth, or Plymouth, in the proportions herein-after mentioned, anj tobacco there warehoused in his name or transferred into his name, for the use of the ship in Which he shall serve; provided such purser shall deliver to the collector or comptroller of such port 8 certificate from the captain of such ship, stating the name of the purser and tbe number of men belonging to the ship, and shall also give bond, with one sufficient surety, in treble the duties payable on the tobacco, that no part thereof shall be relanded in the United Kingdom without leave of the officers of the customs, or be landed in either of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man— i 99. Purser removed from one Ship to another may tranship Tobacco with Permission of Collector. — If any purser shall be removed from one ship to another, it shall be lawful for the collector and comptroller of the port where such ship shall be, to permit the transhipmentof the remains of any such tobacco for the use of such other ship, upon due entry of such tobacco by such purser, setting forth the time when and the port at which such tobacco was first shipped ; and if any such ship shall be paid off, it shall be lawful for the collector and comptroller of any port where such ship shall be paid off to permit the remains of any such tobacco to be landed, and to be entered by the purser of such ship, either for paj ment of duties, or to be warehoused for the term of 6 months, for the supply of some other such ship, in like manner as any tobacco may be warehoused and supplied at either of the ports before mentioned, or for payment of all duties within such 6 months: provided always, that all tobacco warehoused for the purpose of so supplying his Majesty's ships of war shall be subject to the provi- sions of this act made for the warehousing of tobacco generally, as far as the same are applicable, and are not expressly altered by any of the provisions herein particularly made. — $ 100. Quantity of Tobacco not to exceed, 123. Officers of Customs to take Sample of Goods— It shall be lawful for the officers of the customs to take such samples of any goods as shall be necessary for ascertaining the amount of any duties payahle on the same ; and all such samples shall be disposed of and accounted for in such manner as the commis- sioners of his Majesty's customs shall direct. — J 124. Time of on Importation and of an Exportation defined.— If, upon the first levying or repealing of any duty, or upon the first granting or repealing of any drawback or bounty, or upon the first permitting or prohibiting of any importation or exportation, whether inwards, outwards, or coastwise, in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, it shall become necessary to determine the precise time at which an importation or exportation of any goods made and completed shall be deemed to have hud effect, such time, in respect of importation, shall be deemed to be the time at which the ship importing such goods had actually come within the limits of the port at which such ship shall in due course be reported, and such goods be discharged; and such time, in respect of exportation, shall be deemed to be the time at which the goods had been shipped on board the ship in which they had been exported ; and if such question shall arise upon the arrival or departure of any ship, in respect of any charge or allow- ance upon such ship, exclusive of any cargo, the time of such arrival shall be deemed to be the time at which the report of such ship shall have been or ought to have been made ; and the lime of such departure shall be deemed to be the time of the last clearance of such ship with the collector and comptroller for the voyage upon which she had departed. — $ 125. Return of Duties overpaid. — Although any duty of customs shall have been overpaid, or although, after any duty of customs shall have been charged and paid, it shall appear or he judicially established that the same had been charged under an erroneous construction of the law, it shall not be lawful to return any such overcharge after the expiration of 3 years from the date of such payment. — $ 126. Tonnaire or Burden of Ships declared. — The tonnage or burden of every British ship within the mean- ing of this act shall be the tonnage set forth in the certificate of registry of such ship, and the tonnage or burden of every other ship shall, for the purposes of this act, be ascertained in the same manner as the tonnage of British ships is ascertained. — $ 127. Officers may refuse Master of British Ship, unless indorsed on Register.— It shall be lawful for the officers of customs at any port under British dominion where there shall be a collector and comptroller of the customs, to refuse to admit any person to do any act at such port as master of any British ship, unless his name shall be inserted in or have been indorsed upon the certificate of registry of such ship as being the master thereof, or until his name shall have been so indorsed by such collector and comp- troller. -$ 128. Falsifying Documents. — If any person shall counterfeit or falsify, or wilfully use when counterfeited or falsified, any entry, warrant, cocket, or transire, or other document for the unlading, lading, enter- ing, reporting, or clearing of any ship or vessel, or for the landing or shipping of any goods, stores, baggage, or article whatever, or shall by any false statement procure any writing or document to be made for any of such purposes, every person so offending shall for every such offence forfeit the sum of 200Z. : provided always, that this penalty shall not attach to any particular offence for which any other penalty shall be expressly imposed by any law in force for the time being. — $ 129. Authority of an Agent may be required.— 'Whenever any person shall make any application to any officer of the customs to transact any business on behalf of any other person, it shall be lawful for such officer to require of the person so applying to produce a written authority from the person on whose behalf such application shall be made, and in default of the production of such authority, to refuse to transact such business. — $ 130. Persons falsifying Declaration liable to Penalty. — If any declaration required to be made by this act or by any other act relating to the customs (except declarations to the value of goods) be untrue in any particular, or if any person required by this act or by any other act relating to the customs to answer questions put to him by the officers of the customs, touching certain matters, shall not truly answer such questions, the person making such declaration or answering such questions shall, over and above any other penalty to which he may become subject, forfeit the sum of 100/. — $ 131. Seizures. — All goods, and all ships, vessels, and boats, which by this act or any act at any time in force relating to the customs shall be declared, to be forfeited, shall and may be seized by any officer of the customs; and such forfeiture of any ship, vessel, or boat shall be deemed to include the guns, tackle, apparel, and furniture of the same ; andsuch forfeiture of any goods shall be deemed to include the proper package in which the same are contained. — $ 132. Restoration of seized Goods, Ships, Sfc. — In case any goods, ships, vessels, or boats shall be seized as forfeited, or detained- as under-valued, by virtue of any act of parliament relating to the customs, it shall be lawful for the commissioners of his Majesty's customs to order the same to be restored in such manner and on such terms and conditions as they shall think fit to direct ; and if the proprietor of the same shall accept the terms and conditions prescribed by the said commissioners, he shall not have or maintain any action for recompence or damage on account of such seizure or detention ; and the person making such seizure shall not proceed in any manner for condemnation.— $ 133. Remission of Forfeitures, cfc. — If any ship shall have become liable to forfeiture on account of any goods laden therein, or unladen therefrom, or if the master of any ship shall have become liable to any penalty on account of any goods laden in such ship or unladen therefrom, and such goods shall be small in quantity or of trifling value, and it shall be made appear to the satisfaction of the commis- sioners of his Majesty's customs that such goods had been laden- or unladen contrary to the intention of the owners of such ship, or without the privity of the master thereof, as the case may be, it shall be lawful for the said commissioners to remit such forfeiture, and also to remit or mitigate such penally, as they shall see reason to acquit such master of all blame in respect of such offence, or more or less to attribute the commission of such offence to neglect of duty on his part as master of such ship; and B 2 3 18 IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. every forfeiture and every penally, or part thereof, so remitted, shall he null and void, and no suit or action shall be brought or maintained by any person whatever on account thereof. — $ 134. Ships not bringing to at Stations, Masters to forfeit. — If any ship coming up or departing out of any port in tbe United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, shall not bring to at the proper stations in such port appointed by the commissioners of his Majesty's customs for the boarding or landing of officers of the customs, the master of such ship shall for every such offence forfeit the sum of 1007.—$ 135. ■ may be stationed in Ships in the /.touts of any Port. — It shall be lawful for the commissioners of bie Majesty's customs, and for the collector and comptroller of any port under their directions, to station officers on board any ship while within the limits of any port in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man ; and the master of every ship on board of which any officer is so stationed shall provide every such officer sufficient room under the deck, in some part of the forecastle or steerage, for his bed or hammock, and in case of neglect or refusal so to do shall forfeit the sum of 1007. — } 136. Power to charge Rent in King's Warehouse. — Whenever any goods shall be taken to and secured in any of the king's warehouses in the United Kingdom or in the Isle of Man, for security of the duties thereon, or to prevent the same from coming into home use, it shall and may be lawful for the com- missioners of his Majesty's customs to charge and demand and receive warehouse rent for such goods for all such time as the same shall remain in such warehouse, at the same rate as may be payable for the like goods when warehoused in any warehouse in which such goods may be warehoused without payment of duty : provided always, that it shall be lawful for the Lords Commissioners of his .Majesty's Treasury, or the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, by warrant or order under their hands respectively, from time to time to fix the amount of rent which shall be payable for any goods secured in any of the king's warehouses as aforesaid. — I) 137. Poircr to sell Goods not cleared from King's lVarehouse. — In case such goods shall not be duly cleared from the king's warehouse within 3 calendar months, (or sooner, if they be of a perishable nature,) it shall be lawful for the commissioners of his Majesty's customs to cause such goods to be publicly sold by auction, for home use or for exportation, as the case may be; and the produce of such sale shall be applied towards the payment of the duties, if sold for home use, and of the warehouse rent and all other charges; and the overplus (if any) shall be paid to the person authorised to receive the same: provided always, that it shall be lawful for the said commissioners to cause any of such goods to be destroyed as cannot be sold for a sum sufficient to pay such duties and charges, if sold for home use, or sufficient to pay such charges, if sold for exportation : provided also, that if such goods shall have been landed by the officers of the customs, and the freight of the same shall not have been paid, the produce of such sale shall be first applied to the payment of such freight.— $ 138. Power for his Majesty to appoint Ports and legal Quays.— It shall be lawful for his Majesty, by his commission out of the Court of Exchequer, from time to time to appoint any port, haven, or creek in the United Kingdom, or in the Isle of Man, and to set out the limits thereof, and to appoint the proper places within the same to be legal quays for the lading and unlading of goods, and to declare that any place which had been set out as a legal quay by such authority shall be no longer a legal quay, and to appoint any new place within any port to be a legal quay for the lading and unlading of goods : pro- vided always, that all ports, havens, and creeks, and the respective limits thereof, and all legal quays, appointed and set out and existing as such at the commencement of this act under any law till then in force, shall continue to be such ports, havens, creeks, limits, and legal quays respectively as if the same had been appointed and set out under the authority of this act.— $ 139. Averment of Offence. — In any information or other proceeding for any offence against any act made or to be made relating to the customs, the averment that such offence was committed within the limits of any port shall be sufficient, without proof of such limits, unless the contrary be proved. — } 140. Commissioners may appoint Sufferance Wharfs. — It shall be lawful for the commissioners of his Majesty's customs from time to time, by any order under their hands, to appoint places to be .sufferance wharfs, for the lading and unlading of goods by sufferance, to be duly issued by them, or by the proper officers under their directions, in such manner and in such cases as they shall see fit. —$ 141. No Ships engaged in the carriage of Letters to import or export Goods. — No ship or boat appointed and employed ordinarily for the carriage of letters shall import or export any goods without permission of the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, under the penalty of the forfeiture of 100/., to be paid by the master of such ship or boat. — $ 142. JVo Person deemed an Apprentice until Indenture enrolled with Collector. — No person shall be deemed to be an apprentice for the purposes of an act passed in the 4th year of the reign of his late Majesty, intituled "An Act (4 Geo. 4. c. 25.) for regulating the Number of Apprentices to be taken on board British Merchant Vessels, and for preventing Desertion of Seamen," unless the indenture of such apprentice shall have been enrolled with the collector and comptroller of the port from which any such apprentice shall first go to sea after the date of such indenture, or in default of such enrolment, until the same shall have been enrolled at some port from which the ship in which such apprentice shall afterwards go to sea shall be cleared.—} 143. Licensed Agents. — It shall not be lawful for any person to act as an agent for transacting any busi- ness at the Custom-house in the port of London which shall relate to the entry or clearance of any ship, or of any goods, or of any baggage, unless authorised so to do by licence of the commissioners Of his Majesty's customs, who are hereby empowered to require bond to be given by every person to Whom SUCfa licence shall be granted, with 1 sufficient surety, in the sum of 1,000/., for the faithful and incorrupt conduct of such person and of his clerks acting "for him: provided always, that such bond Shall not be required of any person who shall be one of the sworn brokers of the city of London ; ami if any person shall act as such agent, not being so licensed, or if any person shall be in partnership in such agency with any person not so licensed, such person shall, in either case, for every such offence forfeit the sum of 100/.— $ 144. Treasury may revoke Licence.— It shall be lawful for the said commissioners of his Majesty's trea- sury, by any order utider their hands, to revoke any such licence; and after a copy of such order shall have been delivered to such person or to his clerk, or left at his usual place of abode or business, such license shall be void. — J 145. Nat to crtend to Clerks or Servants of Individuals, nor to Clerks in Long Room. — Nothing herein con- tained Bhall extend to prevent the clerk or servant of any person, or of any persons in co-partnership, from transacting any business at the Custom-house on account of such person or persons, without such licence; provided such clerk or servant shall not transact any such business as clerk, servant, or agent to any other person.—} 146. Agent may appoint Clerks to act for him only.—\\ shall be lawful for any such agent or agents in co-partni rsbip to appoint any person without licence to be his or their clerk in transacting such agency : provided always, that no person shall be admitted to be such clerk to more than 1 agent or co-partnership of agents, nor until his name and residence, and the date of his appointment, shall have been indorsed on the licence of every such agent, and signed by him, and witnessed by the sig- nature of the collector and comptroller of the customs, unless such person shall have been appointed with consent of the commissioners of his Majesty's customs before the commencement of this act.— $ 147. IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION. 19 Treasurv may extend Regulations to other Port*.— It shall be lawful Air tin- said commissioners ofhis Majeetj 's Treasury, b\ tneir warrant, to l>'- published in the London or Dublin Gazette^ to extend the regulations herein before made relating to agents in the port of London to a^i'ins at any other port in Great Britain, or at any port in Ireland. — $ l I s - (The commissioners of customs, agreeably to the powers given them to thai effect l>y the 3 & 4 Will, 4. c. 52. § 135. (see vol. ii. p. 17.), have appointed the undermentioned places, within the several ports of the United Kingdom, at which vessels coining into or departing out of such ports shall bring to, for the boarding or landing of customs Every master of a vessel failing to comply with the provisions of said act in this respect for- feits 100/. Ports. I ■ i ' n Aberdovey jp Maryport ~) Wisbeach Woodbridge • Peterhead - Newburgh - Stonehaven Jijr • Banff Borrcnvttoness Inverkeithing Camb\ 't'li-n ■ Dumfries • Dundee Newburgh a Perth - Glasgow Grangemouth Alloa ! below the town ... i ■ '(instances pei not within the point Barrow Hills, opposite Blickwater River, MaJdon. In the li;m-n, opposite the town of Milford. The entrance ol the h trbour. t >) posite the watch-house, at the entrance of the river True. Low Lights, Noitli Shi IN. At the entrance of 'he harbour. In the stream, between the piers and the tide surveyor's watch -house. At the watch-house, 1 mile from the Cus- tom house. Hawker's Cove, within the harbour. Gwavas Like. St. Michael's Mount Roads. Within the line of the bre ikwater, viz. the Sound, Catwater, and H im At the entrance of the harbour, between South Deep, opposite Brownsea Castle, and the Essex buoy, opposite the castie stables. Between Blockhouse Point and the north end of hei Mi |esty's lork-y.'trd. In the roadstead, within 1 mile of the Spil Buoy. In the harbour. In the harbour. At the entrance of the harbour. Sheerness. The outer channel, and in Slag's Hole, in the inner channel. In the open roadstead. In the open roa Istead. Entrance of the harbour, opposite the light- house, at the eml of Vincent's Pier. Near the entrance of the harbour, in the western branch, opposite the customs watch-house and Kingston Wharf. Itchen buoy, or Bursledbn buoy. Opposite the jetty, near the entrance of the harbour. Ninth buoy, or opposite Cleveland Port. In the bay, within 1-2 a mile of St. Ives pier. The same. At the entrance of the harbour, near the watch house on the South pier. In the harbour. Briton Ferry, near the entrance of Neath River. Falmouth harbour. Between the entrance of the harbour and Wells Quay. Weymouth Roads. The harbour. In the harbour, between the tongue and bulwark. In their respective harbours. At the light-houses about 3 miles below the station at Sutton Wash. Bawdsey Ferry, the entrance of the river Deben. Yarmouth Roads, between Nelson's monu- ment and the haven's mouth— on theBrush, a short distance within the haven's moulh, at the S. E. angle of the river. SCOTLAND. That part of Aberdeen Bay which falls within a line beginning at The easternmost point of the Girdle Ness, and running north 1 1-2 mile, to a point due east of the centre of the Broad Hill. The bay. Within' the river Tthan, opposite to the vil- la ?e Newburgh. Stonehaven Bay, within 800 yards of the entrance of the harbour. South Quay at Ayr. The Legal' Quays. The harbour. The harbour. The harbour. The harbour. The harbour. Caroline Roads, 1 1-2 mile to the eastward of the harbour of Dundee. Entrance of the harbour. Entrance of the harbour. Alloa roadstead. Kincardine roadstead. From Gravel Point, to the eastward of tho town of Greenock, in the county of 20 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. Rothsay Tobermory Inverary Lochgilphead Inverness hvme. Kirkaldy Aberdour and ) Burntisland £ Piltenweeu - Dysart Wemyss Meihil Leven I-ari*o Anstrufher - 5 St. Andrew's Kirkwall ■:}■ Dunbar Fisherrow . Lerwick Montrose Stations for brineins-to. Renfrew, to Kempocfc Point, beine* the Western point of Gnu rock Bay, including (herein Carlsdyke Biy, Greenock Roads, the anchorage at the tail of the bank, and Gou.rock.Bay, Rotha&y Hay, lying and being within Bnyany Point, on ihe east of the town of Rothsay, in the We of Bute, county of Buie, and ArJiualiah Point on Hie weal of the said town. Oban Bay, in the county of Argyle, as lies within F.sliin^-hiiijif hunt on the eastern side, and Currick Point ou the western side of the said bay. The Bay of Tobermory, lying and being within Leidag Point to the southeast, V ■irlmore Point to the north-west, and the Isle of Calve on the east of Tubennorv, Isle of Mull, county of Argyle. The roadstead ot Inverary, lying and being ort the town of Inverary. in Ihe county of Argyle, and extending 1-2 a mile north-east of the quay of the said town. Lochgilphead Koads, at the east end of the Crinan Canal, lying and being within Ardrishaig Point, on the western side of Lochgilphead and Kilmory Point, on the eastern side of the said loch. The harbour. The harbour. Entrance of the harbour. Burntisland Roads, Kirkaldy Bay. Largo Bay. Entrance to their respective harbours. St. Andrew's Bay. The Bay, or Kirkwall Roads, extending along the beach, in a north-east direction, to Thief's Holm, and in a westerly direc- tion to Quanteruess Skerry, thence iu a southerly direction lo the Legal Quays. The bay called Cairston Roads. Between ;he MarteUo tower and chain pier at Newhaven. In the harbour. In the harbour. In (lie bay, opposite the Custom house. Within the b.ir, at the entrance of the river South Esk, which is called the Still. The harbour. Ports. Port Glasgow Stornaway Baltimore "\ Castle Townsend ( Crook Haven [ Bere Haven J Belfast ) (Floating Stn.) 5 ('flu nine Cork (Cove) - West Fassage Kinsale Youghall Dmzhcda Queenborough Dublin D'tndnlk GaliLHiy Limerick Londonderry- Newry Strangford - Sh'go - Killibegs - Ballyshannon Ballina Killala Waterford - New Ross - Dunearvan - Hist port Watford Statimisfnr liringinp-to. Port Glasgow Roads, or roadstead, commenc- ing at the black and white chequered buoy, on the east point of the bank called the Perch, Jistan' from the harbour about 200 yards, and extending in a southeasterly direction by the course of the river Clyde to the old ruins called Newark Castle. - The harbour. i I bar] our of Stranraer, ■ The harbour. Thurso Bay, within Holburn Head to the anchorage ground at Scrabster Roads. Wick Bav, wlu n abreast or \\ ithin the head- land called the Old Man of Wick. IRELAND. At the entrance of the harbours of Castle Townsend, Baltimore, Crook Haven, and Bere Haven. Garmoyle Roads, in Belfast Lough. Port Rush Bay, outside the harbour. Between theSpfl buoy and the town of Gove. Between Ferry Point to the southward and Horse Head to Ihe norih-west. Upper Cove, on the eastern side of the harbour. Within the entrance of the harbour, between Blackball Head to the eastward, and Ferry Point. North Crook, at the entrance of (he Boyne. In the river Bnyne, opposite Queenborough. Pigeon-house, between the harbour light- house and the end of the North Wall. Soldiers' Point. To the eastward, or under the shelter of, Mutton Island. Tarbert's Roads, to the southward of Tarbert Fhn 1, in the county of Kerry. Greencastle, situate on the north side of Lough Foyle. Warren Point Roads. Ballyheury Bay or Au lley's Town Bay. Oyster Island. Anchorage of KiUibegs, In the river, abreast of Ward Town-house. Moyne Pool. Killala Pool. Passage. The harbour. The anchorage ground at Armagh Head, in Clew Bay. South Bay, about 10 miles from Wexford. Sup.) [It was at first intended by the American editor to annex to the present article such information concerning the topics treated in it, and having relation to the United States, as might be desirable for those occasionally to refer to who consult a commercial dictionary. On proceeding to this task, however, it became manifest to him that the execution of his design was quite impracticable in any thing like reasonable bounds. Not to speak of copy- ing the very words of the acts of Congress, or of the sections of acts of Congress, which prescribe the course in every case to be pursued by the importer or exporter of merchandise, a digest only of these enactments, after the manner of Gordon, would occupy altogether a disproportionate space in the present work. Indeed, the space occupied by the 9th book of this author, much of which contains matter that would have a claim for insertion here, amounts to no less than 200 closely printed octavo pages. For the reason which has been stated, the reader is referred for the information in ques- tion to Story's Laws of ihe United States, or to Gordon's Digest of those laws. — Am. Ed.] IMPORTS and EXPORTS, the articles imported into and exported from a country. We have explained in another article (Balance of Trade), the mode in which the value pf the imports and exports is officially determined by the Custom-house, and have shown the fallacy of the common notions as to the advantage of the exports exceeding the imports. The scale of prices according to which the official value of the imports and exports is deter- mined having been fixed so far back as 1698, the account is of no use as showing their true value; but it is of material importance as showing the fluctuations in their quantity. We were anxious, had the means existed, to have given accounts of the various articles imported and exported at different periods during the last century, that the comparative increase or diminution of the trade in each might have been exhibited in one general view. Unluckily, however, no means exist for completing such an account. The Tables published by Sir Charles Whitworth, Mr. Macpherson, and others, specify only the aggregate value of the imports from and exports to particular countries, without specifying the articles or their value of which such imports and exports consisted. And on applying at the Custom-house, we found that the fire in 1814 had destroyed the records ; so that there were no means of com- piling any complete account of the value of the articles imported or exported previously to that period. We therefore have been obliged to confine ourselves, except as respects the period since 1815, to an attempt to exhibit the amount of the trade with each country for such periods as seemed best calculated to show its real progress. Those selected for this purpose, in the first of the following Tables, arc periods of peace; for, during war, the com IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 21 merce with particular countries is liable to be extended or depressed so far beyond its natural limits as to afford no means of judging of its ordinary amount The averages given in the Table (with the exception of 1802), are sufficiently extensive to neutralise the influence of such extraordinary circumstances (whether arising from bad harvests, the repeal or imposi- tion of duties, or any other cause), as might materially affect an average for 2 or :', years only; and as they extend from 1698 to 1822, they afford a pretty complete view of the progress of the foreign trade of Great Britain. This Tabic was compiled from official docu- ments by Mr. Cesar Moreau, and may be safely relied on. The Tables which follow have either been copied from, or have been founded upon, official returns. Nos. IV. and V. give, in a brief space, by far the most complete view of the foreign trade of the empire during the half dozen years ending with 183$, than is anywhere to be. met with. The proportional value of our export trade to different countries is, for the first time, exhibited in Table V. During the first half of last century, and previously, woollen goods formed the principal article of native produce exported from Great Britain; and next to it were hardware and cutlery, leather manufactures, linen, tin, and lead, copper and brass manufactures, coal, earthenware, provision, slops, &c. Corn formed a considerable article in the list of exports down to 1770 ; since which period the balance of the corn trade has been, with a few excep- tions, very decidedly on the side of importation. Cotton did not begin to be of any import- ance as an article of export till after 1770; but since then the extension and improvement of the cotton manufacture has been so astonishingly great, that the exports of cotton stuffs and yarn amount, at this moment, to about a half of the entire exports of British produce and manufactures ! — (See vol. i. p. 526.) The export of woollen goods has been compara- tively stationary. The principal articles of import during the last half century have consisted of sugar, tea, corn, timber and naval stores, cotton wool, sheep's wool, woods and drugs for dyeing, wine and spirits, tobacco, silk, tallow, hides and skins, coffee, spices, bullion, &c. Of the colonial and other foreign products imported into England, considerable quantities have always been re-exported. Tables of Imports and Exports. I. Account of the Official Value of the Import and Export Trade of Great Britain with all Parts of the World, at an Annual Medium of the undermentioned Periods; specifying the separate Amount of the Trade with each Country for such Periods. Europe, British and foreign Foreign, North South - [retail t, Guern- sey.Jersey.AI derney, Man, and the Whale Fishery Gibraltar (ft 1801, Malta and Io 1*1 mils 1 Annual Medium of Five Periods of Peace, i 1, 858,176 1,490,904 487,640 t,V.,lil| 17.421 1)29.780 1749-1755.| 1784-1792. £ 2,135.87(1 1,533,896 111,863 4,527,911 1,119,158 34,279 2,529,995 5,569,952 8,211,346 3,885,999 2,860,914 2,433,864 9,193.015 3,179,136 92,252 6,252,349 In 1802. £ 5,915,853 3,123,007 3,839,501 12,997,679 5,794,906 168,863 12,480,870 17,716,752 31,142,318 18I6-1S2J £ 4,891,58-, 3,308,502 5,143,220 13,491,568 7,119,1 267,869 14,042,949 34,921,535 Annual Medium of Five Periods of Peace, viz. 169S-1701. 1749-1755. 1784-1792. In 1802. 1816-1S22. 3SS.594 5,351,11:3 214,212 114,043 737,876 4,166,669 4,761,965 3, 129,499 j 3,157,139 1,353,804; 2,251,081 641,366 210,838 9,291,318 714,105 213,841 2,001,690 10,411,023 1,795,747 809,546 5,605.626 6,449,594 12,220,974 18,621,942 15,015,209 17,010,920 7,209,291 8,324,9o7 3,663,237 4,097,630 542,404 2,246,565 26,430,141 2,929,816 6,161,179 10,890,830 41,411,966 31,680.(102 3,219,446 531,712 17,695,335 53,126,195 Europe, North Rinia ■ Sweden - Netherlands ■ Europe, South. France - Portugal - Spain - Italy Turkey • America,North. Uni'el States ■ British colonies America, South British West ludii-s Foreign ditto (from 180S, Brazils and Span, colon.) 110,416 213,657 4SS.053 187,632 1,619.146 261,823 77,308 181,186 681,169 624,410 84,507 280,633 687,805 407,240 140,138 595,544 552,291 717,057 86.025 202,909 566,527 3 1\537 276,906 60,962 288.549 437,869 578,445 168.071 452,734 615,486 724.287 8.53,862 184,545 296,402 18,617 891,169 48,750 986,109 221,413 714,761 1,588,183 3,960,674 - 1,896 183,853 155,672 1,057,603 1,192,030 1 ,000,768 424,434 961,711 830,937 723,501 182,424 8,531,175 196,517 65«,ns0 684,741 961,269 737.360 492.193 577,436 894,835 306,67S 3,267 ,4*8 716,572 7,926,21. 60,899 59,454 39,874 152,209 757,621 2,044,225 166,115 343,413 5M',422 143,249 21S,002 3S7,516 18,49' 1,658,256 2,132,674 100,354 19,859 395,696 70,617 1,281,555 90,515 87,206 171,091 1,345,212 2,442,947 294,108 117.217 1,566.311 2,317,986 427,016 818,269 8,005,237 4,392,617 437,483 1,121,529 1,195,337 238,476 133,674 921,492 675,348 709.1-1 7.9,2 13 121,577 2,390,103 1,284,344 1,421.294 1,950,416 163,134 1,238,161 72,954 2,839,484 864,489 5,329,490 1,350,896 664,067 1,862,522 3,925,613 2,329.725 145,217 422,810 1,002,881 8.-7J.8-] 4,337,316 1,314,079 1,933,154 61 1,923 3,699,715 764,116 6,393,956 1,715,220 6,030,367 22 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. Foreign Trade of Great Britain and Ireland. II. Account specifyins the Official And Declared Value of the Exports of British and Irish Produce and Manufacture, anil the Official lvalue oftbe Exports of Foreign and Colonial Merchandise, from Great Britain to Foreign Parts; with the Ojjicial Value of the Imports into the same, also from Foreign Parts, in each Year since 1798. Tears ending 'he 5th of British and Irish Pro I ure and Manufactures Foreign and Colonial Imports into Great January. exported from Great Rn! on. from Great Britain. Britain. /Iceland l r nhu. Official 1 'aha. Official 1 1709 £18,556,891 £31,255 £8,760,196 £25,122,203 1800 22,284,941 35,903,850 7.271,696 21.166,700 1801 22,831,936 36,929,007 11,549,681 28,257,781 1802 24.501,608 39.730,659 10,336,966 -.268 1 03 25.19: 45,102,230 12,677,431 2>.. ,J l)s.:>,73 1804 20,042,596 36,127.7-7 2,643 25,104,541 1805 22.132,367 37,13.'.: 16 8,938,741 26,454,281 l-.:.i 22,907,371 37,234,396 7.613,120 27.334,020 1 !07 25,266,546 39,746,581 7,717,555 25,554,478 1808 22,963,772 36,394,443 7,624,312 25,326> 15 1809 21.I79.isa4 36,306,385 27.660,953 1810 32.916,858 46,049.7 77 12,750,358 30,170,292 1811 33,299,408 47. 1,926 9,357,435 37,613,294 1812 21,723,532 30,850,618 6,117.720 25,210.! ol 1813 28, 117,912 39,334,526 9,533,065 21.923,922 1814 * * * * 1313 32,200.580 43,117,373 19,157,818 32,620,771 1816 41.712,002 49.65:i.215 15,708,435 31,822,053 1817 34.774,521 40,328.910 13 J4 1,665 26,374,921 1818 39,233,467 40,349,235 10,269,271 29,910,502 1819 41,960,555 45,180,150 10,835,800 35> 1820 32,983,689 34.252,251 9,879,236 29,681,610 I8BI 37,820,293 35.569,077 10.525.020 31.515,222 1822 40,194,681 35,823,127 10,602.090 29,769,122 1S23 43,558.488 36,176,897 9,211,928 29,432,376 1824 43,166,039 34,589,410 8,588,996 34,591,264 1825 48,024,952 37,600,021 10,188,596 36,056,551 1826 46,453.022 38.(177,330 9.155,305 42.660,954 1827 40,332,854 30,817,523 10.066,503 36,174,350 1823 51,279,102 36.394,817 9.806,343 43,489,346 1829 52,019,728 36,150.379 9,928,655 43,536,187 1830 55,465,723 35,212,873 10,606,441 42,311.619 1831 60,492.637 37,691,3(12 8,535,786 41. Bl 5,397 1832 60,090,123 -36.652,694 10,729.943 48,161,661 1833 61,582,037 36,046,027 11,036,759 43,237.417 1834 69,633,854 39,395,513 9,820,586 44,529,287 1835 73.495,536 41,286,594 11,549.913 47,908,931 1S36 77,932,616 46,926,370 12,788,602 47,463,610 * Records destroyed by fire. — From the year ending the 5th of January, 1S15, inclusive, British produce and manufactures have been included in the returns of Irish produce, &c. from Ireland, and consequently omitted in the column headed Exports, Foreign, Colonial, and British, unrfer which tiiev have been previously returned. The exports from Ireland to foreign parts are inconsiderable. Their declared value, in 1635, was only '445,900i.— <- l III. Account showing the Quantities of the principal Articles of British and Irish Produce or Manu- facture exported from Ireland in different Years, from 1801 to 1825, to all Countries ; showing also the aggregate Official Value of such Exports, with the Portion thereof exported to Foreign Coun- tries, and to Great Britain. Articles exported. 1801. 1805. 1809. 1S13. 1817. 1S2I. 1S25. Com and meal, viz. — Barley - ... qrs. 17,223 26,588 194.193 39,114 7S 228 154,622 Oals - — 129 223,234 S2-.45- &HV.3JO 646,036 l.i .'■.- oj 1,5C3,204 Wheat - - - — - 82,815 85.=. Ml 201,273 57,280 471 ,! 10 2-3.310 Other grain *- ■ - — 1 5,302 3,023 5.934 2,011 7/97 j:>32 Wheat flour - - - cwt. 2' : 22.774 18,087 267,894 34.517 29',,035 394,507 Oatmeal, fcc- - - — 2,524 34,297 90,94 ■> I0S.317 34,-1,3 66,063 201,61.7 Cattle and livestock- Cows and oxen - • No. 31.661 21,941 18,335 49,592 4'.,32> 63,524 - - • — 2,831 10.9-s 7,596 7,690 29,478 25,854 72,191 Swine - - - — 1,968 6,383 4,712 14,621 24,11-. b 1,556 65,919 Ilot>es * - - — 818 4,1-0 3,451 4.001 B79 2. 503 3,140 Bacon and h^ms ■ - cwt. 21,161 167,122 234,606 191.025 2i 2,278 Keef and pork • - barrels 160,840 262,744 262.605 219.165 1M,276 Butter .-- - cwt. 304.666 294,415 - 461,514 i V 471,161 Lard" • — 2,049 6,363 20,136 17,181 2--. 1-9 35,261 Soap arid candles - • — 15,=. 7 17,713 80,81 46.615 25, 31 18,454 14,791 — 1,639 278 6.5117 1 ■11239 68.791 54,898 Spirits, lull - - Imp. gals. 178,602 819.970 60,437 113,316 87,881 629,529 Cotton m-.nufnetures - yards 1,256 8,956 34,998 99,141 549,26t 921,971 10,567,4 i8 other'- - value /.. 4. .-2! 3,281 31.923 5s. 071 301 Linen manufactures ■ var is 37,911,602 43,683,533 37,160.399 39,023,087 56,230,575 49,531,139 55,114,515 yarn - - -' lbs. 2,631,132 792,400 1,534,512 2,141,776 1,571,444 1,150,464 391,489 Other articles the produce or manuf ic hire of the 1 . K. . value ial value of prod, and manu- L. 192,259 211, IS4 302,8-13 280,999 434,125 334,323 466,390 - D*. k. r\p. from Ireland to all parts L. 3,778,145 4,670,647 4,992,840 6,297,204 6,447,424 7,705,070 9,101,956 Agg. official value of prod, ate! ma- nufact of U. K. exp. from [Rial to Juriign ports Agg. official value of prod, and ma- L. 426,076 469,569 625,415 1,132,781 877,959 637,818 697,6G7 nufacL of t*. K. exp. from [resand to Orcal Il'itmn L. 3.352,069 4,201,078 4,367,425 S.161.4V3 <;.-.»:*•. 1* .7 7,067,252 8,404,289 The above Table shows the inconsiderable amount of the trade of Ireland with all countries, except Great Britain. In 1825, the trade two divisions of II pi iced on the footing of a coasting trade, and no account lias since been kept of the quantity or value of the commodities passing between tin in, with the exception of corn. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 23 ~ 3 ,n ^~ & £ S? £2 s i a • - s ■* < *" 1 • 1" 1 o 1 1 O £- - a. ° S 3 ^ °! - n si •a ^^ j*g 8 •pai^-jco^cg o c> en c 1- -5 ro -- tooTgT o of r~ ~ y3 f. f) o « of --- 00" 0? 7 — pi aooj r-T " eicT 2 .s- « R ■* g 2 S 83 S <5 & ^Sf2 •a '5 00 04 W *° ~ " t~ CD -H C4 5 £ § 3 ? — rr .1 *j o o x co o *■ — K i •! !- , £ Sj 5 g s 1 1 gfss N ~ i" « s S S S — ^ & ' ' »s 2" ' °* (M s O Tf oo^ 1 ( n-io woioo ^3 tXCO O t^ l>M ci>n -"' 2 • . • 1 O CD !£ O £■' «7w ^ £j c m f 3 OO -OtOLO O — 1-5O «3 rf ^n S?— 'J^cS 1 £* r ~~S3* s 22$ SJ -T "tfrTto | " to 5 £ TjojEfl, 5S.5 ;; n 1 "^ •a — ~' n 125 g _} o to os eo as r- ei t ?* ■ — §11 i go gSSS S = 2'4 § iii £U "I a s "s § Si^SlI 15 §5& 1 s "*§- S ° SSj IT, ej ?^s n ' v l' E '§ S i — g^Gicn 3 — — "' S 2 N gf-~ 5S gp§ § § ■ ®R1«S ill S 8 . P 2 I : 3 1|SS2 2211 B i§i 7a i IjSo 2 n o'So^'S «23t2 § •r S 5 — ^ og 5;'^" ;cf ;/ r: r 1 * Jg* O" — 2* 005 M N • N * ggf -" gf~ I 2 = 3 2 c33ol?n£ S^n" n 1 " S 1 2 g« f?gg2 S"^-"J^ - -n ™ t- ** - tO CO tfj. S-§-!* » 1 ■ of , of «* J*2zS ^o?-co i J|a f li 1 llll 1 1 1 . ill 1 II llll INI . s^i w « 5 ° 'O. ■ 3 s . . . 1 . r . 1 '• " 9 N "> •§ a .£ .2 ^3 S To. Q "1 ■ 3 oil 1 111 ^ bus*, 5 c-a ■- S.O • • ■ ' -a ' | ' S TG^STd ^3S7j2'aa. 5""^ ■ •^■- *aii75— ?'S^.H>' §■£ *= ■« 2 J3 "- -B ~ 'u 8 ■§ 1 eS^^S -•!§ ^S E 1 S gSWln !^ CQ BKBCffiaj'J O OO O 24 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 1 4,097 1,817 4,565 3,175 535 94 33,378 1,609 3,053 9,565 1,697 992 155 447 1,614 8,413 607 151 o 3,127 2,255 7,703 1,553 214,537 15,411 866 63.62S 389 4,697 4,235 120,520 11,907 2,S43 190 1,673 273 185 1,965 420 197 2,625 849 290 233 54 1 9,218 1 L. 3,48-. 2,112 6,301 4,365 658 92 32,056 1,057 2,942 7,207 1,892 728 132 346 2,705 9,372 381 127 $ 3,405 3,605 6,485 1,741 242, ISO 16,394 884 67,434 382 4,263 4,535 122,272 12,356 2,926 91 1,223 289 356 2,050 1,713 443 2,740 750 124 26 91 76 8,317 1 L. 4,339 1,567 3,561 5,868 634 158 29,781 1,170 3,492 14,730 3,721 506 121 4,856 4,130 8,456 151 -r 4,728 4,562 6,523 3,365 311,063 17,701 2,235 69,392 861 11,096 149,195 15,645 1,502 660 1,742 604 281 382 2,145 770 3,969 650 257 29 79 7,924 1 L. 4,158 915 2,753 6,234 1,496 987 30,675 1,447 2,512 18,143 3,882 807 147 6,1S2 5,864 8,805 417 1 4,148 3,236 11,627 2,326 316,697 23,13S 1,720 64,8SS 491 6,222 148,447 12,863 1,518 602 1,782 769 293 3 3,224 398 3,354 936 162 1,724 134 14 13,695 a "E. | | £ 8 cy 1 162,596 8,935 15,309 10,595 191,364 30,430 2,590,606 694,483 14,727 94,100 67,851 3,830 2,930 176,356 96,649 169,513 6,001 336,824 rf 72S,I43 11,477 7,170 15,3S7 193,569 20,662 16,760 302,145 2S3 4,677 12,090 160,844 110,253 28,529 1,348 97,542 21,427 350,003 156,762 50,390 7,150 134,370 60.836 670,614 451,867 594 1,602,732 1 139,860 10,434 17,613 14,608 241,959 34,227 2,447,827 393,474 14,026 70,951 75,271 2,702 2,607 163,665 162.232 1S7,527 3,810 2S3,9S6 ■**■ 794,272 18,448 5,967 18,109 163,523 19,476 16,489 254,783 277 4,261 6,945 147,467 124,221 29,475 543 59,673 46,311 700,254 163,9S3 . 204,115 13,506 130,205 49,248 246,089 51,216 911 9,235 1,445,8S8 i 178,246 7,660 12,078 19,834 194,272 58,827 2,323,300 435,572 17,595 72,186 60,549 1,801 2,369 147,856 247,777 169,140 338,963 i 1,112,190 22,759 6,325 33,817 140,445 16,494 11,106 319,147 625 8,068 137,692 156,726 14,843 2,833 92,099 37,479 545,350 34,202 182,771 24,015 178,708 44,306 512,420 23,889 621 56S 1,360,697 l 166,900 4,457 7,173 I9.29S 146,056 53,372 2,395,653 603,329 12,415 60,346 51,767 1,S80 1,663 128,278 290,702 156,498 263,952 1 984.S69 16,449 7,129 23,828 142,717 21,393 8,701 241,973 356 4,527 138,305 128,747 15,229 3,162 100,581 48,238 672,468 244,340 8,889 178,425 66,460 323,349 275,727 1,741 871 2,376,944 cy 1 352,023 1,142 4,545 770 175,787 28,592 4,074,598 206,169 3,697 822 5 1,811 3,02S 407 37,954 41 202 330 ~ 12,255 G 8,706 1,541 22,199 3,639 5 1,306 2 1,174 1,214 29,808 1,126 50 11,414 219 11,947 10,164 2,400 6,206 69,577 17,961 69,396 221,490 23,143 24,444 260,005 87,220 I 265,490 1,482 819 922 253,287 5,169 3,928,226 88,234 4,54!? 1,527 1,283 2,260 698 8,957 230 86 3 19,569 132 11,293 12,967 4,093 10 1,460 16 75 958 27,635 1,2)7 908 10,986 786 6,087 10,949 1,139 1,436 61,097 2,984 62,632 87,979 7,498 9,391 189,548 2,772 1 130,732 1,616 358 163,216 1,632 3,664,814 52,811 7,045 756 27 1,082 3,133 1,626 33,667 42 3,333 'J 18,202 21 11.338 '387 10,554 2,965 5,294 7 125 36,127 5,340 1,846 17,451 188 4,601 2,134 1,974 59,971 14,875 60,889 110,859 15,856 327,801 23,442 1 138,270 717 372 2,070 109,638 4,510 5,346,725 71,306 4,427 570 431 1,884 3,715 15,420 34 448 % 15,504 6.S3S 11,758 6,801 1,697 IS 334 25,977 2,797 551 18,864 502 15,123 4,665 15,392 70,170 26.1S7 46.4S0 114,421 1,270 21,006 327,498 42,163 Si 1 I 418,320 9,931 13,981 4,400 651,166 34,487 4,168,395 528,615 16,744 94,102 66,323 6,242 6,633 177,832 11S.646 182,082 5,050 322,562 1 740,814 11,574 16,817 18,973 176,063 18,773 16,765 324,438 465 4,557 12,009 169,366 136,525 27,665 15,041 88,400 25,364 352,430 183,978 47,586 80,271 159,954 115,501 1,171,659 557,600 18,374 297,787 1,373,013 7 4I0,3S7 14,04S 17,424 19,503 572,798 31,166 4,155,296 708,959 21,054 72,004 80,297 5,836 6,696 159,441 126,965 174,196 4,002 315,557 1 811,722 18,447 19,S94 18,764 192,786 31,515 16,499 266,323 250 6,417 12,645 213,729 121,559 29,002 I3.G90 117,225 64,127 726,169 107,586 224,216 75,920 182,426 132,620 872,555 61,603 27,232 208,934 1,473,773 1 359,3S1 9,852 15,185 15,125 447,783 85,035 6,635,436 326,894 26,080 61,397 56,662 2,836 6,630 138,786 130,422 178,585 344,107 1 1,129,633 27,087 15,891 32.99S 142,539 16,994 11,106 351,951 757 9,993 158,324 165,562 19,413 12,568 42,649 19,637 544,679 105,139 lsi,466 82,592 163,277 109,681 118,889 23,8S9 8,376 230,715 1,180,162 1 388,477 4,350 8,701 27,435 278,286 44,699 6,353,063 472,976 18,774 79,435 64,449 2,097 5,991 140,209 426,566 168,402 266,935 1 982,516 15,536 13,246 25,158 165,658 24,772 8,701 242,3S7 335 , 3,925 187,419 152,630 16,913 21,565 91,970 42,740 539,541 3,927 239,241 59,051 140,461 80,942 607,29S 222,493 17,557 355,830 2,986,153 .2 1 lbs. tons cwts. lbs. tons cwts. tons cwts. lbs. cwts ■ lbs. f 1 -I--5J" N-Js'l 11-5 1 6 | | I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 > S a i p , Dyeing stuffs, viz. Cochineal • Fustic • Gum Arabic Senegal Animi and copal Tragacanth Indigo Lac dye • Logwood • Madder • Madder roots Nicaragua wood - ■ Safflower - Shumac Smalts Valonia Yellow berries Zaffres Flax and tow, or codilla of fia Fruit, viz.— Apples, not dried - Almonds - Chestnuts - Currants Figs - Grapes Lemons and oranges Plums, dried French and prunelloes Raisins Small nuts - Walnuts Furs, undressed, viz.— Bear Beaver Cat and lynx • Coney • • Ermine Fitch Fox Marten - • Mink Musquash - Nutria Otter Raccoon . • Squirrel • - IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 25 & 1 L. 3,946 1,302 44,267 14,163 841 1,041 150 26,512 13 2,837 43,167 23 1,041 1,223 3,253 1,360 26,379 4,290 6 24,175 19,067 614 27,327 279,796 776 9,134 i>94 15.230 1,204 i J . neta>— co o e* — cf ~~ coco a? t? r>f AT co eo-T 1 i L. 2,638 1,479 41,630 10,474 140 6,092 27 18,763 "\ Repay- { nienlsex [ ceed the Jgrossrcp'. 2,112 39,027 532 863 2 2,952 23,338 61 20,398 2:9,62 ! 621 45,743 27,043 1,761 1 L. 1,S68 2,717 47,524 8,392 306 17,230 15,174 811 27,473 24,018 310 854 2 1,761 2,602 21,957 3,882 361 27,106 . 17,267 630 22,397 254,651 2,543 43,350 1,276 2,712 d a. | O 8 & i 790 1,712 18,171 1,41b 10,063 2,933 150 31,311 Cwts. 3,024 643,122 294,184 127 81,682 4,392 27,654 54,366 17,572 1,814 2 1-2 1,291,265 45,213 178 6,374 652 211 415 703 15,658 IJ.J--2 7,319 622,479 670,205 554 196 14.015 242,733 lb. 1.4 i 657 2,663 16.721 1,156 3,347 11,487 20 25,470 Cwts. 2,273 666,096 342,718 776 40,339 3,747 50 29,336 50,720 15,399 1,689 26 1,603,823 37,374 10,914 590 272 407 16,428 14,403 6,141 507,930 546,436 2,225,227 264,306 21,462 i 535 1,539 15,115 1,013 1,616 21,469 27 22,079 Value, L 2,511 512,623 265,861 1,072 48,578 3,451 6 25,059 15,573 1,411,215 4V 63 2,695 286 195 570 4 16,890 14,012 6,739 643,886 361,386 1,363,217 216,225 31,242 1 398 1,352 19,293 838 3,634 60,830 28 17,911 ( £.8,378 1 cwtqr.lbv (414. 1 24 708,646 161,968 1,505 24,635 3,416 4 14,836 54,071 14,634 1,619 184 1,478,190 43,894 1,172 1,092 59 389 12,563 13,594 6,00b 566,689 477 449 1,284,160 10.203 220,323 28,447 Si 1 42 112 997 89 5,532 13,117 324 7,656 Cwts. 136 56,951 79,380 28,204 12,979 8,557 2,635 58 1,268 38,365 355 3.8j7 5,516 3,414 6 145,264 14,110 63,310 1,087 23 167 4,896 61,296 283,734 2,238 30.91 5 8,135 i 18 66 482 42 18,394 23,956 753 2,832 Cwts. 26 19,672 56,127 16 4,964 461 10,509 5,609 2.8S5 43 865 22,633 321 43 1,747 14,430 17,792 69,363 917 100 107 2,073 37 033 2^4 930 6l3 20,412 3,727 5 45 103 1,205 105 2 56,093 1,566 2,301 Value, L. 14 32,170 29,366 229 10,450 4,658 8,953 2,024 9,015 504 2S8 2,962 4 17,914 16,606 47,191 566 1,332 26,246 397,367 19,733 2,033 1 22 21 791 183 1S9 35,271 S21 1,605 Value, L. 22 21,410 37,318 16,365 11,526 3,849 3,451 32 957 21,564 629 343 20,205 10 47,793 73,450 32,314 1,224 236 1,120 33.117 819,595 831 6,017 2,353 .1 .8 i 997 2,656 19,037 2,473 13,647 7,472 494 27,483 Cwts. 3,201 687,559 350,697 127 78,676 6,443 31,264 73,908 19,750 1,811 1,276 1,260,623 45,725 4,015 11,377 970 9,534 421 144.S53 522,331 56,293 12,802 12,305 6,414 526,321 1,109,307 606,166 19,838 260,151 24,197 i 1,063 2,505 16,957 1,677 11,685 16,550 93 45,372 Cwts. 2,492 673,811 437,291 792 80,262 5,120 50 46,636 8S.111 16,215 1,976 970 1,697,944 37,693 10,957 1,724 12,751 407 29,436 537,526 49,349 11,994 14,505 6,071 67S.382 694.371 2,318,142 8,810 270,669 23,334 I 598 1,572 11,813 463 1,738 25,723 535 22,223 ) Value, L. J* 1,937 527,459 296,300 1,301 65,702 8,244 6 42,703 17,913 790 1,436,472 43,233 2,695 745 2,996 574 40,171 352,027 41,232 13,401 13,970 7,783 717,934 343,802 1,391,913 267,194 32,876 7, 327 1,137 15,S64 832 686 169,438 139 19,109 f 8,400 L. J cwt.qr.lb. I 429 16 593,564 186,631 1,505 16,654 1,686 4 28,395 22,933 19,248 1,919 1,090 1,516,632 44,775 1,654 19,559 399 48,781 447,049 36,519 10,738 13,594 6,769 665,685 301,636 110,822 10,803 222,336 30,776 a! .a f a a. Hard woods, viz. Boxwood .... . • tons Cedar uuder 8 inches square . — Mahogany ■ . • . • — Risewood .... • • — Hats or bonnets, viz. — Of bast, cane, chip, or horsehair • • No. Of straw ...... — Platlin;; of bast, cane, Sic. • . . - lbs. Ditto of straw - .... — Unmanufactured straw for platting . — Hides, untanned, viz. — Buffalo, bull, ox, cow, or horse hides - - — Hides or pieces of hides uuenumerated ■ value, L. Hidts, tanned, viz. — Buffalo, bull, ox, cow, or horse hides . - lbs. Mu.scovy or Russia ..... No. Hides aud pieces of hides unenumerated - value,/.. Horns, horn tips, aud pieces ot horns • • cwts. Lead — pig • • .... tons Leather gloves ..... pairs Linens, viz.— Cambrics and border handkerchiefs . • pieces Lawns, not French - sq. yds. D.tniasks and dain^sk diaper - . - — Drillings, ticks, and twilled linens - • • — Sailcloth - • - - - - — S.iils ---..- value, L. Plain linen and diaper ... sq.yds. Lawns not French, plain linens and diapers, and manufactures of linen unenumerated • value, L. Liquoricejuice - . - . . — Train, spermaceti, and blubber • . » tuns Vol. II.— C 26 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 5 £ tf is « ■< = I = S3 nasi™ ;s2 l l Haf If I5J5 l I l l I l l I l I I I I 1 -: U J| r« 1 g From foreign countries in America • In the husk, from the East sessions in Africa and Am From foreign countries in America - iltpetre and cubic nitre ;eds, viz. — - Caraway Clover Flax and linseed Onion Rape Tares Ik. viz.— Raw silk. From India - • Cape of Good Hope China Turkey - Italy France Other countries - Total of raw silk . Waste and knubbs. From India • China Italy France Other countries - Total of waste and knubbs IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 27 > ■-* «*J en co ^r 6t jS «c «t«x'r. 1- H g ggj ggo r — cor- COC ioicocTioJ " - cot-coco or M I i ii I I I I 1 1 £clisa=He|5=^'s| i 5Hxawss'ill2« : =|s?s"i'lt iooo33Z(££-|os 28 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. s 476,511 22,157 10,997 667,900 158,876 8.63.') S32,427 - 1 - t - n /. >n 31 - ,', - i ; ~ -' " z- ~- ■: ~ IS 334,234 66,043 3,053 330 137,136 ? H | I' || ^ ' ^f co" v-W W 5* n ~ V^V— " " |~ § 111 3 £ -31 2 ^i~rbc — 35 W 3 8j r j J~ co ^ c — CO S?^ S sS n A « s"  gfs *" -«* *oS?°* if p " "" s" -~ gf pf g" g g — *o ^ H ■"* n CO "" _ |~ 8 o o — CTJ 2 ** ~ S '"" ° . a | A Sf 2 P^ 3 — cn" ^f ST^c^i-f^ o" g- = " ^"3" ccccf S r-T " CO "" -» • ^ co" . . ^— -" 1 ~ s "„ «,° ' P 2 — ^ S3 « x — „S3 S CO So So . KnS — '/"■S S ^ 8~ 0" ~p ft | co t- ** ^A^ ^Ln ~~, /»J^ & S23 | a. £ " ~ m 5 3 CNM CO • en -n — 2 8 S 3 8 S 5 ~ - « Lo- o>" ~ oVTaf oJ-"r - - J 23" olccT ^r cTp'oi o^tffo" i. - ~~ S" -" 3" " S-~ " §• 1 CO CM -S- aoi- GO t^O^CO. t "" C5"S.52S?S : | Jn3 5 ■* OO C -nano-ggs^ •£, is -^5W ' S — 5 ' ' ' 0,a " ^ ' -V.-iOtOC]©^«0 co ^jocor^ co so g W-rr-O x»'^cmt I-TC4 .OW -1 • i-*o>nffl" gg s; , '»o — _ 1 as .« -Z — " "" ' Ills ? - DOo'"o g. gg,"^ g.SSS_ OCO CD ^ CO ^1 — t-N i 1 ^ ^^^ 5Jr° * 1 - 0101 s rt m ,S 2 co cj -n -g -r — as - V mi-2 "^ 2SS -"B-. 8 g$M a |i* a ■ g2 co?Pocn£o? I «" i rf3 f? fc-s-iss" 5- ro" o"o S"^ —2- ' m" ^S" ccTccTco -'gr-i'co' w - r-co 3 n « a M s as "I s . 3 • g 2 S S g S S O.CO CO CCD^ O" C* co - S C4 ' CO CN CO" K • ° oSS" <3 !~S ~ « """" : " ' 2 S . . . "Af""». I f 1 1 ifl 3 ,| l| IS| I I | 1 • . .7 .17 1 ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 * ^l l l 1 l 1 . E 1 1 £ a &. . . . . . 75 . . . . , 1 £5 | ---5 -J .9 S e J. | ° s ' V 2 ' '■§•'■' 1 "M-3 1 • • ■ ■ is ' • • • 1 .si ...J || | ■~ i s - pi J| 1 4-i-s? ' 9 ' ' ' ' l" c "R-o-o'3' ' » ■ -2 ?P g»W&>Vfc6.§fta« C in £ <3 P S co Hhhh a|pSing|DS|| I Hi- f-P f^t SSSj5i£y7?:5'<'< IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 29 Account of the real or declared Value of the various Articles of the Manufacture and Produce of the United Kingdom, exported to Foreign Countries during each of the Six Years ending with I835j specifying the Countries to which they were exported and the Value of those annually shipped fur each: and showing, also, the average Amount of Exports during the said Six 5f ears to each Coun- try, and to each Quarter of the Globe; and the average Proportion exported to each, supposing the whole Exports to be 1,000. Average ant. Average Proportion exported to Countries. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1834. 1835. tSSSSt* Exports, 1830-1835. .ach Country, supposing whole Exports to be 1,000. Europe, L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. Russia 1,4S9,53S 1,191,56") 1,587,250 1,531,002 1,382,300 1,752,775 1,439,072 37-137,767 Sweden 40,488 67,127 64,932 59,549 63,094 105,156 65,058 1 -622,560 Norway 63,926 68,580 34,528 55,038 61,9ss 79,278 58,890 1 '468,729 Denmark 118,813 92,294 93,396 99,951 94,595 107,979 101.171 2-523,226 Prussia 177,923 192,816 258,556 144,179 136,423 188,273 IS3,02S 4-564,757 Germany 4,463,605 3,642,952 5,068,997 4,355,548 4.547,166 4,602,966 4,446,872 110-905,917 Holland Belgium I 2,022,453 2,0S2,536 2,789,398 ( 2,181,893 } 886,429 2,470,267 750,059 2,648,402 818,487 I 2,774,988 69-208,781 France - 475,884 602,6S8 674,791 848,333 1,116,885 1,453,636 862,036 21-499,358 Portugal, Proper 1,106,695 975,991 540,792 967,091 1,600,123 1,554,326 1,124,169 28 037,010 Azores 23,629 4I.63S 77,920 64,430 63,275 49,717 51 ,768 1 291,105 Madeira 38,444 38,960 2S,03S 33,411 38,455 40,082 36,233 •903,659 Spain and the Balea- ric islands • 607,068 597,848 442,926 442,837 325,907 405,065 470,275 11-728.757 Canary Islands 42,620 33,282 21,053 30,507 30,686 24,308 30,409 •758,407 Gibraltar Italy and the Italian Islands 292,760 367,2-5 461,470 3S5.460 460,719 602,580 428,379 10-683,862 3,251,379 2,490,376 2,361,772 2,316,260 3,282,777 2,426,171 2,638,123 67-042,349 MgJta 189,135 134,519 96,994 135,438 242,696 136,925 155,951 3-SS9.45I Ionian Islands 56,963 50,883 55,725 3S,915 ,94,493 107,804 67,465 1-682,591 Turkey and Continent- al Greece (exclusive of Morea) - 1,139,616 888,654 915,319 1,019,604 1,207,941 1,331,669 1,083,801 27030,223 Morea & Greek Islands 9,694 10,446 10,149 25,914 37,179 28,S34 20,369 •508,007 IslesofGuerasey,Jersey, Alderney, and Man Asia. 344,036 15,954,674 324,631 317,496 335,934 360,665 351,612 339,063 8-456,303 13,875,074 15,901,502 15,947,723 18,367,69S 18,816,045 16,477,120 410-942,819 250 6,049 1,050 •026,187 EastlndiaComp.'s Ter- ritories and Ceylon - 3,895,530 3,377,412 3,514,779 3,495,301 2,578.569 3,192,692 3,342,381 83-359,681 China - 842,852 1,074,708 319,593 7-970,716 Sumatra and Java 182,102 285,296 150,606 471,712 410,273 353,892 305,647 7 622,900 Philippine Islands 71,220 39,513 102,284 185,293 76,618 129,743 100,779 2-513,449 New Smith Wales, Van Dienien's Land, and Swan River 314,677 398,471 406,238 558,372 716,014 696,345 525,020 13-094,109 NewZealand,andSouth Sea Islands - 1,396 4,752 1,576 936 2,687 1,891 •047,162 Ports of Siain • Africa. Egypt (ports on the 10,467 19,742 5,035 •125,574 4,455,392 4,105,444 4,235,483 4,711,619 4,641,318 5,456,116 4,601,396 114-759,778 Mediterranean) 110,227 122,832 113,109 145,647 15S,877 269,225 153,320 3-823,633 Tripoli, Barbary, and Morocco 1,138 426 751 2,350 14,823 29,040 8,088 •201,717 WestemCoast of Africa 252,123 234,768 290,061 329,210 326,483 292,540 287,530 7, 171, OSS Cape of Good Hope - 330,036 257,245 292,405 346,197 304,382 326,921 309,531 7,719,768 Cape de Verd Islands • 1,710 215 146 530 575 529 •013,193 St. Helena 38,915 39,431 21,236 30,041 31,615 31,1S7 32,071 •799,858 Isle of Bourbon 10,042 7,091 2,855 ■071,204 Mauritius America. British North Ameri- 161,029 148,475 163,191 83,424 149,319 196,559 150,333 3-749,336 905,220 803,392 880,753 937,015 993,120 1,146,047 944,257 23-549,967 can Colonies 1,857,133 2,089,327 2,075,725 2,092,550 1,671,069 2,158,158 1,990,660 49-647,474 British West Indies - 2,838,448 2,53 1,949 2,439,808 2,597,5S9 2,680,024 3,187,540 2,720,893 67-859,640 Bayti - 321,793 376,103 543,104 381,528 357,297 365,798 390,937 9-750,050 Cuf'-i.andntherforeign West Indies 618,029 663,531 633,700 577.22S 913,005 787,043 69S.756 17-427,121 U. States of America - 6,132,31'j 9,053,583 5.468,272 7,579,699 6,844,989 10,568.455 7,607,390 189-742,366 Mexico 978,441 728,858 199,821 421,487 459.610 402,820 531,840 13-264,201 3,700 30,366 15,214 8,213 •204,834 Columbia 216,751 218,250 283,568 121,826 199,996 132.242 200,439 4-998,991 Brazil - 2,452,103 1,238,371 2,144,903 2,575,680 2,460,679 2,630,767 2,250,417 56-125,370 States of the Rio de la Plata 632,172 339,870 660,152 515,362 831,564 658,525 606,274 15-120.6T0 Chili - 540,62o 651,617 608,193 816,317 896,221 606.176 703.275 17-539,825 Peru • Totals 368,469 409,003 275,019 387,524 299,235 441,324 363,528 9-066,464 16,956,311 18,380,462 15,432,856 18,070,990 [ 17,644,055 21,954,062 18,073,122 450747,436 38,271,597 37,164,372 36,450,594 39,667,347 41.649,191 47372,270 40,095.895 1000-000,000 Rec pttulation. Europe 15,954,764 13,875,074 15,901,502 15,946,723 1 IS,367,698 1 18,816,045 16,477,120 410-942,819 Asia • 4,455,392 4,105,444 4,235,483 4,711,619 4,644,318 5,456,116 4,601,396 114759,778 Africa - 905,220 803,392 880,753 937,015 993,120 1,146.047 944,257 23-549,967 America Totals . 16,956,311 38,271,597 IS,3S0,462 15,432,856 18,070,390 17,614,055 | 41,649,191 21,954,062 1S,073 122 450-747,436 1000-000,000 37,164,372 - 36,450,594 39,667,347 | 47,372,270 40,095.895 JV.B.— The reader will find in the Supplement [to this article, p. 32] a table deduced from, and form- ing a sequel to, the above, but which we could not get inserted in this place. It exhibits the different countries to which articles of the produce or manufacture of the United Kingdom have been exported during the six years ending with 1835, arranged in the order of the magnitude of the exports to them, with their average annual amount, and the proportional value of the exports to each. c 2 30 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. VI. Account of the Value of the various Articles of the Produce and Manufacture of the United King- dom exponed to Foreign Parts, according to the real or declared Value thereof, in the Years 1833, 1834, and 1835. Articles. Gnat Britain. Alum - Apparel, slops, ami negro clothing Anns and ammunition Bacon and hams - Reef an J pork, salted Beer an i ale Books, printed ... Brass an I capper manufactures Bread and biscuit - - - Butter and cheese • Cabinet and upholstery wares Coils and culm ... Cordage .... Corn, grain, meal, and flour Cotton manufactures jar Eirthrnware of all sorts - Fish of all sorts • Glass of all sorts - Haberdashery and millinery Hirdwaresand cutlery Has, beaver and felt of all other sorts Hops .... Horses .... Iron and steel, wrought and unwrought Lard .... Leal and shot Leather, wrought and unwrought - saddlery and harness Linen manufactures yarn - - - - Machinery and mill-work - Mathematical and optical instruments Mules .... Musical instruments Oil, train, of Greenland fishery - Painters' colours • Plate, plated ware, jewellery, and watches Potatoes - - - . Sa't Saltpetre, British refined • Seeds of all sorts - Silk manufactures ... Soip and candles - . - Spirits - N - Stationery of all sorts Sugar, refined ... Tin, unwrought - and pewter wares and tin plates Tobacco (manufactured) and snuff Tongues .... Umbrellas and parasols Whalebone- ... Wool, sheep's - ■ . of other sorts Woollen and worsted yarn Woollen manufactures All other articles ... Total declared value of the produce and manufactures o] the United Kingdom, exported from Gnat Britain to foreign parts - • - • - Ireland. Total declared value of the produce and manufactures of the United Kingdom, exported from Inland to foreign parts - . ... United Kingdom. 2,759 1 2 405,783 6 10 321.922 10 9 31,039 10 2 96,390 8 9 203.193 14 1 124,265 7 7 883.241 8 9 9,121 2 11 155.8-3 5 8 43,417 19 1 228,959 6 9 96.919 11 32,360 12 6 1.7-1.992 17 10 1,701,; OS 9 I 634 496, I8S 18 5 234,591 18 437,341 7 10 381,503 16 9 1,461,374 8 12:1^20 2 II 19,565 8 4 27,«99 6 6 74,801 18 1,403,073 12 2 7963 17 3 120,643 13 272.9S5 6 9 59,110 13 6 ;/ 9:1,663 10 2 72.006 5 126.597 10 II 17,792 7 1,092 10 41,086 10 8 36,298 19 2 135,617 13 7 179.219 12 6 9,443 15 6 580 11.552 6,631 737,263 312.684 12,4*7 209,526 562,620 86,985 282,165 13,775 2.091 43,041 16,570 326,140 27,462 246.204 5,289,619 9C8.22S 9,305.512 t9 8 355 )85 17 7 39,661,008 17 3 35,576 99,162 182*384 I22,2't2 961,606 7,071 164.246 47.510 218,205 90.219 25,479 15,281,494 5,211.014 1,255 492,724 200,034 490.493 341,515 1,484,6-1 125,644 21,155 1H,926 92.414 1,404,756 7,169 142,480 242,496 62,706 2,364,980 136,312 211,953 21,007 1,861 43.213 5S.607 122,939 191,854 6,453 149,842 30,881 7,115 637,013 245,998 10.114 208,139 915.693 33.327 336.9S3 13.827 2.S98 43.791 21,437 192.175 22.873 238,541 5,734.017 954,413 41,286,594 5 6 336.015 4 1 41,622,609 9 7 1,358 494,861 407.4-9 27,573 101,781 225.641 148.08S 1,023,949 5,405 178,656 51,003 242,716 79,541 25,108 16,393,170 6,706,563 1,445 539,989 217,652 636,927 5 6.774 1,831.766 135,048 27,437 16,616 99,464 1,640,139 11,881 195,096 278,977 73,347 2,S38,tl50 216,634 307,216 25,003 1,761 60,810 39,073 169,861 231,900 5,953 142,411 20,283 8,549 973,478 248,803 16,886 257.S77 851.745 32,289 381,068 13,593 2,421 45,461 12,959 387,833 45,080 300,091 6,836,735 1,034,142 46,926,370 5 8 444,115 47,370,485 17 4* * There is a slight discrepancy between the numbers in this and the previous table. They were derived from different parliamentary papers, and these do not always agree. Causes of the Magnitude of British Commerce. — The immediate cause of the rapid increase and vast magnitude of the commerce of Great Britain is, doubtless, to be found in the extraordinary improvements, and consequent extension, of our manufactures since 1770. The cotton manufacture may be said to have grown up during the intervening period. It must also be borne in mind, that the effect of an improvement in the production of any article in considerable demand is not confined to that particular article, but extends itself to others. Those who produce it according to the old plan, are undersold unless they adopt the same or similar improvements; and the improved article, by coming into competition with others for which it may be substituted, infuses new energy into their producers, and impels every one to put forth all his powers, that he may either preserve his old, or acquire new advantages. The cotton manufacture may be said to be the result of the stupendous inventions and discoveries of Hargraves, Arkwright, Crompton, and a few others; but we should greatly under-rate the importance of their inventions, if we supposed that their influence was limited to this single department. They imparted a powerful stimulus to every branch of industry. Their success, and that of Watt and Wedgwood, gave that confidence to genius so essential in all great undertakings. After machines had been invented for spinning and weaving cottons, whose fineness emulates the web of the gossamer, and steam-engines had been made " to engrave seals, and to lift a ship like a bauble in the air," every thing seemed IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 31 possmle — nil arduum visum est. And the unceasing efforts of now aspirants to wealth and distinction, and the intimate connection of" the various arts and sciences, have extended and perpetuated the impulse given by the invention of the spinning-frame and the steam-engine. The immense accumulation of capital that lias taken place since the close of the American war has been at once a cause and a consequence of our increased trade and manufactures. Those who reflect on the advantages which an increase of capital confers on its possessors can have no difficulty in perceiving now it operates tsjextend trade. It enables them to huy cheaper, because they huy larger quantities of goods, and pay ready money ; and, on the other hand, it gives them a decided superiority in foreign markets where capital is scarce, and credit an object of primary importance with the native dealers.' To the manufacturer, an increase of capital is of equal importance, by giving him the means of constructing his works in the best manner, and of carrying on the business on such a scale, as to admit oi the most proper distribution of whatever has to be done among different individuals. These effects have been strikingly evinced in the commercial history of Great Britain during the last half century ; and thus it is, that capital, originally accumulated by means of trade, gives, in its turn, nourishment, vigour, and enlarged growth to it. The improvement that has taken place in the mode of living during the last half century has been partly the effect, and partly the cause, of the improvement of manufactures, and the extension of commerce. Had we been contented with the same accommodations as our ancestors, exertion and ingenuity would long since have been at an end, and routine have usurped the place of invention. Happily, however, the desires of man vary with the circum- stances under whi.-h he is placed, extending with every extension of the means of gratifying them, till, in highly civilised countries, they appear almost illimitable. This endless craving of the human mind, its inability to rest satisfied with previous acquisitions, combined with the constant increase of population, renders the demand for new inventions and discoveries as intense at one period as at another, and provides for the continued advancement of society. What is a luxury in one age, becomes a necessary in the next. The fact of Queen Eliza- beth having worn a pair of silk stockings was reckoned deserving of notice by contemporary histoiians; while, at present, no individual, in the rank of a gentleman, can go to dinner without them. The lower classes are continually pressing upon the middle ; and these, again, upon the higher; so that invention is racked, as well to vary the modes of enjoyment, as to increase the amount of wealth. That this competition should he, in all respects, advan- tageous, is not to he supposed. Emulation in show, though the most powerful incentive to industry, may he carried to excess ; and has certainly been ruinous to many individuals, obliged sometimes, perhaps, by their situation, or seduced by example, to incur expenses beyond their means. But the abuse, even when most extended, as it probably is in England, is, after all, confined within comparatively narrow limits; while the beneficial influence resulting from the general diffusion of a taste for improved accommodations adds to the science, industry, wealth, and enjoyments of the whole community. We are also inclined to think that the increase of taxation, during the late war, contributed to the improvement of manufactures, and the extension of trade. The gradually increasing pressure of the public burdens stimulated the industrious portion of the community to make corresponding efforts to preserve their place in society; and produced a spirit of invention and economy that we should have in vain attempted to excite by any less powerful means. Had taxation been very oppressive, it would not have had this effect; but it was not so high as to produce either dejection or despair, though it was, at the same time, sufficiently heavy to render a considerable increase of exertion and parsimony necessary, to prevent it from encroaching on the fortunes of individuals, or, at all events, from diminishing the rate at which they were previously accumulating. To the excitement afforded by the desire of rising in the world, the fear of falling superadded an additional and powerful stimulus ; and the two together produced results that could not have been produced by the unassisted ope- ration of either. We do not think that any evidence has been, or can be, produced to show, that the capital of the country would have been materially greater than it is, had the tran- quillity of Europe been maintained uninterrupted from 1793 to the present moment. We do not state these circumstances in order to extenuate the evils of war, or of oppres- sive taxation; but merely to show the leal influence of taxation on industry, when gradually augmented and kept within reasonable bounds. Under such circumstances, it has the same influence on a nation that an increase of his family, or of his unavoidable expense, has on a private individual. But after every fair allowance has been made for the influence of the causes above stated, and of others of a similar description, still it is abundantly certain that a liberal system of government, affording full scope for the expansion and cultivation of every mental and bodily power, and securing all the advantages of superior talent and address to their possessors, is the grand sine qua rum of commercial and manufacturing prosperity. Where oppression and tyranny prevail, the inhabitants, though surrounded by all the means of civilisation and wealth, are invariably poor and miserable. In respect of soil, climate, and situation, Spain has a decided advantage over Great Britain ; and yet, what a miserable contrast does the former present, when compared with the latter ! The despotism and intolerance of her 32 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. rulers, and the want of good order and tranquillity, have extinguished every germ of improve- ment in the Peninsula, and sunk the inhabitants to the level of the Turks and Moors. Had a similar political system been established in England, we should have been equally depressed. Our superiority in science, arts, and arms, though promoted by subsidiary means, is, at bot- tom, the result of freedom and security — freedom to engage in every employment, and to pursue our own interest in our own way, coupled with an intimate conviction, derived from the nature of our institutions, and their opposition to every thing like arbitrary power, that acquisitions, when made, may be securely enjoyed or disposed of. These form the grand sources of our wealth and power. There have only been two countries, — Holland and the United States, — which have, in these respects, been placed under nearly the same circum- stances as England ; and, notwithstanding they inhabit a morass, defended only by artificial mounds from being deluged by the ocean, the Dutch have long been, and still continue to be, the most prosperous and opulent people of the Continent ; while the Americans, whose situation is more favourable, are advancing in the career of improvement with a rapidity hitherto unknown. In Great Britain we have been exempted, for a lengthened period, from foreign aggression and intestine commotion ; the pernicious influence of the feudal system has long been at an end ; the same equal burdens have been laid on all classes ; we have enjoyed the advantage of liberal institutions, without any material alloy of popular licentiousness or violence ; our intercourse with foreign nations, though subjected to many vexatious restraints, has been comparatively free ; full scope has been given to the competition of the heme pro- ducers; the highest offices have been open to deserving individuals; and, on the whole, the natural order of things has been less disturbed amongst us by artificial restraints than in most other countries. But without security, no degree of freedom would have been of mate- rial importance. Happily, however, every man has felt satisfied, not only of the temporary, but of the permanent tranquillity of the country, and of the stability of its institutions. The plans and combinations of capitalists have not been affected by misgivings as to what might take place in future. Monied fortunes have not been amassed in preference to others, because they might more easily be sent abroad in periods oi confusion and disorder; but all indivi- duals have unhesitatingly engaged, whenever an opportunity offered, in undertakings of which a remote posterity was alone to reap the benefit. No one can look at the immense sums expended upon the permanent improvement of the land, on docks, warehouses, canals, &c., or reflect for a moment on the settlements of property in the funds, and on the extent of our system of life insurance, without being deeply impressed with the vast importance of that confidence which the public have placed in the security of property, and the good faith of government. Had this confidence been imperfect, industry and invention would have been paralysed ; and much of that capital which feeds and clothes the industrious classes would never have existed. The preservation of this security entire, both in fact and in opinion, is essential to the public welfare. If it be anywise impaired, the colossal fabric of our prosperity will crumble into dust ; and the commerce of London, Liverpool, and Glas- gow, like that of Tyre, Carthage, and Palmyra, will, at no very remote period, be famous only in history. — (From the Treatise on Commerce, contributed by the author of this work to the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) (I. Table exhibiting the different Countries to which Articles of the Produce or Manufacture of tho United Kingdom have been exported during the Six Years ending with lb35, arranged in the Order of the Magnitude of the Exports to them ; and specifying the average annual Amount of the Exports to each during the said Six Years, and the Portion of such Exports destined for each, supposing the w lie tie Exports to be 1,000. United Slates of America Germany • E»st In la Comp.'s territories ami Ceylon Holland Belgium - - - - - British West Indie3 Italy and the Italian Islands Brazil British N r'.h American Colonies Russia • Portugal, Proper - Turkey and Continental Greece (exclu- sive of Morea) - - France - Chili Cuba, and other foreign West Indies S'ates of the Rio de la Plata Mexico - New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, and Swan River trie Islands - Gibraltar- - Hayli Peru Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Kan Chiua . • Average anl. Average Proportion annual exp. to each Amount of Country, sup Exports, posing whole IS30-1835. Exports to be 1,000. £.7,607,590 189-742.366 4,446.872 110-905.917 3,3-12,3*1 83-359,681 I 2,774,9SS 69-208,781 2,720 993 67-859,640 2,6*8,123 67-042.349 2,250,417 56-125.S70 1,'iniwn 1,4S9,072 37 137,767 1,124,169 28-037,010 1,083,801 27-030,223 862,036 21-199.35S 703.275 17-539,625 69-',756 17-427,121 606,274 15- 120,600 531,840 13-264,201 525,020 13-094,109 470.275 11-728,757 i -. m 10.6S3.862 390.937 9-750,050 363,528 7-066,464 339,083 8 456.303 319,593 7-970,716 Averasre annual | Amount of Exports, 1830-1836. Average anl. Proportion exp. to each Countr}', sup- posing whole Export! to be 1,000. Cape of Good Hope Sumatra and Java Western Coast of Africa - Columbia Prussia .... Malta .... Egypt fports on the Mediterranean) Mauritius ... Denmark • Philippine Islands - • Ionian Ishnds • Sweden - Norway - Madeira • St. Helena Canary l-iands ... Morea and Greek Islands Guatemala - Tripoli, Barbary, and Morocco - Pnrls of Siam ... Isle of Bourbon • New Zealand, and South Sea Islands Arabia - Cape de Verd Islands Totals - £.309,531 30SJ 17 2>7,530 200.439 1>3,028 153,320 150,333 101,171 100,779 67,465 65,058 53,890 51,768 3ti.233 32,071 30,409 20,368 8,213 6,088 5,035 2,«55 1,891 1,050 529 7-719,768 7-622.900 7 171,05* 4-99S.S9I 4 564,757 3-889,451 9 923,833 3-749,336 2 523,226 2-513.419 1 682.591 1-622.560 4-463,729 1-291,105 •903,659 •799,658 ■758,401 ■508,007 •204,834 ■201,717 •125,574 ■071,201 •047,162 •026,187 •013,193 40,095,895! 1000-000,000 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 33 n. \ccount of the Quantities of the Principal articles of Foreign and Colonial Merchandise imported li:1 "- exported In and retained for Consumption in the United King loin, M ith the N< Ll Revenue accruing thereon, durum the Years ending Hie jili January, 1837, and l&JC Quiutities imported. A-lu <. pemrl and pot Barilla and alkali • ling or dyeing Bark for tai Cofiee, viz. British p anlation East India and Vfauritii Foreign plantation Cncoa .... ^ Husks and shells Cotton wool from f , reign countries, The Gnited States of America - Turk 'V and Egypt Oilier foreign countries - Cotton wool from British posses- sions, viz. — Em In lies and Mauritius Indies, the growth of British West Indies, in Othi:r British possessions iported Total quantities Milder roots Flax and tow, or codilla of flax Lemons and oranges Raisins Hats of straw Platting of straw . He. up. undressed - Hides, untanned, viz. — ButTa o, bull, ox, cow, or horse hides - . ■ Hides, tanned, viz. — Bu&do, bull, ox, cow, or horse 152,955 70,214 "2,119 IS,S77,9I2 9,906,710 5,270,215 34,054.837 147,329 786,730 15.IS4.4I3 9.9'. i). inr, 11,278,096 36,412,514 Quantities exported. l s ,u: '"""« retained fbi tnption lt37. | I w„. 19,137 ],6S0 18,810 3,441 8,003 6,950.3:0 6,411,703 2,788,-224 2,853,000 425,648 511,757 2S9.615.692 320,651,716 27,501,272 20.940,145 5,426,721 7,881.540 6,734,413 4,616,829 75,957,8S7 1,312,806 401,531 8,35 51,577,197 1,199,162 bide Leather gloves Oil-Oliu Fain - galls Cwts Train, spermaceti, * blubber tuns Saltpetre and cubic nitre - - cwts ml linseed - - bushel; Silk, raw . . . .Jbs Waste nod knubbs - . — Cassia lignea - - . — Pepper . _ Pimento . _ Sugar; \i?.— West India - - . -cwts, East India and Mauritius • — Foreign • . - . Tallow - . _ « - - - . lhs. Timber, viz — ■ ind batten ends - Dl-i! and deal ends Masts, 6 and uo ler S ins. i gt hund No, Ma* - s, S and under 12 inches diime'er Masts, 12 and upwards - Oat planks - - - Sta ves gt hund 8 inches square and up load: wanli Oak, ditto Uneuumerated ditto Wainscot logs ditto Tobacco, viz. — Unm iMufic'ured Manufactured or cigars Snuff Wool, sheep and Iambs Wine, viz.— Cape French - Portugal . Spanish . Madeira - * Other sorts All sorts - loads • lbs. Imp. galls. 7,710.514 663,671 12,881 108,906 85,251 1,529,116 196,561 265.864 1^2. 2s6 14,042 42,890 686,032 70,410 1,490,999 528,306 2,682,016 2 77,0 r 19,489 279,902 3,339,215 4,453,081 1,608,289 837,413 7,724,93 3,26-),23S 3,600,517 720,997 327.617 1,186,364 49,306701 17,247 69,318 8,414 3,381 2,649 3,046 93,695 622.6«0 25,684 39.422 4,212 407,286,783 6,545,873 1,011,674 14,699 84,841 109,235 1,000,865 217,921 349,880 169,590 26,223 30,862 773,621 33S,652 87,678 1,255,920 5-2 2-3 1,721.914 223,337 21,803 349,933 3.321,089 4,146,48 943,281 984,674 5,291,993 2,113,300 3,305.238 912,267 265.073 1.314,649 36,973,981 15,983 72,832 10,681,758 332.5-7 10,800 9,174 3,628 4,273 1,968 85,721 579,960 31,6.6 4",48l 5,593 322232.907 27.144.107 16S.668 1 632,186 13.580 4.153 64,239,977| 48,379,708 3,691,951 200.975 4,38/ 364 I6,7R9 5,738 1,455 36.496 16,172 11,846, 38,105 32,305 31,405 1,600 150,561 34,379 1,365 38.444 1,371 113.600 87,645 633.083 4.151,569 2,337,982 8." 0,!'7 39,722,031 3,5"-7.5 133,9 3,31b 11,526 12 714 7,546 16, 574 130,176 97,202 784,819 17,532,731 7,412.725 2.234 24,947,690 26,346,961 1 1,416.613 481,170 9J.4C4 Drawl,ks& repayments I7.138.ri8 9,205,634 3,169 Nett Revenue. 5,532 363684,232 2.8,0,39- 620,218 12,361 10i,445 84,101 1,511,428 17..774 24>-,651 156,194 3,437 29.6'I 367,892 46,649 330,214 19,903 18,894 1,641 209,472 It',' 2 393 36.959 6.879 345,971 2I,26S; 760,141 4,76- -<; 1,3:6.64 ( 27S,0?S 44S.382 ■2 Refinled. ( 248,614 227,807 580,275 533 241 4,089.23 V 3,161.244 233.979 805,109 618,105 725.140 2.693 365 2. 81.2.58", 2.89,400 9 4JS85 9,406,083 8,033,480 18,709 4,269,S^3 2,124 12.319,405 432.MSI 3,496 613,707 10,876 99,112 381.026 645.822 152,368 3SVJ20 1,674,521 52,37? 4,716,248 1,638 17,311,597 302,869 3,472 2,831,352 6,766 106.93 j 199.518 49-2,345 148,107 3M.I22 63,010 1,459,363 657,082 1,844,622 234,357 18.722 231.134 3,179.097 4,239.254 1,524 969 89,3! 6 2,794,491 400,914 £3,483,3 1,314,085 49,142,236 9,247 3,291 3,200 2,871 90,SI I 612,865 26 062 39.314 3,9S8 2,221',. I QJ 423,33 12.023 78.830 100,503 99.3.654 174.842 311,490 152.162 6.624 23,962 651,613 290,739 63,89.5 1,218.470 592.019 1.496656 211,919 20,878 240,222 3 381,643 3.520.105 '867,456 105.4S5 2 625,> .75 335,406 3,954,S10 1,289,514 30,625,206 14,451 66,651 9,763 581,039 30,940 48,026 4,020 22,150,785 22,321,489 158,192 144,385 508 351 60,366,4151 42,515,899 511.511 352.063 2,878,359 2,388,413 133,673 515,193 2.278.263 111,376 502.319 430,006 36,356 1,717 2,473 10.712 2,114 6,441 191.821 52.226 117,095 1,009 24.558 2,482 45,769 794 27.507 295,64 46,514 14.678 1.292 6,045 19.905 18.072 712 2.242 99,134 6,359 207,799 4,674,535 2,780 2,119 3,413 11,490 57,334 515.074 31,318 10,043 10,954 •3,397,102 189,524 74435 96,534 8,995 4,019 4,976 26,458 696,615 13,922 1,622,994 1,334,7931 6,809,212 6,391,5311 1,793,963 1,687,097 450,658 29,889 1,140 2,543 8,037 2,532 4,234 193,^ 62,431 114,095 1.632 20,003 2,766 814 22 923 266.324 34,986 13,299 14.370 6,339 21,119 15,454 389 2.642 65,621 4,193 4,760,565 203,977 3,223,840 133.S06 5S0.570 2,865 2,313 456.3'9 41,20 12.073 10,938 3,417,663 118,168 1,497,957 34 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. III. An account of the Official Value of the Imports into and Exports from the United Kingdom, from and to all Countries, for the Year ending 5th January, 1835, with the Declared or Real Values of the Exports for the Years ended St li January, 1835, and 1836, distinguishing each Country, and British and Colonial and Foreign Produce. Names of Countries. France Portugal, Proper Madeira ■ Spain and the Balearic Islands Canary Islands ... Gibraltar • Italy and the Italian Islands Malta Ionian Islands .... Turkey and Continental Greece, exclusive of Hi Morea ..... Moiea and Greek Islands - Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, Aldemey, and Man Africa. E^ypt (ports on the Mediterranean) Tripoli, Barbary, and Morocco Western Coast of Africa - Cape of Good Hope Eastern Coast of Africa - Cape Veid Islands- St. Helena - Isle of Bourbon - Mauritius - Madagascar East India Company's territories and Ceylo Sumalra and Java - ... Philippine Isles - New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, and Singapore .... America. British North American Colonies British West Indies Hayti ---. Cuba and other Foreign West Indies United States of America - Me Guile ala- i of the Rio de la Plata fficial Value of Imports into the United King dom, 1834. Official Value of Exports from the United 1 Declared Va- ! Declared Va 4,126,S44 206,342 88,774 331, bib 723,888 1,437,977 1,10.5,676 304,239 2,806,256 691,410 15,175 25,231 971,808 78,784 47.355 1,199,210 14,956 207,393 T41,2S0 43,367 231,996 32,331 128,248 475,485 248,760 37 2,184 782,148 4,317,639 3,506,923 141,289 86,922 1,167,823 8,410,114 74,162 266,127 10,276,628 261,417 13,739 117,209 1,397,305 660,120 142,765 123,086 49,051,416 Kingdom, 1834. British and riihPioduce i.J M.ihut.ic- tures. 1,867,228 92.U56 100,026 194,438 176,263 8,935,-207 3,864,S!7 1,137. ,05 1,26 1,1 67 3.M9.5 ,3 130,525 60.963 386.575 68,676 1,211,782 6,531,166 504,052 180,874 2,467,944 65.977 412,163 315,709 46,074 62.I.SSH 498,924 530 28,325 11,784 264,955 500 7,193,080 2261,575 4,494,660 854,743 2,196,011 9,558,717 680,852 64,079 505,878 5,675,158 1,883,515 1,895,127 495,890 Foreign and Colonial Mer chaudise. L. 776,959 60,251 46,184 49,844 332,626 1,518,966 1,300,118 1,686,207 646,624 231,460 12,455 23,613 162,266 17,968 211,384 1,516.981 85,373 33,355 257,305 32,882 134,739 8,274 33,364 173,816 150,228 23,569 1,263 42,894 423,125 290,500 323,967 20,791 65,620 311,139 132,052 57 20,069 137,925 35,293 49,220 61,458 Total Exports 2,644,187 142,307 146,210 24-1,282 569,069 10,454,173 5,164,935 2.623,372 1.62;. "I 4,051,013 142,960 90,576 548.841 86,644 1,423,166 8,050,147 689,425 214,229 2,725,249 98,859 546,902 353.963 79,438 796,404 649,152 530 51,914 13,047 307,849 500 7,616,205 of British lueof British and Irish Pro- and Irish Pio jce and Ma- duce and Ma- nufactures nufaclures exported from exLonedfrom the U. K. in the U K. in 1834. 1635. L. 1,752,275 105,156 79,278 107,979 1*6.273 4,602,960 2,' 18,402 818,487 1,453,636 1,554,326 49,717 40 pes 405,065 24,308 602,5S0 2,426.171 136,925 107,804 1,331,669 28.834 351,612 2,552,181 4,818,647 875,634 2,263,631 9,769,856 822,904 64,136 525,li47 5,813,083 1,918,808 1,944,347 557,348 73,835,039 11,562,036 | 85,397,075 61,988 94,595 136,123 4,547,166 2,470,267 750,059 1,116,885 1,600,123 63,275 38,455 325.907 30.686 460,719 3,282,777 242,696 94,498 1,207,941 37,179 360,491 158,877 14,823 326,483 304,382 31,615 7,091 149,319 250 2,578,569 842,852 410,273 76,613 716,014 1,671,069 2,6' 0,1 23 357,207 913,005 6,84 1,989 459.610 30.366 199,997 2,460,678 831,564 696,221 299 235 41,649,016 269,225 29,040 212,510 326,921 31,187 196,559 6,049 3,192,692 1,074,708 353,892 129,743 696,345 2,687 2,158,158 3,167,540 36V798 787,043 10,568,455 402,820 1 ,214 132,242 2,630,767 658,525 606,176 441,324 47,372,270 IV. Account specifying the different Articles, and the Real or Declared Value of each, of the Produce and Manufacture of the United Kingdom, exported to Foreign Parts during each of the Three Years ending with 1837. Species of Exports. 1835. 1836. 1837. GREAT BRITAIN. £ £ £ Alum ------ 1,359 3,898 2,761 Apparel, Slops, and Negro Clothing 494,861 604,863 533,301 Arms and Ammunition - - - 407,490 411,286 289,142 Bacon and Hams - 27,573 42.319 35,840 Beef and Pork, salted - 104,782 136,898 119,117 Beer and Ale - 225,641 264.560 268,235 Books, printed - 148,098 178,034 147,430 Brass and Copper Manufactures 1,093,949 1,072,002 1,166,082 Bread and Biscuit - 5,405 8,184 9,991 flutter anil Cheese - - - - 178,657 205,8:-)8 179,073 Cabinet and Upholstery Wares 51,003 75,511 67,357 Coals and Culm - 242,746 329,760 428,690 Cordage - 79,541 81,475 73,231 Corn, Grain, Meal, and Flour 25,109 31,297 34.781 Cotton .Manufactures ... 16,393,170 18,482,586 13,632,116 Yarn - 5,706,563 6,120,326 6,955,936 Cows and Oxen - 1,415 3,072 6.1(17 Earthenware of all sorts ... 539,9 l J0 837,493 563,082 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 35 Table IV. — continued. Species of Exports. 1S35. 1836. 1S37. £ £ £ Fish of all sorts » - - 217,652 185,433 1^5.120 Glass of all sorts - 636,928 551,599 475,995 Haberdashery and Millinery 516,775 681,980 414,687 Hardwares and Cutlery - 1,831,766 2,270,630 1,460,404 Hats, Heaver and Felt - 135,018 147,907 104,600 of all other sorts - 27,437 41,753 46,290 Hops 16,616 11,788 10,547 Horses - 99,465 98,302 7.V215 Iron and Steel, wrought and unwrought - 1,610,939 2,340,207 2,003,708 Lard ------ 11,881 26,585 14,782 Lead and Shot - 195,096 824,931 155,210 Leather, wrought and unwrought - 278,978 316,322 250,308 73,318 93,388 3,249.053 87,037 Linen Manufactures - - - - 2,838,050 2.1()')',S!)7 Yarn 216,635 315,608 415.726 Machinery and Mill-work - - - 307,316 300,852 493,298 Mathematical and Optical Instruments 25,004 25,030 27,259 Mules ------ 1,762 5,366 5,104 Musical Instruments - - - - 60,810 76,120 71,618 Oil, Train, of Greenland Fishery 39,074 5,836 5,700 Painters' Colours - - - - 169,861 210,811 151,307 Plate, Plate Ware, Jewellery, and Watches 231,900 338,869 257.726 Potatoes . - - - - 5,954 4,915 7,030 Salt 142,412 171,463 190,444 Saltpetre, British refined - 20,284 14,411 19,393 Seeds of all sorts - - - - 8,549 8,920 7,466 Silk .Manufactures - - - - 973,479 916,777 503,653 Soap and Candles - 248,803 276,222 230,835 Spirits . . _ - - 16,866 21,297 10,485 Stationery of all sorts - 257,877 297,915 197,489 Sugar, refined - 851,745 697,920 602,377 Tin, unwrought - 32,290 61,847 c 7 I.I '.57 and Pewter Wares and Tin Plates - 381,068 387,528 371,518 Tobacco (manufactured) and Snuff - 13,594 13,654 13,124 Tongues - 2,422 3,599 3,744 Umbrellas and Parasols - - - 45,462 62,336 39,464 Whalebone - - - - - 12.960 10,550 6,347 Wool, Sheep's - 387,834 323.549 185,350 of other sorts - - - - 45,0S0 39,967 10,070 Woollen and Worsted Yarn 309,0!) 1 358,690 •337,140 Woollen Manufactures - - - 6,836,735 7,636,117 4,654,397 All other Articles - - - - Total real or declared Value of the Prod-") 1,034,142 1,293,932 1,113,069 and Manufac. of the U. K. exported V£ 46,926,370 53,015,431 41,911,898 from Great Britain to Foreign Parts j Ireland, Total Exports from Total from the United Kingdom - - £ 445,900 353,141 363,040 47,372,270 53,368,572 42,274,933 V. Account of the Real or Declared Value of the various Articles of the Manufacture and Produce of the United Kingdom exported to Foreign Countries in 1628 and during each of the Eight Years elid- ing with 1837; specifying their Value, the Countries to which exported, and the Value of those annually shipped for each. Countries to which exported. Exports. 1828. 1S30. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1S34. 1835. 1836. 1837. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. Russia ... 1,318,936 1,489,538 1,191,565 1,5S7,250 1,531,002 1,3S2,300 1,752.775 1,742,433 2,046,592 Sweden - 42,699 40,488 57,127 64,932 59,549 63,094 105,156 113,308 101,121 Norway 53,582 63,926 58,5S0 34,528 55,038 61,9-S 79,27« 79,469 72,413 Denmark - 111,880 118,813 92,294 93,396 99,951 94,595 107,979 91,302 103,418 Prussia 169,145 . 177,923 192,816 258,556 144. 179 13M23 18S.273 160.722 131,536 Germany • 4,394,104 4,463,605 3,642,952 5,06S,997 4,355,548 4,547,166 4,602,966 4,463.729 4,893,016 Holland - Belgium - - - | 2,142,736 2,022,45S 2,082.536 2,7S9,39S C 2,181,893 ( 886,429 2,470,267 750,059 2,648,402 818,487 2,509 622 839,276 3,040,029 804,917 Fiance - 498,93s 475,884 602,688 674,791 848.333 1,116,885 1,453,636 1,691,381 1.643,204 Portugal, Proper - 945,016 1,106,695 975,991 540,792 967,091 1,600,123 1,554,326 1,085,934 1,079,815 Azores - 27,940 23,629 41,618 77,920 54,430 63,275 49,717 53,574 56,405 Madeira - 39,802 38,444 38,960 28,038 33,411 38,455 40,082 52,168 46,044 Spain and the Balearic Is- lands 301,153 607,068 597.84' 442,926 442.S37 325,907 405,065 437,076 2?6.636 Canary Islands 3b,I52 42,620 3 3,28 2 21,053 30,507 30,686 24 308 40,370 41,904 Gibraltar - 1,038,925 292,760 3ti7,2<-. 461,470 3s5..1f0 460,719 602,580 756,411 906,155 Italy and the Italian Islands 2,176,149 3,251,379 2,490,376 2,361,772 2,316,260 3,282.777 2,426,171 2,921,466 2,406,066 Malta 239,45S 189,135 134,519 96,994 135,435 242,696 136,925 143,015 103,680 Ionian Islands 41,078 56,963 50,883 55,725 38,915 94,49b 107,804 109,123 124,465 Turkey and Continental ) Greece, exclusive of the Mnrea ... Mol-ea and Greek Islands - > 185,842 1,139,616 888,651 915,319 1,019,604 1,207,9 tl 1,331,669 1,775,034 1,163,426 335 9,694 10,446 10,149 25,914 37,179 28,834 12,003 15,431 Egypt (ports on the Medi- terranean) 35,302 110,227 122,832 113,109 145,647 158,877 269,225 216,930 220,080 Tripoli, Barbary, and Mo- rocco 13,745 1,138 426 751 2,350 14,823 29,040 29,322 54,057 Western Coast of Africa - 191,452 252,123 234,768 290,061 329,210 326,483 292,540 467,186 312,938 Cape of Good Hope 218,049 330,036 257,245 292,405 346,197 304.3S2 326,921 482,315 488,814 Cape Verd Islands - 5,856 1,710 2r> 146 530 675 413 751 St. Helena - 31,362 38,915 39,431 21,236 30,041 31,615 31,187 11,041 9,645 36 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. Table V. — continued. Countries to which exported. Exports. 1828. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1834. 1835. 1836. 1837. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. Isle of Bourbon • 35,188 10,042 7,091 3,795 Mauritius • 1S5.972 16I,02S 148,475 163,19 83.42J 149,31£ 196,559 260,855 349,488 25C 6,049 16,358 787 East India Company's Ter- ritories and Ceylon China , Sumatra and Java - 4,256,5S2 3,895,530 3,377,412 3,514,779 3,495,301 2,578,569 842,852 410,273 3,192,692 1,074,708 353.892 4,285,829 1,326,388 234,852 3,612,975 678,375 313,791 189,200 162,102 285,296 150,606 471,712 Philippine Islands ■ 300 71,220 39,513 102,28-S 185,298 76,616 129,743 51,778 33,808 New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, and Swan River 443,839 314,677 398,471 466,23! 558,372 716,014 696,345 835,637 921,568 ISeiiv Zealand, and South Sea Islands 2,487 1,396 4,752 1,576 936 2,687 Ports of Siam 10,467 19,742 British N. Amer. Colonies 1,691,044 1,857,133 2,089,327 2,075,725 2,092,550 1,671,069 2,158,155 2,732 291 2,141,035 British West Indies 3,289,704 2,838,448 2,581,949 2,439,808 2,597,589 2,680,024 3,187,540 3,786,453 3,456,745 Hayti 248,328 321,793 376,103 543,104 381,528 357,297 365,798 251,663 171,050 Cuba and other Foreign West Indies 569,728 6IS,029 663,531 633,700 577,228 913.005 787,043 987,122 891,713 tnited States of America - 5,810.315 6,132,346 9,053,583 5,46\272 7,579,699 6,844. 9'9 10,568,455 12,425,60 i 4,695,225 Mexico 307,029 978,441 728,858 199,821 421,487 459,610 402,S20 254,822 520,200 Guatemala - 6,191 3,700 30,366 15,244 764 78 Colombia • 261,113 216,751 248,250 253,568 121,826 199,996 132,242 185,172 170,451 Brazil 3,518,297 2,452,103 1,238,371 2,144,903 2,575,680 2,460,679 2,630,767 3,030,532 1,824,082 States of the Rio de la Plata 312.3S9 632,172 339,870 660.152 515,362 831,564 658,525 697,334 693,104 Chili 709,371 540,626 63I.M7 708,193 816,817 896,221 606,176 861,903 625,545 Peru 374,615 368,469 409,003 275,610 287,524 299,235 441,324 606,332 476,374 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderuey, and Man Totals - 329,428 344,036 324,631 317,496 335,934 360,665 351,612 318,609 330,017 36,812,756 38,271,597 37,164,372J 36,450,594 39,667,341 41,649,191 47,372,270 53.368,572 42,070,744 Bernards on the above Tables. — Foreign Competition. — It is seen from the last of the above tables, that the falling oft' in the exports in 1837 was almost entirely owing to the decline in the exports to the United States, which fell off from 12,425,605/. in 1836, to 4,695,225/. in 1837. But this extraordinary decline was wholly owing to accidental causes, or to the pecuniary difficulties in which the mercantile class in the United States were involved in the latter part of 1836 and 1837, through the previous abuse of credit, and the revulsion occasioned by the universal stoppage of the banks. It was clear, that how severe soever in the meantime, any check to commerce originating in such circumstances would be of a very evanescent description ; and, in point of fact, its influence has already almost ceased to be felt, and our exports to the United States were last year almost as large as ever. We subjoin An Account of the Real or Declared Value of the principal Articles of British and Irish Produce and Manufactures exported in 1837 and 1838. Articles. Declared Value. 1837. 1833. Coals and Culm ----._ Cotton Manufactures - Yarn -----__ Earthenware -----.. Glass ----___. Hardwares and Cutlery - Linen Manufactures ----._ Yarn ---.__. Metals; viz. Iron and Steel - - Copper and Brass - Lead --.._. Tin, in Bars, &c. - Tin Plates - Salt Silk Manufactures --.-_. Sugar, refined --..__ Wool, Sheep's or Lambs' - Woollen Manufactures - Yarn -..__. Total of the above Articles ... £ 431,545 13,640.181 6,955,942 563,237 477,767 1,460.808 2,133,744 479,307 2,009,259 1,166,277 155,251 74,737 350,668 193,621 503,673 1 453,984 185,350 4,660,019 333,098 £ 484,305 16,700,468 7,430,582 670,985 376,524 1,507,478 2,919,719 655,699 2,530,903 1,226,258 156,150 103,230 434,749 223,372 778,031 550,506 432,067 5,792,156 365,657 36,228,468 43,338,839 It is obvious, from this and the previous tables, that the statements that have recently been put forth with so much misplaced confidence, as to the influence of foreign competition on our trade, and the consequent decay of our exports, if not wholly unfounded, are, at all events, very grossly exaggerated. Provided tranquillity be maintained at home, and that Britain continues to be exempted from that political agitation that is the bane of industry and the curse of every country in which it prevails, we have nothing to fear from foreign competition. Our natural and acquired advantages for the prosecution of manufactures and trade, are vastly superior to those of every other country ; and though foreigners 38 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. "The following table, compiled from Witworth's 'Trade of Great Britain,' Macpherson's ' Annala of Commerce,' and Anderson's 'History of Commerce,' exhibits an inte esling view of the trade between the American Colonies and the mother country, from 1697 to 1770, which, in fact, formed almost the only commerce of this country, prior to the Revolution." — Hazard's U. 8. Cum. and Mat. Reg., vol. i. p. 3. Si us, New England. Neiv York. Pennsylvania. Virgin. JtMiryland. Carolina. Georgia. Exprrts. Imports. Exports. Imports. Exports. Imports. Exports.' [mporta Exports. bnp< rft Export.. Imports. £ £ £ £ £ £ £ 1 £ £ £ £ £ 1697 26,282 68,468 10,093 4,579 3,347 2,997 227,756 58, 700 12, ."7 1 5,269 1098 31,251 93,517 8,763 25,279 2,720 10.701 171,053 310.135( 9,205 18,462 1099 26,660 127.279 16,818 42,792 1,477 17,0641198,115 205,078 12,372 11.401 1700 41,1-0 91,918 17,567 49,410 4,608 18.529 317,302 173.4-1 14,058 11,003 17(11 32,050 86,322 18.547 31,910 5,220 12,003 235,738 199,683 16,973 13,908 1702 37,026 64,625 7,965 29,991 4,145 9,342274,762 72,391 11,870 10,460 1703 33.539 59.608 7,471 17,562 5,160 9.899! 144,928 196,713 13,197 12,428 1701 30.823 7 1,896 10.510 22,294 2,430 11,819 264.112 60,458 14.067 6.621 1705 22.793 62,501 7,393 27,902 1,309 7,206 116,76- 174,322 2,698 19,788 i 1706 22,210 57,050 2,849 31,588 4,210 11,037 149.152 58,015 8.652 4,00 i 1707 38,793 120.631 14,283 29,855 7-0 14,365(207.025 237,901 23,311 10,492 1703 49,635 115,505 10,847 26,899 2,120 6,723 213,493 79.061 10,340 11,996 1709 29.559 120,319 12,259 34,577 617 5,6811261,668 80,268| 20,431 28,52] 1710 31,112 106,338 8,i03 31,475 1,277 8,594(188,429 127.630 20,793 19,013 1711 26,415 137,421 12,193 28,856 38 19.40-273.1-1 91,535 12. -71 20,100 1712 21.699 128,105 12,466 18,521 1,471 8,464 297,941 134,583 29,394 20,015 1713 49,904 120,778 14,428 46,470 178 17.037 - ' ! :'2.1i0 23,967 1714 51,541 121,288 29,810 44,643 2,663 14,927 2-O.470 128, -73 31,296 1715 66.555 164,650 21,316 54,629 5,461 17,182 174,756 199,274 29,158 16,631 1716 69,595 121,156 21,971 52.173 5,193 21,842 281,343 17«,595 46,287 27.272 1717 58,898 132,001 21.534 4-1,140 4,499 22,505 296,881 215.962! 41.275 25 058 1718 61,591 131,885 27,331 62,966 5,588 22,716!316.576 191,925 46,385 15,841 1719 51.452 125,317 19,596 56,355 6,564 27,008 1 332,069 164,630, 50.373 19,630 1720 49,206 12?.709 16,836 37,397 7,928 24,531 331,482 110.717 62,736 18,290 1721 50,483 114,521 15,681 50,754 6,037 21,548 357.812 127,376 61,859 17,703 1722 47,955 133,722 20,118 57.17- 6,882 26,397 283,091 172.751 79,650 34,374 1723 59,339 176,486 27,992 53,013 8,332 15.992 287,997 123,8331 78,103 42.216 1721 69.585 168,507 21,191 63,020 4,057 30,321 277,314 161,894 90,504 1725 72,021 201,768 24,976 70,650 11,981 42,209 214,730 195,884 91,942 39,182 1726 63,816 200,882 38,307 84,866 5.960 57.034 321,707 185,981 93,453 43,934 1727 75,052 1-7 277 31,617 67,452 12,823 31,9791421,588 192,965 96,055 23,254 1728 64,689 194,590 21,141 81,634 15,230 37,478 413,089 171,092 91,175 33,067 1729 52,512 161,102 15,833 64,760 7.134 29,799 386,174 108,931 113,329 58,366 1730 51,701 208,196 8,740 64,356 10,582 48,592 310,823 150,931 151,739 61,7-5 1731 49,048 183,467 20,756 66,116 12.7-6 44.200 408,502 171,278 159,771 71,115 1732 64,095 216,600 9,411 65,540 8,524 41,698 310,799 148.289 126.207 5-,298 828 1733 01.9-3 184,570 11,626 65,417 14,776! 40,565403,19- 186,177 177,-45 70,466 203 1,695 1731 82,252 146,460 15,307 81,758 20.217 54,392 373,090 172,086 120,466 99.658 18 1,921 17.35 72,-99 1-9.125 14,155 mi. in;, 21.019 48,804 394,995 220.3S1 145,31s 117,837 3,010 12,112 1736 ■ 6,788 222,158 17,944 86,000 20,786, 61.513 380,163 204.794 214,083 101.117 2,012 1737 63,347 223,923 16,833 125,833 15,198 50,650 492.210 211,301 1-7.7:78 5,701 1738 59,116 203,233 16,228 133,438 11,918 01,150 391,-1 i 278.-6(1 111,119 87,793 17 6,496 1739 40,601 220.378 18,459 106,070 8,134 54,452 441.051 217. 2nd J, 0.102 233 3,324 17-10 72,389 171,081 21,498 11 -,777 15,048 56,751 341,997 261,42- 2O5.;.0o l-l.-:l 924 3,524 1711 60,052 198,147 21,142 140,430 17,158, 91,010 577,1091218,5821236,830 221.270 2,553 1742 53,166 148,899 13,536 167,591 8,523 75,295 427,769 264,186 154,6 7 127,063 1,622 17,01- 1743 63,185 172.101 15,067 134,487 9,596 79,340:557,821 328,195 23 i 111,499 2 2,291 1711 ! 143,9-2 14,527 119,920 7,446 62,214 409,709 234,855 1 192,594 79.111 769 17 15 38,948 140,403 14,083 54,957 10,130 54,2-0 399,423 196,799 91, -!7 86,815 939 1746 38,612 209,177 8,841 ! 86,712 15.779 73,699 419,371 282,545! 76,897 102,809 984 1747 11.771 210,010 14,992 137.9-1 3.-32 82.404 492,619 200,068 107, 500 95,529 24 1748 29,748 197,682 12,358:143.311 12,363: 75.330 491,852 252,624 167,305 160,172 1,311 1719 39,999 238,286 23,413 265,773 11,914 238,637 434 618|323,600jl20.499 164,085 51 5 1750 48,455 313,659 35,632 267,130 28,191 217,713 508,939 349,419:191,607 134,037 1,942 2,125 1751 63,287 305,974 42,363 248,941 23,870 190,917 160,085 247,027 215,101 138,244 355 2,065 1752 7 4.313 273,340 40,648 194,030 29,978 201,660 569,453 325,151 288,264 170.777 1,526 3,163 1753 83.395 345,523 40,553 277, SC4 38,527 245,641 632,575 356.770 164,634 213,009 3,057 14,128 1751 66,538 329,433 26.663 127,407 30,649 214,617 573,435 323,513 307.23- 1 19,215 3,236 1.974 1755 59.533 311,796 28,055 151,071 32,336 144,456 489,668 285,157 325,5 5 189,587 4,437 2,630 1756 ; 47,359 384,371 24,073 250,425 20,091 200.100 337,759 222,915 1-1.7-0 7,155 530 1757 27,556 363,404 19,168 353,311 14,190 168,426 418,881 7 130,889 213,949 2,571 1758 30,204 465,694 14,260 356,555 21,3-3 200,953 154.362 438,471 ;150,5)1 181,002 10,212 1759 25,985 527.067 21,0-1 630,785 22.101 198,161 357,228 459,007 206,534 215,255 6,074 15,178 1760 37,809 599,647 21,1251480,106 22,751 707.998,504,451 605,882)162,769 218,131 12.198 1761 46.225 334,225 48,648 2-' 1.571' 39,170 - 1 33 545,350 253,002 254,587 5,764 21,279 1762 41,733 247,385 58,882 ! 288,0 16 38,091 206,199 115,709 118,599 181,695 101.170 6,522 23,761 I7i:! 74,815 258,851 52,908,238,560 38,228,2-1,152 642,294 282,366 250,132 14,469 44.908 1701 S-.157 459,765 53,697 515,416 36,258 436,191 559,508 515.192 505,671 383,224 341.727 305,808 31,325 18,338 1705 145,819 451.299 54,959' 3-2,3 IS 25,148 363,368 385,918 331.709 34,183 29,165 1700 111. 733 409,642 67.020 330,829 26,851 327,314 161,693 372.54S 293,58; 53,074 67,268 1707 12-. 207 406,081 61,422 417,957 37,011 371,630 137.026 137.02- 214.093 35,856 23,334 J7C, i 148,375 419,797 87,115 482,930 59.101 432,107 106,0 i- 175,0-1 508,108 2-o.m;> 42,402 56,562 17C9 129,353 207,992 73,466! 74.9] 8 26,111 109,900 361,992 5-7.11 1 300.61 62,270 1770 lis. 011 394,451 2 175,991 28,109 134,881 135.001 717,782 278,90! 140.273 56,193 177 1 1,420,119 95,875 653,621 31,615 728,744 577,848 920,326 120.311 109,11 9 03,-10 70,493 1772 624,830 -■J. 7 07 313.970 29,133 507.009 528,404 793,910 449,610 00,0-3 92,406 1773 121,021 70.210 289,21 1 36,652 426,448 589,803 828,904 150.513 85,391 62,932 17,1 112,248 562,476 80.008 437,937 69,611 625,652 612 030 182,302 378,116 67,617 57,518 1775 116,568 71,625 187,018 1,228 175,962 1,360 758,356 1,92] 579.319, 6,215 103.477 113,777 1770 762 55,050 2,31 8| 1,421 1 365 1 73,2261 13,66»| 1 12,569 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 39 i < = . ■ g so ~ ft ££SZ "' S '4 ~ '- £2 '— 7 — — u o_?^. -r -. ^. - _ -^ 5 — e^ 0J c ^ ; - t, gt^ g Q Si 5 1 1 3 cj | q an g| , £^lf^si"s"^S^g"ss"-"^ 1 » « ! 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Ill f 5.Lf-=i Q" 1 4 ~ ° "J — 5 — TT "J '- ~ .T - ! n "C ~" ^7 "* f — ' — " x -7 t' o" ^ j ~i "i* x" i— i" r^"ci r-»r*— *« — _i-^, C" ; '^! 2 c;_.r — x ~f q\ x »*: — r- ^ c _-r •_- ri '" " r — ^ ■" ~ T- -_i — ij 1- - ~~ ~~ / 'Z ~Z ~ ~~ "~ ?- ~ ~~ ~L.'~ - ~ ~ ^ " "*" ' " « ^ | g ^g o £ -.o* X -" -* T r — — -q r ■— r o r " ~ 3- r> ©O^QOC r~ .q_ *- to ©a oo oo 5o_c;oC'M ea o.o *^" ^ Cf «>' O* C' ."' r ■—. - -J r- r i c "| -r ■ r-' o" i r" — * aT CT O -f -r rT^J j — 'ci / — ' i- ~ C-" i~ x t- - -i-i'i-'i-i-i-'ir^-rjO" d "> n " IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. « -o T vTcOfD I ' apod -i ■-' 4 ■-'■-' -*' — '' d — — .r £ .r n — ^ / rt c - ^ - i; 8^ * " 8 * SS s.s |£ ? i s Bj^ I £ i § s § s § 2 £ S I * "*_£ 3 n; '-_ : S a ; i ' ~s. -r '- m «& S rt i£ 8 ' • — n *n 'o n - 1 -* j o "/ t> ■ n e jb — -• — p Oi r-^rf ~T ^ i- — ' i_- i - c~" p — - - — ctT i-Tp xT inrtnScinSc 41 -I s« 1 13- * s" 8 -*'p'.o'co<\f- ialSsi ?SS: S-S" s3" !H?S,t — ^-.c x> r-_ rr — -t 1 r -o ^- r^o-.r^o c: "1 : 1 ■::^ 42 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. -S3 Tf, n oooooo~oooo©oooooo>noji^io^;oo.ot^oxcn«^e05>»'/><-o m -A o o o o x x x c x x x x x x x o _ x o o — iO co i - _-, -^ x x -. x co -? >n to — -r in Si o o o p co o x. __ x p _ _ x _ x ~ i- x - ■ p x -c p — x__ -j ..- i- 3i;cn /. ai co co e?> -_" —J" _r cc" x' i~ — oj — I ' rJ i - -j. ~5 y -m* 55 p p r ; — >r p* — of — * -t ~r -£ / x' — o — — ' i-^ of co — xT .lis nocnoicoxi — co — co — ^iotorx^oi~'xxxin X - X 3 — 'j -T I - o /. -■■-> ~*> ■ ~ O l - ac -I O CO o co I— Oi — _ O p O p X^ _ X - Z_ X_ X_ — _ X X ~- '- ~ X ' > X ' - ~ 1 ' - l ~ — CO " 1 T. l - X-> T — X O — — H t-TcT ^^ x ^77 = -c "T* x'.-'co 'jr'r-J-i co* :-" ■-' i-"~i -' — -j -r I-' i- -r £ x -■» -t o x" o -r -r*«D r /f ^I- 5 (/■ J. - '/' a J. 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' ; _ ■- t - r — x X' z z — x "i z. * p x- — i - ■- -r — ■ q ^ c -* o X pro xq o pio oo -r ai >r o co X B . .-*"rj" r x x — r-"-'— ' - / d d x '' ^ d o i-' o ' -' .r c- r- -' - - ->i'-' -f d cf-x ."'i- - -r x'en o'tr*c*'a rt'ri jf«f __ X — ■' X - ' I X " -J X 1 < X X, X CO t" CO- O '" — "> 'O. -•» ,^ r-: r- ».. T C > I - X X- X' CO X) OI X 'O T — t - •* CO CT CD — X> p. X ■ ; — X -_ p ' ' -^ cr. r X. X -r. ..-, C. -f -j I- p ' y. oc ic;,q-p 0_ x. — pppppo»px.ro CO XCO -T T - . ' r x - . - i- x p »' -'— * -; .-' ,,' P _' /-, -f xf — ' yf t- x'-i— 'f : co'o'-" -V-i -r .0 co i " of rg' rj eo* — i-* tzT-r — j"\~ r M-wc»n-f»'0«r-i-ajr>ini-ac-ocjinBWeo l >i «iixxij)i-ic(Di-M*OJi'XM-i-x/jfflOM"!-o [J H C 1 o - n el t in 'fi r- xi cr. o — ')ci^^»r-x.cfto-M«^ui«T-xao-Nn^otpt*[Xicio-Nn^if,«i^ai 1 1 i 7 : fx J^ fr f- r- r^ i i i i > < 1 1 i • > i J y f > / y ^ y. y . x x x x - / , - , o » / » §6 SB 00 §5 S3 «0 (3 J( sSg'a gTS"? 3 || 1| fill s |9 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 43 c a a a o e. X a ts E =5 -"- "•' ';.-. i^ ,: r-':; : 3 W*5 K '--■-' ' ' ---'-: - , I y 7' - j 7- 7 - ' _ - / / 'z ~ C -^ i : r — £ z z i- --'_-- .-''---!-_' '_ -' < S » X). ,095.412 526,(1 10 ,099,-112 04,777 701 305 2,953 1.441 76.929 8,232 304,831 ' * S- ] 210,392 270.90 1 313.22.1 221,200 311,947 50,848 130,111 3 or, 21,02" 7,111 37,119 57, 90 103,11 '■ 27,74:5 73,408 53,290 094 1,010 1,320 1,688 12,3- 2 9 23 1 9,1 ' I 30,021 i.l 83 123,6611 1 2 3 cj Mll'i'- - O D. 62,318 13,116 8,850 10,583 1,305 7,749 410 2,218 105 2,004 14,728 58,394 225,644 241,4 '1 97,201 3.718 132. S 1 1 139,827 o I). 491,250 459,106 520,956 263,-32 696,986 950,168 644,307 961,848 1,396,759 2,171,268 1,755,939 1,834,951 2.370,875 2,077,572 2,394,846 82,78 3,744,-1.- 1,(1-2,1(18 2 238,681 2,668,861 1,060,703 1.094,695 2,18.1,121 4,172.315 7,5i|,929 8,790.714 11,132,091 6,310,434 6,594,621 6,014,310 5,481,871 4, 193,661 4,623,98 4,368,50 4,261,655 3,104,42' 4,981,371 3,3 16,621 3,959,811 0,27 '.(Hi 7 ,67, 127 in 722,201 8,935,041 n.s,i:\,s3! ' d z D. 624,548 527, 91 HI 301,411 321,587 492,161 071,4-7 640,901 637,810 •I-",,. ."M 769,799 871,-4 659,390 952,61 1 928.0-7 7"'i9 13 7-9.' 0'. 74 1,1 hi 117,129 3222194 403,949 797,976 4-9,219 797,3 is 302,11b I,0I3,'<42 1,328,735 956,680 948,253 617, 7:111 808,319 400,914 685,95 4-2,117 688,733 653, i"' 581 .7 in 449,237 52.1.717 664,606 399,333 311. Mil 34 ',11 II 433,035 4 7 1,1110 3,19,327 429,851 5 .''i. 545,223 S n. 3.1:10,-1,-, 1. ,12.-2, 2,987,093 3,321,036 3,490,041 4,908,713 6,113,451 0,2'I2.«i-'(j 4,430,689 3 97-,:ln3 6.100.703 6,790,0 1 -.,1. 6,620 5,055,396 1,76 ,234 626,473 2,894,123 4,822,611 4,822,307 3,011,112 1.819,722 6,676 976 .-.21 ',-11 5,621,422 7,016,246 1 .1' 2, ','H 4,5 17, 157 3,079,209 3,217.389 .1 006,788 3,277,564 4,129,520 4,696,732 ■1,' 57,938 3,340,185 3,787,431 4,791,644 4,150,475 4,510,61(1 4,467.587 5,483,098 6,064,068 6.192,040 3.702.71.1 3,986,228 £5 - — • 1 1 - 77 -z z 1 - — T ' — r - : — - -: — — ~~. — zz — X — 1- zi 77. — 1- T. — '. -~ 1 X 77 — zz — i~ j I "i J -»ii- ~: \ - f 1 Z •- Z rr - -, — 1- , ZZ ~ '77 1 J z z~ z Z zZ x -z zz rr — 1- — t-zz — ,r 77- 77, ,- - _ — -J 7- ~_ r x z. 77. ..- z: ~.'~.— ~.-. — . "~ "'. ~ i-> =% ~ -. — ~. '- — — - ~ — - — c -1 -t -r — - - ' 1 < z' z' - — -i r —--r-; 1- -'—'-' r — ',"- -' -' - 1 - - r-* z -'- f r- ~' t* — 1- z' 1' ,-" -' -'-.'-'/' /' ^ - - ~ — -r. ' ' zz :'. I- — / 1- t z, _ — ,- -- __ ..- -1 -: z . — -. -~ z: . 1- * "" — ' -'. r-' - z. r -r. - ' zz -' -i'i---: /. j~ c'r:rt-?:'r**i-::-';'---'-j:'r'.-' .-' -' - / ,' — o~ n. 710,353 8-9,753 770,256 819,465 1,462,793 M 1,606 763,128 1.I43.SIS 1,111,743 1,446,216 1,606,809 1,248,571 1,516,110 I.l 13.727 1,716,828 1,624,727 413,691 666,513 7I.S.H13 1,032,354 720,805 974,303 r,043,136 3-3.131 604,139 .177. 'Ol 43-,534 421 911 370, IS7 185,312 182,061 576,852 689,270 7ll-.-"3 590.271 521,511 457,970 389,511 482,883 .127.003 422.410 619,270 438,199 .'.Hi. 90 643,610 £5 -r.-,on--icr-*or*f '£-- ."-^"iC"i--'-r «r — — -, v ~ — - 1- c a-c>-*-"rCTi- c"c;K-7i-K"Ji--i^ r.r;^r;i^Ki;-'"-n- , — zz z r* zz ^-' — — r — — J -1 "' z\ - ' J - -z zz 1 £ — *-,' r'-.-f 1- .--'--"I" .--.-' -1 —'i--: -r — ' — .-' 'zz -'— ' -\ zz '-* — —) — - ~ ~ j' — ' ~~ --' zz /' 1 '—-'—' z •' 1 — -- 1- ZTi — .- — 1 1 \ — r ■ — 1 ,- r i- r. 1 - 7 .' - / ri ■ r tz i~ ~ — ■ — , j r- : zz r~ t- ,- -r.zz"^zz. 1- — -^ J zz z - f Z- S • x |~ > -.-*.— ir ~, 'r r i-r.-'i*. ,- ' "r r~ z i~ z — -1 — - - J - t~ -: ~- .- r- — " j "1 c zz zz zz *. • so — ~r zz -r -r >~ zr. \~ *r tr> zz \ < 1 -, — — z ■ — 1 r :,— — .-—-.;--,' — J- zz j j -~ z zz z ~> ~ ' cr. — cr.zz c-»7rrc'i,"/.'-,'^;'i~c-i;"^ri-c-r-rr.i.'*;-- ' ri---i-i — x ,- " — -j. tz. / -' -; ,7 -' -' z '. ~ -z zz -■ /' —*-'—'-: >' -j" ~z .-' ~- ' ,~" — ' — ' -z ,7 -/ z~ / — / r?' — '-. y -r ,-" — ' — ' rr — rr t tz — »' — C — ' ^^ -- ~ — — - " -' -; 1 - z z z z~ z — -: - — r-_ j z -r 1 r' -: ~ - ~ j z. > rz ~ z. ■ -1 .- — zz z • t — "ic '--^ 1 1- -; — z ■' z ~z zz / — t - * — _ — ^ — r -- .- j — -: — - r zz zz — •' z -c- : -:-u> 7 .-_-; -[•- e.'<-fe0,O l-'cTl--3r'— ' — '. ~r ZZ -/. z Z' z- ~Z ' r ' ~'- ?*' ~~ r '°* r ~" '^^ — ~- — —'"■' 0fri*O ~ ZZ ZZ Zr. X t- I-— '■ Z? ZZ ZZ ZZ' ZZ d | > D. 20,480 57,04! 67,267 31,479 117,110 191,72.5 169,402 193,775 '201,2-1 108.772 175,782 432,631 671,104 138,647 161.002 892,594 913,201 240,009 585,696 395,869 20.1.330 257,091 236,140 20- 259 396,166 B84.20J 1,269,441 2:19.1,111 S0S,079 658,256 925 127 349,820 ,177.399 .114,172 32S.I5I 188,163 1 18,693 132.650 fi |l J). 142,859 181,413 198,204 I53.S0O 229,427 379,161 273,840 301,453 361,789 431,836 655,055 565.394 494,620 716,091 608,409 795,263 6S0.022 125,059 2-0,5(11 231,010 3bS Mil) 203,401 29,996 37.3S7 109,782 140,293 197.121 130.04S 157,919 2 111 sun 260,765 189,699 11 7,07 I ' 1 13! II \'.zJi 1 1 ', '- 1 8l!osl 16,520 34,641 74,670 .5 s 5 5S5SS S9S tgg S 9S66SSS D cf' CZ' -^■^' ZZ zz zj — ' — l; 77' ■* — ' C~. — Z ZZ '* • *n-r,r,»i-{roio- -j«-r>!-' ; pi7-'X;ff. — MnT«)tDi-ooao- (Mrt-Tirtcr-ai^o — ** n ~r>n tc r~ tx> z z z. z. z z. - z en z zz z zz - - - - T z — — — — -7 -, sj - -• -: -1 -1 -• -1 -1 -~ " — ■ r — '- 7- — _ t- t~ r- I- I- f- L- l - l- 1 1 ' < * ' ' ' ' i * ' ' > II 1- 1 J X 1: 1 1. f X I. J. I. J J- J ... 44 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. o O m F< a. o a. XI H 2 D. 921,438 1,447,498 1,702,601 2,629,402 1,421,134 1,-530,114 1,368,155 1,221.119 1 .463,940 1,476,355 941,884 937,917 1,487,799 1,370,264 tr a* D. 573,520 379,340 151,204 154,223 626,052 6 n ' o x- -i - ^ ■ — - r~. - t' ■- - ~~ -\j -i - 1 > ' ^ ■; ? '- °- ',- ~ Si . «fe? nj — ' ,ri /--r'^iic'jj oVi.-oct'^i- ci.r e-f ,r',n'— 'c-'d, ac' -f '' , * — ~-*- ' 1 1- i ■ -_ iw-i-r/.-i^irtt-" Q-f "- c. n i — us — / -r — n -i to -j -T-j — j c -r • , - ■ ' _■ — ' ' -" - -, , . r- ^ 1, .5 /, 5 1790 1791 1792 1793 1791 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1307 1803 1809 1810 1811 1312 1813 1815 1316 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1S28 1829 1830 1831 1332 1833 1834 1835 IS36 | 1-88 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 45 1 1 E £ > «i- — y> n 1- a si in t* » ann in * - «r ai 7 r- to ' - 1 — x «« © CO (O C/> Ol- rgjitOX-r— X.(X<^JTNf>JCO©-* — — -J C a I- f C O TM -£ TN f l-"l /■ -T 3 "1 J. 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T 1- h 7 1- i- .1 ej in^ — ■«* ' ci ""■ £> — t£> '■' ■ - ' r O — 'O >~ i - O -MX r-lp; /.im X -ri/i- /.'^tt'HC - , «;")0*(N(0 - -eT «—" to" in" w* ; d to ..i' - -J a a t' t- «' i- c" n n oi -' « ri t*' /' n -*ffl t' t~' 7" - t' c /! i-"» a -f -' ztf !H!pSi! — go *" £ > toiN (NO crj » r d n « - notint To-rr j. x^o-r r~m— tox-tr^rj ooico- i-oirtto • tt to tt —^ * • 04 ' CM to t r- -r in r -0 X/ — >r *■■ ""j x >r ii'^on • co ~ c*^ • X; ^10 ^ x^. _to — -r x -r .r -0 5- II|||IIII — | i - < a 1 01 « 0^ t£ xj » • in -o-f o > j-T r '/;cn-^^inc /D/'Ch-ijfl a: 'M -~ /. o t- -i c^_ jj — us i- oiS^ Q 0< — — CO -"T n TO- 1- tCOru— (N OJ- dttO l-tflCOQCT; ^^^=1 — ^-CCO?tj -^^S^jax"* -»"" \A OJ Xi — c c - ' t-u t- ^ — M O o J; •* J " :& ;.':;: § I I I I I I I I •S . s E?;uuf££oo ij s°"3 J ..•■§ 3 " 5 «, Om ^o'Jr?.pScrcof) CC g> Ol 33 If 23 3,872 60,936 1,355 3,561 2,0i 3 2,689 3,1.89 -17 8,397 2,295 685 2,236 441,310 16,435 51,265 4,668 171 36,949 61,674 2I.70S 3,509 37,660 17,122 12,482 54,741 176,223 22,186 256,41 5 14,686 2,509 1,001 12,160 1,181 36,534 4,366 1,767 1,8C0 12,413 9,661 -It -f IP O 00 — -f — O C«OJ o> .eg Ci T -T C — , \ M • — -* -£ -" t? C4 « ■* Ehf 26,4?6 485,729 19,683 6,505 15,029 22,745 26 830 35,17s 8,378 87,484 16,522 5,283 143,329 4,054,012 S7.290 453,583 37,310 43,944 6,697 50,084 I6S.595 409.411 15,463 429,425 1,228,685 36,344 90,739 222,453 255,272 1,290,537 343,965 128,826 70,920 83,596 319,459 6,775 2,180 29,257 6,764 4,047 124,880 49,297 33,682 2,520 2 '4 ^ £ " ^i o ^ " -r ±> o r>»_ -^ .- — T -T «T r^"— r «j o e*i cT«D ;nrN p oo 555 gfi a§ si 3,2'S 41,767 2,136 1,434 1.231 2,671 1,885 2,1-2 363 17,467 2,139 334 2,844 438,507 18,940 64,59b' 2,249 508 ' 44,732 54,954 20.976 4,643 23,719 7,449 10,170 63,bl2 205,627 24,110 38S,972 7,495 2,647 112 2,458 13,135 159 829 90,15S 5.901 3,329 541 8,067 3,114 1,927 5 as** gpfg-5- || en o 3- s§f s i 31,900 581,383 2 5,997 15,606 26,605 40,197 47,764 9,346 78,404 22,228 12,927 158,925 5,431,733 140,765 543,796 47,233 63,814 4.313 67,663 200,566 1,025,104 22,898 515,356 1,232,139 55.783 92,005 190,910 260,563 2,035,642 547,929 191,607 80,489 189,108 395,426 26,263 4,735 59,304 7,015 3,426 112,975 59,828 57,991 15,119 " *« 5i3S ^^S %4i «f: t> ' ~«j 3 i£2? CO© Is 2,497 36,738 520 876 541 510 6,577 1,756 96 4,150 239,809 7,310 30,717 1,231 460 22,399 27,314 7,919 1,509 ll.ObS 15.S7S 5,552 57.S05 118,616 11,298 167,449 4,416 436 843 393 4,459 414 122 24,619 2,319 2,500 56 1,970 1,101 ^ gj •— • £*■ r~ i-^ o P ^ ^ , ^ S£ H o'er 20,912 290,958 17,465 2,170 10,130 19,088 24,695 30,640 .'.,829 67,04! 13,500 6,299 3,876,295 79,402 386,037 34,806 22,358 3,S4I 43,759 119,741 979,980 13,646 183,724 711,022 37.78S 95,794 122,563 195,360 1,323.575 257,659 85,157 20,949 129,386 260,613 8,499 3,864 42,820 11,427 2,441 93,634 32,356 27,457 3,613 S^S ^s S ffi II . , .i 1 : — Sidearms aes, set or otherwise ig a duty of 20 per cl apanned bed steel • a. 3 - £ "2 '>. ^T— b/iocdc e do o c o d Manufactures of iron and steel, v Firearms not specified Cutting-knives - lli , nets, axes, and adzes Socket chisels. • Sti clyards and scalebeams Sickles, or reaping-hooks Scythes- Spades and shovels Squares of iron Wood-screws - Other articles - Manufactures of— Copper Brass - Tin Pewter J.ead Wood — cabinetware . other articles - Leather Marble - Gold and silver, and precious s Watches, and parts of - Glassware — cut and not specifi plain and other otherarticlesof,pa Wares— China and porcelain Earthen and stone Plated, not specified Gilt Japanned Saddlery— common, tinned, an plated, brass, and pc Coach and harness furniture Carriages, and, parts of - Slates of all kinds- Quills, prepared - Black-lead pencils Paper-hangings - Hair-cloth and hair-seating Brushes of all kinds Copper bottoms, cut round, &c. Brazier's copper • 4J °"0 rNnmojnoiftOO SI if . ■oS ■ ■ is 48 IMPORTS AM) EXPORTS. O X) Pi o a. S"2 -= 3 i 5 V:ilue. 3,538 5.692 6,430 5,833 19,-145 85,666 1,056 1,929 14,283 151,834 54,109 89,208 27,804 32,473 113,910 25,064 165,622 287,540 33,581 4,796 4,765 41,699 12,750 28 82,492 176 1J6 103,068 8,825 3 2 6 6,609 8,718 100 13,296 16,319 957 — Quantity. 8,661 4,912 7,473 5,0S0 73,329 873,043 521 1 380 34,908 690,394 225,426 92.785 102,864 94.309 179.223 9.9S7 417,181 484,791 192,633 33,697 4,792 42,401 16,059 24 154,766 233 416 2,339,923 115,947 29 10 16 48,555 136,190 1,015 372,994 170.781 8,355 i > ■3 Value. D. 9-1,473 61,963 18S.609 1 1 5,622 16,683 4,036 87,659 371,579 124,959 105,597 118,640 60,776 460,274 24,782 268,490 238,763 32,752 266,961 756,795 3,831,704 5,287 2,063 76,773 2 299 43,711 11 146,S9I 113 663 2,005 632 6,363,131 1,111,336 239 27 196 6 14 201 13,621 9,083 23,263 91,249 9 13.274 4,640 731 27 & 191,059 179,803 125,122 153,740 16,048 10,700 797,294 2(10,992 91,499 2S5,379 515,736 24S.372 203,733 78,443 815,510 44S.428 14,232 654.449 1,536,355 21003.578 33.017 3,655 71,343 2 7SI 64,582 2 293,013 141 1,750 4,066 1,560 136.S60.9S2 14562,291 2,625 294 1,608 164 36 639 152,495 75,389 345,105 1,324,716 80 617,774 44,437 6,224 370 1 > > D. 22,411 413 17,067 24,398 14,744 14,060 351,819 62,930 S23 29,079 218,663 154,686 242,564 23,302 94,168 75,562 60,018 133,240 416,880 80,718 11,681 973 66,965 4 34,051 119,207 5 182 304,703 8,693 12 151 102 6,255 6,107 6,598 11 4,193 19,435 6,163 & 43,883 494 11,674 32,067 13,062 51,056 2,618,691 40,160 1,010 68,977 902,637 540,311 221,603 76,816 231,268 160,264 21,741 331,577 642,680 36I,27S 69,418 1,566 65,901 3 47,543 203,833 13 711 6,945,796 103,367 77 686 112 43,278 89,798 81,562 111 58.675 200.047 45,008 1 I D. 61,701 26,724 352,839 223,797 12,623 4,626 77,43; 730,279 276,977 68,566 115,058 116,349 896,721 69,718 525,858 239,279 65,150 19^,323 717,359 3,363,9S3 6,036 1,294 73,644 7,004 564 135,243 657 2S4,320 96 1,354 1,129 6,81 3.4 5S 1,075,809 208 761 6 10 730 692 16.610 20.082 14,268 5.228 7,656 2,533 6,999 SS 5- 117,305 62,963 211,390 301,257 12,434 12,743 612,984 377,835 202,213 1X0,26) 453,030 411,748 399,160 223,643 1,349,782 464.401 23,592 487,347 1,210.624 16,089,904 33,315 2,794 70,160 14,795 767 136,918 528 427,260 106 8,629 2,708 114,470,275 15,620,381 1,436 7,700 43 22 1,965 9,053 150,s87 280,476 220,299 62.261 99,764 19,587 33,681 1,120 2 i •f 1 n. 42,399 413 23,323 51,159 14,191 11,600 1,2S8,070 37,800 68,591 46,438 215,911 171,712 156,663 22,140 123,37S 57,566 14,511 167,896 438,684 91,465 11,431 167 68,171 60 188 32,433 60 161,855 85 1,105 94 614,064 33,575 6 7 181 1,526 7,866 18,242 217 188 2,160 11,742 9,633 • a 89,772 913 17,416 73,043 13,534 42,868 9,92I,SI3 19,139 44,674 10S,691 754,263 646,534 1S7,454 82,195 338,671 60,903 7.396 430,743 707,764 383,613 60,946 198 63,339 101 517 41,791 29 214,121 67 610 233 7,885,041 371,075 46 26 393 18,713 71,733 251,731 2,710 2,685 41,993 127,944 73,951 ■< ;> D. 264,553 168,347 491,389 398,784 11,843 8,205 413,331 399,141 367,234 161,204 270.55S 123.542 1,034,414 22,218 615,726 333,215 35,072 210,715 1,100,086 3,985,847 9,650 1,938 108,306 33 400 140,933 670 373,131 96 200 671 11,109,635 857,230 42 96 42 22 95 1,005 3,899 15,930 24,629 8,417 27,445 2,066 4,502 11,037 88 a 545,544 433,158 318,264 541,926 12,352 14,246 3,281,232 223.S77 290,284 423 716 1,119,742 477,921 494,912 89,846 1,755.224 444,738 13,393 478,485 1,907,296 17,668.171 42,636 3,218 93,337 30 904 193,923 514 496,170 105 378 1,959 173.358.496 9,811,503 308 572 270 968 306 2,379 44,004 119,869 321,006 127,312 207,3S8 33,318 46,001 94,062 1,120 1 1 > D. 18,592 10,146 23,052 12,833 7.66H 527,509 67,902 6.429 210.002 113,226 44,526 7,225 63.096 80,508 6,411 130,564 131,623 125,911 6,796 923 45,208 892 9,455 83 73,468 654 225,309 75,430 57 7 16 335 6.025 6,512 1,559 56 4,673 138 23 3 36,748 7.26S 32,920 1I,62S 36,927 4,204,441 25,019 16,631 488,111 403,637 66,577 32,996 243,923 110,418 3,046 313,828 330,192 717,621 35,159 1,836 42,889 2,240 10,557 57 95,585 2,479 4,416,600 1,217,681 482 50 42 3,463 42 335 81,259 31,942 1,328 53,314 1,136 ' 336 > 3$$SJ& -»— co(0«3-*)^^ -r — o — — "^ci** 1- 'K5?^'Si r *cn^2* oS-SS? 3 3 . .ST=SSa^ :S2f Vi?. >jijp i fi 5S £i t oi m -r t -7j oj mmc -r — c sa' 23 iorintf- iscj ) — NO— «- sa; £ I I I l|| I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I J I | I i s^ I I I /.Mill I I I II I II I I \\ II I I I I gzsa j... i ill _- WO i> u5 H oobSo k: Vol. II.— E _ a « E c i " c * ■ 2J3g; 2 8 •§ B - •5 S^J'i ' I % 2 8 5 " i »U<;«^BU «2i KmS5m «K > "~'-i?SS Krt c ' - -■ ' " "~ '*' "" '" J ■ l ~ en •■- — - o »- j: •; s- ~ r o'o'r- V «i & C:C50JfMr-pT-CCCltN(NCOO (fl O ^ *i if. . r. ">J © r- naar~CTt-CDCO r~ cot -w cc cd m — oni~- -ch-i-o — ;'~",t-0^ OJCStO-HW ' — ; ; yj ' o icv^ce coco >.^"ii • - . > i < .' — — o-rx— WiXtooco — o m co od o C3 g ^r > r en 'o — r-nc-drtCir-r-fa cc * ^ q — _ c_ ~ u. Cj i: ^ t- " "j ci-f: >.- 'i? ; ~ 3 m >i"> i— en ■"? o — ; \ r-\ en i CD ^Idi - r/i o O '1 O ^1 CD Tj t Eg 00 CM eg «J go O 00 CO ©| £ otvO o<-Jcn CDOeM o — enco — r- © ri co m :o od o rT>n or- t ir i- — i_- i - -.. — <_ Oj m rr ^ - gj 2i ~ ± ~ -J ~ ■-'.-■ ~= _ — i- t t ^r 'j Z ?: & a £• 5 csfcg o~irT o^' ^ reTco «T-^cfi c-I en of cToT ! i • cTo* H"^ ^cn" tj ^-, ^;;"K^2i-'°i ffl S IBM **" jn n -^ ff. C T i-. - o - ;- r o i- ci r — ° i -,-.'" CT ; -,~ t "V^^ «* ontotooir-BTCT-r » co 1 " • i : -2 |q~""" ^co - " ^^.^SSEJ 00 > • 1 [£ 5 cxo^i'-**XTt*)fnoo o Cieji'jsrrojeno — oi — tj* *>.i*i ^-'o*^ or- o — — en en -r en ' * * | ,$ — l£ o en 7)- o — x =2en«3 — So © VS !-. ~i -r -h ^r! ri :i !i§» * > ; 5 i", — '.5 ;i "ri i o -r > r \d ct. o ' n — ~ i o er- > r eo — '~ < r, — r-^ m ^-i en h <-n "/j -r Oj C3v < ^ -n ~. " -n j3 •- ' y j — o > r. n .- i - - -- < - > - ■- j r^o-i^i cj ~i ">» — ^t ■ i~ en — co — — ^''i, *™ ^^^ ffj-rcneoeocn'M -rfio . . . , i |1 1 1 lll|M III 1 1:111 s : If, r | 1 1 1 \%i , „ ■ . > & to g - | | = j; ' > a. g_ .S a y 8 S^ si .3' rN^ 52_SS_S ■ £%% ^g^^r 2 1^ 41 5 » H iSlS |gpgo £ =75 5 J» g «3 8 « ^ e5£S-"S# H 4p E 1 ^3 4_s|*3 i£ = g Q«— C3 Free of duty. 703.S50 18, 122 613 26.607 4S,549 a. B 1 ^5 I'M 1 = i £ i IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 51 1.617,747 61.3,4 14,191,851 K,< 24 C75.33I 1,633,848 201.448 36,043 12,034 2,847,358 16,823.112 810,050 5,302 234.200 151.366 386,629 11,694.812 2,6)6.152 296,864 3t>6 274 32,746 29,174 944,238 345.362 851 372.278 296.533 10,174 165.718 3,500.709 1,615,249 3,191.238 1,010.91)8 IS.63I 633,437 4,764,536 30.53S 541.931 - '217 55.561 113,717,404 11.220 II 12,701 3,0SS 481.750 2,51.619 205.031 3^3.800 24.066 3.042 188.546 62,956 11. =51 14,490 ' 24 4,702 158,964 24,397 4-6 14.122 433,706 69,939 ' 25,164 97 39,303 1 74,42 18,794. -7 105.641 4 91 3.0 10 157,576 31,155 I09.2S9 1,610 186 1,094,199 3,j-7,3v7 303,126 103 634 7,603 17 33,423 362,959 1,635 ' 80 711 1,085 89 176,756 27,708 631 7,162 18,816 60,737 1,059 27.3-9 6,064 197,706 2,747 4. -21 3.194 1.21.7 1,102,749 25,145 4,206 30 285 | 374 167 320.475 210,916 1,177 104,236 19,5(3,308 33. 5 1 ., 793 5.636 512.673 1,071.394 23,156 8,946 1,272,403 11,7)3,175 393,940 104.S56 2,024 91,652 538.928 65,524 233413 3,822,302 204,033 27.250 11,763 7,595 26,043 578,936 254,698 220 353,365 263,197 10,150 1,210,323 3,448,923 149.064 1,403.421 2,754,785 936,148 17,285 921.119 t 12,140 3,636,023 5,393 537.556 120 53.401 19,2.-0 t- to m . - :o tn i- o 'O -*. - -. -^ "- -r -r r --- — c . , - , ~i fl^i~,n-m^,", to to .f ~. -, m to tN o to » r "• ci * fj B- «i-(00 t- ^ ' ~ i - i- '^ -r 'DmaONOi-o to '/, i~ to -i /. t jj -i t x .f - ffl to ,n^ ,, .r>-oo.finr-Ttc o J. rt ~. ini-^N"-N i ^a-i^ciO'oi-qaj- J.'n^-_i-a7,_nq^»ffl-;,n-^n«^-o/«_^- tc^ — '^ -'■ -' ~ ~ .* .' ' i -',-•" _- _*cWto~w *J S -^~\ -r iri-£\f'\d i- — i-'-ii /) r-' - '■ -f~7«'o o c'« -r'fj t- — 'oTo o 3f.' r to~cn cr,;rfcl -z^i co ' T -* ^ ' ~? o co -r -r~ ■- o at -?■ f. 'O — tc«,- ^ -./ y i-;iwcj- ri cr, — ri," ; ja ■ -/.Da -a" cj, •&■ >n .o e* orrrto to'^.r)^. -r oi e, co -r •*• — to «, ^ to .o -. t — to— ■ ,o 3s en •— cjos i— * 785,886 1,079,706 141,214 44,037 159,49. 43,016 11,21(1 226,068 321,46)) 825,241 106 99 1,340 1,697,745 2,417,443 703.618 247,413 377,157 567.21)0 145,735 654,0-1 6,927,083 2,116,169 153,3i!3 666,732 17,< ~ 847 359,325 3,589 236,496 44.6-3 13,698 9,709 144,868 13,709 43 92.2 57 259,603 17,711 350 1,092 1,390 122.81 1 6,601 16,007 30,781 63 2,071 20,298 147,916 2,989 1,953 147.709 23.629,889 2.5,271 10,338 2,842 379 1,094,221 27,671 102,516 22,178 71 630 2,120 2,077,994 5,222,057 410,616 2,952 32.617 28,567 139.603 232,634 24,790 177 823 61 73 325.950 2,581 692 39,491 157,499 1,294 41,281 19,566 64,259 182,376 2,304 3,569 5,976 1,673 2,491,660 31,823 6,S50 1,197 620 357.903 939 2 11. -115 11,7.8.066 41)3,71 2 78, 12 1 123,513 .l',v;> 1,72)1.653 1,102,162 1,431,506 6,074 91,829 2,286 1,866,482 12,851,966 447.S84 163,838 55,663 1,335,922 109,541 552.751 5,288,205 340,123 32,163 3,227 11,115 37,923 1,141,906 323,-63 233 353,478 490.980 95,759 10,616 1,389,866 18,516 5,620,727 109,101 1,292,712 4,730,076 96«,2I2 10,160 1,173,088 906.355 6,330,866 16,S32 139 6=6,220 166,060 2,183 40,345 2,570 <5 1.825,360 1,828,231 1,477,906 521,9 6 33,47 1 480,009 75,761,713 50-,35S 245.078 34,390 2,954,476 1,2-5.2-7 2,427,571 215.392 92,019 2-,75.5 93,079 4,994,820 34,648,2-1 1,967,136 417,335 3,483 793,708 1,600,781 203,953 803.330 12,734,875 3,209,043 275,273 366.210 17,374 1,970,246 642,090 1,020,099 975,371 39.221 32,981 1,828,019 5,615.819 195,304 1,696,650 7,210,190 1,053,503 811,497 155,831 7,324,816 689,339 245,1)4- 4,460 17,975 1,126 1,899 'V 1,495,961 700.6 3 462,762 33,161 K»,463 8,313,165 1,341,898 55,016 80,516 8,504 181,143 558,495 843,831 30 83,574 488 120 461,882 2,9!7,2y2 749,209 280,313 1,770 687,203 627,793 103,756 • 470,063 9,24S,2I0 3,127,440 265,065 349.908 6,90S 195 184,360 160,324 134,426 28,193 9,243 3,784 23S,130 1,000 97,786 1,60S,759 6,291 23 1.101 123,370 8,4S4 30 4,460 36 957 i" 79,610 177.091 885 7,303 161,746 43,198,094 2*5,336 66,342 3.005 78*2 1,367,712 41,779 143,565 21,777 79,046 - 6,769,45S 395,269 668 54,887 31,931 8 39,128 419,871 33,516 3 1,322 .27 564,110 60,431 196,720 20,116 231 111,57S 38,927 20,543 ,308,535 3,369 5,420 12,350 1,523,920 3,427 36 839 '- 249,799 950.457 1,014,259 310 205,800 748,563 366,998 162,137 25,104 1,405,621 685,013 1,640,175 193,585 8,445 28,267 13,913 2,244,136 24,961,531 822,658 136,349 1,713 151,618 1,041,037 100,189 294,139 3,066,794 46,087 10,205 14,980 10,439 13,618 1,221,776 431,335 688,953 927,062 39,221 23,507 1,712,657 5,338,762 173,761 1,290,279 5,598,042 1,041,792 799,124 154,730 5,677,526 677,428 245,918 17.939 1,090 103 I 1,282,902 800.388 4-1,340 31,420 341,967 68,066,9s9 1, 630.64- 542,890 160,200 31,867 1,697,693 1,152,347 1,435,168 174,9,0 5,-93 41,750 3,841,943 21,446,378 1,468,998 447,208 46S,96g 826,70g 196 862 413,815 11,346,615 2,364,170 647,974 531,266 26,678 19.795 1,457,977 274,548 492,567 387,553 34,651 2,347,556 9,490.416 215.450 1,662,764 5,574,466 878,618 917.095 1,116,278 6,987,187 95 580,821 94,824 ,74,003 10,273 912,502 662,6-6 68,705 183,1 12 26,693 77.73) 5,558,033 611,994 54,-416 107,365 IIS 51,925 317,288 640,222 119 3,079 21,127 171,669 1,942,596 649,986 262,340 315.314 368,833 121,721 161,013 6,758,308 1,976,460 474,417 526,167 14,337 889 124,055 33,664 98,096 18,040 7,738 4,074 238,876 •100 16,602 420,107 54,332 1,825 7,970 107,406 16 1,208 483 5,26S 221 5- 70,423 136,810 141,206 34.725.013 889 1 ' i 44,323 2,298 - 642,745 12.124 8.3,30- 39,611 87 1,578.101 4,3S6,I46 232,246 255 14,723 9,141 20,595 277,261 36,090 265 1,260 43 295,961 29,461 59,931 10,018 6,723 6S.949 22,474 15,067 S25.0-1 3,994 2,408 1,898 1,094,941 973 2 12,752 7,701 J. 299,977 644,176 295,725 4,727 123.030 18,783,943 638,503 414,121 50,537 31.491 1,003,223 822,93,5 811,548 135.2 10 2,429 20,623 2,091,973 15,117.636 686,768 1S4.613 138,932 44S,735 72,130 232,207 4,311.046 351,620 73,292 3,839 12,299 18,906 1,037,961 211,423 334,540 359,495 20,190 2,274,533 9,229,096 200,283 1,321,078 5,150,365 818,701 912,862 1,109,410 4,784,838 79 578,610 94,339 55,983 2,351 I Danish West Indies Holland • Dutch F.r • Dutch West Indies ... Dutch Guiana .... Belgium F.njnnd Scotland ..... Ireland ..... Gibraltar .... - Malta British F.ast Indies r.nlish West Indies British North American colonies Honduras ■ British Guiana .... t ape of Good Hope ... Other British Colonies - Hanse Towns, and other ports of Germany French Atlantic ports French MeditenaiR-an ports Fiench West Indies ... French Guiana . Spanish Atlantic ports . - - Spanish Mediterranean ports Tenerifle and other Canaries Manilla and Philippine Islands - Cuba Other Spanish West Indies Portugal Madeira . . - . - Fayal and other Azores ... Cape lie Verd Islands ... Italy ..... Sicily ..... Sardinia • Trieste, and other Austrian Adriatic ports Turkey, Levant, &c Morocco and Barbary States Greece • Hayti ..... Texas - ... Mexico - Central Republic - - . - Colombia ..... Brazil Argentine Republic ... Cisplatine Republic Chiii Peru ..... China ..... Sandwich Islands - ... Australasia .... South America, generally Africa, generally .... Asia, generally .... West Indies, generally - North west coast of America South Seas .... Uncertain places . . . . . £ 52 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 3£-S £ 6 ■; o-oj B3-» 8 I V «* 56S3H£?<5'oO^ IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 53 " 'S3 8-2 i- C«( '« 3 q£ "2 Ics i- « — , §- x" 7 J ii 5? = 1 I a.I.p; •il=;s~ -- £ 8 c c ■§ a j 8 ^ § a £ - s 1 j° o £ ~ - - -J 5 yn <5-S ^ £ ;iCi Si/if-KWO ~ ;^>_v> ^g e2 54 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. i 1 1 Z). 2,142 644 4,609 437 12,056 217 224 60 105 66 9S9 71 44 3,088 3,474 2,791 2,032 430 359 29,364 40 23,315 441 7,735 349,673 190 1,917 10,544 3,918 ■>. s 2,933 2,566 9,250 90 11,286 6.025 6,523 | D. 1,634 1,413 3,!l60 4,568 77 24,838 938 2,205 505 283 400 76.163 21.487 14,088 316 2,161 166,359 844 63,175 10,109 I 26,759 1,735 15,387 6,330 H <§• 5,992 I4,4'j0 15,195 75,539 47,294 6,400 110,982 4,254 i K > D. 2,690 25 846 8,368 1.013 19,111 675 605 42 US 608 247 874 566 355 116 11,057 7,654 7,544 2,273 1,746 10,168 63,450 1,157 37.069 5,630 7,133 1" 350 927 9,440 6,261 d 1 200 8,580 13,114 590 6,429 4,974 7,332 a > & D. |250 2.49S 4,563 17,514 26,187 1,248 836 (200 245 224 3,763 107,377 335,986 79,7S5 64 7,263 161,805 6.113 60,319 6,735 642 23,971 £ 103,691 410 305 1,035 3,123 1,964 1,300 6,147 16,098 243,964 134,898 178,069 514 143 1,697 15,417 1,236 1,173 i | > D. 695 280 1,540 7,108 687 23,040 670 478 107 200 209 94 739 19,4S2 40,293 2,787 5,923 1,909 71,558 1,070 27,253 749 4,835 i 46 190 370 11,281 2,748 cy 83 5g 31 160 1,920 3,689 4,909 1,3 14/ 259, I > D. 2,676 7,056 5,002 21,805 8,508 37,072 1,456 4,004 498 100 600 313 25 209,048 5,021 504 1,691 19,162 201,939 7,199 67,114 19,782 13,905 5 149,204 1,111 668 2,003 963 9,370 1,753 44 ~ 21,947 26,537 137,152 4,804 252,397 1,801 54S 1,720 1,929 60,783 1,966 30 i 1 v. > D. 1,306 2,325 11,301 6,617 1,736 43,661 77 2,514 4 440 25 1,600 560 684 144 3,804 96 1,430 140,465 19,134 10,081 5,761 12,504 | 641 100 975 3,736 202 CT 1 3 g£ § D. 1,482 722 12,672 10,572 3,600 62,492 1,737 497 600 125 2,403 '..■_ 495 400 3,554 96,035 16,017 432 559 8,205 145,151 24,369 38,688 7,163 26,375 I 58,649 17,172 3,845 964 3,346 7,471 13,923 2,328 1 22 (58 98,923 18,536 4,311 917 9,309 63,112 27,848 2,995 r- *-Cl w J* 1 valorem, lhs. of 20 per cent. 1 lbs. g 8 cents per lb. — rated, at 5 per cent. - 10 do. 12 do. 12. J- do. 15 do. 20 do. 25 do. 30 do. 40 do. 50 do. 1 duties, • sq. yds. rrained - — linted - • — cloth - - — ttles - - gallons o. — Sq Paying duties aa Watches, and parts of Glassware- Cut and not specified • . Plain and other- Other articles of, paying a duty Wares — China and porcelain Earthen and stone Plated, not specified Gilt Japanned Saddlery— Common, tinned, and japanned Plated, brass, and polished stee Coach and harness furniture Carriages, and parts of • Slates of all kinds Quills, prepared - Black-lead pencilg Paper-hangings • Hair-cloth and hair-seating Brushes of all kinds Raw silk - Indigo ... Wool, unmanufactured, exceedir Value of merchandise not enume Do. do Do. do Do. do Do. do Do. do Do. do Do. do Do. do Do. do Paying specific Woollens- Flannels Bookings and baizes Carpeting — Brussels, Wilton, and treble in Other ingrained and Venetian Floor-cloth, patent, printed, or p Oil-cloth, other than patent floor Cotton bagging • Wines- Madeira, in casks and b< Sherry do. taki ■* SSSg.. ■"" S" • • 495 21,467 9,340 3,789 6,667 12,491 60,847 904 4 280 10,643 1,433 572 620 321 30 132,913 L867 223 1,370 12,302,079 71,628 2,000 1,280 5,628 1.359 4,739 500 479 2,318 103,400 152 925 441 4,459 1,100 in -T M — ICS l~OT O CO Ol ~1 !0 — n (N — 2,257.837 369,353 7,942 20,S22 696 8,095 8,913 11,749 27,26S 14 4,158 60,361 21,199 814,338 143 2 174 4,357 14 9,0S» 55,164 81,548 32.966 35,156 75,173 38,822 11,668 32,131 225,342 41,518 3,056 1,167 8,262 13,120 13,242 18,127,757 3,710,6 9 59,124 219,035 740 67,614 63,156 120,631 151,077 300 6,090 4,874 91,715 1,309,713 750 10 938 57,775 50 90 16,788 9,990 7,961 6,180 1,413 30,005 4,035 149 18 333 11,695 770 123 925 621 4,471 9,585 113 408 217 183 455 'a'* 8 '"' '" 956 64,885 165 3,367 24,343 13,817 2,584 50,667 13,018 40 331 33,102 756 15 1,016 1,474 72,584 120,489 1,170 1,100 sir 938 11,374 2,605 2.800 12.846 1,130 700 2,965 12,275 200 2,626 24.193 3,710 33,(165 27,935 19,503 6,092 16,963 137,690 8,092 1,624 872 5,952 854 3,162 14,244 11,219 400 364 249,703 296,541 2,662 54 331 6,214 389 2,545 42,722 106,263 36 199.510 1.025 3,102 379 2,585 167 3.521 86,090 7,780 29,822 45,048 60,874 44,940 4,415 25,665 231,856 37,758 5,703 1,993 7,433 871 6,295 11,391 12,061 2(0 650 3,713,433 3,327,233 22,517 124 3,313 45,576 2,286 22,033 1,337,0S5 7,016 45 994,117 2,850 5,100 19,309 65,329 10,092 Wines— Sicily, in casks ana bottles - - gallons Red, of France, in casks - - — Other of France do. - - - — 01 France, in bottles and cases- - — Red, of Spain and Austria, 'it casks • — oilier, of Spun, Austria, Germany, and the Mediterranean, in casks - - — Of other countries, in Sjuks - - — in bottles • - — other materials ... — Beer, ale, and porter, in casks . - - — in bottles - - — Oil, of foreign fishing — Spermaceti . - - - . — Teas, from other places than China - - lbs. White, clayed, or powdered - - - — Cayenne pepper ----- — Candles — Wax and Spermaceti • — I.ard — Butter ......— Vitriol— Oil of — Salts- Epsom Glauber ..... — Tobacco, manufactured — Snuff — Cigars • M. Other than snuff and cigars • - - lbs. Cotton ......_ Gunpowder .... - — Rnstles _ Glue _ Ochre, dry . . - - . — Red and white lead . - - - — Whiting and Paris white - • — Litharge - - - - - Sugar of lead • • 56 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. «2 is -a £g So £§ c 2 1 .a r 1 > D. 2,033 3,050 385 46 629 273 75 31 178 1,347 75 460 178 62 370 2,121 1,551 3,075 6,912 ISO 710 795 1,210 4,270 § 16,236 26,273 1,229 425 2,421 89 12 203 6,147 12,163 600 2,500 3,240 1,120 170 782 172 6,574 22,498 180 960 3,132 17,100 4,127 w D. 560 69.742 1,008 3,149 2,010 21,438 137 86 18 88 18,374 1,980 1,851 20,118 1,8S5 200 22.46S 1,799 29,324 300 2,122 13,013 13,642 9,027 13,183 7,344 700 1,068 318.319 11,200 810,965 13,144 22,416 4,923 6,335 1,375 280 1,170 311,059 35,260 7,022 300,413 1,142 140 6,390 447 4,012 SO 476 30,636 62,873 5,337 65.40S 64,440 6,012 1,575 3 g I 5 z B w z > 228 16 459 84 1,216 1S8 34,013 281 713 55 34 175 20 1,273 18 IS 54 230 1.100 1,679 494 105 27 2,260 IS4 1,394 215 540 42, 2,000 2,760 250 4,027 700 7,436 42S 200,077 1,050 300 4 315 1,953 21 14,590 130 ISO 1,120 4,430 158 325 41 9 9 8,108 4 68 1,000 8,600 2,075 SSI 1,582 > 1,720 100 00,037 2,115 3,250 1,735 130 42,602 2,700 J 84 735 118 8,561 1,155 1,250 17,197 7,814 23,542 3,420 1,648 10,462 1,601 9,212 ' 60 1,017 46,347 8,022 1,369 1,065 5 29,107 1,117 1,054, IS7 32,851 19,788 4,979 37S 12,194 27,295 1,898 35,705 4,572 168,468 380 1,240 4,749 1,610 2,924 300 3S4 33.010 6,102 6,800 30 2,514 353,513 71,435 7,164 1,341 > D. 4,501 3,630 9-0 262 133 206 375 115 4,134 239 193 234 157 4,867 12 437 2,134 400 880 3,630 365 5- 9S,513 61,322 26,160 1,310 2S9 748 4,502 1,150 100,000 3,760 *95 1,616 26 5,423 2 916 7,443 950 20,071 236 § D. 24,722 70 97,666 3,564 5,944 29 39,155 1,310 3,716 70 50 5,667 2,494 15 12 1,691 715 19,796 6,437 2£,854 14 7.741 2,913 11,122 61,809 12,881 2,466 7,242 19,707 -' 673,251 1,413 1,843.091 63,04 1 49,69S 65 10,879 208 46,309 1,000 465 96,300 128,893 556 444 61,505 577 13,942 1.331 7,193 2 28,165 9,007 50,230 290,200 61,855 31,820 45,814 28,470 i | Value. 6,515 349 2S2 2,333 235 437 428 6,395 44 801 3.09S 579 8,203 30 5,592 45 15 912 5,831 410 1 110,443 2,020 660 827 1,523 5,758 9,240 64,360 1,210 800 1,450 161 744 3 19,906 706 20 2.132 490 i > D. 11,005 ISl 105,139 4,142 11,760 215 41,367 203 63 3,160 120 55 2,489 400 727 2,085 4,233 36,933 4,337 24,707 14,900 1,429 16 7,822 16,072 6,359 10,126 11,790 100 3 274,231 2,15S,632 67,113 29,279 426 12,876 17 24S 3S,150 1,665 494 60,120 9,150 26,872 52,693 2,480 10,098 963 3,816 4,839 79,343 60 44,351 30,21.0 132,194 66,262 88 .3 1 Paying specific duties. . and sheet .... lbs. — - Tarred, and cables ... — . .ml v.irn .... — r— Rods and bolts - — Nails nnJ spikes .... — - Iron and steel wire, not above No. 14 - - lbs. above No. 14 - - — Tacks, brads, and sprigs, not exceeding 16 ounces per 1,0^0 M. lbs. — i • >nd chains, or parts thereof - — i -. vessels of — Round iron, as braziers' rods, &c. - - — Nail or spike rods .... — Band iron, scroll iron, &c. ... — Pig - - - - „ . cwt. Bar, manufactured by rolling — otherwise - - - — Salt bushels Potatoes * — Paper- Folio and quarto post .... lbs. Foolscap, drawing and writing - - — Printing, copperplate, and stamen 1 - - — Sheathing, bindeis', wrappiug, and box-boards — B:»»ks, printed in other languages than English, J-atin, and Greek - - - vols. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 57 § ssl 1 9 2 a |lj !••■!• ! If! It; ■ l H|ft;f 1,861 12.174 740 705 389 344 1,42S 2,772 17,424 :::|: 4,644 290 2,053 707 65 410 £'§| 5 cs o— r- <-5 os n on o ■ 4,251 11,400 3,943 198 326 4,093 209 376 3,727 1,296 72 80 i-n ■ S 4,694 81,688 807 93 121 398 249 552 2,947 404 300 87 Rook;, all other, bound - - - lbs. Apothecaries' vials and bottles, not exceeding 6 l ach ..... gross Perfumery and fancy bottles, not exceeding 4 ounces each ..... — Demijohns ..... No. Glass bottles, black, not above 1 quirt - . gross Wiudow glass, not exceeding S by 10 inches 100 sq. ft. exceeding 8 by 10, and not ex- ceeding 10 by 12 inches - — exceeding 10 by 12 inches - — Fish- Dried and smoked .... quintals Salmon ...... barrels Mackerel ..... — Allother — Sboea ami slippers- Silk ...... pairs Frunelle, nankeen, &c. ... — Lealher, kid, morocco, &c. ... — B'ints and bootees .... — Flaying cards ..... packs Felis or hat bodies, wholly or partly of wool - No. Total value of merchandise paying specific duties - Do. do. duties ad valorem Do. do. free of duty Total value - •— a, = 13 cd a to .2 c 5 M c o i H no. Hi £s-§ 607,304 41.7-3 3.333 4,470 15.406 8,860 1,335 €9,101 189,394 11 ^1 g 6,710 440 941 61,568 3.328 1,083 2-3 17,! i 404,968 1,939 sf £"° D. 24,911 606 143,367 364.927 322,359 36,563 15 I87.C 950,82s esc* i n. 1,162,652 33,427 208,704 3,005 109,421 233,850 1,322,936 285,224 30,876 1.595 393,! 69 1 884 76fi 12,59b IS £ ST -0 D. 686,235 8,315 164,794 2. |i 3 57,320 42,554 248,502 6,878 6.601 1,281 113,524 439.331 12,596 58" (H5-! 81,056 279 3,291 89 105,327 94.979 16,933 10,877 221 1,236 1,114,293 15 fi 73 D. 195,361 24,833 50,619 513 37,115 979,45.5 262,413 13,398 90 2-9.2 9 3,331,141 S3 1 1 H D. 584,730 89,558 1,620 271,717 210,092 686,479 906.331 67.427 2,360 697,135 1,874,737 744 9,854 4,517 225,177 139,892 & s-° D. 347,373 61,090 895 143.S39 35,192 302,914 11,860 17,835 1,606 323,122 422,662 — ""1 f* ^■i'3 D. 86,069 9 61 25,362 96,416 27,230 28,297 14,393 3,156 314.669 744 © — _^ « i7* £' 3 D. 151,288 2S,459 664 102,516 7S.484 356.335 866,174 35,199 754 370,857 1,137,406 3,854 104,232 53,957 1 H D. 353,840 2,682 100,160 13,641 110,839 201,316 187,036 1,213,6S2 84,110 144,542 915, -H9 10,850 • II MS $ ft* £-o 203,916 81,182 1,586 12.718 36,360 14,041 16,728 6,954 60,741 305,265 'a»" n. 16,885 405 6.530 2,S44 76,204 8,805 47,613 5,590 8,783 174,694 7,009 T — 7). 133,039 2,682 1S.573 5,525 95,277 88,752 164,187 1,149,341 71,566 75,018 465,850 3,841 'P £ £ £ Russia Prussia - Sweden ami Norway Swedish West Indies Denmark - Danish West Indies Holland - Dutch Bast Indies Dutch VVest Indies tiutch Guiana Belgium - England - Scotland - Ireland . SB S i ' o ; J3 58 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. U o id as 3 O o o eg r £ 7). 258,402 120,218 23S,504 19,300 522 970,967 283.135 38,889 12,170 2,595 18,636 149,303 1,454,325 30,481 8,093 4,535 1,681 8,933 141.357 21,813 126,740 115,461 1,590 95,834 219,062 1,123.191 131,139 310,087 8,088 562.237 50,2,-3 322,698 861,021 816 76,159 101,548 4,114 22,153 £ 1 * ^ I'! i D. 2,845 31,095 6,632 116,976 29,432 8,160 15,918 729 4,025 154 189,263 1,266 547 941 4,890 24 984 5,692 32,19(1 2,217 16,778 105,090 23,044 28,538 1,036 265 45,! 55 975 23,792 816 21 21,400 291 10,803 1 i-Y ; . = 7 | D. 847 3,100 8,692 112,930 10,233 1,199 1,186 564 609,776 4,086 137 216 78 1,667 8.010 0; 2 2,530 20,673 84,994 646,388 68 313 79,193 163,399 6,534 8,660 147,143 39,874 813 37.9.,;. 5,016 2 ot- i" D. 864,710 86, 23 162,360 6,103 522 435,937 849,304 204,742 21,772 12,470 1,866 13,475 148.585 755,286 7,956 3,772 662 108,363 15,519 91,020 113.214 1,590 6S 66,002 471,713 202,356 3 3,273 31,614 15,642 130,494 797,355 76,325 42,193 4,123 6,334 to aS | H D. 82,967 43,806 296,618 12,158 1,192,592 1,690 114 649,550 69,-; 05 46,760 3(1,246 7,648 2,063,820 52,133 17.072 3,531 87,887 418,409 6,877 378,221 74,053 140,043 210,616 2,940,710 75,349 539,959 441.992 395,440 11,601 311,618 18,230 1,328 253,225 129,843 21,777 2,436 K: ■5 §"^ D. 3,953 14,304 8b,64l 4, <09 212,077 30,418 135,009 38,321 11,460 3,684 300 95,323 3,401 7,103 801 1,5 4 7 043 197,742 2C2 37s 18,950 12,627 70,190 325.882 16,374 58,184 69,250 34,815 144.421 3,764 36,905 8,282 1,218 1,036 39.401 2,235 1,086 l2S"3 D. 6,319 6.243 3,587 182,689 105.139 38,392 2,560 175 636 866,196 1,055 111 1,699 1.134 6,632 24,997 33,504 1,185 55,267 83,708 1,726,350 30,300 239,275 165,610 33,126 155.970 4,672 22.376 8,448 5,667 67,778 80 1,295 6,414,886 4,750,671 661,215 £~ J D. -9.014 23,244 203,6^3 4,102 797,826 1,494,557 476,149 18,824 35,115 26,026 7,288 1,102,296 47,082 9,687 16,022 833 14,212 195,670 4,055 142,339 64,518 72,149 60,712 888,478 22,676 242,500 217,13? 60,357 95,043 3,165 252.337 1,500 110 246,522 22.604 19,462 55 3- ' ' S H D. 433,461 97,631 194,851 30,015 1,211,464 001,075 725,991 30,173 40.280 4,264 52,672 1,803,772 65,899 13,247 17,393 450 8.246 524,580 49,714 829.074 534,049 185,065 4,540,996 II 1,169 435,568 1,362,195 115,115 355,051 918 852.701 305,000 211,820 101 051 35,531 59,308 21.000 - ss i .= 1 3 D. 21,752 18,606 37,127 8,117 374,731 48,515 195,629 10,542 308 699 101,902 1,931 700 350 804 259,263 22,31(1 401.052 119,162 21,1S5 486,790 8,147 64,127 64,120 27,899 109.997 9IS 27,058 20,315 . 313 19.000 37,140 i> lain i 6,783 34,466 3,920 21,123 12S.763 47,762 4,469 137 375 830 36,973 662,357 6,345 585 37 1,236 5,627 2,317 74,759 2,541,931 50,078 125,305 196,030 45,703 121,053 120,054 3,998 67,122 239 18.884 20,400 4,913,590 4,411.398 502.192 £* D. 406.SS6 44,559 163,804 6,775 707.970 608,398 525,893 19,494 45,905 3 126 15,000 1,139,513 67,623 12,662 16,666 1(0 6,206 259,696 27,404 423,022 413,470 89,121 1,512,275 44.944 246,136 1,102,045 41,513 124,001 705,589 296,716 123,883 108,41 9 6,647 1,763 21,000 12,513,493 12,513,493 2 H D. 339,641 62.- 10 147.343 37,561 756.SS6 1,160,038 554,192 34,309 87,230 43,79- 12,710 60.152 1,589,372 91,1,22 107,602 28,595 6,400 27,747 107,396 10,884 384,038 216,822 4,880 277,337 6,012,609 72,169 605,948 797,865 321,723 355,696 1,532,712 21,110 104,984 27,916 14,637 19,616 2,250 O to* -f £ll D. 12,134 16,335 11,202 2,456 66,466 18,738 10,297 6;328 1,723 1,45S 447 111,972 2,224 2,131 5,480 853 7.383 22,824 3,812 27,010 35,727 248 20,498 410,884 14,980 55,309 77,479 53,253 83,900 13,039 4,924 8.782 26,054 303 4,903 7,832 2,250 D. 1,380 30,13. 6,542 22,077 I04.93S 75,194 5.484 3,308 700 1,529 1,705 560.713 5,111 10,049 2,253 9,827 2,102 5,617 124,982 3,631,139 23,799 223,290 134,739 30,836 126,646 59,009 16,021 11,314 51,597 350 4,043 10,354 o u* — £-3 D. 370,077 129, 99 13,023 5R5.4S2 1,066,106 538,411 24,733 78,505 42,075 9,723 48,000 916,687 84,287 [95,422 20,802 5,347 10,637 82,470 7,072 351,411 181,095 ■1,032 125,857 1,920,586 33,390 327,349 685,647 19(i,03[ 145,150 1,460,664 166 627,959 27,333 5,631 1,430 s 1 .1 1" 1" > British Fast Lilies British West In lies irth American colonies Honduras, Campeachy, &c. Bri'ish Guiana • Hause. Towns, and other ports of Germa French Atlantic ports - • French Mediterranean ports French Wcsl Indies Spanish Atlantic ports Spanish Mediterranean ports Tenerifie ami other Canaries Manilla and Philippine Islands - Cuba .... Oiher Spanish West Indies - Madeira - Fayal and other Azores • Ca pe de Verd Islands I', v Sicily .... Ti i.'ste, and other Austrian Adriatic por Turkey, Levant, &c Greece .... Hayti .... Texas .... Mexico .... Central Republic ... Colombia - - • Vi nexuela ... Brazil .... Ar enline Republic e Republic Chi i - - - . Peru .... China .... Sandwich Islands- Australasia South America, generally Asrt. generally At, ica, generally - West Indies, irrnerally - ■ si coast of America South Seas and Pacific Ocean Mocha, Aden, &c Total Enti'led to drawback Jn'o! entitled to drawback IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 59 S3™ *5 Ei* r-6 1 ' £)rt (N ct>--_-»cn « - ~ "*. eo « - I CO l"-' "7! — O CO • • CO CO i- - t r- — — >n O^ *T'Ti;-;O i in i , - ^ c! <> ~i ,n -m «. t- w m r o t us ^ -n >n m » » jo _ pO-Ol'Ti: y / j 7 iJ -j -- C3 -y, rj co ^. r; /.' coai — — co'O ■ sfto" — ofK" .7 2 IS t-5 cm^" co i- o* w J in f^. « i- ■ <"■ . i £r£2 ' "2 ' ' ' ' 2 li-fl-15' i Is" M = i 1 $ &8 to c ej >r aooj co — •« kOjgWcOQjooot^uaifl « _ -n in r— r>i fM t— -f CT: ryj I-- — t-Cft ""- >^ — ■ o el cO CN -? Jv ' i CN co O^ O Tf> CO C^ -* -r >n co — ^«J cO wo*^ 0_ -r oi r- jj -_ r_i-. ■-._:_ ~. i- ■■- ■■; ~. -^o* -T — ■ : -' '" -I x -' — * oT-i —■ :~ r '.* ,r.' < 'j io cf ^r^:' — — : — ' —' / ~ i^ — -r x ir'r- i -'"c""«o s . . -i -J-; i- o ..-..."■- - -■-.■■': CO : ~ Xt O «C «n m I- m O l~ C4 O Ol CO « lO CO rp £** ro iO CO CO^-T — -T 'O — EOCT «j (£) O i~^ — -^ CO ~\ T O^ Oi «i«o — — fll ,_> • PO'M eo t— 'o co ^i i--?"-o— 't->n~ M0 ° ior--!Of ^t-ffl oi co Qioo o t »n — -^r 'm o oj_ co o "-j_ ,r ; — ;. t; <^*^ "^ *" ^^^i. 1 ^™ r *l, ,n OT "J. °? ~-i. "H. _ifT*-o''!o' o'V-'c' — co" -t-t^-Toq cn oj o ncntp — '-D t^ co""to" •—" to* 1 ui-ff/T g £S ^ K r- "iX r-1 c^ r- i- O in J. ;rj -r o: o CO O J') 1; X o '* ||ltIf-"fl 5 "^"»t S " 'firiiigl | £<3 - -_] g o C -i a ** -J i-o r- 1- «n co ( m O ~r — "o ei o_ -co <£ -n"^' "*' - r — ' r ■ c' co — "o c" ,~' ^ -■' — .-; o* -i-" cT r- co '■-- — i 'O t- o — co o r- r, - . . j t^j o M Ot -^ « NMin CO CO I^CTS 00^ \Ti — CO t-^ C^ CO ^ CO O — "Z i» 55 £ - ^"""(N * CO ^^.'n.^, * * CO «_ ||'"||'|| <,i ■'n : r. "i -r -i -r - -r ^ co r i ift • § IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 61 £ S" T l S *5 o 5: « 5 ^ £ i o 3 " ci ? * r> <2 £ — , l,o.-l ., S'SSS^^SjJr Sri™ Sm«! s. §. I I ?S2-£i I- 00 T C5 so m t- — • in ■£ W -* 00 r- s o r- -j o >n — e^ OS ~) — — GP-.o-.orgr i £ ; ■! :, *i c: r; - -I - i "i /. 'C -n i 3 5 v r*r> " >o cfi 3i x di-i;'c^j>j J— -j"-r* f'n — 'n'o' -t i-'oTr-*— oo"- I I *•■ S=XBJS S"s 1 ? ~ l! _ Vol •i. - r a — E£ a 'is 'J i £ . .sli.I. . ? = *!-=■? 1 f 1Ha,2o g J 1*15*8 2 : - £ C 7 = ' 1 a.'_>< . . o lif ! s|' s Se«* ; SjS*J||iff.siiSo'i5S59 •c u"c £ c = £o II.— F 62 IMPRESSMENT— INDIGO. IMPRESSMENT, the forcible taking away of seamen from their ordinary employment, and compelling them to serve, against their will, in his Majesty's ships. 1. Regulations as to Impressment.— This practice is not expressly sanctioned by any act of parlia- ment;' but it is so indirectly by the numerous statutes that have been passed, granting exemptions from it. According to Lord Mansfield, it is "a power founded upon immemorial usage," and is understood to make apart of the common law. All sea faring men are liable to impressment, unless specially protected by custom or statute. Seamen executing particular services for government, not anfrequently get protections from the Admiralty, Navy Board, &c. Some are exempted by local custom : and ferrymen are every where privileged from impressment. The statutory exemptions are numerous. 1. Every snip in the eiat trade Ins the following persons protected, viz. 2 able seamen (such as the master shall Dominate] for every ship of 10.) tons; and I for every 50 tons for every ship of 100 tons and upwards; and any officer who presumes to impress any of the above, shall forfeit, to (he master or owner of such vessel, 10/. for every nan so impressed ; and such officer shall be incapable of holding any place, office, or employment in any of his Majesty's ships of war. (G&7 IVdl. 3. c. IS. sc'cl. 19 )* 2. No pariah apprentice shall be compelled or permitted to enter into his Majesty's sea service till he arrives at the age of 18 years. — (2 & 3 Anne, c. 6. seci. 4 ) 3. Persons vofttntarUy binding themselves apprentices to sea ser- vice, shall not be impressed for 3 years from the dale of their inden- tures. But no persons above Is years of age shall have any exemption or protection fr 'in his Majesty's service, if they have been at sea before tbev became apprentices. — (2&3j2?mc, c. 6. sect. 15. j 4-flimr, c. 19 seel. 17.; and 13 Geo. 2. c. 17. seel. 2 ) 4. Apprentices. — The act 4 Geo. 4. c 25. enacts some new regula- tions with respect to the number of apprentices that ships must hive on board according to their tonnage and grants protection to such apprentices till they have attained the age of 21 years.— (For the regulations of this act. see Apprentices.) 5. Persons employed in the Fisheries.— -The act 50 Geo. 3. c. 10S. grants the following exemptions from impressment, viz.: — Is', Masters of fishing vessels or boats, who, either themselves or their owners, have, or within 6 months before applying for a projection shall have bad, 1 apprentice or more under IB years of age, bound for 5 year-, and employed in the business of fishing. 2 lly, All such apprentices, not exceeding eight to every master or owner of any fishing vessel of ^0 tons or upwards; not exceeding seven to every vessd or boat of 35 tons and under 50; not exceeding six to every vessel of 30 tons and under 35 tons ; and not exceeding fair to every vessel or boat under 30 tons burden, during the time of their apprenticeship, and till Ihe age of 20 years; they continuing, for the time, in the business of fishing only. 3Jly, One mariner, besides the master and apprentices, to every fishing vessel of lOtoi.s or upwards, employed on the sea coast, during his continuance in such sen ice. 4thly, Any landsman above the age of 18, entering and employed on boird such vessel, for 2 years from his first going to sea; and to the end of the voyage then engaged jn, if he so loog continue in such An affidavit sworn before a justice of the peace, containing the tonnage of such fishing vessel or boat, the port or place to which she belongs, the name and descr ptjon of the master, the age of every apprentice, the term for which he is bound, and the da' e of bis in lenture, and the nanie, age, and description of every such manner and lands man respectively, and the time of such landsman's first going to sea, is to he transmitted to the Admiralty; who, upon finding the facta correctly stated, grant a s -parate protection to every individual. In case, however, ''of an nctiml invasion of these kingdoms, or immi neut danger thereof? such protecled persons may tie imptessed; hut except upon such an emergency, auv officer or officers impressing such protected person shall respectively forfeit 20/. to the party im- pressed, if not an apprentice, or to his master if he he an apprentice. —Sects. 2, 3, 4. 6. General Exemptions. — All persons 55 years of age and upwards, and under 18 years. Every person being a foreigner, who shall serve in any me-cbant ship, or other trading vessel, or privateer, belonging to a subject of the Crown of Great Britain ; and all persons, of what age soever, who shall use the sea; shall be protected for 2 years, to be computed from the time of their first using it — (13 Geo. 2. c. 17.) 7. Harpooners, line managers, or boat steerers, engaged in the southern whale fishery, are also protected.— (26 Geo 3. c. 50.) 8. Mariners employed in the herring fi.htry are exempted while actually employed.— (48 Gio. 3. c. 110.) 2. Policy of Impressment. — This practice, so subversive of every principle of justice, is vindicated on the alleged ground of its being absolutely necessary to the manning of the fleet. But this position, notwithstanding the confidence with which it has been taken up, is not quite so tenable as lias been supposed. The difficulties experienced in procuring sailors for the fleet at the breaking out of a war, are not natural but artificial, and might be got rid of by a very simple arrangement. During peace, not more than a fourth or a fifth part of the seamen are retained in his Majesty's service that are commonly required during war; and if peace continue for a few years, the total number of sailors in the king's and the merchant service is limited to that which is merely adequate to supply the reduced demand of the former, and the ordinary demand of the latter. When, therefore, war is declared, and 30,000 or 10,000 additional seamen are wanted for the fleet, they cannot be obtained, unless by with- drawing them from the merchant service, which has not more than its proper complement of hands. But to do this by offering the seamen higher wages would be next to impossible, and would, supposing it were practicable, impose such a sacrifice upon the public as could hardly be borne. And hence, it is said, the necessity of impressment, a practice which every one admits can be justified on no other ground than that of its being absolutely essential to the public safety. It is plain, however, that a necessity of this sort may be easily obviated. All, in fact, that is neces- sary for this purpose, is merely to keep such a number of sailors in his Majesty's service during peace as may suffice, with the ordinary proportion of landsmen and boys, to man the fleet at the breaking out of'a war. Were this done, there would not be the shadow of a pretence for resorting lo impress- ment; and the practice, with the cruelty and injustice inseparable from it, might be entirely abolished. , But it is said that, though desirable in many respects, the expense of such a plan will always prevent it from being adopted. It admits, however, of demonstration, that instead of being dearer, this plan would be actually cheaper than that which is now followed. Not more than 1,000,000/. or 1,200,000*. a year would be required to be added to the navy estimates, and that would not be a real, but merely a nominal advance The violence and injustice to which the practice of impressment exposes sailors, operates at all times to raise their wages, by creating a disinclination on the part of many young men to enter the sea service ; and this disinclination is vastly increased during war, when wages usually rise to four or five times their previous amount, imposing a burden on the commerce of the country, exclusive of other equally mischievous consequences, many times greater than the tax that would be required to keep up the peace establishment of the navy to its proper level. It is really, therefore, a vulgar error to suppose that impressment has the recommendation of cheapness in its favour; and, though it had.no reasonable man would contend that it is the only, or even the principal, circumstance to be attended to. In point of fact, however, it is as costly as it is oppressive and unjust.— (The reader is referred, for a fuller discussion of this interesting question, to the note on Impressment in the 4tli volume of the Wealth of JVations.) INDEMNITY, is where one person secures another from responsibility against any par- ticular event; thus, a policy of insurance is a contract of indemnity against any particular loss. Where one person also becomes bail for another, a bond of indemnity is frequently executed ; and where a bond or bill of exchange has been lost or mislaid, the acceptor oi obligee would not act prudently in paying it, without being secured by a bond of indemnity INDIAN RUBBER. See Caoutchouc. INDIGO (Fr. Indigo ,■ Ger. Indigo ,- Sms.Nili; Arab. Ned; Malay, Taroom), the drug * In order that these men shall be thus protected, it is necessary for the master to name them, before thry are impressed : this is to be done by going before the mayor or other chief magistrate of the place, who is lo give the master a certificate, in which is contained the names of the particular men whom be thus nominates; and this certificate will be their protection. INDIGO. 13 which yields the beautiful blue dye known by that name. It is obtained by the maceration in water of certain tropical plants; but the indigo of commerce is almost entirely obtained from leguminous plants of the genus lndgofera : that cultivated in India being the Indigo- fera tincturia ; and that in America the I 'ndigofra anil. The Indian plant has pinnate leaves and a slender ligneous stem ; and when successfully cultivated, rises to the height of 3, 5, and even fi feet. It appears pretty certain that the culture of the indigo plant, and the preparation of the drug, have been practised in India from a very remote epoch. It has been questioned, indeed, whether the indicant mentioned by Pliny (Hist. Nut. lib. xxxv. c. f>.) was indigo, but, iis it would seem, without any good reason. Pliny states that it was brought from India; that when diluted it produced an admirable mixture of blue and purple colours (in dilueiido misturam purpuras coeruleique mirabtlem reddit); and he gives tests by which the genuine drug might be discriminated with sufficient precision. It is true that Pliny is egregiously mistaken as to the mode in which the drug was produced ; but there are many examples in modern as well as ancient times, to prove that the possession of an article brought from a distance implies no accurate knowledge of its nature, or of the processes followed in its manufacture. Beckmann (Hist, of Inventions, vol. iv. art. Indigo) and Dr. Bancroft (Permanent Colours, vol. i. pp.241 — 252.) have each investigated this subject with great learning and sagacity ; and agree in the conclusion that the indicum of Pliny was real indigo, and not, as has been supposed, a drug prepared from the isatis or woad. At all events, there can be no question that indigo was imported into modern Europe, by way of Alexandria, previously to the discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope. When first introduced, it was customary to mix a little of it with woad to heighten and improve the colour of the latter; but, by degrees, the quantity of indigo was increased; and woad was, at last, entirely superseded. It is worth while, however, to remark, that indigo did not make its way into general use without encountering much opposition. The growers of iroad prevailed on several governments to prohibit the use of indigo ! In Ger- many, an Imperial edict was published in 1654, prohibiting the use of indigo, or "devil's dye''' and directing great care to be taken to prevent its clandestine importation, " because," says the edict, " the trade in woad is lessened, dyed articles injured, and money carried out of the country!" The magistrates of Nuremburg went further, and compelled the dyers of that city to take an oath once a year not to use indigo ; which practice was continued down to a late period. In 1598, upon an urgent representation of the states of Languedoc, at the solicitation of the woad growers, the use of indigo was prohibited in that province ; and it was not till 1737, that the dyers of France were left at liberty to dye with such articles, and in such a way, as they pleased. — (Beckmann, vol. iv. p. 142.) Let not those who may happen to throw their eyes over this paragraph, smile at the ignorance of our ancestors — Mutuio nomine, de tefabula tiarratur. How much opposition is made at this'rnoment to the importation of many important articles, for no belter reasons than were alleged, in the sixteenth century, against the importation of indigo ! Indigo is at present produced in Bengal, and the other provinces subject to the presidency of that name, from the 20th to the 30th decree of north latitude; in the province of Tinnevelly, under the Madras government; in Java; in I.uconia, the principal of the Philippine Islands ; and Guatemala, and the Caraccas, in Central America. Bengal is, however, the great mart for indigo; and the quan- tity produced in the other places is comparatively inconsiderable. Raynal was of opinion that the culture of indigo had been introduced into America by the Spaniards ; but this is undoubtedly an error. Several species of indigufera belong to the New World; and the Spaniards used it as a substitute for ink very soon after the conquest. — (Humboldt, Essai Politique sur la Nouvelle Espagne, torn. iii. p. 54. 2d ed.) For the first 20 years after the English became masters of Bengal, the culture and manufacture of indigo, now of such importance, was unknown as a branch of British industry; and the exports were but trifling. Tbe European markets were, at this period, principally supplied from America. In 1783, however, the attention of the English began to bo directed to this business; and though the processes pursued by (hem be nearly the same as those followed by the natives, their greater skill, intelligence, and capital, give them immense advantages. In their hands, the growth and preparation of indigo has become the most important employment, at least in a commercial point of view, carried on in the country. The indigo made by the natives supplies the internal demand; so that all that is raised by Europeans is exported. In the Delta of the Ganges, where the best and largest quantity of indigo is produced, the plant lasts only for a single season, being destroyed by the periodical inundation ; but in the dry central and western provinces, one or two rattonn crops are obtained : and owing to this circumstance, the latter are enabled to furnish a large supply of seed to the former. The fixed capital required in the manufacture of indigo consists of a few vats of common masonry for steeping the plant, and precipitating the colouring matter; a boiling and drying house; and a dwelling hnu*e for the planter. These, for a factory of 10 pair of vats, capable of producing, at an average, 12,500 lbs. of indigo, worth on the spot about 2,500/., will not cost above 1,500/. sterling. The buildings and machinery necessary to produce an equal value in sugar and rum, would probably cost about 4,000/. This fact, therefore, without any reference to municipal regulations, affords a ready answer to the question which has been frequently put, why the British planters in India have never engaged in tbe manufacture of sugar. During the 9 years which preceded the opening of the trade with India, in 1814, the annual average produce of indigo in Bengal, for exportation, was nearly 5,100,000 lbs. ; but the average produce of the 4 last years of this period scarcely equalled that of the preceding 5. But since the ports were opened, indigo produced for exportation has increased fully a third; tbe exports during the 16 years ending with 1S29-30, being above 7,400,000 lbs. a year. The following brief statement shows the rate of this increase, taking the average produce of each 4 years : — 64 INDIGO. 18I4-) 1815 I Lb.t. 1822 l, 1823 I 1824 f 1825 J Lbs. 1,000,000 1826-1 1827 I 1828 f 1829J LU. - 9,000,000 1818T Lbs > - - 7,040,000 j |f$ I - 7 6,000';000 1817J I 182lJ and it has continued about the same since. It deserves to be remarked, that since the opening of the trade, Indian capitalists have betaken themselves to the manufacture of indigo on the European method, and that at present about a fifth part of the whole annual produce is prepared by them. The culture of indigo is very precarious, not only in so far as respects the growth of the plant from year to year, but also as regards the quantity and quality of the drug which the same amount of plant will afford even in the same season. Thus, the produce of 1S25-26 was 41.000 chests, while the pro- duce ofthe following year was but 25,000 chests ; the produce of 1827-28 was about 42,000 chests, and that of 1828-29 only 26,500 chests! The average of these years, that is, about 9.000,000 lbs., may be considered as the present annual produce of Bengal. The price of indigo in India increased, for a while, in a far greater ratio than the quantity. In 1813-14 the real value of that exported from Cal- cutta was 1,461,000*. ; hut in 1827-2-8, although the quantity had increased but 20 per cent., the value rose to 2,920,0001., or. was about doubled. There was no corresponding rise in the price in Europe, but, on Hie contrary, a decline ; and the circumstance is to he accounted for by the restraints placed on the investment of capital in the production of colonial articles suited to the European market, the consequent difficulty of making remittances from India, and an unnatural (low of capital to the only great arlK e of Indian produce and export that is supposed capable of bearing its application. But the effects of the profuse advances made by the Calcutta capitalists to those engaged in the indigo culture, coupled with the increasing imports from Madras, and the stationary demand for the drug in this country, have at length manifested themselves in the most distressing manner. Prices have been so much reduced that a ruinous reaction has taken place ; most ofthe Calcutta merchants engaged in the trade having been obliged to stop payment, involving in their fall several opulent nouses in this country. It remains to be seen whether this will occasion any diminution in the sup- plies of indigo, or whether the supply may not he maintained even at the reduced prices by increased economy. The subjoined Table shows that prices advanced considerably in 1633; but it is doubtful whether this advance will he sustained. The consumption of indigo has varied hut little in this country during the last dozen years, having been, at an average of that period, about 2.300,000 lbs. a year. This stationary demand, notwithstand- ing the fall in the price of the drug and the increase of population, is principally to be ascribed to the decreasing use of blue cloth, in the dyeing of which it is principally made use of. Its consumption in France is about as great as in Britain. Besides the exports to Great Britain, France, and the United Stales, a good deal of Bengal indigo is exported to the ports on the Persian Gulf, whence it finds its way to southern Russia. It is singular that it is not used by the Chinese, with whom blue is a favourite colour. The indigo of Bengal is divided into two classes, called, in commercial language, Bengal and Ovde; the first being the produce of the southern provinces of Bengal and Bahar, and the last that of the northern provinces. The first is, in point of quality, much superior to the other. This arose at one time, in a considerable degree, from the practice which prevailed in the northern provinces, of the European planter purchasing the wet fecula from the native manufacturer, and completing the pro- cesses of curing and drying the drug. This is at present in a great measure discontinued ; and t lie Onde indigo has, in consequence, considerably improved in quality. Its inferiority is probably more the result of soil and climate, than of any difference in the skill with which the manufacture is conducted. In 1827-28, and we are possessed of no later data, the export of indigo from the port of Madras amounted to 880,880 lbs. weight ; having more than quadrupled in the course ofthe preceding 5 years. Besides the Mport from Madras, there is also a considerable one from the French settlement of Pon- dicherry; orwhich, however, we have no detailed statement. In 1827, the export of indigo from Manilla amounted to about 290,000 lbs. avoirdupois ; but it is understood to have materially increased since. The export from Batavia, in 1829, amounted to 152.000 lbs. weight, and the production is rapidly increasing. According to the statement now given, the annual exports of Asiatic indigo are a< follow :— Bengal, 9,000,000,000 lbs.; Madras, 900,000 lbs.; Manilla, 300,000 lbs. ; Batavia, 150,000 lbs. Hence ihe annual average produce for foreign markets, making allowance for a trifling augmentation in the exports from Madras, Java, and the Philippines, is certainly not less than 10,500,000 lbs. According to M. Humboldt, the exportation of indigo from Guatemala, in 1825, amounted to 1,800,000 lbs. Indigo is also produced in some of the West India islands, but not in large quantities. Good indigo is known by its lightness or small specific gravity, indicating the absence of earthy impurities; by the mass nrii readily parting with its colouring matter when tested by drawing a slreak with it over a white surface; hut, above all, by the purity of the colour itself. The first quality, estimated by tins last test, is called, in commercial language, fine blue; then follow ordinary blue, fine purple, purple and violet, ordinary purple and viulet, dull blue, inferior purple and violet, strong <-«/e casi may be sued and taken t:i execution for hr debts — (8 T. R. 545.) A single act of buying or selling is not sufficient to make a tra ler ; as a schoolmaster selling bioks to his scholars only, or a keeper of hounds buying dead horses and seling the skin and bones — {6 A/bore, 56.) Rut the quantity of dealing is immaterial, where an intention to deal generally may be inferred. — (1 Rote, £4 ) A buyer or seller of land, or any interest in land, is not a trader within the ac ( ; and on this principle it has been decided, that a buck maker, selling bricks made in bis own field, or the owner of a mine selling minerals from his own quarry, is not liable, because such business is carried on only as a mode of enjoying the profits of a real estate —(2 Wih 169.) Traders having privilege of parliament are subject to the bankrupt laws, and may be proceeded against as other traders : but such per- sons cannot be arrested or imprisoned, except in cases made felony by the statute. 2. Act* constituting Bankruptcy.— Tn general, any act which is intended to delay or defraud creditors, is an act of bankruptcy ; such as a trader concealing himse f from his creditors- leaving the country, causing himstlf to be arras ed or his goods taken in execution, or making any fraudulent conveyance, gift, or delivery of his property. A trader keeping house commits an act of bankruptcy, if he give a general order to be denied. So is closing thedoor, an I not admitting persons till ascertained who thev are from window, though no actual denial.— (I Bar. A- Cres. 54 ) But it is no art of bankruptcy if the denial be on Sunday, or at an unseasonable hour of the night, or to prevent interruption at dinner iime. Traders hel 1 in prison for any really subsisting debt for the period of 21 days, or who, being arrested, nuke their escape out of prison or custody, commit acts of binkruptcy. A penal'y due to th is a sufficient debt, and the time is computed from ih- fir where the party lies in prison immediately, and the day of arrest is included, aud the whole of Ihe last day. Filing a petition, in >rder to take the benefit of the Insolvent Act, is an act of bankruptcy, and a fiat may be issued a: y time before the petition is heard by the Insolvent Court, or within 2 calendar months. A trader may mike a deel iration of his insolvency, signed and at- tested by an attorney or solicitor, and afterwards to be filed in the Bankrupt Office; and the secretary signing a memorandum thereof, is authority for advertising it in the Gazette. Upon this act of bank- ruptcy no commission can issue, if not within two calendar mon'hs af'er such advertisement, and unless such advertisement be within 8 days after fil.ngdeclaration ; and no docket ran best- tick IHH tU^s after advertisement, if the commission is lo be executed in London, and 8 if in the country. Such declaration of insolvency being con- certed between bankrupt and creditor, does uot invalidate the com- mission. The execution by a trader of any conveyance by deed, of all his estate and effects for the benefit of all his creditors, is not an act of bankruptcy, unless a commission be sued out within six months after, provided the deed be attested by an attorney or solicitor, and executed within 15 days afer, and notice thereof within 2 months, be given in the G:\zette. and 2 daily newspapers ; or, if the Irader reside more than 50 miles from lr, chest, or trunk of any bankrupt, and seize on his body or property ; and if the bankrupt be in prison or custoJy, they may seize anv property (necessary wearing apparel excepted) in the possession of such bankrupt, or any other person. Authorized by a justice's warrant, premises may be searched not belonging to the bankrupt, on suspicion of properly being concealed there ; and persons suspected to have anv of the bankrupt's property in their po sess on. refusing to obey Ihe summons of commissioners, or re- fusing to answer interrngatori-s. or to surrender documen's, with- out lawful excuse, may be imprisoned. The wife of the bankrupt may be examined, or, on refusal, committed. Persons summoned are entitled to their expenses; and those attending, wte'her summoned or not, to assist (he comniiner than 4 calendar months after issuing com- mission, nor later than 6 calendar months from last examination, of which 21 dtys' notice must be given in the Gazette, to audit the ac- counts of the assignee; which accounts may be delivered on oath, and the commissioners may examine the assignee touching the truth thereof. 8. Property liable under Bankruptcy.— The official assignee is ves'ed with all the real and personal estate of the bankrupt, and w Ul all -men property as may be devised to him, or come into his possession, till the time he obtain his certificate. The commissioners may sell any real property of which the bankrupt is seised, or anv es ate tail, in possession, reversion, or remainder; and the sale is good against the bankrupt, 'he issue of his bndy, and against all per- sons chiming uud^r him af er he became bankrupt, or whom by fine, common n covejry, or other means, he can cut off from any future in- terest All property which the bankrupt has in right of his wife pisses to the assignee, except such as is settled for her own sole he- nefit Anv property pledged, or securities deposited, may be redeemed for the benefit of the creditors. [fa bank rant, bein/ at the time insolvent, convey his land or goods en or others (except upon their marriage, or for a valua- ble consideration), or deliver securities, or transfer debts into other names, such transaction! are void. _ A land I or I after or out of bankruptcy, cannot distrain for more :nt ; but he may prove under the commission for Wi- . i lue 'I he asiienee nrny accept any lease to which the bankrupt is enti- tled, and his acceptance exonerates the bankrupt from any future liability for rent; or if the astiguce decline the lease, and the bank- rupt, within 14 days after, deliver the lease to the lessor, he Is not liable for rent. In general, all power which the bankrupt might lawfully execute in the sale and disposition of his properly for the benefit of himself, may be executed by the assignee for the benefit of creditors. All contracts, conveyances, and transactions, by or with any bank- rupt, and all executions and attachments levied, without notice of an act of bankruptcy, for more than two months before the issuing of the commission, are valid. All payments whatever, either by or to the bankrupt, without notice of an act of bankruptcy, are protected down to the date of the commission; and purchasers for valuable considerations, with notice, cannot be molested, unless a commission issue within 12 months after the act of bankruptcy. The circumstance of a commission appearing in the Gazette, and a fair presumption that the person to be affected 'hereby may have seen the same, is deemed sufficient legal notice of an act of bank- ruptcy having been committed. 9. Examination and Liabilities of Bankrupt.— A bankrupt, not surrendering to the commissioners before 3 o'clock upon the 4AJ day after notice, or not making discovery of his estate and effects, not de- livering up goods, books, papers, &c, or removing or embezzling to the value of 10/., is guilty of felony, and liable to a discretionary punishment, from imprisonment to transportation for life. The period for surrendering maybe enlarged by the Lord Chancellor; and the commissioners, or assignees with approval of commissioners, may grant an allowance for support of the bankrupt and his family till he has passed his last examination. During his attendance on commissioners, the bankrupt is pro'ecttd from arrest. The bankrupt is required to deliver up his books of account to the assignees upon oath, and to attend them on reasonable notice; he may inspect his accounts, assisted by other persons, in presence of assignee. After certificate is allowed, he is required to attend as- signees, in settling accounts, at 5s. per day ; and may be committed for non-attendance. A penalty of 100/. is imposed on persons conceal ing bankrupts' ef- fects, and double the value of the property so concealed ; and an allowance of 5/. per cent, lo persons discovering such concealment, with such further reward as the major part of the creditors may think fit to grant. The bankrupt, or any other person, wilfully swearing falsely, is liable to the penalties of perjury. If the bmkrupt intend to dispute the commission, he must present a petition to the Court of Review within 2 calendar months ; or, if out of the United Kingdom, within 12. At any meeting of creditors, after the last examination, the bank- rupt or his fiiends may tender a composition ; winch, if accepted by 9-lOths in number and value of the creditors, at 2 separate meet- ings, the Ivord Chancellor may supersede the commission. In de- ciding on such offer, creditors under 20/. are not entitled to vole ; but their debts are computed in value. Persons residing out of England may vote by letter of attorney, properly attested ; and the bankrupt maybe required to make oath that no unfair means have been em- ployed to obtain the assent of any creditor to such arrangement. 10. Payment of a Dividend.— Not sooner than 4, nor later than 12 calendar months, the commissioners are to appoint a public meet- ing, of which 2t days' previous notice must be given in the Gazette, to make a dividend ; and at which meeting, creditors who have not proved, may prove their debts; and at such meeting commissioners may order the nett produce of bankiupts estate to be shared among the creditors that have proved, in proportion to their debts: but no dividend to be declared unless the accounts of the assignees have been first audited and delivered in as before described. If the estate is not wholly divided upon a first dividend, a second meeting must be called, not liter than IS months from the date of commission ; and the dividend declared at such second meeting to be final, unless some suit at law be pending, or some part of bankrupt's property afterwards accrue to the assignees ; in which case it must be shared among the creditors within 2 months after it is converted into money. Assignees having unclaimed dividends to the amount of 50/., who do not, within 2 calendar months from Ihe expiration of a year from the order of payment of such dividends, either pay them to the cre- ditors entitled thereto, or cause acertifica'e thereof to he filed in the Bankrupt's Office, with the names. &c. of the parties to whom due, shall be charged with legal interest from the time the certificate ought to have been filt-d, and such further sum, not exceeding 20/. per cent, per annum, as the commissioners think fit. The Lord Chan- cellor may order Ihe investment of unclaimed dividends in the funds; and after "3 years the same may be divided among the other creditors. No action can be brought against assignees for any dividend j the remedy being by petition to the Lord Chancellor. 11. Certificate and Allowance to Bankrupt.— The bankrupt who has surreinferedj and conformed in all things to the provisions of the bankrupt laws, isdischarged by the certificate from all debts and de- mands proveable under the commission ; but this does not discharge his partner, or one jointly bound, or in joint contract with him, nor does it bar a debt due to the Crown. The certificate must be signed by 4-5ths in number and value of creditors who have proved debts to the amount of 20/. or upwards; or, after 6 calendar months from last examination, then either by 3-5ths in number and value, or by 9-10ths in number. The bank- rupt must make oath the certificate was obtained without fraud ; and any creditors may be heard before it is finally allowed by the Lord Chancellor. Any contract or security given to obtain signatures to the certificate, is void. A bankrupt, after obtaining his certificate, cannot be arrested for any debt proveable under the commission ; nor is he liable to satisfy any debt from which he is discharged, upon any promise, contract, or agreement, unless made in writing. In case a person has been bankrupt before, or compounded with his creditors, or taken benefit of Insolvent Act, unless the estate pro- duce 15s. in the pound, the certificate only protects the person of bankrupt from arrest ; and any future property he acquires may be seized by assignees for benefit of creditors. If the pro luce of bankrupt's estate does not amount to 10.?. in tho pound, he is only allowed out of the assets so much as assignees think fit, not exceeding 3 per cent., or 300/. in the whole; if it produce I0» 5 per cent., not exceeding 400/. ; if \2s. 6d. is paid in the pound, 7 1-2 per cen., not exceeding 500/. ; if 15*. in the pound and up- wards, 10 per cent, and not exceeding 600/. One partner may receive his allowance, if entitled, from the joint and his separate estate, though the others are not entitled. A bankrupt is not entitled to certificate or allowance, if he has lost by gaming or watering, in I day, 20/., or within 1 year next preceding his bankruptcy, 200L; or 200/. by stock -jobbing in the tame period ; INSURANCE. G9 or. in contemplation of bankruptcy, bu nVsfroyeu1 I ton be admitted, in ereal must be paid, first, on all debts proved thai carry interest, »i he rale payable thereon i and next, upon all other debts, at the rate of \l. per cent., to be calculated from the date of the coiiinii m hi. I. Account of the Numbc r of Commissions of Bankruptcy issued from 1790 to 1821. Vears. Ommit- Years, Commis- Years Commis- sions. Years. Cnmmis- Yearn, C a - Years. Commit- 1790 717 1796 951 lb02 1 ,090 1807 1,362 1812 2,228 1817 1.927 1791 769 1797 1,115 1803 1,214 1808 1,433 1S13 1,953 1818 1,215 1792 934 1798 911 ISO! 1,117 1809 l,3i-2 1814 1,612 1819 1,499 1793 1,956 1799 717 (805 1,129 1810 2,31 1 1815 2,28 4 1820 1,381 1791 1,041 1800 951 1806 1,268 1811 2,500 1816 2,731 1821 1,238 1795 *79 1801 1,199 II. Account of the Number of Commissions of Bankrupt and Fiats issued each Year, from 1822 to 1838 both included ; distinguishing Town Commissioners and Fiats, and showing how many Country Commissions and Fiats were opened in each Year. — (Purl. Paper, No. 342. Sess. 1833.) Commissions Town Commis- Countrv Commis- Years Commissi, ns Town Commis- Country Commis- s aled. sions opened! sions opened. sealed. sions opened. iioih opened. 1822 1,419 408 534 1831 1,886 692 770 1823 1,250 592 396 1824 1,210 574 396 1835 1,475 683 418 1832 1826 3,307 1,229 1,220 Coins. 61 20 37 1*27 1,688 671 742 Fiats 1,661 623 703 1828 1,519 601 620 1,772 643 710 1829 2,150 809 910 1830 1,720 661 748 19,376 7,563 7,524 Total commissions and fiats sealed and sign ed in the above period - 19,376 Total town commissions and fiats opened . . 7,563 Total country commissions and fiats opened - 7,524 III. Total Number of Persons discharged from Prison tinder the Acts for the Belief of Insolvent Debtors since the Constitution of the present Court in lb20 ; and the Number who have been ordered to be detained in Custody for contravening the Provisions of the Acts for the Relief of Insolvent Debtors. — (Pari. Paper, No. 141. Sess. 1831, and Papers published by Board of Trade.) N. B.—the Court makes no orders of detention ; and the following Table shows all the judgments given to the 30th of June, 1831. Years. Ordered to be discharged forthwith. Ordered to be discharged at some future Period. Total. In London. On Circuit Before Justices. Total. In London. On Circuit. Before Justices. Total. 1820 1S2 1 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 830 8,347 2,074 1,811 1,745 1.955 2,429 1,929 1,913 2.1107 2,0.16 1,553 none. none. none. none. 388 1,312 1,865 1,988 1,450 1,580 1,823 2,031 1,495 2,516 2,499 2,047 1,255 73 89 89 112 100 111 135 2,325 4,863 4,573 3,858 3,318 3,370 4,383 4,006 3.475 3,747 3,990 3,719 61 219 161 181 142 126 110 90 127 158 189 159 none. none. none. none. 18 161 183 128 131 152 191 178 96 208 221 202 115 8 5 10 6 10 9 8 157 427 382 383 275 295 298 228 264 320 389 345 2.482 5,290 4,955 4,211 3,593 3,665 4,681 4.234 3,739 4,067 • 4.379 4,064 Totals 22,709 12,397 1 10,521 45,627 1,723 | 1,142 898 | 3,763 49,390 [By the constitution of the United States " Congress shall have power to establish uni- form laws on the subject of bankruptcies through the United States." This power, how- ever, has only been exercised for a very short period. An act establishing a uniform system of bankruptcy was passed on April 4th, 1800. It was limited to five years, and thence to the end of the next session of Congress, but was repealed by the act of December 19th, 1803. The power of Congress in respect to bankruptcies has been adjudged not to be exclusive. So long as Congress refuse to exercise it, the respective slates may pass bankrupt, or, what amounts to the same thing, insolvent laws; but such laws must not be of a nature to impair the obligation of contracts made prior to their passage. State insolvent laws are, moreover, invalid as to all contracts, whether prior or posterior to their existence, to which citizens of other states are parties. — See Kent's Commentaries on American Law, Sect. 37. — Am. Ed.] INSURANCE, a contract of indemnity, by which one party engages, for a stipulated sum, to insure another against a risk to which he is exposed. The party who takes upon him the risk, is called the Insurer, Assurer, or Underwriter ,■ anil the party protected by tho insurance is called the Insured, or Assured ,• the sum paid is called the Premium / and the instrument containing the contract is called the I'olicy. 70 INSURANCE (PRINCIPLES OF). I. Insurance (General Principles op). IT. Insurance (Marine). III. Insurance (Fire). IV. Insurance (Life). I. Insurance (General Principles of). It is the duty of government to assist, by every means in its power, the efforts of indivi- duals to protect their property. Losses do not always arise from accidental circumstances, but are frequently occasioned by the crimes and misconduct of individuals; and there are no means so effectual for their prevention, when they arise from this source, as the establish- ment of a vigilant system of police, and of such an administration of the law as may be calculated to afford those who are injured a ready and cheap method of obtaining every practicable redress; and, as far as possible, of insuring the punishment of culprits. But in despite of all that may be done by government, and of the utmost vigilance on the part of individuals, property must always be exposed to a variety of casualties from fire, shipwreck, and other unforeseen disasters. And hence the importance of inquiring how such unavoid- able losses, when they do occur, may be rendered least injurious. The loss of a ship, or the conflagration of a cotton mill, is a calamity that would press heavily even on the richest individual. But were it distributed among several individuals, each would feel it proportionally less; and provided the number of those among whom it was distributed were very considerable, it would hardly occasion any sensible inconvenience to any one in particular. Hence the advantage of combining to lessen the injury arising from the accidental destruction of property : and it is the diffusion of the risk of loss over a wide surface, and its valuation, that forms the employment of those engaged in insurance. Though it be impossible to trace the circumstances which occasion those events that are, on that account, termed accidental, they are, notwithstanding, found to obey certain laws. The number of births, marriages, and deaths ; the proportions of male to female, and of legi- timate to illegimate births ; the ships cast away ; the houses burned ; and a vast variety of other apparently accidental events; are yet, when our experience embraces a sufficiently wide field, found to be nearly equal in equal periods of time: and it is easy, from observa- tions made upon them, to estimate the sum which an individual should pay, either to gua- rantee his property from risk, or to secure a certain sum for his heirs at his death. It must, however, be carefully observed, that no confidence can be placed in such esti- mates, unless they are deduced from a very wide induction. Suppose, for example, it hap- pens, that during the present year one house is accidentally burned, in a town containing 1,000 houses; this would afford very little ground for presuming that the average probabi- lity of fire in that town was as 1 to 1,000. For it might be found that not a single house had been burned during the previous 10 years, or that 10 were burned during each of these vears. But supposing it were ascertained, that, on an average of 10 years, 1 house had been annually burned, the presumption that 1 to 1,000 was the real ratio of the probability of fire would be very much strengthened ; and if it were found to obtain for 20 or 30 years together, it might be held, for all practical purposes at least, as indicating the precise degree of proba- bility. Besides its being necessary, in order to obtain the true measure of the probability of any event, that the series of events, of which it is one, should be observed for a rather lengthened period, it is necessary also that the events should be numerous, or of pretty frequent occur- rence. Suppose it were found, by observing the births and deaths of 1,000,000 individuals taken indiscriminately from among the whole population, that the mean duration of human life was 40 years; we should have but very slender grounds for concluding that this ratio would hold in the case of the next 10, 20, or 50 individuals that are born. Such a number is so small as hardly to admit of the operation of what is called the law of average. When a large number of lives is taken, those that exceed the medium term are balanced by those that fall short of it ; but when the number is small, there is comparatively little room for the principle of compensation, and the result cannot, therefore, be depended upon. It is found, by the experience of all countries in which censuses of the population have bf>en taken with considerable accuracy, that the number of male children born is to that of female children in the proportion nearly of 22 to 21. But unless the observations be made on a very large scale, this result will not be obtained. If we look at particular families, they sometimes consist wholly of boys, and sometimes wholly of girls ; and it is not possible that the boys can be to the girls of a single family in a ratio of 22 to 21. But when, instead of confining our observations to particular families, or even parishes, we extend them so as to embrace a population of 500,000, these discrepancies disappear, and we find that there is invariably a small excess in the number of males born over the females. The false inferences that have been drawn from the doctrine of chances, have uniformly, almost, proceeded from generalising too rapidly, or from deducing a rate of probability from such a number of instances as do not give a fair average. But when the instances on which INSURANCE (PRINCIPLES OF). 71 we found our conclusions are sufficiently numerous, it is seen that the most anomalous events, such as suicides, deaths by accidents, the number of letters put into the post-office without any address, &c, form pretty regular series, and consequently admit of being estimated it priori. The business of insurance is founded upon the principles thus briefly stated. Suppose it has been remarked that of forty ships, of the ordinary degree of sea-worthiness, employed in a given trade, 1 is annually cast away, the probability of loss will plainly be equal to one fortieth. And if an individual wish to insure a ship, or the cargo on board a ship, engaged in this trade, he ought to pay a premium equal to the l-40th part of the sum he insures, exclusive of such an additional sum as may be required to indemnify the insurer, for his trouble, and to leave him a fair profit. If the premium exceed this sum, the insurer is over- paid ; and if it fall below it, he is underpaid. Insurances are effected sometimes by societies, and sometimes by individuals, the risk being in either case diffused among a number of persons. Companies formed for carrying on the business have generally a large subscribed capital, or such a numlier of proprietors as enables them to raise, without difficulty, whatever sums may at any time be required to make good losses. Societies of this sort do not limit their risks to small sums ; that is, they do not often refuse to insure a large sum upon a ship, a house, a life, &c. The magnitude of their capitals affords them the means of easily defraying a heavy loss ; and their premiums being proportioned to their risks, their profit is, at an average, independent of such contin- gencies. Individuals, it is plain, could not act in this way, unless they were possessed of very large capitals; and besides, the taking of large risks would render the business so hazardous, that few would be disposed to engage in it. Instead, therefore, of insuring a large sum, as 20,000/., upon a single ship, a private underwriter or insurer may not, probably, in ordinary cases, take a greater risk than 200/. or 500/. ; so that, though his engagements may, when added together, amount to 20,000/., they will be diffused over from 40 to 100 ships; and supposing 1 or 2 ships to be lost, the loss would not impair his capital, and would only lessen his profits. Hence it is, that while one transaction only may be required in getting a ship insured by a company, 10 or 20 separate transactions may be required in getting the same thing done at Lloyd's, or by private individuals. When conducted in this cautious manner, the business of insurance is as safe a line of speculation as any in which individuals can engage. To establish a policy of insurance on a fair foundation, or in such a way that the premiums paid by the insured shall exactly balance the risks incurred by the insurers, and the vari- ous necessary expenses to which they are put, including, of course, their profit, it is neces- sary, as previously remarked, that the experience of the risks should be pretty extensive. It is not, however, at all necessary, that either party should inquire into the circumstances that lead to those events that are most commonly made the subject of insurance. Such a research would, indeed, be entirely fruitless : we are, and must necessarily continue to be, wholly ignorant of the causes of their occurrence. It appears, from the accounts given by Mr. Scoresby, in his valuable work on the Arctic Regions, that of 586 ships which sailed from the various ports of Great Britain for the north- ern whale fishery, during the 4 years ending with 1817, 8 were lost — (vol. ii. p. 131), — being at the rate of about 1 ship out of every 73 of those employed. Now, supposing this to be about the average loss, it follows that the premium required to insure against it should be 1/. 7s. id. per cent,, exclusive, as already observed, of the expenses and profits of the in- surer. Both the insurer and the insured would gain by entering into a transaction founded on this fair principle. When the operations of the insurer are extensive, and his risks spread over a considerable number of ships, his profit does not depend upon chance, but is as steady, and may be as fairly calculated upon, as that of a manufacturer or a merchant ; while, on the other hand, the individuals who have insured their property have exempted it from any chance of loss, and placed it, as it were, in a state of absolute security. It is easy, from the brief statement now made, to perceive the immense advantage result- ing to navigation and commerce from the practice of marine insurance. Without the aid that it affords, comparatively few individuals would be found disposed to expose their pro- perty to the risk of long and hazardous voyages ; but by its means insecurity is changed for security, and the capital of the merchant whose ships are dispersed over every sea, and exposed to all the perils of the ocean, is as secure as that of the agriculturist. He can com- bine his measures and arrange his plans as if they could no longer be affected by accident. The chances of shipwreck, or of loss by unforseen occurrences, enter not into his calculations. He has purchased an exemption from the effects of such casualties ; and applies himself to the prosecution of his business with that confidence and energy which nothing but a feeling of security can inspire. " Les chances de la navigation entravaient le commerce. Le sys- teme des assurances a paru ; ii a consults les saisons; ii a porte ses regards sur la mer; il a interroge ce terrible element; il en a juge l'inconstance ; il en a pressenti les orages: il a epie la politique : il a reconnu les ports et les cotes des deux mondes ; il a tout sounds a dea 72 INSURANCE (PRINCIPLES OF). calculs savans, a. des theories approximatives ; et il a dit au commercant habile, an naviga- teur intrtpide : certes, il y a des desastres sur lesquels l'humanite ne peut que gemir ; mais quant a voire fortune, allez, franchissez les mers, dt-ployez votre activite et votre industrie ; je me charge de vos risques. Alors, Messieurs, s'il est primis de le dire, les quatre parties du monde se sont rapprochees." — ( Code de Commerce, Expose des Motifs, liv. ii.) Besides insuring against the perils of the sea, and losses arising from accidents caused by the operation of natural causes, it is common to insure against enemies, pirates, thieves, and even the fraud, or, as it is technically termed, barratry, of the master. The risk arising from the sources of casualty being extremely fluctuating and various, it is not easy to esti- mate it with any considerable degree of accuracy ; and nothing more than a rough average can, in most cases, be looked for. In time of war, the fluctuation in the rates of insurance are particularly great: and the intelligence that an enemy's squadron, or even a single priva- teer, is cruising in the course which the ships bound to or returning from any given port usually follow, causes an instantaneous rise in the premium. The appointment of convoys for the protection of trade during war, necessarily tends, by lessening the chances of cap- ture, to lessen the premium on insurance. Still, however, the risk in such periods is, in, most cases, very considerable ; and as it is liable to change very suddenly, great caution is required on the part of the underwriters. Provision may also be made, by means of insurance, against loss by fire, and almost all the casualties to which property on land is subject. But, notwithstanding what has now been stated, it must be admitted, that the advantages derived from the practice of insuring against losses by sea and land are not altogether un- mixed with evil. The security which it affords tends to relax that vigilant attention to the protection of property which the fear of its loss is sure otherwise to excite. This, however, is* not its worst effect. The records of our courts, and the experience of all who are largely engaged in the business of insurance, too clearly prove that ships have been repeatedly sunk, and houses burned, in order to defraud the insurers. In despite, however, of the temptation to inattention and fraud which is thus afforded, there can be no doubt that, on the whole, the practice is, in a public as well as private point of view, decidedly beneficial. The frauds that are occasionally committed raise, in some degree, the rate of insurance. Still it is exceed- ingly moderate; and it is most probable, that the precautions adopted by the insurance offices for the prevention of fire, especially in great towns, where it is most destructive, outweigh the chances of increased conflagration arising from the greater tendency to carelessness and crime. The business of life insurance has been carried to a far greater extent in Great Britain than in any other country, and has been productive of the most beneficial effects. Life insurances are of various kinds. Individuals without any very near connections, and pos- sessing only a limited fortune, are sometimes desirous, or are sometimes, from the necessity of their situation, obliged, annually to encroach on their capitals. But should the life of such persons be extended beyond the ordinary term of existence, they might be totally un- provided for in old age ; and to secure themselves against this contingency, they pay to an insurance company the whole or a part of their capital, on condition of its guaranteeing them, as long as they live, a certain annuity, proportioned partly, of course, to the amount of the sum paid, and partly to their age when they buy the annuity. But though sometimes serviceable to individuals, it may be questioned whether insurances of this sort are, in a public point of view, really advantageous. So far as their influence extends, its obvious tendency is to weaken the principle of accumulation ; to stimulate in- dividuals to consume their capitals during their own life, without thinking or caring about the interest of their successors. Were such a practice to become general, it would be pro- ductive of the most extensively ruinous consequences. The interest which most men take in the welfare of their families and friends affords, indeed, a pretty strong security against its becoming injuriously prevalent. There can, however, be little doubt that this selfish practice may be strengthened by adventitious means; such, for example, as the opening of government loans in the shape of life annuities, or in the still more objectionable form of tontines. But when no extrinsic stimulus of this sort is given to it, there do not seem to be any very good grounds for thinking that the sale of annuities by private individuals or associations can materially weaken the principle of accumulation. Luckily, however, the species of insurance now referred to is but inconsiderable com- pared with that which has accumulation for its object. All professional persons, or those living on salaries or wages, such as lawyers, physicians, military and naval officers, clerks in public or private offices, &c, whose incomes must, of course, terminate with their lives, and a host of others, who are either not possessed of capital, or cannot dispose of their capital at pleasure, must naturally be desirous of providing, so far as they may be able, for the comfortable subsistence of their families in the event of their death. Take, for exam- ple, a physician or lawyer, without fortune, but making, perhaps, 1,000/. or 2,000/. a year by his business ; and suppose that he marries and has a family : if this individual attain to the average duration of human life, he may accumulate such a fortune as will provide for the adequate support of his family at his death. But who can presume to say that such INSURANCE (PRINCIPLES OF). 73 will be the case ? — that he will not be one of the many exceptions to the general rule?— And suppose that he were hurried into an untimely grave, his family would necessarily be destitute. Now, it is against such calamitous contingencies that life insurance is intended chiefly to provide. An individual possessed of an income terminating at his death, agrees to pay a certain sum annually to an insurance office; and this office binds itself to pay to his family, at his death, a sum equivalent, under deduction of the expenses of management and the profits of the insurers, to what these annual contributions, accumulated at compound interest would amount to, supposing the insured to reach the common and average term of human life. Though he were to die the day after the insurance has been effected, his family would be as amply provided for as it is likely they would be by his accumulations were his life of the ordinary duration. In all cases, indeed, in which those insured die before attain- ing to an average age, their gain is obvious. But even in those cases in which their lives are prolonged beyond the ordinary term, they are not losers — they then merely pay for a security which they must otherwise have been without. During the whole period, from the time when they effect their insurances, down to the time when they arrive at the mean du- ration of human life, they are protected against the risk of dying without leaving their fami- lies sufficiently provided for ; and the sum which they pay after having passed this mean term is nothing more than a fair compensation for the security they previously enjoyed. Of those who insure houses against fire, a very small proportion only have occasion to claim an indemnity for losses actually sustained ; but the possession of a security against loss in the event of accident, is a sufficient motive to induce every prudent individual to insure his property. The case of life insurance is in no respect different. When established on a proper footing, the extra sums which those pay whose lives exceed the estimated duration is but the value of the previous security. In order so to adjust the terms of an insurance, that the party insuring may neither pay too much nor too little, it is necessary that the probability of his life failing in each subse- quent year should be determined with as much accuracy as possible. To ascertain this probability, various observations have been made in different countries and periods, showing, out of a given number of persons born in a particular country or place, how many complete each subsequent year, and how many die in it, till the whole be extinct. The results of such observations, when collected and arranged in a tabular form, are called Tables of Mortality ; being entitled, of course, to more or less confidence, accord- ing to the number and species of lives observed ; the period when, and the care with which, the observations were made, &c. But, supposing these Tables to be formed with sufficient accuracy, the expectation of life at any age, or its mean duration after such age, may readily be learned from them ; and hence, also, the value of an annuity, or an assurance on a life of any age. Thus, in the Table of Mortality for Carlisle, framed by Mr. Milne, of the Sun Life Office, and which is believed to represent the average law of mortality in England with very considerable accuracy, out of 10,000 persons born together, 4,000 complete their 56th year; and it further appears, that the number of such persons who die in their 66th year is 124 ; so that the probability that a life now 56 years of age will terminate in the 10th year hence is &§&[• But, reckoning interest at 4 per cent., it appears (Table II. Interest and Annuities), that the present value of 100/. to be received 10 years hence is 67 - 556/. ; con- sequently, if its receipt be made to depend upon the probability that a life now 56 years of age will fail in the 66th year, its present value will be reduced by that contingency to ' 24 4^oo 66 - — 2-094/., or 21. Is. \Q%d. The present value of 100/. receivable upon the life of a party now 56 years of age terminating in the 57th or any subsequent year of his life, up to its extreme limit (which, according to the Carlisle Table, is the 105th year), being calculated in this way, the sum of the whole will be the present value of 100/. receivable whenever the life may fail, that is, of 100/. insured upon it, supposing no additions were made to it for the profits and expenses of the insurers. More compendious processes are resorted to for calculating Tables of insurances at all ages ; but the above statement sufficiently illustrates the principle on which they all depend. In practice, a life insurance is seldom made by the payment of a single sum when it is effected, but almost always by the payment of an annual premium during its continuance, the first being paid down at the commencement of the insurance.* If the Table of Mortality adopted by the insurers fairly represent the law of mortality prevailing among the insured, it follows that when a party insured does not attain to the average age according to the Table, the insurers will either lose by him, or realise less than their ordinary profit ; and when, on the other hand, the life of an insured party is prolonged beyond the tabular average, the profits of the insurers are proportionally increased. But if their business be so extensive as to enable the law of average fully to apply, what they lose by premature death will be balanced by the payments received from those whose lives are prolonged beyond the mean duration of life for the ages at which they were respectively insured ; so that the profits of the society will be wholly independent of chance. * For the method of calculating these annual premiums, see post, Interest and Annuities. Vol. II.— G 10 74 INSURANCE (PRINCIPLES OF}. The relief from anxiety afforded by life insurance very frequently contributes to prolong the life of the insured, at the same time that it materially augments the comfort and well- being of those dependent on him. It has, also, an obvious tendency to strengthen habits of accumulation. An individual who has insured a sum on his life, would forfeit all the ad- vantages of the insurance, were he not to continue regularly to make his annual payments. It is not, therefore, optional with him to save a sum from his ordinary expenditure adequate for this purpose. He is compelled, under a heavy penalty, to do so ; and having thus been led to contract a habit of saving to a certain extent, it is most probable that the habit will acquire additional strength, and that he will either insure an additional sum, or privately accumulate. The practice of marine insurance, no doubt from the extraordinary hazard to which pro- perty at sea is exposed, seems to have long preceded insurances against fire and upon lives. We are ignorant of the precise period when it began to be introduced ; but it appears most probable that it dates from the end of the fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth cen- tury. It has. however, been contended by Loccenius (De Jure Maritimo, lib. ii. c. 1.), Puffendorff {Droit de la Nature et des Gens, lib. v. c. 9.), and others, that the practice of marine insurances is of much higher antiquity, and that traces of it may be found in the history of the Punic wars. Livy mentions, that during the second of these contests, the contractors employed by the Romans to transport ammunition and provisions to Spain, sti- pulated that government should indemnify them against such losses as might be occasioned by the enemy, or by tempests, in the course of the voyage. (Impetratum fait, ut quae navibus imponerentur ad extrcitum Hispaniensem deferenda, ab hostium tempestatisque vi, publico periculo essent. — Hist. lib. xxiii. c. 49.) Malynes {Lex Mercatoria, 3d ed. p. 105.), founding on a passage in Suetonius, ascribes the first introduction of insurance to the emperor Claudius, who, in a period of scarcity at Rome, to encourage the importation of corn, took upon himself all the loss or damage it might sustain in the voyage thither by storms and tempests.) — (Negotiatoribus certa lucra proposuit, suscepto in se damno, si cui quid per tempestates accidisset, et naves mercaturse causa, fabricantibus, magna commoda constituit. — c. 18.) It is curious to observe that this stipulation gave occasion to the com- mission of acts of fraud, similar to those so frequent in modern times. Shipwrecks were pretended to have happened, that never took place ; old shattered vessels, freighted with articles of little value were purposely sunk, and the crew saved in boats ; large sums being then demanded as a recompense for the loss. Some years after, the fraud was discovered, and some of the contractors were prosecuted and punished. (Lib. xxv. c. 3.) But none of these passages, nor a similar one in Cicero's letters — [Ad Fam. lib. ii. c. 17.), warrant the inferences that Loccenius, Malynes, and others have attempted to draw from them. Insu- rance is a contract between two parties; one of whom, on receiving a certain premium (pretium pericu/i), agrees to take upon himself the risk of any loss that may happen to the property of the other. In ancient no less than in modern times, every one must have been desirous to be exonerated from the chance of loss arising from the exposure of property to the perils of the sea. But though, in the cases referred to, the carriers were exempted from this chance, they were not exempted by a contract propter aversionem periculi, or by an in- surance; but by their employers taking the risk upon themselves. And it is abundantly obvious that the object of the latter in doing this was not to profit, like an insurer, by dealing in risks, but to induce individuals the more readily to undertake the performance of an urgent public duty. But with the exception of the instances now mentioned, nothing bearing the remotest resemblance to an insurance is to be met with till a comparatively recent period. If we might rely on a passage in one of the Flemish chroniclers, quoted by the learned M. Par- dessus, — (see his excellent work, Collection des Loix Maritimes, tome i. p. 356.), we should be warranted in concluding that insurances had been effected at Bruges so early as the end of the thirteenth century: for the chronicler states that, in 1311, the Earl of Flanders con- sented, on a requisition from the inhabitants, to establish a chamber of insurance at Bruges. M. Pardessus is not, however, inclined to think that this statement should be regarded as decisive. It is evident, from the manner in which the subject is mentioned, that the chro- nicler was not a contemporary ; and no trace can be found, either in the archives of Bruges, or in any authentic publication, of any thing like the circumstance alluded to. The earliest extant Flemish law as to insurance is dated in 1537 ; and none of the early maritime codes of the North so much as alludes to this interesting subject. Beckmann seems to have thought that the practice of insurance originated in Italy, in the latter part of the fifteenth or the early part of the sixteenth century. — (Hist, of Invent, vol. i. art. Insurance.) But the learned Spanish antiquary, Don Antonio de Capmany, has given, in his very valuable publication on the History and Commerce of Barcelona (Memorias Historical sobre la Marina, 8(C. de Barcelona, tomo ii. p. 383.), an ordinance relative to insurance, issued by the magistrates of that city in 1435 ; whereas the earliest Italian law on the subject is nearly a century later, being dated in 1523. It is, however, exceedingly unlikely, had insurance been as early practised in Italy as in Catalonia, that the INSURANCE (MARINE). 75 former should have been so much behind the latter in subjecting it to any fixed rules; and it is still more unlikely that the practice should have escaped, as is the case, all mention by any previous Italian writer. We, therefore, agree entirely in Capmany's opinion, that, until some authentic evidence to the contrary be produced, Barcelona should be regarded as the birthplace of this most useful and beautiful application of the doctrine of chances. — (Tomo i. p. 237.) A knowledge of the principles and practice of insurance was early brought into England. According to Malynes — (Lex Mercat.p. 105.), it was first practised amongst us by the Lombards, who were established in London from a very remote epoch. It is probable it was introduced some time about the beginning of the sixteenth century ; for it is mentioned in the statute 43 Eliz. c. 12. — a statute in which its utility is very clearly set forth — that it had been an immemorial usage among merchants, both English and foreign, when they made any great adventure, to procure insurance to be made on the ships or goods adven- tured. From this it may reasonably be supposed that insurance had been in use in England for at least a century previous. It appears from the same statute, that it had originally been usual to refer all disputes that arose with respect to insurance to the decision of " grave and discreet" merchants appointed by the Lord Mayor. But abuses having grown out of this practice, the statute authorised the Lord Chancellor to appoint a commission for the trial of insurance cases; and in the reign of Charles II. the powers of the commissioners were enlarged. But this court soon after fell into disuse ; and, what is singular, no trace can now be discovered of any of its proceedings. — (Marshall on Insurance, Prelim. Disc p. 26.) Few questions as to insurance seem to have come before the courts of Westminster till after the middle of last century. The decisions of Lord Mansfield may, indeed, be said to have fixed, and in a considerable degree formed, the law upon this subject. His judgments were not bottomed on narrow views, or on the municipal regulations of England; but on those great principles of public justice and convenience which had been sanctioned and approved by universal experience. His deep and extensive information was acquired by consulting the most intelligent merchants, and the works of distinguished foreign jurists ; and by carefully studying the famous French ordinance of 1681, the most admirably digested body of maritime law of which any country has ever had to boast. Hence the comprehensiveness and excellence of his Lordship's decisions, and the respect they have justly commanded in all countries.* In his hands the law of insurance became, in a far greater degree than any other department of English law, a branch of that national or public law of which Cicero has beautifully said, " Non erit alia lex Romas, alia Athenis, alia nunc, alia posthac, sed et omnes gentes et omni tempore una lex et sempiterna, et immortalis continebit, unusque erit communis quasi magister et imperat or omnium Deus." — (Fragm. lib. iii. de Republicd.) Insurance against fire and upon lives is of much later origin than insurance against the perils of the sea. The former, however, has been known and carried on amongst us, to some extent at least, for nearly a century and a half. The Amicable Society, for insurance upon lives, was established by charter of Queen Anne, in 1706; the Royal Exchange and London Assurance Companies began to make insurances upon lives in the reign of George L; and the Equitable Society was established in 1762. But the advantages of life insu- rance, and the principles on which the business should be conducted, were then very ill understood; and the practice can hardly be said to have obtained any firm footing amongst us, till the Equitable Society, by adopting the judicious suggestions of Dr. Price, began its career of prosperity about 1775. Notwithstanding the example of England, life insurance has made very little progress on the Continent. It was, indeed, expressly forbidden by the French ordinance of 1681 (liv. iii. tit. 6. art. 10.) ; by the regulations as to insurance issued at Amsterdam in 1612 (art. 24.) ; and it is doubtful whether the practice be not inconsistent with the 334th art of the Code de Commerce. But we are inclined to think that the want of security, more than any positive regulations, has been the principal cause of the little progress of life insurance on the Continent. Of whatever disadvantages our large public debt may be productive, it is not to be doubted that the facilities it has afforded for making investments, and the punctuality with which the national engagements have been fulfilled, have been the principal causes of the extraordinary extent to which the business of life and even fire insurance has been carried in this country. II. Insurance (Marine). There are few persons who are not acquainted, in some degree, with fire and life insurances. The security which they afford to individuals and families is a luxury which nobody, in tolerably comfort- able circumstances, is willing to be without. Hence the great increase, in our days, of companies professing to afford this security ; and hence the knowledge, on the part of the public generally, of the nature and principles of the engagements into which these companies enter. But marine insu- rance is a subject which is of immediate interest only to merchants and ship owners ; unless, indeed, we should refer to that small portion of the community, who have occasion to transport themselves oeyond seas with capital and effects for purposes of colonization, or to fill some official situation. * See Emerigon's famous Traite des JLsszirances, tome ii. p. 67. 76 INSURANCE (MARINE). Hence the comparative indifference, on the part of the public, as to this subject. The general prin- ciples, however, of all insurance are the same ; and in treating of marine insurance, it will be neces- sary to notice little beyond such topics as are peculiar to that branch of the business. Individual Insurers or Underwriters. — The first circumstance that cannot fail to strike the general inquirer into the practice of marine insurance in this country, is that, while all fire and life insurances are made at the risk of companies, which include within themselves the desirable requisites of security, wealth, and numbers, the great bulk of marine insurances are made at the risk of indivi- duals. London and Liverpool are the only towns in England in which there are any public compa- nies for this purpose.* In London there are only 4: the 2 old companies, the London and the Royal Kxcttange ; and the two established in 1821, the Alliance Marine and the Indemnity Mutual Marine. In Liverpool there is only 1 company. The individuals engaged in this branch of the insurance business in London, about whom we shall say more presently, assemble in Lloyd's Coffee-house, over the Royal Exchange. Prohibition of Companies. — Till 1824, all firms and companies, with the exception of the 2 chartered companies, the Royal Exchange and London, were prohibited by law from taking marine insurances. Towards the latter end of that year, the prohibition was removed, and the business of marine insu- rance was placed on the same footing as other descriptions of business. While the restriction lasted, the 2 chartered companies did so little business, that marine insurance might, in fact, be said to be wholly in the hands of individuals. These companies were so much higher in their premiums, and so much more exclusive in the risks they were willing to undertake, than their individual competitors, that even those merchants and ship owners, who would cheerfully have paid some trifling considera- tion to obtain the greater security of a company, were obliged to resort to individuals. And it was only when the repeal of this absurd restriction was proposed, that the companies showed, by defend- ing it, that they set any value upon their privilege. The underwriters at Lloyd's joined them in this opposition ;»nnd pamphlets were written, and speeches made, to demonstrate how much merchants and ship owners would suffer, were the law to allow them the free use of their discretion in insuring their property ; and bow much more conducive to their interests it was, that they should be forced up to Lloyd's, to pay premiums to individuals rather than companies. But these pamphlets and speeches are forgotten ; and we should be sorry to wound the feelings of their authors, or to trespass on the patience of our readers, by referring to them more particularly. Formation of Companies. — During the autumn of 1824 and spring of 1825, 5 companies sprang into existence in London : the two already mentioned, and the St. Patrick, the Patriotic, and the South Devon. The last 3 have since been given up, having proved ruinous concerns to the proprietors. The 2 former are composed of some of the most eminent merchants and ship owners of the city of London, who united for the double purpose 1 of providing a more perfect security for their property, and of ascertaining whether the insurance business might not be made to yield a fair return to the capital employed in it. The change thus introduced into the business has had the effect of rousing the 2 old companies into activity, and thus may be said to have afforded to the public the opportunity of transacting their business with 4 substantial companies, in addition to individual underwriters, whereas they could previously deal only with individuals. It may be computed that these 4 companies draw to themselves 1-ath of the whole business of the country, leaving the other 4-5ths to individual underwriters, and the Liverpool, Scotch, and Irish companies. It has been inferred by some, that the comparatively limited business of the companies is a convincing proof that individuals are much better adapted to engage in this department than societies ; while it is contended by others that the large share of business, thus speedily attracted to the companies, ought to satisfy every body, when due allowances are made for the difficulties to be combated in breaking through established modes and habits of doing business, that the tendency in the public is practically to confirm what antecedent investigation would suggest, — that companies, while they must necessarily hold out better security, and greater liberality and punctuality in the settlement of claims, are capable of transacting a given amount of business with a saving both of labour and expense. Mode of conducting Business. — We shall now give an account of the existing arrangements for con- ducting the business of marine insurance, as well by individuals as the companies in London. Lloyd's. — The individual underwriters meet in a subscription room at Lloyd's. The joint affairs of Ihe subscribers to these rooms are managed by a committee chosen by the subscribers. Agents (who are commonly styled Lloyd's agents) are appointed in all the principal ports of the world, who for- ward, regularly, to Lloyd's, accounts of the departures from and arrivals at their ports, as well as of losses and other casualties ; and, in general, all such information as may be supposed of importance towards guiding the judgments of the underwriters. These accounts are regularly filed, and are ac- cessible to all the subscribers. The principal arrivals and losses are, besides, posted in 2 books, placed in 2 conspicuous parts of the room; and also in another book, which is placed in an adjoining room, for the use of the public at large. Many of the merchants of the city of London are subscribers to these rooms ; and the 2 old companies contribute each 10W. per annum, in return for which they are furnished with copies of the daily intelligence. The 2 new companies made similar proposals, which were, and, we believe, continue to be, rejected; but this feeling of animosity is unworthy of the subscribers, and will, no doubt, speedily disappear. The rooms are open from 10 o'clock in the morning till 5 o'clock in the afternoon, but the most con- siderable part of the business is transacted between 1 and 4. Those merchants and ship owners who. manage their own insurance business, procure blank policies at the government office, or of their sta- tioners, which they fill up so as to meet the particular object in view, and submit them to those un- derwriters with whom they are connected; by whom they are subscribed or rejected. Each policy is handed about in this way until the amount required is complete. The form of the policy and of a subscription is subjoined to this article. The premium is not paid to the underwriter in ready money, but is passed to account. Nor does the underwriter debit the account of the person to whom he subscribes a policy, with the whole amount of the premium, but with the premium less 5 per cent. Whenever losses occur which more than absorb the premiums on any one account, the underwriter is called upon to pay the balance. But should the underwriter's account be what is called good, that is. should the premiums exceed the claims, he sends round, during the spring and summer, to collect from his various debtors either the balance of bis last year's account, or money on account, according to bis judgment ; but, upon what he receives, he makes an allowance of 12 per cent. An underwriter, if prudent, therefore, before he consents to receive, will not only look to the goodness of his account, but to the probability of its continuing so. Insurance Brokers. — Many merchants and ship owners do not transact their own insurance business. They five their orders for insurance to others, who undertake it for them, and are responsible for its proper management. These latter persons are called insurance brokers ; and some of them manage tin- business of a number of principals. To them, likewise, are transmitted the orders tor insurance * Within these few months a company has been formed at Sunderland, and it is said that some are projected in other sea-poris. INSURANCE (MARINE). 77 from the ontports and manufacturing towns. They charge the whole premium to their principals, and their profit consists in 5 per cent, upon Lhe pr ii 12 pet cent, upon the money that they pay to the underwriters, and 5 percent that they deduct from all the claims which they recover from the underwriters. It is proper to remark, that this is the established or regular profit ; but competition has occasioned numerous deviations from it by the brokers, many of whom consent to divide the profit with the principals who employ them. The insurance brokers are not (infrequently underwriters also; and as some insurances are considered far more lucrative than others to underwriters, and as the brokers have particular facilities, in some respects, of judging of the goodness of. their own risks, so likewise have they an inducement to play into one another's hands, and they do so accordingly. — (See Brokers.) It will at once be seen, that the trouble of effecting insurances at Lloyd's is considerable; that a pood deal of time must be consumed; and that merchants and ship owners, therefore, have great inducement to consign their insurance business to brokers. But where lhe business is transacted with a company, this inducement, if not destroyed altogether, is, at all events, very much diminished. Any party having properly to insure, has merely to go to the manager of the company, and state the particulars of the risk to be insured ; the premium being agreed upon, the manager writes out a memorandum for the policy, which the party signs, and he is thus effectually insured. The companies procure the stamp and write out the policy, which is ready for delivery in 4 or 5 days. The companies, like the underwriters, charge the premium less 5 per cent. In other respects they vary. The Royal Exchange Assurance Company allow 12 per cent, upon the profitable balance of each year's premium, with credit till March for the premiums of the preceding year, and 5 per cent, for prompt payment. The Alliance Marine Assurance Company allow 12 per cent, upon the profitable balance of each year's premiums, with credit till March; or 10 per cent, for prompt payment. The Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Company allow 12 per cent, upon the profitable balance of each year's premiums, with credit till June ; or 10 per cent, for prompt payment. The allowances of the London Assurance Company are the same as those of the Indemnity. Payment of Losses.— Losses are paid at all the offices promptly, and without deduction. A month's credit is allowed to the underwriters ; and another month, and sometimes 2 months, are given to the broker, to collect from the underwriters, and pay over to his principals. Clubs. — Besides the individual underwriters and companies above noticed, there are clubs or associ- ations formed by ship owners, who agree, each entering his ships for a certain amount, to divide among themselves one another's losses. These clubs are institutions of long standing ; but, since the alteration of the law in 1821, appear to be on the decline. Their formation originated in a twofold reason: 1st, that the underwriters charged premiums more than commensurate with the risk; 2dly, that they did not afford adequate protection. To avoid the first of these two evils, instead of paying a fixed premium, they pay among themselves the actual losses of their several members as they occur; and to avoid the second, they lay down certain principles of settlement in accordance with their views of indemnity. Each member of one of these clubs gives his power of attorney to the selected mana- ger; and this manager issues a policy for each ship, which policy is subscribed by him as attorney for all the members, the premium inserted in the policy being understood to be nominal. These clubs are open to the leading objections that apply to individual underwriters ; for the members are not col- lectively, but only individually, liable to those of their number who happen to sustain a loss ; and the delay of settlement is such, that more than 12 months have been known to elapse before the payment of a loss has been obtained from all the members. Rate of Premium. — But little need be said upon the circumstances that influence the rate of premium demanded by the insurers. It must be self-evident that premiums will vary according to the seasons, the quality of the vessel, the known character of the captain, the nature of the commodity, and the state of our political relations. All these, of course, are matters upon which each individual must exercise his own discretion, partly from general experience, and partly from particular information; exaggeration of risk, and consequent exorbitancy of premium for any length of time, being out of the question, where so many individual underwriters, in addition to the companies, are in competition with one another, and where the merchants have the means at hand of effecting their insurances abroad. We have already taken notice of the intelligence of which Lloyd's is the focus. In addition to this, there are 2 subscription register books for shipping maintained by the principal merchants, ship owners, and underwriters. These books profess to give an account of the tonnage, build, age, repairs, and quality of almost all the vessels that frequent our ports ; and, although exceedingly defec- tive in many respects, are material assistants to the insurers, who have no means of ascertaining by their own observation the particulars of 1 in 100 of the ships they are called upon to insure. But active measures are now in progress for superseding these two register books by one, giving a much more accurate and faithful account of the state of the mercantile shipping. We doubt, however, whether its real state will ever be revealed, as it ought to be, for the general benefit, until public officers are appointed to perform this duty. This might be done at a trifling expense ; and the advantage to the owners of good ships, to merchants, and to passengers, would be immense. Contract of Insurance. Having thus given a general outline of the mode of transacting business between the insurers and insured, and the means used to enable both parties to come, as near as possible, to a due estimate of the risk to be insured against, our next step will be to explain the nature of the contract, and the bear- ing of its more important clauses. It is unnecessary to state that the object of those who are engaged in commerce, or in moving arti- cles of merchandise from one part of the world to another, is to buy at such a price that, after paying all the expenses of transport, the sale price may leave them a surplus in the shape of profit. If there were no such contrivance as insurance, merchants would be obliged to calculate upon the probability of the occasional loss of their property, and to regulate their transactions accordingly; but it must be obvious that enterprise, under such circumstances, would be very much crippled. Now, insurance, in as far as it approaches perfection in guaranteeing the merchant against all loss, except that of the market, substitutes a fixed charge for uncertain and contingent loss, and enables him to confine his attention exclusively to price and quality, and to charges of transport; in which latter, of course, the premium of insurance is included, as, however, in practice, insurance is by no means a perfect protection, either to the merchant or ship owner, against all loss that may occur in transitu, there is, even after insurance, some contingencies remaining to be taken into consideration; and we do not know that we can do better, by way of explaining the contract of insurance, than state, as briefly and succinctly as possible, what are the losses against which the merchant and shipowner are not protected by an insurance effected in this country. 1. Jicts of our own Oovemmenl. — All losses arising from the acts of our own government. Thus, if an embargo were laid on vessels about to sail for a particular quarter, and the merchant obliged' to unload his goods ; or if his goods were condemned to be destroyed in quarantine ; or purposely de- stroyed at sea by some of our cruisers ; no part of his loss would be made good by the -nsurer. The insurer in this country, although liable for the acts of foreign powers, is not liable for such acts di u 2 78 INSURANCE (MARINE). rected against the proper'y of their own subjects. Thus, if French property, insured in this country, were confiscated by the French government, the owner would have no remedy against his insurer. 2. Breaches of the Revenue Laws.— All losses arising from a breach of the revenue laws. It may be observed, that if the owner of the ship, by his act, expose the goods of the merchant to loss, the. mer- chant so injured, although he cannot recover from his insurers, may claim from him. It may also be observed, that if the captain of the vessel, by his act, to which neither the owner of the ship nor the merchant is a party, expose the ship and cargo to loss, the insurers, in such case, are bound to make good the loss ; the insurers being liable for all damage arising from illegal acts of the captain and crew, supposing the owner of the ship not to be accessary. The illegal acta of the captain and crew, contrary to ih«' instructions and without the consent of the owners, are termed "barratry" in the policy. — (See Barratry.) 3. Breaches of the Law of Nations. — All losses arising from a breach of the law of nations. Thus, if any port is declared by a foreign power to be i ti a state of blockade, and such blockade is acknow- ledged by our government ; and if a ship, in defiance of that notification, attempt to break the blockade, and is taken in the attempt ; the insurer is not liable to the loss. It will often happen, when a port is under blockade, that the profit is so great upon goods introduced in defiance of the blockade, as to tempt adventurers to break it, and to enable them to afford a very high premium to insure against the risk. But as policies for such an object are not acknowledged in our courts of law, when effected, they are understood to be policies of honour. The same kind of policy is adopted by the underwriters, to protect foreign merchants who prefer insuring in this country against British capture. 1. Consequences of Deviation. — All losses subsequent to any deviation from the terms of the policy. Tin:*, if a merchant, in a policy on produce from the West Indies to London, warrant a ship to sail on or before the 1st of August, and the ship sail after that day and be lost, the insurer is exonerated. Or, if a merchant insure from London to Lisbon, and the ship call at Havre anil is afterwards lost, the in- surer is not liable. It will be understood, of course, that the owner of the ship is liable to the mer- chant for any breach of contract on his part, as well as that the insurer is liable for the barratry of the master ; a deviation on the part of the master, not intended for the benefit of the owner, and contrary to his instructions, being considered, barratry. Should the owner of the goods neglect to describe accurately the voyage for which he wishes to be insured, the loss would be a consequence of his own negligence. There is a doctrine connected with barratry which it will here be proper to notice. A captain. owner or part owner of the ship in which he sails, cannot commit an act of barratry. In other words, the insurers are not, in such a case, liable for an act of his which would otherwise be barratrous. The equity of this doctrine, as far as regards the interests of the captain himself, cannot be called in question ; but it is difficult to understand why the merchant who ships goods on board such a captain's vessel should not be permitted to insure, among other risks, against the captain's illegal acts. We have heard, that a clause has occasionally been introduced into policies to protect merchants against captain-owners, and we do not suppose that our courts of law would refuse to enforce such a clause. Indeed, we cannot discover any reason why every party, saving the captain, should not have the power of insuring against the consequence's of illegal acts of the captain. We believe, that among the life offices, which protect themselves from loss by suicide and the hands of justice, there are some which make a distinction in favour of those who merely hold policies on the lives of others as a col- lateral security. The propriety of such a distinction must strike every body. 5. Unseaworthiness. — All losses arising from unseaworthiness. Unseaworthiness may be caused in various ways, such as want of repair, want of stores, want of provisions, want of nautical instru- ments, insufficiency of hands to navigate the vessel, or incompetency of the master. It might be sup- posed, at first sight, that insurance affords a much less perfect security than it really does, seeing on how many pleas it is possible for the insurer to dispute his liability ; but when it is considered that the proof of unseaworthiness is thrown upon the defendant, and that the leaning of the courts is al- ways in favour of the insured, it will be easy to suppose that no respectable insurers would ever plead unseaworthiness, unless they could make out a case of more than ordinary strength and clear- ness. The decree .of uneasiness felt by merchants and ship owners at their liability to be involved in loss by cases of unseaworthiness, may be guessed from the fact, that although the Indemnity As- surance Company at one time precluded themselves from pleading unseaworthiness by a special clause in their policy, not only did they obtain no additional premium in consequence thereof, but they did not even obtain a preference over other companies and individuals at the same premium. At least, this fact must either be admitted as a proof of the absence of uneasiness on this head, or of that inveteracy of habit which seems to lead the great bulk of mankind always, if possible, to conti- nue undeviatingly in those courses to which they are accustomed, even where the benefits to be de- rived from a deviation are undeniable. 6. Protraction of the Voyage. — All loss arising from unusual protraction of the voyage. Thus, if a ship meet with an accident in the Baltic, and the repairs detain the vessel till the close of the season, when the passage home is rendered impracticable by the ice till the opening of the ensuing season, no payment is made to the merchant, in mitigation of his loss from interest of money, loss of market (if the market fall), or deterioration in the quality of his goods (unless arising from actual sea damage); nor to the ship owner, in mitigation of his loss from the extra wages and maintenance of his crew. In most foreign countries the ship owner is remunerated by the insurers for the wages and maintenance of bis crew while his ship is detained in consequence of any loss for the making good of which they are liable. 7. Liability for doing Damage to other Vessels. — All loss to which the ship owner is liable when his vessel does damage to others. According to our laws, the owner of every ship not in charge of a pilot, that does damage, by negligence of the master and crew, to any description of craft or vessel, is liable to make good the same to the extent of value of his own ship and freight : for beyond this he is not liable. The common policy in use among the underwriters at Lloyd's and the companies does not pro- tect the ship owner from this loss. But the clubs or associations before mentioned almost universally take this risk. Indeed, this is one of the purposes which gave rise to their formation. But even they limit their liability to the amount of the policy; so that if a ship insured with them were to run down another, and to sink herself in the concussion, the owner would only receive the value of his own vessel from the club, and still be liable to the owner of the other vessel. The Indemnity Company, by a clause in their policy, make themselves liable for 3-4ths of the loss which the owner of the vessel insured with them may sustain from damage done by his vessel to those of others. If such a case as the one just supposed should occur under their policy, the insured would receive the value of his own vessel and 3-4ths of the loss to be made good by him to the owner of the other vessel. The policies of this Company approach in this respect the nearest of any to perfect protection to the ship owner. But the loss from running down other vessels, although serious, nay, sometimes ruinous, seldom occurs ; and many ship owners trust so confidently that it will never fall upon them, that they are as well satisfied to he without as with this protection. 8. Average Clause.— The next description of loss of which we shall treat, against which the insured are not protected, is described in the following clause of the policy : — "Corn, fish, salt, seed, flour, and fruit, are warranted free from average, unless general, or the ship be stranded; sugar, tobacco, iemp, flax, hides, and skins, are warranted free from average under 5 per cent., unless general, or the INSURANCE (MARINE). 79 ship be stranded ; and all other goods, also the -hip and freight; arc warranted free from average under 3 per cent., unless general, or the .■-= 1 1 i i > be stranded." The language employed in this clause, being tei I tal, re [uires i itplanation, to render ii inti lligi tie to the general reader. Average is a name applied to certain descriptions of loss, to which II chant and ship owner are liable. l*here are two kind re, general and particular. General Average c prehends all loss arising out of a voluntary sacrifice of a part of either vessel or cargo, made by the captain lor the benefit of the whole. Thus, if a captain throw pan of his cargo overboard, out from an anchor and cable, or cut away his masts, the loss so sustained, being volun- tarily submitted to for the benefit of the whole, is distributed over the value of the whole ship and cargo, and is called " general average." Particular Average comprehends all loss occasioned to ship, freight, and cargo, which is not of so serious a nature as to debar them from reaching their port of destination, and when the damage to the ship is not so extensive as to render her unworthy of repair. Losses where the goods arc saved, but in such a state as to be unfit to forward to their port of destination, and where the ship is rend, red unfit to repair, are called "partial or salvage loss." The leading distinction between particular average and salvage loss is, that, in the first, the property insured remains the property of the assured — the damage sustained, or part thereof, as the case may be, and as will he hereafter explained, being made good by the insurer; and in the second, the property insured is abandoned to the insurer, and the value insured claimed from him he retaining the property so abandoned, or its value. Particular Average on Goods. — A few cases illustrative of the method of stating a claim for particu- lar average will best explain the nature of this description of loss, and will at tin; same time show the render what the practical distinction is between particular average and salvage loss. The property insured we shall suppose to be a ton of hemp, the cost of which at Petersburg!) is 30/., for which sum it is insured from Petersburgh to Loudon, and that the duty, freight, and charges to which the merchant is subject on landing at London are 10/. We shall likewise suppose that the hemp, on its arrival, is so damaged as not to be worth more than half what it would have fetched hid it been sound. The insurer would then be called upon to make good to the insured 15/., or SO per cent, upon the sum insured. But it does not follow that this payment of 151. would indemnify the merchant, or that it would not more than indemnify him, for the loss sustained. If the hemp upon arrival in Ihis country would have fetched in a sound state - - - 50 Less duly, freight, and charges - - 10 But in its damaged s'ate is only worth • • 25 Less duty, freight, and charges ■ • 10 The merchant's loss by the damage is Whereas he only receives from the pie of a salvage loss he would also receive 15 If the hemp would have fetched in a sound Less duty, freight, and charges But in itsdimiged state is only worth Less duty, freight, and charges The merchant's loss by the damage is 152. Upop the pri L. 40 t. 15 Z.25 e prin L. , 10 i.10 Whereas he receives from the insurer 15Z. Upon the principle of i salvage loss he would receive 3QL If the hemp would have fetched in state .... Less duty, freight, and charges But in its damaged state is only ' Less duly, freight, and chart The merchant's loss by the damage And he receives from the insurer 15/. sal vage loss he would receive 252. Upon the principle of a It will be observed that the merchant's loss by the damage of his goods varies with the state of the market. It may also be observed, that in general the merchant will not receive from the insurer the whole amount of the loss that he sustains. Whenever his market is a profitable one (and that it must usually be so will be obvious to every body), whenever, indeed, his market is not a decidedly losing one, his policy does not afford hiin a complete protection. The argument in favour of this mode of settling claims for particular average — and it should be observed that the subject has been discussed, and the principle acknowledged in the courts of law — is, that the insurer's liability is to be guided by the amount upon which he has received a premium or consideration ; that he is not to be affected by the rise or fall of markets ; but that the gross market price of the sound, and the gross market price of the damaged goods, are to be the test by which the rate of damage upon the amount insured is to be adjusted ; the insurer being liable, besides, for all the extra charges arising out of the damage. In the first case stated, the merchant's loss by damage is 25/. upon 40/., or 62J percent. ; in the se- cond, 10/. upon 10/., or 100 per cent. ; in the third, 15/. upon 20/., or 75 per cent. If the duty, freight, and charges were diminished in proportion to the diminished value of the goods, the loss in each case would be fifty per cent, upon the nett price, as it is 50 per cent, upon the gross price. As far as the duty is concerned, government, upon many articles, reduces it in proportion to the diminution in the value of the goods ; and if the freight were reduced in a similar manner, the merchant would always be indemnified for his loss by the insurer. But the practice with regard to freight in this country ad- ults of no such arrangement ; freight being paid according to the quantity delivered. I To make the principle upon which claims for particular average are adjusted, and its bearing, still clearer, we shall illustrate it by a few more cases. Suppose two packages to be insured at cost price — a cask of rice and a cask of sugar — each weighing 10 cwt. ; the cost of each at the port of shipment 10/., the freight of each 10s. per cwt. at the port of delivery, both articles free from duty, and to arrive at a market where no more than the cost price is realised ; assuming that both packages are damaged 50 per cent. — the rice by loss of quality, the sugar by loss of weight — the statement will be as fol- lows : — 10 cwt. of rice, produced Less freight had it arrived sound, would havi on 10 cwt. at 10s. per cwt. But being damaged, did only produce Less freight ou 10 cwt at 10$. per cwt. Merchant's loss 10 cwt. of sugar, if sound, would have produced 15 Less freight on 10 cwt. at 10.t. per cwt. • 5 The barrel being damaged, did only weigh 5 cwt., and produce - - - - -7 Less freight on 5 cwt at 10s. per cwt . 2 Merchant's loss In each case the merchant is entitled to recover from his insurer 51., or 50 per cent., upon 10/., the sum insured, which, although an indemnity to him for his loss on the sugar, is far from being so for his loss upon the rice. If the merchant would contrive so to shape his contract with the ship owner for freight, as to reduce the freight in proportion to the depreciation in the value of the damaged com- modity, he would be completely protected. The ship owner might on his side protect himself by in- surance from loss by reduction of quality, as he now does from loss by reduction of quantity. But 80 INSURANCE (MARINE). we have already more than once adverted to the difficulty of breaking in upon established practices, The merchants go on from year to year complaining of the losses to which they are subject from this awkward contrivance, while no steps are taken to improve it. To show that the principle is equita- ble as between the merchant and his insurer, we subjoin one more statement, where the damage is taken at 100 per cent. : — 10 cwt. of rice, if snund, would have produced Less freight on 10 cut. at I0j. per cwt. Beirj; totally spoiled, did produce nothing The merchant being still liable for the freight ..... Making his loss . He receives 10/. only from the insurer. 10 cwt. of sugar, if sound, would have produced Less freight on 10 cwt. at 10s. per cwt. The barrel being washed out produces nothing ■ The merchant, however, not being liable U pay freight vhlch he recovers from the insurer. L. I. It will be observed, that in each case the insurer pays 101., or the full sum upon which he receives the premium. When whole cargoes, or parcels of goods of considerable value, are insured, the clause in the policy which protects the insurer from particular average under a certain percentage, is often partially set aside. Thus, if a cargo of 500 hogsheads of sugar, valued at 10,000/., were damaged to the extent of 460/., the merchant, supposing the protecting clause to remain in force, would recover nothing from the insurer, the loss not amounting to 5 per cent. The additional written clause, by which it is the practice to modify the printed clause, is as follows :— " Particular average, payable upon each 10 hhds. sugar, 10 casks and 50 bags coffee, and 10 bags cotton, following numbers, and upon each package of manufactured goods, chest of indigo, hag of wool or silk, the same as if separately insured." Such clauses may be, and are, introduced ad libitum by mutual consent of insurer and insured, the premium or consideration being arranged accordingly. The protecting clause is considered, on the other hand, by the insurers, exceedingly unsatisfactory in some respects : and they, as occasion requires, insist upon additional protection. Thus, saltpetre, hides, cocoa, and tin plates, are generally warranted free from particular average, unless the ship be stranded ; and upon tobacco, it is customary for the insurers to make themselves liable only to such part of Hie particular average as exceeds 5 per cent., throwing 5 per cent, upon the merchant. Particular Average on Freight. — The clause, as far as it affects " freight," calls for no particular comment. Particular average upon freight can only arise, according to prevailing practice, from loss of weight ; and whenever the loss of weight amounts lo 3 per cent, or upwards, the ship owner is entitled to recover from his insurer. The ship owner, upon the arrival of the ship at its port of des- tination, is entitled to hold the goods as security until the freight is paid. If the owner of the goods should prove insolvent, and the goods should be entirely spoiled by sea damage during the voyage, and the shipowner thus lose his freight, he has no claim upon the insurer ; because, although his col- lateral security is destroyed by a peril of the sea, his right to receive freight remains unimpaired, and it is against the loss or impairing of this right that tire insurer protects him. Particular Average on Skips. — Particular average upon ships is a subject somewhat more beset with difficulties. There is scarcely a ship that makes a voyage of any length, that does not sustain some damage. The clause in the policy warranting the ship free from particular average under 3 per cent., unless stranded, protects the insurer from the constant recurrence of petty claims ; but in ad- dition to this, it is the practice to class the damage, that a ship sustains in the prosecution of her voyage, under two heads : ordinary damage, or wear and tear ; and extraordinary damage, or parti- cular average. The splitting of sails, the breaking of anchors and cables, the upsetting of windlasses, are losses that come under the first head. The carrying away of masts and bulwarks, damage to the copper sheathing, and hull, from striking on rocks, come under the second. When a ship sustains damage, if she be on her first voyage, the whole expense of the repairs is made good by the insurers. But if she be not on her first voyage, it is the established custom that the insurer pays no more than 2-3ds of the repairs, the owner of the vessel having, as it is thought, an equivalent for the l-3d which falls upon him, in the substitution of new work for old. Where the nature of the damage is such as to require that the copper should be stripped offthe ship's bottom, the insurer pays the difference between the price of the old and the new copper on the weight of the old copper stripped off; the excess in weight of the new over the old copper is paid for by the shipowner; and the labour of stripping and replacing the copper is paid for on the principle already mentioned. In any general rule of this kind, it must be obvious that the ship owner will sometimes gain and sometimes lose by an accident. As soon as the ship owner, or his captain, learns that his vessel has met with an accident, or as soon after as possible, he summons regular surveyors to examine his ves- sel and report all defects, discriminating between those defects that have arisen from perils of the sea, and those from wear and tear. The first only are made good by the insurer, together with all charges, such as surveyors' fees, dock dues, &c, caused by the necessity of undergoing repair. It has been already observed, that when a ship is obliged, in the progress of her voyage, to put into port for the purpose of repair, although the owner of the ship be subjected to great expense for the wages and maintenance of his crew during the detention, he can recover no part of this expense from the in- surer ; the doctrine being, that the owner of the ship is bound to navigate his vessel, and that the insurer does not undertake to guarantee that the voyage shall be completed within any specific time. Such is the doctrine, at least, in this country, and the practice is founded upon it ; but in all other countries the doctrine and practice are the reverse. For in them allowance is made to the ship owner for the wages and maintenance of the crew during the whole period that the ship is under repair. Where a vessel sustains damage and undergoes repair in the progress of her voyage, and is subse- quently lost, the insurer is liable both for the particular average and a total loss. Or the owner of the ship may, if he please, insure the amount expended in repair ; and then, in the event of subsequent loss, the insurer is liable for the total loss only, but in the event of subsequent safe arrival, the average is augmented by the charge of insurance. The operation of the clause warranting the ship free from average under 3 per cent., unless gene- ral, or the ship be stranded, may now be clearly seen. If a ship be insured and valued at 10,000/., and the repairs of the vessel do not, after all the deductions above referred to, amount to 3 per cent., there is no claim upon the insurer, unless the vessel shall have been stranded. — (See Aveuage.) Stranding. — The term stranded is not well chosen, admitting of more than one construction ; and the clause of which it forms a part is imperfectly conceived. And in settlements of account?, when differences arise, the parties who discuss them are more apt to strive for that interpretation of terms and clauses which is favourable to their interests, than for that which is best adapted for general pur- poses. It is commonly understood that merely striking the ground and coming off is not a stranding ; it being necessary, in order to fall within that term, that the ship should remain on the ground or rock, as it may happen, and that efforts should be made to float her. Striking on an anchor and leak- ing dangerously is not a stranding. We shall only adduce two illustrations, for the purpose of show- ing how ill adapted this clause is as a means lo an end. Corn and other such articles are warranted free from particular average, unless the ship be stranded, because the insurers, considering these INSURANCE '"'•! IU.\K). 81 p.rtiri.'s to be peculiarly suscept ible ni d linage, will mil consent to lake thai risk, except on some ex- traordinary occasion. A ship, laden with corn, makes a verj storm] passage ft the Ha I lie to Lon- don, and damages the whole of her cargo. ITpon arm ni off out coast she is stranded, but got off without sfxaining or sustaining any dahiage. The insurer is. held to be liable for the damage to the corn, under the clause of the policy. On another occasion, after a verj favourable passage to out roast, a shi[i strikes upon a shoal, but is not stranded, sustaining, however, so much damage thai she arrives at London with i'> feet water in her hold, ami h r cargo almost wholly spoil,,!. Tin.- insurer jg held not to be liable under the clause of the policy. al Jiverage.—Tbe insurer is bound to make good all general average without exception, how- ever trifling the amount. General average is treated as though altogether unconnected with parti- cular average; and damage to the g Is not amounting to 3 per cent, is not payable by the insurer, although there may be also a general average, and the general and particular average together may am-'iint to nmre than .'i or 5 per cent. (Jeneral average is a charge which inusi be paid by the mer- chant and ship owner, eves if mi ins n rod ; although, when insured, he transfers, as u were, in virtue of his insurance, the charge from himself to his insurer. All the elementathai can by possibility enter into general average may lie classed under four heads:— I. Sacrifice of pari of the ship and stores ; 2. Sacrifice of part of the cargo and freight : 3. Remuneration of services required for gene- ral preservation ; I Expense of raising money to replace what lias been sacrificed, and to remunerate services. 1. When any part of t lie ship is sacrificed for the gem ral fit, the owner is cut n led to receive (deducting, of course, his share of contribution) the amount of his outlay in the replai ing of such sacrifice; allowance being made, on the principle stated above, where old works and materials are replaced with new. The deduction of 1-3.1, however, does not invari ibly apply. For instance, l-6tb.- only is taken off the price of an iron cable thai is slipped from for the general benefit, because iron caliles are calculated to last for a great number of years : and no deduction is ever made from Ihe price of anchors. The charge of replacing the loss may amount to considerably more than the value lost, computing the value at the place where the ship was originally fitted. Thus, the cost of re- placing an anchor and cable slipped from in the Downs, is frequently double the value of the anchor and cable at London. But whatever the charge may he', sueh charge forms the basis of settlement. 2. Sacrifice of the cargo' and freight takes place in jettison, or where part of the cargo is flung over- board to lighten the vessel. Upon arrival in port, after such jettison, the owner of the goods jetti- soned is entitled to receive (deducting his share of contribution) what the goods would have produced nett to him, supposing them to have arrived sound ; and the owner of the ship is entitled to receive (deducting his share of contribution) the freight to which he would have been entitled upon the safe delivery of the goods. 3. Remuneration of services and other charges. When a ship loses her anchors and cables, very large sums are frequently awarded to boatmen who venture off to her with new ones at the imminent Hazard of their lives. A ship disabled at sea is towed into port by another, and remuneration for such service is awarded according to the value saved, the detention occasioned, and the loss sus- tained. The ship rendering the service may be laden with fish or fruit, that may he totally spoiled by the detention, or may be in ballast. A ship captured by the enemy may be re-captured by a man of war or armed merchant vessel ; here, again, salvage is a wa riled according to the circumstances of the case. All these charges are general average; that is to say, must be distributed over ship, freight, and cargo. When a ship, with her cargo, is driven on shore, the expense of attempting to get her off is general average. If she cannot be got off without discharging, the expense of discharging is ge- neral average ; but the expense of getting the ship off after her cargo has been taken out falls ex- clusively upon the ship. The warehousing of the cargo, and other expenses incurred for its pre- servation, are charges exclusively upon the cargo. The expense of reloading is borne by the freight. When a ship nuts into port in distress, the pilotage inwards is general average; the pilotage out- wards is a charge upon the freight. This distribution of charges has settled into a tolerably well established practice ; and upon this principle claims are settled at the offices, and at Lloyd's. 4. The money required to meet the above charges is sometimes attainable without expense. If the accident happen near home, and the ship owner be respectable, he advances the money, and recovers from the various parties concerned so soon as the accounts can be made up: or if the accident happen in a foreign port, where the owner of the ship is well known, the captain's bill upon him will some- times be received in payment of the charges incurred. But where such facilities do not exist, Ihe captain is empowered to pledge his s.ip, freight, and cargo, as security to any one he may prevail upon to supply the necessary funds. This pledge is termed a bottomry bond. By it the captain ad- mits the receipt of the money : consents to the payment of a premium (which varies with the distance of the port of destination, the risk of the voyage, the respectability of the owner, and the necessities of the captain); and assigns the ship, freight, and cargo, as security for the repayment of the money advanced and the stipulated premium. Should the captain consider the bottomry premium demanded of him exorbitant, or should he deem it preferable in other respects, he may sell a portion of the cargo for the purpose of raising such,uioney as he may stand in need of towards the prosecution of his voyage. The expense of raising the requisite funds, whether by commission, by bottomry premi- um, or by loss on the sale of the cargo, is charged to those parties for whose interest the money is required. Thus, if a ship, having struck upon a rock, puts into port in distress, and is obliged to un- load to repair; supposing the particular average upon the ship to amount to add/.; the general average, consisting of assistance into port and expense of unloading, '2001.; particular charges on freight, consisting of expense of reloading and pilotage outwards, 100/.; and particular charges on cargo, consisting of warehouse rent and repair of packages, 200/. ; and the exp-nse of raising money should be 20 per cent.:— these sums would be severally increased by this addition, and would be raised to 600/., 240/., 120/., and 210/.— (See Bottomry.) It still remains to be inquired in what proportion the general average is to be paid by the different owners of the cargo, and the owner of ship and freight. Almost all general averages are adjusted at the ship's port of destination, and the values of the ship and cargo are taken at what they would produce in their actual state upon arrival, and the freight according to what is actually receivable, less the wages of the captain and crew ; the general average being distributed in proportion to these values. Should the cargo be altogether worthless, it cannot be made to contribute; and should the wages of the crew exceed the freight, then the freight is not liable to contribute. In case of jettison, the party whose property has been sacrificed for the general benefit receives indemnity on the same principle, ; the value to which he is entitled being what his property would have produced nett, sup- posing it to have been sold on the arrival of the vessel — the same value serving for the basis of his proportion of contribution. Some few cases occur, where the general average is adjusted at the port of departure. Thus, if a ship, outward bound to the British colonies, cut from an anchor and cable in the Downs, or incur other general average on our own coast, the insurances being principally effected in this country, it is the custom to adjust it on the spot, by which means both delay and ex- pense are avoided On these occasions, the values at the port of shipment are taken as the basis of contribution. A total loss, subsequently to a general average, does not exonerate the insurer from his prior liability; and although it is customary with the ship owner, or his agent, specifically to in- 11 82 INSURANCE (MARINE). sure the mnney expended in average, for the purpose of protecting the insurer against any greater liability than 100 per cent., he is not absolutely obliged to do so. When the average funds are raised by bottomry, t he party advancing them takes the ship, freight, and cargo, as security, and charges -a premium tri cover the risk of the ship's non-arrival at her port of destination. And thus, on such an occasion, a subsequent total loss relieves the insurer from all liability to average. The laws and customs hv which averages are adjusted vary in different countries ; but the insurer in this country is only liable for the averages adjusted according to our laws. The merchant, bow- ever, whose goods arrive at a foreign "port, is obliged to submit to the laws of that port, lie may thus be a considerable loser; paying general average according to one law, and receiving from his insurer according to another. And he never can be a gainer, because, before he is entitled to recover from his insurer, he must prove that he has paid to the owner of the ship. This is one of the many inconveniences to which mercantile men are exposed which cannot be removed with- out, what it may be hoped will gradually take place, an assimilation of the commercial laws of different countries. Proof of Loss— The policy of insurance is the instrument under which the merchant and ship owner claim indemnification for all losses that are not specially excepted. The proof that the loss lias been sustained must also be exhibited ; such as the title to the vessel and cargo, and the evidence of the captain and crew to establish the circumstances out of which the claim arises. If A. were to insure his vessel for the space of 12 months, and at the expiration of 6 months were to sell his ship to B. ; A.'s interest in the vessel having ceased, so also does his insurer's liability ; and B., if he wish to be protected must make a new insurance. Proof of ownership, therefore, is an essential prelimi- nary to the recovery of a claim. In general practice, no difficulty arises from this, because the fact of ownership is sufficiently notorious. The bill of lading is, in most cases, satisfactory proof that the cargo was on board, as well as of the amount of freight. Valued and open Policies. — If an insurance for 2,000/. be effected upon 100 hhds. of sugar, valued at 20/. per hhd.,the bill of lading, showing that the vessel had 100 hhds. on board, establishes the interest at 2,000/., and the policy is termed a valued policy. Hut if an insurance for 2,000/. be effected on 100 hhds. of sugar, and nothing be expressed as to value, the bill of lading only establishes that 100 hhds. are on board, without establishing the amount of interest. The production of the invoice, showing the cost of the goods, is necessary to that end, the policy being termed an open one. Ret u*n of Premium for short Interest.— hi a valued policy, when the whole of the property insured does not appear to have been shipped, the difference between the quantity insured and the quantity shipped is ermed short interest. Thus, if 2,000/. be insured upon 100 hhds. of sugar, valued at 2oz. per hhd., and 80 hhds. only be shipped ; as the insurer's liability does not extend beyond 1,600/., so he is obliged to return the premium upon 400/. to which no risk attaches. This return of premium is called a return for short interest. For Over-Insurance. — In an open policy, where the value shipped is not equal to the value insured, the difference is termed over-insurance. If a merchant, A., make an insurance for 5,000/. upon goods, without specifying any value, from Calcutta to London, the premium being 60s. and the stamp duty 5s. per cent., the amount of interest that attaches to the policy is so fixed, that he is neither to gain nor lose by the transaction in the event of the vessel's loss, supposing his insurance to be suffi- cient. To entitle him to recover a profit, the profit to be insured must be stipulated in the policy. The expense of insurance upon 100/. being 3/. 5s., it is clear that every 100/. insurance covers 96/. 15s. original cost ; that is to say, protects the merchant from loss to that extent in case of the loss of the vessel. If, then, we assume the invoice of the goods shipped to be -10,000 rupees, or, at the exchange of 2s. per rupee, 4,000/., the interest attaching to the policy is ascertained as follows: — If 96/. 15s. cost is insured by 100/. insurance, what will 4,000/. cost be insured by? Answer, 4,135/. Under such circumstances, although a policy exists for 5,000/., the insured is not able to prove interest for more than 4,135/. ; and consequently, the insurer being entitled to recover no more than that sum in case of loss, the insurer is called upon to make a return of premium for over-insurance upon 865/. Although we have treated separately of returns for short interest and over-insurance, we should observe that these terms in practice are used indiscriminately; and, indeed, we cannot say that we perceive much advantage in making the distinction, or preserving the distinctive appellations. It sometimes happens that the property expected in a vessel is not all insured at one time or in one policy But this makes no difference in the principle of settlement according to our law ; although, according to the laws of most other countries, the policies take precedence of one another according to their dates, the whole short interest falling upon the policy or policies last effected The foreign law, in this instance, appears to us the more equitable and reasonable of the two ; and that our reason for thinking so may be intelligible, and thus gain assent or meet with refutation, we shall state a case of short interest upon a number of policies, such as not unfreqnently appears. A merchant, A., orders his correspondent at Calcutta to ship for his account a quantity of sugar, not exceeding 1,000 tons, at a price not exceeding 20/. per ton. In due time he receives a letter from his correspondent acknowledging the receipt of his order, and expressing confident hopes of being able to purchase the quantity, or the greater part of it, at the limits prescribed, andjjromising to advise as he proceeds. A., on receipt of this letter, say on the 1st of January, makes a provisional insurance for 5,000/. upon sugar valued at 20/. per ton. Continuing without further advices, and faring lest his correspondent's letter should have miscarried, and that he might have property afloat uninsured, on the 1st of Febru- ary, 1st of March, and 1st of April, he effects similar insurances, thus covering the whole 1,000 tons. He subsequently receives advice that his correspondent had not been able to purchase more than half the quantity ordered, at his limit, and he recovers from his insurers hall' the premium upon each po- licy. Now, it was not at all improbable that he might have received advice from his Correspondent, as be expected, much sooner. And if he had received advice in the middle of February, of the ship- ment of 500 tons, and that the ship which contained them was totally lost in the river Hooghly, the insurers upon the two first policies would have been liable for a total loss. And it appears to us a defective arrangement, by which a party, who is at one time exposed to a total loss, should at another be compelled to return half his premium. It is true that the merchant may, if he please, insert in his policies a clause by which the policies shall be made to succeed one another ; but we should say that the law, in insurance cases, as in the disposal of the property of deceased persons, ought to be the best general disposition, leaving to individuals the right of modification according to particular cir- cumstances. Return for Double Insurance. — Besides returns for short interest and over-insurance, there are re- turns for double insurance. They are, in fact, to all intents and purposes, the same thing. Double insurance exists where the party, through forgetful ness, makes an insurance upon his property twice over; or where the shippers and consignees id' goods, when uncertain of one another's intentions, effect each an insurance upon them ; or where the captain of a vessel in foreign parts, tearing lest his advices should not reach his owner, effects an insurance upon it, and the owner at the same time, acting with equal caution effects one also. The observations already made upon returns for short interest, and upon the difference between our laws and those of other countries, apply with equal force here. We have now gone over all the principal topics connected with marine insurance. Those who INSURANCE (MARINE). 83 peruse this article with ordinary attention will, we hope, L'riin a tolerably clear insight into the prin- ciples anil practice of the business. Hut a perfectly familiar acquaintance with it can only be ac- quired by those who are daily conversant with its details. Duty on Policies of Marine Insurance. — Amount and Expediency of such Duty. — All policies of marine insurance must he on stamped paper, Hip duties on which are as follows: — For every 11)07. insured on a voyage in the coasting trade of the kingdom, where the premium does not exceed "20s. per cent., Is. 3d. Where the premium does exceed 20s. per rent., 2s. 6d. For every 100/. insured to or from any colonial or foreign port, where the premium does not exceed 15s. per cent., Is. 3d. Where the premium does exceed 15s. per cent., but does not exceed 30s. per cent., 2s. 6d. Where the premium exceeds 30s. per cent., 5s. For every 100/. insured for a period of time not exceeding 3 months, 2s. 6rf. ; exceeding 3 months (no ship can be insured on one stamp for a longer period than 12 months), 5s. This duty was reduced in the year 1833. It is now about two thirds of what it was before. The reduction, so far as it goes, must of course be beneficial. But the tax is altogether wrong in principle, and ought to be repealed altogether. Its obvious tendency is to discourage the coasting trade, by im- posing a duty on goods carried by sea, from which those carried by land and canals are exempted; and we believe it will be found that this unjust preference costs more to the public in the greater car- riage of goods sent, through its means, by the more expensive channel of inland conveyance, than all that portion of the duty which affects coasting vessels produces to the revenue. But the other por- tion of the tax, or that which affects vessels engaged in the foreign or colonial trade, is still more ob- jectionable. It is immaterial to a merchant sending a ship to sea, whether he insure her in London, Amsterdam, or Hamburgh ; and as policies executed in the last two cities are either wholly exempted from duties, or subject to such only as are merely nominal, the effect of the duty is to transfer to the Continent a considerable part of the business of marine insurance, that would otherwise be transacted in London. It is plain, therefore, that this duty operates to drive a valuable branch of business from amongst us; and even though it had no such effect, still it is sufficiently clear that a tax on provi- dence, or on the endeavour to guarantee the safety of property at sea, is not one that ought to exist in any country, and least of all in so commercial a country as England. Where the latitude given is 60 great, doubts will arise whether one stamp be adequate to cover a long voyage. And when diffi- culties are made to ihe settlement of a loss on such grounds, they are very prejudicial to the interests of the assured, and by no means creditable to the character of the underwriter. If the trifling revenue (amounting in 1832 to only 210,000/.) derived from these stamps cannot be spared, a very small addition to the import duties would more than cover its amount, save the expense of collection, and relieve the mercantile public from the annoyance and loss above alluded to.* Form of a Policy of Insurance executed at Lloyd's. g # Q # In the Name of God, Amen. Charles Brown and Co., as well in their own names as for and in the name and names of all and every other person or persons to whom the same ~ doth, may, or shall appertain, in part or in all, doth make assurance, and cause themselves JE800. and them and every of them, to be insured, lost or not lost, at and from St. Peterslmrgh to - any port or ports in the United Kingdom, upon any kind of goods and merchandises, and also upon the body, tackle, apparel, ordnance, munition, artillery, boat, and other furniture of and in the good ship or vessel called the Swift, whereof is master, under God, for this present voyage, Bright, or whoever else shall go for master in the said ship, or by what- soever other name or names the said ship, or the master thereof, is or shall be named or called; beginning the adventure upon the said goods and merchandises from the loading thereof on hoard the said ship upon the said ship, &x. Stamp and so shall continue and endure during her abode there, upon the £2. said ship, &c. And further, until the said ship, with all her ordnance, tackle, apparel, &c. and goods and merchandises whatsoever, shall be arrived at her final port of discharge (as above), upon the said ship, &c, until she hath moored at anchor twenty-four hours in good safety ; and upon the goods and merchandises, until the same be there discharged and safely landed. And it shall be lawful for the said ship, &c. in this voyage, to proceed and sail to, and touch and stay at any ports or places whatsoever, without prejudice to this insurance. The said ship, &c. goods and merchandises, &c. for so much as concerns the assured, by agreement between the assured and assurers in this policy, are and shall be valued at eight hundred pounds, being on the captain's one fourth share of said ship, said one fourth share valued at that sum. Touching the adventures and perils which we the assurers are contented to bear, and do take upon us in this voyage : they are of the seas, men-of-war, fire, enemies, pirates, rovers, thieves, jettisons, letters of mart and counter- mart, surprisals, takings at sea, arrests, restraints, and detainments of all kings, princes and people, of what nation, condition, or quality soever, barratry of the master and ma- riners, and of all other perils, losses, and misfortunes, that have or shall come to the hurt, detriment, or damage of the said goods and merchandises and ship, &x. or any pant thereof; offences against Hie revenue of the United Kingdom of Great Britain or Ireland excepted. And, in case of any loss or misfortune, it shall be lawful for the assured, their factors, servants, and assignees, to sue, labour, and travel for, in, and about the defence, safeguard, and recovery of the said goods and merchandises and ship, &c. or any part thereof, without prejudice to this insurance ; to the charges whereof we the assurers will contribute, each one according to the rate and quantity of his sum herein assured. And it is agreed by us, the insurers, that this writing, or policy of assurance, shall be of as much force and effect, as the surest writing or policy of assurance, hereto- fore made in Lombard Street, or in the Royal Exchange, or elsewhere in London. And so we the assurers are contented, and do hereby promise and bind ourselves, each one for his own part, our heirs, executors, and goods, to the assured, their executors, adminis- trators, and assigns, for the true performance of the premises, confessing ourselves paid the consideration due unto us for this assurance by the assured, at and after the rate of five guineas per cent., to return one pound per cent, if the voyage end on the east coast of England. In Witness whereof, we, the assurers, have subscribed our names and sums assured in London, N. B. — Corn, fish, salt, fruit, flour, and seeds, are warranted free from average, unless * This very valuable article (on Marine Insurance) has been, as the reader will easily perceive, furnished by a gentleman thoroughly conversant with the principles and details of the business. 84 INSURANCE (FIRE). general, or the ship be stranded.— Sugar, tobacco, hemp, flax, hides, and skins, are war- ranted free from average under five pounds per cent. ; and all other goods, also the ship and freight, are warranted free from ayerage under three pounds per cent., unless general, or the ship be stranded. £500. Joseph White, Five hundred pounds. 1st of Sept. 1833. £300. Thomas Black by George Green, Three hundred pounds. 1st of Sept. 1833. Policy by the Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Company. Established 1S24. Stamp £6. 5s. -C Z r\r\r\ Whereas William Grey hath represented to us whose hands and seals are hereunto snb- itOjUUU. scribed and affixed, and who are two of the directors of the Indemnity Mutual Marine - Assurance Company, that he is interested in, or duly authorised as owner, agent, or otherwise, to make the assurance hereinafter mentioned and described, with the Indem- nity Mutual Marine Assurance Company, and hath covenanted or otherwise obliged himself to pay forthwith for the use of the said Company, at the office of the said Company, the sum of sixty-two pounds ten shillings as a premium or consideration, at and after the rate of twenty-five shillings per cent, for such assurance. Now this Policy of As- surance witnesseth, that in consideration of the premises and of the said sum of sixty- two pounds ten shillings, We do, for ourselves and each of us. Covenant and agree with the said William Grey, his executors, administrators, and assigns, that the capital stock and funds of the said Company shall, according to the provisions of the deed of settle- ment of the said Company, and the resolutions entered into at two extraordinary genera) courts of the said Company, held on the twenty-ninth day of August, and the twentieth day of September, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven, be subject and liable to pay and make good, and shall be applied to pay and make good all such losses and da- mages hereinafter expressed as may happen to the subject matter of this policy, ami may attach to this policy in respect of the sum of five thousand pounds hereby assured, which assurance is hereby declared to be upon, /250. 250 hhds. of sugar valued at 20Z. each, average payable upon each lOhhds. fj \ following landing numbers, the same as if separately insured, ladoji or to be laden \ y on board the ship or vessel called the Nelly, whereof Turner is at present master, \s or whoever shall go for master of the said ship or vessel, lost or not lost, at and from Grenada to London, including the risk of craft to and from the vessel, warranted to sail on or before the 1st of August, 1831. And We do covenant and agree, that the assurance .aforesaid shall commence upon the said ship, at and from Grenada, and until she hath moored at anchor twenty-four hours in good safety; and upon the freight and goods or merchandise on board thereof, from the loading of the said good3 or merchandise on board the said ship or vessel at London, and until the said goods or merchandise be discharged and safely landed at . And that it shall be lawful for the said ship or vessel to proceed and sail to, and touch, and stay at any ports or places whatsoever, in the course of her s:i id voyage, for all necessary purposes, without preju- dice to this assurance. And touching the adventures and perils which the capital stock and funds of the said Company are made liable unto, or are intended to be made liable unto, by this assurance, they are, of the seas, men-of-war, fire, enemies, pirates, rovers, thieves, jettisons, letters of mart and countermart, surprisals, takings at sea, arrests, restraints, and detainments of all kings, princes, and people, of what nation, condi- tion, or quality soever ; barratry of the master and mariners, and of all other perils, losses, and misfortunes, that have or shall come to the hurt, detriment, or damage of the aforesaid subject matter of this assurance, or any part thereof. And in case of any loss or misfortune, it shall be lawful to the assured, their factors, servants and as- signs, to sue, labour, and travel for, in, and about the defence, safeguard, and recovery of the aforesaid subject matter of this assurance, or any part thereof, without prejudice to this assurance, the charges whereof the capital stock and funds of the said Company shall bear in proportion to the sum hereby assured. And it is declared and agreed, that corn, fish, salt, fruit, flour, and seed, shall be and are warranted free from average un- less general, or the ship be stranded ; and that sugar, tobacco, hemp, flax, hides, and skins, shall be and are warranted free from average under five pounds per centum ; that all other goods, also the ship and freight, shall be and are warranted free from average under three pounds per centum, unless general, or the ship be stranded. Provided nevertheless, that the capital stock and funds of the said Company shall alone be liable, according to the provisions of the deed of settlement and the resolutions above- mentioned, to answer and make good all claims and demands whatsoever, under or by virtue of this policy ; and that no proprietor of the said Company, his or her heirs, ex- ecutors, or administrators, shall be in anywise subject or liable to any claims or demands, nor be in anywise charged by reason of this policy beyond the amount of his or her share or shares in the capital stock of the said Company, it being one of the original or funda- mental principles of the said Company, that the responsibility of the individual proprie- tors shall, in all cases, be limited to their respective shares in the said capital stock. In Witness whereof, W'e have hereunto set our hands and seals in London, the tenth day of January, 1834. Sealed and delivered \ A. B. (L. s.) in the presence of \ C. D. (L. s.) E. F. III. Insurance (Fire). Insurance against fire is a contract of indemnity, by which the insurer, in consideration of a cer- tain premium received by him, either in a gross sum or by annual payments, undertakes to indemnify the insured against all loss or dan/age lie may sustain in his houses or other buildings, stock, goods, and merchandise, by fire, during a specified period. Insurances against fire are hardly ever made by individuals, but almost always by joint stock com- panies, of which there are several in all the considerable towns throughout the empire. Of these, the Sun, the Phanix, the British, Sac. insure at their own risk and for their own profit: but there are others, which are called contribution societies, in which every person insured becomes a member or proprietor, and participates in the profit or loss of the concern. The Hand in Hand, Westminster, &c. are of this description. INSURANCE (FIRE). 85 The conditions on which the different offices insure are contained in their proposals, which are printed on the back of every policy ; and it is in most instances expressly conditioned, that they un- dertake to pay the loss, not exceeding the sum insured, " according to the exact tenor of their printed proposals." Nothing can be recovered from the insurers, in the event of loss, unless the party insuring had an interest or property in the thing insured at the time when the insurance was effected, and when the loss happened. It often occurs that no one office will insure to the full amount required by an indi- vidual who has a large property ; and in such a case the party, to cover his whole interest, is obliged to insure at different offices. But, in order to prevent the frauds that might be practised by insuring the full value in various offices, there is, in the proposals issued by all the companies, an article which declares, that persons insuring must give notice of any other insurance made elsewhere upon the same houses or goods, that the same may be specified and allowed by indorsement on the policy, in order that each office may bear its rateable proportion of any loss that may happen ; and unless such notice be given of each insurance to the office where another insurance is made on the same effects, the insurance made without such notice will be void. Any trustee, mortgagee, reversioner, factor, or agent, has sufficient interest in the goods under his custody, to effect a policy of insurance, provided the nature of such property be distinctly specified at the time of executing such policy. Most of the offices except in their proposals against making good any loss occasioned by "inva- sion," "foreign enemy," "civil commotions," &x. ; and under this condition the Sun Fire Office was exonerated from the loss occasioned by the disgraceful proceedings of the mob in 1780. One of the principal conditions in the proposals has reference to the proof of loss. The Sun Fire Office — (see post), and most other offices, make it a condition, that the individual claiming shall " procure a certificate, under the hands of the minister and churchwardens, and some other respect- able inhabitants of the parish or place, not concerned or interested in such loss, importing that they are well acquainted with the character and circumstances of the person or persons insured or claim- ing ; and do know, or verily believe, that he, she, or they, really, and by misfortune, without any fraud or evil practice, have sustained by such fire the loss or damage, as his, her, or their loss, to the value therein mentioned." This condition has given rise to a great deal of discussion in the courts ; but it has been finally decided, that the procuring of the certificate is a condition precedent to the pay- ment of any loss, and that its being wrongfully refused will not excuse the want of it. The risk commences in general from the signing of the policy, unless there be some other time spe- cified. Policies of insurance may be annual, or for a term of years at an annual premium ; and it is usual for the office, by way of indulgence, to allow fifteen days after each year for the payment of the premium for the next year in succession; and provided the premium be paid within that time, the insured is considered as within the protection of the office. A policy of insurance is not in its nature assignable, nor can it be transferred without the express consent of the office. When, however, any person dies, his interest remains in his executors or ad- ministrators respectively, who succeed or become entitled to the property, provided such representa- tives respectively procure their right to be indorsed on the policy. (For further details, see Marshall on Insurance, book iv. ; Park on Insurance, c. 23.) Insurances are generally divided into common, hazardous, and doubly hazardous. The distinguish- ing characteristics of these may be learned from the subjoined proposals of the Sun Fire Office. The charge for insuring property of the first description is now usually Is.Gd. per cent., the second 2s. 0d., and the third 4s. 6d. These charges are exclusive of the duty payable to government, of Is. on the policy, and 3s. per cent, on the sum in the policy. We subjoin a copy of a policy of insurance on a house valued at 1,000Z., and furniture, plate, books, &c. in the same, valued also at 1,000£., executed by the Sun Fire Office, and of the proposals indorsed on the same. The latter correspond in most particulars with those issued by the other offices. 'Received, for the insurance of the property undermention- ed, from Xmas 1833, to Xmas 1834. Policy Premium Duty £ s. d. 1 10 3 £4 10 SUN FIRE OFFICE. To be paid annually at Xmas. Premium Duty - 550 Whereas A. B. Esq. of No. No. ■ Street, has paid the sum of one pound ten shillings to the So- ciety of the Sun Fire Office in London, and has agreed to pay or cause to be paid, to them, at their said office, the sum of one pound ten shillings on the 25th of December, 1833, and the like sum of one pound ten shillings yearly on the 25th day of December during the continuance of this policy, for insurance from loss or damage by fire, on his now dwelling house only, situate as aforesaid, brick, one thousand pounds ; household goods, wearing apparel, printed books, and plate therein only, one thousand pounds. " Now know ye, That, from the date of these presents, and so long as the said A. B. shall duly pay, or cause to lie paid, the said sum of one pound ten shillings at the times and place aforesaid ; and the trustees or acting members of the said Society, for ihe time being, shall agree to accept the same ; the stock and fund of the said Society shall be subject and liable to pay to the said A. B., his executors, administrators, and assigns, all such his damage and loss which he, the said A. B., shall suffer by fire, not exceeding upon each head of insurance, the sum or sums above-mentioned, amounting in the whole to no more than two thousand pounds, according to the exact tenor of their printed proposals, indorsed on this policy, and of an act of parliament, on the 55th of George the Third, for charging a duty on persons whose property shall be insured against loss by fire. In Witness whereof, we (three of the trustees or acting members for the said Society) have hereunto set our hands and seals, the 24th day of December, 1833. C. D. (l. s.) E. F. (L. s.) G. H. (l. s.) Signed and sealed (being stamped according to act of parliament) in the presence of J. K. "N. B.— The interest in this policy may be transferred by indorsement, made and entered at the office, if the trustees or acting members approve thereof, but not otherwise." Vol. II.— H 86 INSURANCE (FIRE). (INDORSEMENT ON THE POLICY.) SUN FIRE OFFICE. This office insares against loss ot damage by fire, in Great Britain and Ireland, ail descriptions of buildings, including mills and manu- factories, .ind goods, wares, aud merchandise, in the same ; ships in harbour, or in dock: craft on navigable rivers and canals, and the goods laden on the same; wagons travelling the roads, and their contents ; and farming stock of all descriptions, upon the following terms and conditions: — Common Insurances. 1. Buildings covered with slates, tiles, or metals, and built on all sides with brick or stone, or separated by parry-walls of brick or Btone, and wherein no hazardous trade or manufacture is carried on, or hazardous goods deposited. 2. Goods in buildings as above described, such as household goods, plate, jewels iu private use, apparel, and printed books; liquors in private use, merchandise, stock and utensils in trade, not hazardous, and farming slock. At Is. 6d. per cent, per annum, with certain exceptions. Hazardous Insurances. 1. Buildings of timber or plaster, or not wholly separated by par- tition-walls of brick or stone, or not covered with slates, tiles, or metals, and thatched barns and out-houses having no chimney, nor adjoining to any building having a chimney; and buildings falling under the description of common insurance, but in which some hazardous trade or manufacture is carried on, such as brewers (with- out a steam-engine), bread and biscuit bakers (not sea biscuit bakers), bottlers and packers of wine, spirits, or beer; chemists (without a laboratory), inn-holders, maltsters (who make pale malt only), oil- men, soap boilers, stable-keepers, and certain others; or in which hazardous goods are deposited, as the stock and utensils in the above !, also, tallow, pitch, tar, hemp, flax, rosin, and turpen- tine; hay, straw, and all manner of fodder and corn unthrashed; apothecaries' stock, and oil j and wine and spirituous liquors as mer- chandise. 2. Ships and craft, with their contents (lime barges, with their contents, alone excepted). At 2s. 6d. per cent, per annum, with certain exceptions. Doubly Hazardous Insurances. 1. Buildings.— All thatched buildings having chimneys, or com- municaMn* with, or adjoining to, buildings having one, although no hazardous "trade shall be carried on, nor hazardous goods deposited therein; and all hazardous buildings, in which hazardous goods are deposited, or hazardous trades carried on. 2. Goods.— All hazardous goods deposited in hazardous buildings, and in thatched buildings having no chimney, nor adjoining to any building having a chimney. 3. Trades— and their stock and utensils, such as maltsters (who make brown malt), and certain others; a!so china, glass, and earth- enware, saltpetre, and wagons with their contents. At As. 6rf. per cent, per annum, with certain exceptions. Farming -tock on anvpart of a farm maybe insured under general policies, without the average clause, at Is. 6d. per cent., provided it be insured to a fair average value. This office will not be subject to any loss on hay or corn, occasioned by its own natural heating, but the loss of any other property in consequence of such fire will be made good ; as will losses by fire from lightning. Insurances mav also be made by special agreement on the follow- ing risks, and on others of a similar description, not mentioned under the 2d and 3d heids of insurance, viz. on mills of all kinds, and the stock and utensils in them; also on buildings. containing kiln, steam- engine, stove, or oven, used in the process of any manufacture, and the stock therein; su »* Tn encourage the removal of goods, in case of fire, this nffire will allow the reasonable charges attending the same, and make good the sufferer's loss, whether destroyed, lost, or damaged, by such removal. Insurance of Mills, 8rc —We subjoin for the information of such of our readers as may be interested in the insurance of mills, the following statements, put forth by the Leeds and Yorkshire Assurance Company. CLASSIFICATION OF MILLS. Class J.— Fire Proof. Mills built entirely of stone or brick: the floors laid upon stone or brick arches, resting upon stone, brick, or iron pillars, and consisting of stone flisrs. tiles, cement, or plaster; ihe frame-work of the B indows and roof of iron, the roof covered with slates, tiles, or metal; the staircase detached, constructed of ■ ,i v or brick-work, without any mixture of wood or timber, nocommuDic tion with the mill but at the several land- t >r upright shafts or machinery (if any) to be hd.. whereas it is now only 2/. 13*. 4<2. ; and there was a corresponding difference in the premi- ums for the other ages. — (p. 36.) But the excessive magnitude of the premiums was not the only extraordinary source of profit enjoy eil by this Society in the earlier part of its career. We learn from the same unquestionable authority, that half the insurances mode during the first twenty-five years of the Society's existence were abandoned by the insurers, in many cases, after the premiums upon them had been paid for a Considerable number of years, without omj valuable consideration being given fur them bo th> Society ' — (p. 38.) So copious a source of profit was alone adequate tn enrich any society ; but such things rarely occur now,— people ire become 100 familiar with life insurance, and sales of poli- cies are of too frequent occurrence, to allow any office to realise any thing considerable in this way. Now, we ask, can any one who takes these facts into view, and couples them with the frugal and INSURANCE (LIFE). 89 cautious management which has hitherto always distinguished the Equitable Society, he surprised at its success ? anil can any thing he more absurd than to appeal to its experience in castinu' the horo- scope of the societies that have sprung into existence within the last few years But, independently of these considerations, there are other circumstances sufficient to account for the great success ol some of the old offices. Since the close of the American war, a very decided diminution has taken place in the rate of mortality; the public tranquillity has neither been disturbed by foreign invasion nor intestine commotion ; we have not been once visited by any epidemic disorder ; and the invest- ments in the funds, during the war made at from 50 to 00, may now be realised at from 80 to 90. We do not presume to say that circumstances may not be even more advantageous for the insurance offices during the next half century ; but we should not, certainly, think very highly of the prudence of those who proceeded to insure on such an assumption. .Security, we take leave again to repeat, is, in life insurance, the paramount consideration. It is, we believe, admitted on all hands, that the premiums were at one time too high ; but we doubt whel ber the tendency at present be not to sink them too low. A great relaxation has taken place, even in the most respectable offices, as tr the space of 10 years then next following, a policy effected in the yeir 1817, shall not be within the operation of such order, until the assurances existing prior to the number and date of the policy, as aforesaid, shall have been reduced to 5,000 ; but such policy shall be within the operation thereof from the time when the reduction shall have been ascertained, in manner hereinafter men- tioned, as to the payments made thereon subsequent to such ascertain- ed reduction. And the like as toother cases. And this by-law shall be considered as a part of every such orJer, and shall be virtually incorporated therein, although the same may not bethereby, express- ly referred to. That in case any retrospective addition shall hereafter be ordered to be made to claims upon policies of assurance in this Society, such order shall not take effect with respect to any policy granted after the 31st of December, 1816, uti il the assurances existing in the Society prior in number and date, and if of the same date, prior in the num- ber thereof, shall be reduced to 5,000; but when the said reduction shall have been ascertained in manner hereinafter mentioned, such policy shall be within the effect and operation, and entitled to the benefit of such order, with respect tn every payment made thereon subsequent to such ascertained reduction ; so that if such order shall be made to take effect generally as to payments made before the 1st of January, 1820, a policy effected in the year 1817 shall not be within the effect and operation thereof, unless the life assured shall exist, and the payments continue to be made, until the assurances existing in ihe society prior to the number and date of the policy, as afjresaiJ, shall be reduce 1 to 5,000 but assoonas such reduction shall have been ascertained, in manner hereinafter mentioned, such policy shall be within the effect and operation of such order for the several payments made thereon as aforesaid. And the like as to other cases. And this by-law shall be considered as a part of every such order, and be virtually incorporated therein, allhough the same may not be thereby expressly referred to. That an inquiry be made on the first of April in every year, in order to ascertain the number of assurances made and existing in the Society; and when it shall have been ascertained by such inquiry that the assurances existing prior to the 1st of January, 1817, were, on the 31st of December, immediately preceding such inquiry, re- duced below the number of 5,000, the actuary do report the same to the court of directors, who shall communicate such report to the quarterly general court, to be holden in the June following; and that as many of such policies as had been made subsequent to the 31st of December, 1816, and which were existing in the Society on the 31st of December immediately preceling such inquiry, be added, accord- ing to the priority in their dates and numbers, and if of the same date, according to the priority in their numbers, to those *bnve men- tioned, as sh.dl be sufficient to complete the number to 5,000; and that the [-ersons holdinz the policies so added, shall be considered thenceforward as entitled to such additions as shail be thereafter made in respect of all the payments made subsequent to such ascer- tained reduction, and under the same restrictions, to the same privi- leges of attending at the general courts, and of being eligible to the office of director. That after the vacant numbers in the assurances existing in the Society on the 1st of January, 1817, shall have been filled up agreea- bly to the foregoing order, the actuary on the 1st of April in every succeeding year, do ascertain the vacancies which have taken place in the preceding year in the policies constituting the 5,000 mention- ed in the 5th resolution, and report the same to the court of directors, * This work of Mr. Babbage contains a good deal of useful information, intermixed, however, with not a few errors and mis-statements. It was most ably reviewed in an article in the 90th Nu m- ber of the Edinburgh Review. INSURANCE (LIFE.) 01 assured and the shareholder, in the proportion of 8 parts to the fam. it I Watminster.~-By a regulation taking effect from the 9th of May, and 1 to the latter. 18 »2, this Socieiy-niakea .t positive iddition ol 10 pei cent, every The profit or bonus to the assured to in- given either by a diminu* j lOthyear to all sum ■ I lives, for (he who tion of the rate of premium, or by an increase of the amount of po- life, by policies insured afu-r tha licy, at the option of the party. I In order to hinder the growth of gambling transactions upon life insurance, it was judiciously enacted, by stat. 14 Geo. 3. c. 48., that lives of any person or persons, or other event or events, without in- aerting in such policy or policta t tfu nai i i names oj the person or persons ti. touted therein, ur for what ust, benefit t or on whose at, .>mif, \mk /,i,/ ■ ij n \o tmiiJt "i i/mitiwn it. Sect. I. In all cases where the injure. I hai ui nth-rest in such life or lives, event or events, no great- 1 sum shall be rei overed or received from the insurer or insnrers than the amount or value of the inte- rest of the insured in such life or lives orothei event or events. — Sect. 3. No insurance shall be made by any person or persons, bodies po- litic or corporate, on the life or lives of any person or persons, on my othei event or events whatsoever, where the person or peryms, for whose use or benefit, or nn whose accuunl such policy or policies shall be made, shall have no interest, or by way of gaining or wager- ing 1 ] and that every insurance mute contrary to the true intent and meanine ol this act, shall be null and void to all intents and pur- poses w batsoever.— Sect. I. It shall not be lawful to make any policy or policies on the life or A creditor has an insurable interest in the life of his debtor ; but it was decided, in a case which arose out of a policy on the life of the late Mr. Pitt, that if, after the death of a debtor whose life is insured by a creditor, and before any action is brought on the policy, the debt be paid, no action will Re. All insurance offices either insert in their policies or refer in them to a declaration Bigned by the insured, setting forth bis age, or the age of the party upon whom he is making an insurance ; whe- ther he has or has not had the small-pox, gout, &c. ; " that he is not afflicted with any disorder that tends to the shortening of life;" that this declaration is to be the basis of the contract between him and the society ; and that, if there be any untrue averment in it, all the monies paid to the society Upon account of the insurance shall be forfeited to them. — (See Form, post.) The condition as to the party not being afflicted with any disorder that tends to the shortening of life is vague, and has given rise to a good deal of discussion. But it is now settled that this condition is sufficiently complied with, if the insured be in a reasonably good state of health ; and though he may be afflicted with some disease, yet, if it can be shown that this disease does not tend to shorten life, and was not, in fact, the cause of the party's death, the insurer will not be exonerated : " Such a warranty," says Lord Mansfield, "can never mean, that a man has not in him the seeds of some disorder. We are all born with the seeds of mortality in us. The only question is, whether t lie in- sured was in a reasonably good state of health, and such a life as ought to be insured on common terms." — (See Marshall on Insurance, book iii. ; Park on Insurance, c. 22.) Policies of life insurance must be on stamped paper, the duty being 1 Where it shall amount to 500/ and not to 1/00/. - - 21. as follows:— viz. — — 1,000/. — 3.000!. - - 3/. _ _ 3,000/. — 5,000!. - - At. Where the sum in the policy shall not amount to 500!. - 11. \ — — 5,000/. and upwards - - 51. We subjoin a statement of the terms and conditions on which the Sun Life Assurance and Equita- ble Societies transact business, and a copy of one of the policies of the former upon the life of a person aged 30. insuring his own life for 1,000/. The conditions of most of the other societies are similar, and may be learned by any one, on applying either at the head offices in town, or at their agents' in the country. The premiums demanded by the principal offices are exhibited in the annexed Table. Sun Life.— An insurance for a term of years, or for the whole continuance of life, is a contract on the part of the office to continue Hie assurance during that term, on the payment of a certain annual premium, out the assured may drop it, whenever the end is answered for which the assurance was made. The person whose life is proposed for assurance, is required to appear either before the manasers at the office in London, or before an agent in the country ; in default of which the non-appearance fine must be paid when the assurance is effected ; which, when the term is I year, is 10s. for every 100/. assured. When the term ex> r. but does not exceed 7 years, it is 15*. for every 100!. And whe ii the term exceeds 7 years, the fine is 1 per cent. Reference to be made to 2 persons of repute, to ascertain the iden- tity of the person appearing. Any premium remaining unpaid more than 15 days after the time stipulated in the policy, such policy becomes void ; but the defaulter producing satisfactory proof to the managers, of the health of the person on whose life "the assurance was made, and paying the said premium within 3 calendar months, together with the additional sum of 10*. upon every 100/. assured by such policy, then such poli- cy is revived, and continues in force. O adttums of Assurances made by Persons on their own Lives. The assurance to be void, if the person whose life is assured shall depart beyond the limits of Europe ; shall die upon the seas (except in anv whole-decked vessel or steam-boat in passing between any one part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in- cluding the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Aldemey, and Sark, and any Other part thereof; or in passing between any port of the said United Kingdom, and any port on the continent of Europe between Hamburgh and Bordeaux, both inclusive) ; or shall enter into or engage in any military or naval service whatsoever, without the previous consent of the Society ; or shall die by suicide, duelling, or the hands of justice; or shall not be, at the time the assurance is made, in good health. Conditions of Assurance, made try Persoris on the Lives of others. The party on wh^se behalf the assurance is made, must be inte rested in the life of the other to the full amount assured thereon. The assurance to be void, if the person whole life is assured shall depart beyond the limits of Europe ; s all die upon the seas (except in anv whole decked vessel or steam-boat in parsing between any one part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in- cluding the islands of Guernsey, Jersey. Alderney, and Sark, and any other part thereof; or in passing between any port in the said United Kinglom, and any port on the continent of Europe between Hamburgh and Bordeaux, both inclusive) ; or shall enter into or en gage in any military or nava! service whatsoever, without the pre- vious consent of the Society ; or shall not be, at the time the assur- ance is made, in good health. Assurances on the lives of persons engaged in the am y or navy, or going beyond the limits of Europe, may be made by special agreement. All claims are paid within 3 months after certificates (according to the required forms) of the death and burial of the deceased are approved by the managers. Form of a Proposal for Assurance. Name, and rank or profession of the life to be assured. Present residence. Place of birth. Da'eof birth. Age next birthday. Sum, Term. Reference to a medical practitioner, to-\ ascertain the present and ordinary / state of health of the person whose r Life is proposed to be assured. J Has he ever had gout or asthma, or any fit or fits ? Has he ever been afflicted with rupture? Has he ever exhibited any symptom of consumption of the lungs? Is he afflicted with any disorder tending to shorten life? Has he had the small-pox or the cow-pox? Whether the person whose life is proposed to be assured, intends to appear at the office ? In whose name or behalf the policy is desired ? Date of proposal. Annual notices > to be sent to > Form of Declaration to be made and signed try or on behalf of a Person making an Assurance on his or her own Life, I born in the parish of in the county of on the day of and now residing at in the county of being desirous of making an assurance with the managers for the Sun Life Assurance Society, in the sum of L. upon and for the continuance of my own life, for the term of Do hereby declare, that my age does not exceed years; that I have had the * that I have had the gout, asthma, rupture, nor any fit or fits, and that I am not afflicted with any disorder which tends to the shortening of life ; and this declaration is to be the basis of the contract between me and the Society ; and if any untrue averment is contained in this declaration, in setting forth my age, state of health, profession, oc- cupation, or circumstances, then all monies which shall have been paid to the said Society, upon account of the assurance so made by me, shall be forfeited. Dated the day of 18 Form of Declaration to be made and signed by or on behalf of a Person who proposes to make an Assurance on the life of anotfur, I now resident at in the county of desirous of assuring w of L. county of in the year in the countv of in the life of the said amount oi the said si being ith the Sun Life Assurance Society, for the sum for the term of on the life of born in the parish of in the on the day of and now resident at Do declare, that I have an interest to the full m of L. ; that to the best of * Insert small pox or cow-pox, as the case may require. 92 INSURANCE (LIFE). my knowledge and belief the age of the said does not exceed years : that he has had 'he * that he had the gout, asthma, rupture, nor any fit or fits, and that he is not afflicted with any disorder tending to shorten life; and this declara- tion is to be the basis of the contract between me and the said Socie- ty ; and if there be any untrue averment therein, all monies which shail have been paid to the Society upon account of the assurance made inconsequence thereof, shall be forfeited. Dated the day of 18 . * Insert small-pox or cow-pox, as the case may require. Policy by the Sun Life Assurance Society for 1,0007., on the Life of A. B-, aged Thirty, insuring his own Life No. - — SUN LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY. This Policy of Assurance witnesseth, that, whereas A. B. Esq. of Square, London, be- ing desirous of making an assurance upon his own life, for the whole duration thereof, and having subscribed, or caused to be subscribed, and delivered into this office, a declaration setting forth his ordinary and present state of health, wherein it is declared that the age of the said A. B. did not then exceed 30 years ; and having paid to the managers for the Sun Life Assurance Society, at their office in Cornhill, in the city of London, the sum of twenty-four pounds eleven shillings and eight pence sterling, as a consideration for the assurance of the sum under-mentioned for one year, from the twentieth day of January, 1834. Now know all Men by these Presents, that in case the said assured shall happen to die at any time within the term of one year, as above set forth, the stock and funds of this Society shall he sub- ject and liable to pay and make good to the executors, administrators, or assigns, of the said assured, within three months after the demise of the said assured shall have been duly certified to the ma- nagers aforesaid, at their said office, the sum of one thousand pounds sterling, of lawful money of Great Britain. It is hereby agreed, that this policy may continue in force from year to year, until the expiration of the term first above-mentioned, provided that the said assured shall duly pay, or cause to be paid, to the managers, at their said office, on or before the nineteenth day of October next ensuing, the sum of twenty-four pounds eleven shillings and eight pence sterling, and the like sum annually, on or be- fore the day aforesaid ; which annual payments shall be accepted, at every such period, as a full consideration for such assurance. And it is hereby further agreed, that the assurance by this policy shall be extended during peace, to the risk of the above-named A. B. Esq. dying upon the sea in any whole-decked vessel or steam- boat, in passing between anyone part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, including the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Sark, and any other part thereof; or in passing be- tween any port in the said United Kingdom, and any port on the continent of Europe, between Ham- burgh and Bordeaux, both inclusive. Provided nevertheless, that should the said assured depart beyond the limits of Europe, die upon the seas (except as above stated), or engage in any military or naval service whatsoever, within the term for which this policy is granted ; or should the assurance have been obtained through any misrepresentation of the age, state of health, or description of the assured ; or should the said as- sured die by duelling, suicide, or the hands of justice ; then this policy, and every thing appertaining thereto, shall cease, be void, and of none effect. In witness whereof, we, three of the managers for the said Society, have hereunto set our hands and seals, this twentieth day of January, 1834. C. D. (l. s.) Signed, sealed, and delivered, F. F. (L. 8.) being first duly stamped. J. K. G. H. (l. s.) Table of Premiums. The following tabular statement shows the premiums demanded by the principal Life Insurance Societies for insuring 100/. at every different age from 15 to 60, for the whole term of life. British Eagle. Age. Alliance and Sun. Amicable. Asylum. Commer- cial. Crown. Economic. Equitable. European Guardian. Male. Female. L. s. d. L. s. d. L. s. d. L. s. d. L. >. d. /.. j. d. L. $. d. L. !. d. L. s. d. L. j. d. L. t. d. IS 1 12 8 1 15 6 1 7 9 1 10 1 15 9 1 10 8 1 18 7 1 18 9 1 13 7 1 16 2 16 1 13 6 1 16 6 1 8 6 1 11 I 16 7 1 11 5 1 19 8 1 19 7 I 14 1 17 2 17 1 14 3 1 17 6 1 9 3 1 12 1 17 5 1 12 3 2 8 2 5 . 1 15 4 1 18 2 18 1 15 I 1 18 6 - 1 10 1 1 13 1 18 3 1 13 2 1 8 2 I 4 1 16 2 1 19 2 19 1 16 1 19 6 I 10 11 1 14 1 19 1 1 13 10 2 2 8 2 2 3 1 17 1 2 1 20 1 16 11 2 6 1 11 9 1 15 1 19 II 1 14 7 2 3 7 2 3 2 1 12 7 I 18 I 2 1 21 1 17 11 2 1 6 1 12 7 1 16 2 10 1 15 5 2 4 6 2 4 2 I 13 5 1 19 2 1 10 22 1 18 11 2 2 6 I 13 6 1 17 2 1 9 1 16 3 2 5 4 2 5 3 1 14 4 1 19 11 2 2 8 23 2 1 2 3 6 1 14 5 I 18 2 2 9 1 17 2 2 6 3 2 6 4 1 15 4 2 10 2 3 6 24 2 1 3 2 4 6 1 15 5 1 19 2 3 9 1 18 1 2 7 1 2 7 5 1 16 5 2 1 10 2 4 5 25 2 2 6 2 5 6 1 16 5 2 2 4 10 1 19 2 8 1 2 8 7 1 17 6 2 2 9 2 5 4 26 2 3 9 2 6 6 1 17 6 2 1 2 5 10 2 2 9 I 2 9 9 1 IS 8 2 3 9 2 6 4 27 2 5 2 2 7 6 1 18 6 2 2 2 6 11 2 1 2 10 1 2 II 1 19 9 2 4 10 2 7 4 28 2 6 7 2 8 6 1 19 8 2 3 2 8 1 2 2 2 11 I 2 12 3 2 9 2 5 10 2 8 4 29 2 7 11 2 9 6 2 10 2 4 2 9 2 2 3 I 2 12 3 2 13 7 2 1 8 2 6 11 2 9 6 30 2 9 2 2 10 6 2 2 2 6 2 10 ■I 2 4 3 2 13 5 2 15 2 2 6 2 8 1 2 10 7 31 2 10 6 2 116 2 3 3 2 6 2 11 6 2 5 s 2 14 7 2 16 6 2 3 4 2 9 3 2 11 10 32 2 1! 10 2 12 6 2 4 6 2 7 2 12 9 2 6 8 2 15 9 2 13 2 3 10 2 10 6 2 13 33 2 13 4 2 14 2 5 10 2 8 2 14 2 8 2 17 I 2 19 9 2 4 4 2 II 10 2 14 4 34 2 14 11 2 15 6 2 7 3 2 9 6 2 15 4 2 9 5 2 18 6 3 1 6 2 4 IU 2 13 2 2 15 8 35 2 16 8 2 17 2 8 9 2 11 2 16 9 2 10 11 2 19 10 3 3 4 5 ■3 4 2 5 6 2 14 7 2 17 36 2 18 5 2 18 6 2 10 3 2 13 6 2 18 2 2 12 6 3 1 4 3 5 2 6 2 2 16 2 18 6 37 3 4 3 2 II 10 2 15 2 19 in 2 14 2 3 2 in 3 7 2 7 ■2 17 6 3 38 3 2 4 3 1 6 2 13 6 2 16 6 3 1 2 2 15 11 3 4 6 3 9 2 7 10 2 19 1 3 1 7 39 3 4 5 3 3 2 15 3 2 18 3 2 10 2 17 9 3 6 2 3 12 2 8 10 3 9 3 3 3 40 3 6 6 3 5 2 17 1 3 3 4 7 2 19 9 3 7 11 3 15 2 9 10 3 2 6 3 5 41 3 8 7 3 7 6 2 19 3 2 3 6 5 3 1 10 3 9 9 3 17 9 2 10 II 3 4 3 3 6 9 42 3 10 9 3 10 3 1 3 4 3 8 4 3 4 1 3 11 8 4 1 2 12 3 6 3 3 8 8 43 3 '2 11 3 12 6 3 3 2 3 6 3 10 6 3 6 6 3 13 8 4 4 4 2 13 3 3 8 3 3 10 8 44 3 15 3 3 15 6 3 5 4 3 8 3 12 8 3 9 3 15 9 4 7 11 2 14 7 3 10 5 3 12 8 45 3 17 8 3 18 6 3 7 9 3 10 3 15 3 11 9 3 17 11 4 11 8 2 16 3 12 7 3 14 11 46 4 5 4 1 6 3 10 3 3 12 3 17 6 3 14 7 4 2 4 15 It 2 17 B 3 15 3 17 3 47 4 3 3 4 5 3 12 II 3 14 6 4 1 3 17 8 4 2 7 6 2 19 1 3 17 5 3 19 8 48 4 6 6 4 9 3 15 9 3 17 4 2 II 4 11 4 5 1 5 4 6 3 9 4 4 2 4 49 4 10 2 4 12 6 3 18 9 3 19 6 4 5 10 4 4 4 4 7 10 5 9 t, 3 2 6 4 2 8 4 5 1 SO 4 14 2 4 16 6 4 2 4 6 4 8 11 4 8 4 10 8 5 14 7 3 4 4 4 5 6 4 8 51 4 18 9 5 4 5 S 4 10 4 12 1 4 11 11 4 13 6 6 3 3 6 3 4 8 6 4 11 52 5 3 6 5 4 6 4 9 2 4 13 2 4 15 3 4 16 1 4 16 5 6 6 4 3 8 4 4 II 7 4 14 2 53 5 8 7 5 8 6 4 13 2 4 15 6 4 18 6 5 6 4 19 7 6 12 9 3 10 S 4 15 4 17 5 64 5 14 1 5 13 4 17 7 5 1 5 1 U 6 5 3 6 2 10 6 19 9 3 13 4 18 7 5 11 66 5 19 11 5 18 6 2 3 5 5 5 5 7 5 10 3 6 6 4 7 7 2 3 15 8 5 2 6 5 4 8 56 6 6 4 6 3 5 7 4 5 9 6 5 9 6 5 15 7 5 10 1 7 15 1 3 18 6 5 6 8 5 8 7 67 6 13 2 6 8 6 5 12 9 5 13 2 5 13 6 6 1 3 5 14 8 3 6 4 1 7 5 II 2 6 12 10 58 7 5 6 14 5 18 6 5 18 6 18 6 7 4 5 18 2 8 12 7 4 4 5 15 8 5 17 4 59 7 7 9 7 6 4 5 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 13 9 6 2 s 9 2 4 4 8 7 6 7 6 2 2 60 7 14 11 7 6 6 6 10 8 6 7 2 6 7 2 7 7 6 7 4 9 13 4 12 4 6 6 S 6 7 2 INSURANCE (LIFE} 93 Table of Premiums — continued. Age. London, Birchio Lane. Loik Life MemL ir' Nor* ch. Pelican. Promoter. I'm'. 1 Empire. rjiiiventty. West of England. Scottish W nl IWs' Fund. 1 oion. L. s. d. L. >. d. /.. j. A L. t. ,/. /.. j. d L. ... d L. s. d. /. j. d. L. . d. L. i. d. 1 . 1 N 9 1 11 11 1 7 11 1 14 10 1 16 8 1 14 9 I ii, , 1 II 6 16 1 17 1 1 15 9 1 12 9 1 8 8 1 15 9 1 17 'l 1 15 '• 1 17 6 1 12 5 17 1 18 1 1 16 9 1 13 6 1 9 5 1 16 9 1 is 8 1 16 s 1 1* 6 1 3 6 l» 1 19 1 17 8 1 14 4 1 111 1 I 17 8 1 19 7 1 17 ii 1 111 7 1117 19 1 19 11 1 [g 6 1 15 3 1 10 11 1 IS 7 2 7 1 is i. ' II 7 1 15 8 20 2 9 1 19 6 1 16 1 1 11 8 1 19 6 2 1 '■ 1 ID :( 2 1 6 1 16 9 21 2 1 5 2 4 6 2 6 1 16 10 1 12 6 2 -, 2 2 4 2 n 2 2 5 1 17 9 22 2 2 2 5 6 2 1 3 1 17 7 1 13 5 2 1 3 2 3 1 • 2 ii 2 3 3 1 In 10 23 2 2 7 2 6 6 2 2 1 18 4 1 14 4 2 2 1 2 1 ii 2 I 3 2 4 1 1 19 10 24 2 3 1 2 7 2 ! 9 1 19 2 l r. 5 2 3 2 4 9 2 2 6 2 4 11 2 10 25 2 3 8 2 8 2 3 8 2 1 1 16 5 2 3 II 2 5 9 2 3 3 2 5 10 2 1 10 26 2 4 3 2 9 2 4 8 2 1 3 1 17 6 2 4 11 2 6 8 2 4 ii 2 10 2 2 10 27 2 5 1 2 10 2 5 8 2 2 7 1 18 8 2 5 II 2 7 7 2 5 2 7 10 2 3 10 2S 2 5 11 2 11 2 6 8 2 3 11 1 19 11 2 7 2 8 7 2 6 2 8 II 2 4 11 29 2 6 10 2 12 6 2 7 9 2 5 2 2 1 2 8 1 2 9 8 2 7 2 10 2 6 1 30 2 7 10 2 13 6 2 8 10 2 6 4 2 2 2 2 9 2 2 10 II 2 8 2 11 1 2 7 3 31 2 8 10 2 14 6 2 10 2 7 7 2 3 3 2 10 4 2 II II 2 9 2 12 3 2 8 5 32 2 9 11 2 16 2 11 2 8 !0 2 4 5 2 11 ii 2 13 2 in 3 2 13 6 2 9 9 33 2 11 1 2 17 2 12 3 2 10 3 2 5 8 2 12 '.< 2 14 3 2 11 3 2 14 9 2 11 1 34 2 12 4 2 18 6 2 13 6 2 1 9 2 7 1 2 14 1 2 15 (1 2 12 'i 2 16 1 2 12 5 35 2 13 8 3 2 14 10 2 3 5 2 8 7 2 15 ii 2 16 II 2 13 10 2 17 6 2 13 10 36 2 15 1 3 1 6 2 16 2 2 !5 1 2 10 1 2 16 II 2 IS 4 2 15 3 2 19 2 15 4 37 2 16 8 3 3 2 17 6 2 16 10 2 11 8 2 IS 4 2 19 9 2 16 s 3 6 2 16 11 33 2 18 2 3 4 'i 2 19 2 18 9 2 13 6 2 19 11 3 1 4 2 18 3 2 7 2 18 6 39 2 19 11 3 6 3 6 3 6 2 15 2 3 1 l. 3 2 11 2 19 6 3 3 9 3 2 40 3 1 8 3 8 3 2 3 2 8 2 17 3 3 2 3 4 7 3 1 3 3 5 6 3 1 11 41 3 3 6 3 10 3 3 6 3 2 2 18 10 3 4 10 3 6 4 3 2 10 3 7 3 3 3 9 42 3 5 6 3 12 3 5 2 3 7 8 3 8 3 6 s 3 8 1 3 4 6 3 -i .1 3 5 8 43 3 7 8 3 14 3 7 3 10 4 3 2 6 3 8 s 3 in 3 6 4 3 11 3 3 7 8 44 3 10 3 16 3 9 3 13 1 3 4 6 3 10 8 3 12 3 8 3 3 13 4 3 9 8 45 3 12 6 3 18 3 11 3 16 1 3 6 7 3 12 10 3 14 1 3 10 3 3 15 6 3 II 10 46 3 15 2 4 3 13 8 3 18 8 3 8 11 3 15 3 3 t, 2 3 12 2 3 17 9 3 14 1 47 3 IS 2 4 2 6 3 16 3 4 1 6 3 II 5 3 17 9 3 18 6 3 14 6 4 3 3 16 6 48 4 1 5 4 5 » 3 19 6 4 4 8 3 14 2 4 7 4 4 3 16 9 4 2 9 3 19 49 4 4 10 4 8 4 2 9 4 8 2 3 17 3 4 3 6 4 4 4 3 19 3 4 5 6 4 1 7 50 4 8 5 4 11 4 6 4 12 2 4 8 4 6 6 4 7 6 4 1 8 4 8 4 4 4 3 51 4 12 3 4 14 4 9 8 4 16 7 4 4 7 4 9 9 4 10 9 4 4 3 4 11 2 4 8 1 52 4 16 1 4 17 4 13 3 5 1 3 4 8 8 4 13 4 14 1 4 6 9 4 14 2 4 12 2 53 5 1 5 6 4 17 i) 5 6 4 4 13 1 4 16 5 4 17 8 4 9 9 4 17 4 4 16 5 54 5 4 2 6 5 5 1 5 11 7 4 17 10 5 6 5 1 4 4 12 9 5 8 5 11 55 5 8 4 5 9 6 5 5 3 5 17 4 5 2 9 5 4 6 5 5 4 4 15 9 5 4 2 5 5 9 56 5 12 S 5 14 5 9 6 6 3 7 5 8 4 5 8 6 5 9 7 4 19 5 7 11 5 1 i 9 57 5 17 2 5 19 5 13 6 6 10 4 5 14 2 5 12 6 5 14 5 2 6 5 11 II 5 16 1 58 6 1 10 6 4 5 17 6 6 17 5 6 4 5 17 5 1- 2 5 6 6 5 16 1 6 1 9 59 6 6 10 6 9 6 6 2 6 7 4 6 6 6 7 6 1 9 6 2 8 5 10 6 6 7 6 7 10 60 6 12 2 6 15 (i 6 7 :) 7 11 7 6 12 to 6 7 ii 6 7 4 5 14 9 6 5 4 6 14 3 The following offices require the same premiums as the Equitable ; viz. Atlas, Globe, Imperial, Law Life, London Life Association (for persons not members), Palladium, Provident, Rock, Royal Exchange, Union, Westminster. The following are the premiums demanded by the Sun Life Insurance Society, for insu- rances on joint lives and survivorships. Joint Lives— A Table of Annual Premiums payable during the Joint Continuance of Two Lives, for assuring One Hundred Pounds, to be paid as soon as either of the Two shall drop. Age next Annual Age next Age next Annual Aze next Age next Annual Birthday. Birthday. Premium. Birlhday. Birthday. Premium. Birlhday. Birthday. Premium. £ s. d. £ S. d. £ s. d. 10 10 2 7 5 20 35 3 17 3 35 45 5 7 5 15 2 11 40 4 6 1 50 6 1 11 20 2 14 6 45 4 16 1 55 7 6 5 25 2 19 4 50 5 11 7 60 9 6 30 35 3 5 3 3 11 11 55 60 6 16 8 8 11 1 40 40 5 5 8 40 45 4 1 1 4 11 5 25 25 3 9 6 50 6 7 9 50 5 7 2 30 3 14 10 55 7 11 8 55 60 6 12 5 8 6 11 35 40 45 50 4 11 4 9 6 4 19 3 5 14 7 60 9 5 5 45 45 50 6 1 6 13 11 15 15 2 14 5 20 2 17 9 55 6 19 7 55 7 16 11 25 30 35 3 2 5 3 8 3 3 14 9 60 8 13 11 60 9 9 8 30 30 3 19 10 50 50 7 5 6 40 4 3 10 35 4 5 6 55 8 7 4 45 50 55 4 14 5 9 8 6 14 11 40 45 50 4 13 10 5 3 2 5 18 3 60 9 18 11 55 55 9 8 2 60 8 9 6 55 60 7 3 1 8 17 5 60 10 18 11 20 20 25 3 11 3 5 4 60 60 12 8 10 35 35 4 10 9 30 3 10 11 40 4 18 6 94 INSURANCE (LIFE). Survivorship— A Table of Annual Premiums payable during the Joint Continuance of Two Lives, for assuring One Hundred Pounds, to be paid at the Decease of Oue Person, A., provided another, B., be then living. Axeof B.,the Age of B.,the Age of A., Age of B-, the Life .i : linsl the Life Life against the Life Armual V which 'he As- Premium. to be as- Premium. surwl. SUnilCt- IS tO be made. sured. be made. sured. be made. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 10 10 1 3 9 30 10 2 2 5 50 10 4 7 2 20 1 4 7 20 2 2 1 20 4 7 31) 1 2 10 30 1 19 11 30 4 3 3 40 1 1 6 40 • 1 18 6 40 4 1 7 50 1 50 1 15 50 3 12 9 60 18 5 60 1 12 2 60 3 1 6 70 16 11 70 1 9 10 70 2 11 4 80 15 7 80 1 7 4 80 2 3 2 20 10 1 9 11 40 10 2 19 7 60 10 7 8 6 20 1 10 6 20 2 19 6 20 7 8 5 30 1 8 10 30 2 15 4 30 7 5 3 40 1 6 7 40 2 12 10 40 7 4 11 50 1 4 7 50 2 6 2 50 6 17 5 60 1 2 8 60 2 6 60 6 4 5 70 1 9 70 1 16 3 70 5 8 8 60 19 3 80 1 13 6 80 4 14 4 From the specimens nf premiums in the two preceding Tables, the reader will easily judge of the proportional premiums for any combination of two ages not inserted in them. Instead of a jrross sum payable at the decease of A. provided B. be then living, a reversionary an- nuity on the remainder of the life of B. after the decease of A. may be insured by the payment of an annual premium during the joint continuance of the two lives; which annual premium may be learnt by application at the office. Equitable Assurance Society. — The following is the Declaration required t • be made and signed in the Office, by or on V:t Behalf ff a Person * who piop-jses to make an Assurance on his or her own Life. being desirous of becoming a member of the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorships, and intending to make as surance iu the sum of upon and for the continuance of my own life, and having perused and considered that * clause of the deed of settlement o* the said Society which requires a declaration in writing of the age, state of health, and other circumstances attend ing the person whose life shall be proposed to be assured, do hereby declare an I set fur;h, Thit my ase does not exceed J that I have had the small pox; an) I ave had the gout; and that I am not afflicted with any disorder which tends to the shorten- ing of life ; and I do hereby agree that this declaration be the basis of the contract between the said Society and me, and that if any untrue averment is contained in this declaration, all monies which shall have been paid to the Society upon account of the assurauce made in consequence thereof, shall be forfeited. Dated the day of in the year of our Lord Form of a Proposal to be presented to a IVeekly Court of Di- rectors. Name and profession of the life to be assured Place and date of birth. Place of residence. Age. Sum. Terra. By whom made. To give reference to two t persons of good repute, (one, if possible, of the medical profession,! to ascertain the present and general st-ite of health of the life to be assured. If had the small-pox. If vaccinated. If afflicted with the gout. If ever ruptured * The Clawe which is referred to in the Declaration. That every person desirous of making assurance with the Society, shall sign or execute a declaration in writing (in the presence of one credible witnesi, who shall attest the same,) setting forth the age, state of health, profession, occupation, and other circumstances at- tending the person or" persons whose life' or lives shall be proposed tn be assured ; which declaration shall be the basis of the contract between (he said Society and the person desning lo make assurance with them ; in which declaration, if any artful, false, or fraudulent representations shall be used, and the same shall at any time there- after be discovered, from thenceforth the sums which shall have been paid to the Society on account of any assurance so fraudulently ob- tained, shall be forfeited to the use of the Society; and all claims to be made on that behalf shall cease, determine, and be void, to all intents and purposes whatsoever. t Parties who do not appear before the Court of Directors are re* quirrd to give a reference to 3 persons for an account of the present and general state of their health. A Table of Annual Premiums payable during the Continuance of Two Joint Lives for Assuring One Hundred Pounds, to be paid when either of the Lives shall drop. Age. Age. L. 3. .i Age. Age. L. s. d. Age. Age. L. t. d. Age. Age. L. s. d Age. Age. L. s. d. 10 10 2 17 1 15 35 4 3 1 20 67 9 13 9 30 60 7 15 I) 45 45 6 7 4 15 3 1 1 40 4 10 4 25 25 4 10 67 9 18 1 50 6 17 9 20 3 5 7 45 4 19 5 30 4 5 i) 35 35 4 19 55 7 11 25 3 9 3 50 5 11 3 35 4 10 3 40 5 5 6 60 8 9 6 30 3 13 9 55 6 6 1 40 4 17 4 45 5 18 in 67 10 11 1 35 3 19 6 60 7 6 45 5 6 'J 50 6 5 50 50 7 7 8 40 4 6 10 67 9 9 5 50 5 17 in 55 6 19 s 55 8 3 45 4 15 11 20 20 3 13 11 55 6 12 6 60 7 18 fi 60 8 18 2 50 5 7 in 25 3 17 s 60 7 12 5 67 10 1 •J 67 10 18 10 55 6 2 8 30 4 1 9 67 9 15 '.i 40 40 5 11 9 55 55 8 12 2 60 7 2 9 35 4 7 3 30 30 4 8 1 1 45 5 19 9 60 9 9 67 9 6 3 40 4 14 6 35 4 14 1 50 6 10 fi 67 11 8 5 IS 15 3 5 45 5 3 (i 40 5 11 55 7 4 5 60 60 10 4 9 20 3 9 6 50 5 15 1 45 5 9 6 60 8 3 1 67 12 2 1 25 3 13 1 55 6 10 Si 50 6 1 ii 67 10 5 ii 67 67 13 15 8 30 3 17 60 7 10 'J 55 6 15 5 An addition of 22 per cent, computed upon the premium, is charged upon military persons; and an addition of eleven per cent, on officers on half-pay, officers in the militia, fencibles, and the like levies ; also on persons not having had the small-pox, or having had the gout. Persons preferring the payment of a gross sum or single premium upon an assurance for anycertain term, are chargeable in a due proportion to the annual premium for such term. Every person making any assurance with the Society, pays 5*. in the name of entrance money ; and if the sum assured exceeds 100/., the entrance money is charged after the rate of 5s. for every 100/. But if the person upon whose life an assurance is proposed, does not appear before the directors, the entrance money is charged after the rate of 1/. for every 100/. INSURANCE (LIFE), 95 The following are the premiums demanded by tl e Bquitabie Society for insuring 100Z., or an equi- valent annuity on the contingency of one life's surviving the other : — Age.. Annuity equivalent to lOOf. to be paid from the Death of the Life assured, during the Ages. Annuity equivalent to 1001. to Be paid from the Death of the Life assured, during the Ke- Life to be I. if against v* hich Un- Premium. Life to be Life against which the Premium. USUTedi Remainder of the other assured. Assurance is mainder of the other to be made. Life. to he made. Life. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 10 10 1 8 6 5 14 6 40 50 2 12 10 9 16 6 20 1 9 1 6 14 10 till 2 9 4 12 14 3 30 1 8 3 7 14 11 70 2 5 11 18 5 6 40 1 7 8 9 5 6 80 2 1 10 29 19 10 50 60 1 6 11 1 6 11 13 15 13 5 50 10 4 11 5 1 4 70 1 4 11 23 13 20 4 1 10 5 16 2 80 1 3 4 40 10 8 30 40 50 4 1 3 17 10 3 13 10 (i 12 2 7 16 9 9 12 8 20 10 1 16 6 5 6 11 20 1 17 6 4 1 60 3 7 7 12 6 8 30 1 15 9 7 6 70 3 1 6 17 11 5 40 1 14 8 8 4 11 80 2 15 28 12 6 50 60 1 13 6 1 12 1 10 1 9 13 7 60 10 5 Jfi 9 4 19 3 70 1 10 6 18 12 8 20 5 18 1 5 12 10 80 1 8 3 30 9 6 30 40 50 5 16 3 5 14 5 10 7 6 7 7 7 10 10 9 8 30 10 2 5 5 5 5 8 20 2 6 6 2 9 60 5 2 4 12 5 6 30 2 4 6 6 19 6 70 4 9 10 17 5 8 40 2 2 9 8 3 8 . 80 3 17 11 27 19 10 50 60 2 11 1 18 10 10 6 13 70 10 8 1 4 17 8 70 1 10 7 18 12 10 20 8 2 9 5 10 5 80 1 13 9 30 9 3 30 8 10 6 4 40 50 7 18 7 7 15 6 7 5 5 9 6 40 10 2 19 2 5 3 6 20 2 19 10 5 19 9 60 7 8 8 12 3 30 2 18 2 6 16 8 70 6 10 8 17 1 8 40 2 15 11 8 1 80 5 8 9 27 5 11 - It is stated by Mr. Morgan, in his Account of the Equitable Society already referred to, that the number of insurances in that institution for terms of years does not much exceed one hundredth part of those for the whole period of life ; and that the business of the office at present is almost wholly confined to the assurance of persons on their men lives — those on the lives of others, whether for terms or for continuance, being, in consequence of the commission money allowed to agents and attorneys, engrossed by the new offices. — (Account uf the Equitable Society, p. 53.) [The reader is referred to Kent's Commentaries on American Law, Lecture 48th, for information concerning the law of marine insurance in the United States, — and to the 50th Lecture of the same work for the law relating to life and fire insurances. It is to be regretted that life insurance is so little practised in the United States. There is no country to which its benefits are more important. That country in which enterprise and activity is most rapidly developed and becomes characteristic of a people is precisely the country where the practice of life insurance accomplishes the most in alleviating cala- mity and in securing social comfort. The Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company was incorporated in 1818; since which time the privilege of effecting insurances upon lives has been conferred on a number of other companies. Of these the principal are the Baltimore Life Insurance Company, the Pennsylvania Company and the Girard Life Insurance and Trust Company in Phila- delphia, the New York Life Insurance and Trust Company and the Farmers' Loan and Trust Company in the city of New York. It may be stated that the Girard Life Insurance and Trust Company, which commenced business in 1836, is the only one in the United States that has offered, to those who make insurance for the whole of life, a bonus, or addi- tion to the value of their policy, after the expiration of a term of years. This practice has, in several of the London offices, contributed greatly to the benefit of both the insurers and the insured. Calculations of the earnings upon life insurance are usually made after a lapse of seven years, and a proportion of the amount is added to the policies for the whole of life. No tables of mortality of a general nature have been constructed in the United States. It is, however, believed by those who have directed their attention to the subject, that the duration of life in the northern and middle states is equal to its duration in England and Scotland. Hence all insurances for lives have in this country been computed from the English tables, founded for the most part upon the Carlisle rates of mortality. The American policies of insurance, when they have reference to the lives of persons in the northern states, stipulate that they shall be void if the insured enter into the military or naval service, or in the event of his dying by suicide, in a duel, or by the hands of justice. They are also declared to be void if the insured should die on the high seas, or the great lakes ; or if he pass beyond the settled limits of the United States, or of the British pro- 96 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. vinces to the north of them, or south of the states of Virginia and Kentucky, without the consent of the insurers being first obtained. — Am. Ed.] INTEREST and ANNUITIES. Interest is the sum paid by the borrower of a sum of money, or of any sort of valuable produce, to the lender, for its use. The rate of interest, supposing the security for and facility of re-possessing the principal, or sum lent, to be equal, must obviously depend on what may be made by the employment of capital in industrious undertakings, or on the rate of profit. Where profits are high, as in the United States, interest is also high ; and where they are comparatively low, as in Holland and England, interest is proportionally low. In fact, the rate of interest is nothing more than the nett profit on capital : whatever returns are obtained by the borrower, beyond the interest he has agreed to pay, really accrue to him on account of risk, trouble, or skill, or of advantages of situation and connection. But besides fluctuations in the rate of interest caused by the varying productiveness of industry, the rate of interest on each particular loan must, of course, vary according to the supposed solvency of the borrowers, or the degree of risk supposed to be incurred by the lender, of either not recovering payment at all, or not recovering it at the stipulated term. No person of sound mind would lend on the personal security of an individual of doubtful character and solvency, and on mortgage over a valuable estate, at the same rate of interest. Wherever there is risk, it must be compensated to the lender by a higher premium or interest. And yet, obvious as this principle may appear, all governments have interfered with the adjustment of the terms of loans; some to prohibit interest altogether, and others to fix certain rates which it should be deemed legal to charge, and illegal to exceed. The preju- dice against taking interest seems to have principally originated in a mistaken view of some enactments of the Mosaical law — (see Michaelis on the Laics of Muses, vol. ii. pp. 327 — 353. Eng. ed.), and, a statement of Aristotle, to the effect that, as money did not produce money, no return could be equitably claimed by the lender! But whatever may have been the origin of this prejudice, it was formerly universal in Christendom; and is still supported by law in all Mohammedan countries. The famous reformer, Calvin, was one of the first who saw and exposed the absurdity of such notions — (see an extract from one of his epistles in M'Cu/loch's Political Economy, 2d ed. p. 510.) ; and the abuses caused by the prohibition, and the growing conviction of its impolicy, soon after led to its relaxation. In 1554, a statute was passed, authorising lenders to charge 10 per cent, interest. In 1624, the legal rate was reduced to 8 per cent. ; and in the reign of Queen Anne it was further reduced to 5 per cent., at which it still continues. It is enacted, by the statute (12 Ann. c. 16.) making this reduction, that "all persons who shall receive, by means of any corrupt bargain, loan, exchange, chevizance, or interest of any wares, merchan- dise, or other thing whatever, or by any deceitful way or means, or by any covin, engine, or deceitful conveyance for the forbearing or giving day of payment, for one whole year for their money or other thing, above the sum of hi. for 100/. for a year, shall forfeit for every such offence, the treble value of the monies, or other things, so lent, bargained," &c. It is needless to waste the reader's time by entering into any lengthened arguments to show the inexpediency and mischievous effect of such interferences. This has been done over and over again. It is plainly in no respect more desirable to limit the rate of interest, than it would be to limit the rate of insurance, or the prices of commodities. And though it were desirable, it cannot be accomplished. The real effect of all legislative enactments having such an object in view, is to increase, not diminish, the rate of interest. When the rate fixed by law is less than the market or customary rate, lenders and borrowers are obliged to resort to circuitous devices to evade the law; and as these devices are always attended with more or less trouble and risk, the rate of interest is proportionally enhanced. During the late war it was not uncommon for a person to be paying 10 or 12 per cent, for a loan, which, had there been no usury laws, he might have got for 6 or 7 per cent. Nei- ther is it by any means uncommon, when the rate fixed by law is more than the market rate, for borrowers to be obliged to pay more than they really stipulated for. It is singular than an enactment which contradicts the most obvious principles, and has been repeatedly condemned by committees of the legislature, should still be allowed to preserve a place in the statute book. Distinction of Simple and Compound Interest. — When a loan is made, it is usual to stipulate that the Interest upon it should lie regularly paid at the end of every year, halt" year, &r. A Inan of this sort is said tu hi' ;it simple interest. Ii is of the essence of such loan, that no part of the interest accruing upon it should lie added to the principal to form a new principal ; ami though payment of the interest were not made when it becomes due, the lender would not he emitted to charge interest upon such unpaid int<-rest. Thus, suppose inn;, were lent at simple interest at 5 percent., payable at the end of each year ; the lender would; at the end of 3 or 4 years, supposing him to have received no previ- ous payments, be entitled to IS/, or 201., anil no more. Sometimes, however, money or capital is invested so that the interest is not paid at the periods When it becomes due, but is progressively added to the principal; so that at every term a new prin- cipal is formed, consisting oftbe original principal, ami the successive accumulations of interest upon interest. Money invested in this way is said to be placed at compound intercut. INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 97 It appears not unreasonable, that when a borrower does not pay the interest he has contracted for at the period when it is due, be should pay interest upon such interest. This, however, is not allow- ed by the law of England ; imr is it allowed to make a loan at com] nd interest. Bui tins rule is often evaded, by taking a new obligation for the principal with the interest included, when the latter becomes due. Investments at compound interest are also very frequent. Thus, if an individual buy into the funds, and regularly buj fresh stock with the dividend's, the capita] will increase at compound interest ; and so in any similar ease. f Interest. — Interest is estimated at so much per cent, per annum, or by dividing th-> principal into 100 equal parts, and specifying how many of these parts arc paid yearly for its use. Thus 5 per cent., or 5 parts out of 100, means that 5/. are paid for the use of 100/. for a year, 10/. for the use of 200/., and '■>/. 10a. for the use of 50/. for the same period, ami so on. Suppose, now, that it is required to find the interest of 210/. 13s. for 3J years at 4 per cent, simple interest. In this case we must first divide the principal, 210/. 13s. into 100 parts, 4 of which will be the interest for 1 year ; and this being multiplied by 3V will give the interest for If.; years. But itistead of first dividing by 100, and then multiplying by 4, the result will be the same, and the process more expeditious, if we first multiply by 4, ana then divide by 100. Thus, — L. s. 210 13 principal. 4 rate per cent. 1,00)8,42 12 ( 8 8 6y 1 year's interest. 8,52 25 5 6| 3 years' interest. 12 4 4 3 A a year's Interest. 6,24 L. 29 9 93 3i years' interest. ' 4 i "' 96 It is almost superfluous to observe, that the same result would have been obtained by multiplying the product of the principal and rate by the number of years, and then dividing by 100. Hence, to find the interest of any sum at any rate per cent, for a year, multiply the sum by the rato per cent., and divide the product by 100. To find the interest of any sum for a number of years, multiply its interest for one year by the num- ber of years ; or, without calculating its interest for one year, multiply the principal by the rate per cent, aiid that product by the number of years, and divide the last product by 100. When the interest of any sum is required for a number of days, they must be treated as fractional parts of a year ; that is, we must multiply the interest of a year by them, and divide by 305. Suppose that it is required to find the interest of 210/. for 4 years 7 months and 25 days, at A\ per cent. — Principal - L. 210 Interest for 4 years = L. 37-SOOO Rate per cent. - 4A 6 months =■ £■ of 1 year = 4-7250 1 month = 1-6 of 6 months = -7S75 840 25 days . = -6472 105 L. 43-9597 = L. 43 19s. l\d. Interest for 1 year - L. 9-45 X 4 = L. 37-80 do for 4 years. 9*45 \ 25 o -I The interest for 25 days is = -6472: that is, it is equal to the interest for a year multiplied by the fraction ^A-. 365 36o Division by 100 is performed by cutting off two figures to the right. Many attempts have been made to contrive more expeditious processes than the above for calculat- ing interest. The following is the best : — Suppose it were required to find the interest upon 172/. for 107 days at 5 per cent. This forms what is called in arithmetical books a double rule of three question, and would be stated as follows : — £ Days. £ £ Days. 100 X 365 : 5 : : 172 X 107 : 2/. 10s. 4U. the interest required. Hence, to find the interest of any sum for any number of days at any rate per cent., multiply the sum by the number of days, and the product by the rate, and divide by 36,500 (365 X 100) ; the quotient is the interest required. When the rate is 5 per cent., or l-20th of the principal, all that is required is to divide the product of the sum multiplied by the days by 7,300 (365, the days in a year, multiplied by 20). Five per cent, interest being found by this extremely simple process, it is usual in practice to calcu- late 4 per cent, interest by deducting !-5th ; 3 per cent, by deducting 2-5ths ; 2£ per cent, by dividing by 2; 2 per cent, by taking the half of 4, and so on. In calculating interest upon accounts current, it is requisite to state the number of days between each receipt, or payment, and the date (commonly the 31st of December) to which the account current is made up. Thus, 172/. paid on the 15th of September, bearing interest to the 31st of December, 107 days. The amount of such interest may, then, be calculated as now explained, or by the aid of Tables. The reader will find, in the article Bookkeeping (p. 161.) an example of interest on an ac- count current computed as above, without referring to Tables. The 30th of June is, after the 31st of December, the most usual date to which accounts current aro made up, and interest calculated. In West India houses, the 30th of April is the common date, be- cause at that season the old crop of produce is generally sold off, and the new begins to arrive. It is of great importance, in calculating interest on accounts current, to be able readily to find the number of days from any day in any one month to any day in any other month. This may be done with the utmost ease by means of the Table on the following page. By this Table may be readily ascertained the number of days from any given day in the year to another. For instance, from the 1st of January to the 14th of August (first and last days included), there are 226 days. To find the number, look down the column headed January, to Number 11, and then look along in a parallel line to the column headed August, you find 226, the number required. To find the number of days between any other two given days, when they are both after the 1st of January, the number opposite the 1st day must, of course, be deducted from that opposite to the second. Thus, to find the number of days between the 13th of March and the 19th of August, deduct from 231, the number in the Table opposite to 19 and under August, 72, the number opposite to 13 and under March, and the remainder, 159, is the number required, last day included. In leap years, one must he added to the number after the 28th of February. For the mode of calculatinz discount, or of finding the present values of sums due at some future date, at simple interest, see Discount. Vol. II.— I 13 98 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. Table for ascertaining the Number of Days from any one Day in the Year to any other Day. £ i < ~ = % < 1 g §, - i it — 1 ". | 1 * bi < "a. O SB a 1 32 60 91 12! 152 1-2 213 241 274 305 335 17 ffi 76 11.7 157 168 198 1229 26i 290 I 321 351 2 33 SI 92 122 1 53 1-3 214 243 2-3 306 336 18 49 77 j 109 138 169 1'.-" 230 261 291 1 322 352 3 34 62 93 123 154 1-1 2i5 246 276 307 537 19 50 7- 109 139 170 2 231 262 292 323 333 1 5 35 53 94 124 155 1-5 21b 247 2T7 SOS 338 29 51 79 i 110 140 ' 171 203 1M 263 293 324 325 354 355 36 64 'J 5 125 156 186 217 248 27- 309 339 21 52 80 111 141 172 :•: 233 264 291 6 | 37 65 96 126 157 S7 21- 249 27' 310 3 ,0 22 53 81 1 112 112 173 2 3 2:34 265 295 326 356 7 3^ 66 97 127 15- 188 219 250 280 311 341 31 54 82 113 113 174 2-34 233 266 296 3-7 32- 357 358 E 39 61 98 128 159 189 220 , 251 281 3,2 342 -; 55 83 114 144 175 2 5 236 267 297 9 40 68 99 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 1 343 25 56 84 115 145 176 206 ,237 268 | 298 329 359 10 41 69 too ISO 161 191 222 253 283 ,314 1 344 2., 57 85 1 116 146 177 207 -1- 269 299 33o 360 11 42 70 K.il 131 162 192 1 223 j 254 2S4 315 345 27 58 86 117 147 178 2 270 300 301 3 SI 8 32 361 362 12 43 71 102 132 163 193 , 224 235 285 316 ; 346 2- 59 B? 118 148 179 21.9 210 271 13 1 41 72 103 133 164 194 i 223 | 256 286 317 1 347 29 88 119' 149 180 210 ! 241 272 302 333 363 14 45 73 104 .3, 165 195 i 226 257 287 318 | 348 1 89 120 150 1 si 211 |242 273 303 334 364 IS 46 74 103 135 166 196; 227 1 258 2S8 319 349 ".1 90 .151 212 243 St 1 365 15 J 47 7'. 106 136 167 . 197 : 228 259 289 320 i 350 1 I 1 Tn counting-houses, Interest Tables are very frequently made use of. Such publications have, in consequence" become very numerous. Most of them have some peculiar recommendation ; and are selected according to the object in view. When interest, instead of being simple, is compound, the first year's or term's interest must be found, and being added to the original principal, makes the principal upon which interest is to be calculated for the second year or term; and the second year's or term's interest being added to this last principal, makes that upon which interest is to be calculated for the third year or term ; and so on for any number of years. But when the number of years is considerable, this process becomes exceedingly cumbersome and tedious, and 10 facilitate it Tables have been constructed, which are subjoined to this article. The first of these Tables (No. I.) represents the amount of H. accumulating at compound interest, at 3, 3.V, 4. 4n, and five per cent, every year, from 1 year to 70 years, in pounds and decimals of a pound"' Now, suppose that we wish to know how much 500/. will amount to in 7 years at 4 per cent. In the column marked 4 per cent, and opposite to 7 years, we find 1315,932;., which shows that 11. will, it' invested at 4 per cent, compound interest amount to 1315,932 in 7 years ; and consequently, 500/. wiH, in the same time and at the same rate, amount to 500 X 1-315,932/. or 657-966;.; that is, 057/. 19s. 4 or 3l - 6s - 8cI - The annual pre- mium may, however, be derived directly from the value of an annuity on the life, without first calculating the total present value of the assurance. — (See Mr. Milne's Treatise on An- nuities, or the art. Annuities in the new edition of the Ency. Britunnica.) In order to exhibit the foundations on which Tables of life annuities and insurance have been founded in this and other countries, we have given, in No. V. of the following Tables, the rate of mortality that has been observed to take place among 1,000 children born together, or the numbers alive at the end'of each year, till the whole become extinct, in England, France, Sweden, &c, according to the most celebrated authorities.* The rate of mortality * The greater part of this Table was originally published by Dr. Hutton in his Mathematical Dic- tionary, art. Life Annuities. Mr. Baily inserted it with additions in his work on Annuities ; and it INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 101 at Carlisle, represented in this Table, is less than that observed any where else : the rates which approach nearest to it are those deduced from the observations already referred to, of M. Deparcieux, and those of M. Kersseboom, on the nominees of life annuities in Holland. In order to calculate from this Table the chance which a person of any given age has of attaining to any higher age, we have only to divide the number of persons alive at such higher age, given in that column of the Table selected to decide the question, by the number of persons alive at the given age, and the fraction resulting is the chance. We have added, by way of supplement to this Table, Mr. Finlaison's Table (No. VI.) of the rate of mortality among 1,000 children born together, according to the decrement of life observed to take place among the nominees in government tontines and life annuities in this country, distinguishing males from females. The rate of mortality which this Table exhibits is decidedly less than that given in the Carlisle Table ; but the lives in the latter are the average of the population, while those in the former are all picked. The nominees in tontines are uniformly chosen among the healthiest individuals ; and none but those who consider their lives as good ever buy an annuity. Still, however, the Table is very curious ; and it sets the superiority of female life in a very striking point of view. Tables VII. and VIII. give the expectation of life, according to the mortality observed at Northampton and Carlisle ; the former by Dr. Price, and the latter by Mr. Milne. The next Table, No. IX., extracted from the Second Report of the Committee of the House of Commons on Friendly Societies, gives a comparative view of the results of some of the most celebrated Tables of mortality, in relation to the rate of mortality, the expecta- tion of life, the value of an annuity, &c. The coincidence between the results deduced from M. Deparcieux's Table, and that for Carlisle, is very striking. And to render the in- formation on these subjects laid before the reader as complete as the nature of this work will admit, we have given Tables (Nos. X. — XV.) of the value of an annuity of 1/. on a single life, at every age, and at 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and S percent., according to the Northampton and Car- lisle Tables ; we have also given Tables of the value of an annuity of 1/. on 2 equal lives, and on 2 lives differing by 5 years, at 3, 4, 5, and 6 per cent., according to the same Tables. It is but seldom, therefore, that our readers will require to resort to any other work for the means of solving the questions that usually occur in practice with regard to annuities ; and there are not many works in which they will find so good a collection of Tables. — We subjoin one or two examples of the mode of using the Tables of life annuities. Suppose it were required, what ought a person, aged 45, to give, to secure an annuity of 50/. a year for life, interest at 4 per cent., according to the Carlisle Table ? In Table No. XL, under 4 per cent., and opposite 45, is 14*104, the value of an annuity of 1/., which being multiplied by 50, gives 705-2, or 705/. 4s., the value required. Accord- ing to the Northampton Table, the annuity would only have been worth 614/. 3s. The value of an annuity on 2 lives of the same age, or on 2 lives differing by 5 years, may be found in precisely the same way. Some questions in reversionary life annuities admit of an equally easy solution. Thus, suppose it is required to find the present value of A.'s interest in an estate worth 100/. a year, falling to him at the death of B., aged 40, interest 4 per cent., according to the Car- lisle Table 1 The value of the perpetuity of 100/. a year, interest 4 per cent., is 2,500/. ; and the value of an annuity of 100/. on a person aged 40, interest at 4 per cent., is 1,507/. 8s., which deducted from 2,500/. leaves 992/. 12s., the present value required. A person, aged 30, wishes to purchase an annuity of 50/. for his wife, aged 25, provided she survive him ; what ought he to pay for it, interest at 4 per cent., according to the Car- lisle Table 1 The value of an annuity of 1/. on a life aged 30 is 16-852; from which subtracting the value of an annuity of 1/. on 2 joint lives of 25 and 30, 14-339, the difference, 2-513 X 50 = 125-650, or 125/. 13s., the sum required. For the solution of the more complex cases of survivorship, which do not often occur in practice, recourse may be had to the directions in Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities, and other works of that description. To attempt explaining them here would lead us into de- tails quite inconsistent with the objects of this work. was published with the column for Carlisle added, in the Report of the Committee of the House of Com- mons on Friendly Societies. x2 102 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. Tables of Interest and Annuities. Table showing the Amount of £1 improved at Compound Interest, at 2J, 3, 3i, 4, 41, 5, and 6 per Cent., at the End of every Year, from 1 to 70. 0) 1* 2£ per Cent. 3 perCent. 3£ per Cent. 4 per Cent. 4J per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 1 1 02500,000 1-03000.000 1-03500.000 1 04000.000 1 04500,000 105000.000 1-06000,000 2 1-05062.500 1-06090,000 [-07122,500 1-08160,000 1-00202.500 [-10250,000 1-12360.(100 3 1 07689,062 1 n 1272,700 1- 10871,787 1-12486,400 114116,612 1-15762,500 119101,600 4 1 10381,289 1-12550,881 114752,300 1-16985,856 1-19251,860 1-21550.625 1-26247.696 5 113140. -521 1-15927,407 1- 16768,631 1-21665,290 1-21618,194 1 27528,156 1 -33622.55b 6 1-15969,342 1-19405,230 1-22925,533 1-26531,902 1-30220.012 1-34009,564 1-41851,911 7 1-18868,575 1-22987,387 1-27227,926 1-31593,176 1-36066,183 1-40710,042 1-50363,026 8 1-21840,290 1-26677,008 1-31680,904 1-36856,905 1-42210,061 1-47745.544 1-59384,607 9 1-34886,297 1-30477,318 1-36289,735 1-42331,181 1-48609,514 1-55132.822 1-68947,896 10 1-25008,454 1-34391,638 1 41059,876 1-48024,428 1-55296,942 1 62889,463 1-79084,770 11 1-31208,666 1-38123,387 1-45996,972 1-53945,406 1-62285,305 I 71033,936 1-89829,856 12 1-31488,882 1-42576,089 1-51106,866 1-60103,222 1-69588,1 13 1-79565,633 201219,617 13 1-37851,104 [-46853,37] 1-56395,606 1-66507,351 1-77219,610 1-8656 1,91 1 213292,826 14 1-41297,382 1-51258,972 1-61869,452 1 73167.615 1-85194.492 1-97993,160 2.26090,396 15 1-44S29,817 1-55796,742 1-67534.883 1 -.-000 1.351 1-03528,214 207892,818 2-39655,819 16 1 48450,562 1-60470,644 1-73398,604 1-87298,125 2-02237.015 2-18287,459 2-54035,168 17 1-52161,826 1-65284,763 1-79467,555 1-94790.050 211337,681 2-29201,832 2-69277,279 18 1-55965,872 1-70243,306 1-85748,920 2-02581,652 2-20847,877 2 40601.923 2-85433.915 19 1-59865,019 1 -75350,605 1-92250.132 2-10684,918 2-30786,031 2-52695,020 302559,950 20 1-63861,644 1-80611,123 1 98978,886 219112,314 2-41171,402 2-65329,771 3 20713,547 21 1-67958,185 1-86029,457 205943,147 2-27876,807 2-52024,116 2 78596,259 3-39956,360 22 1-72157,140 1-91610,341 2-13151,158 2-36991,879 2-63365,201 2-92526.072 360353.742 23 1-76461,068 1-9735^,651 2-20611,448 2-46471,555 2-75216,635 307152,376 3-S1974.S66 24 1 B0872,595 203279,411 2 28332,849 2-56330,417 287601,363 3-22509,994 401693,464 25 1-85394,410 209377,793 2-36324,498 2-66583,633 300543.446 3 36635,494 4-29187,072 26 1-90029,276 215659,127 2-44595.856 2-77246,979 314067,901 3-55567,269 4 54938,296 27 1-94760,002 2-22128,901 2-53166,711 2-88336.858 3-2S200.956 3-73345,632 482234,594 28 1-99619,502 2-28792,768 2 62017,696 3-42969.909 3-92012,914 5-11168,670 29 201640,739 2-35656,551 2-71187,798 3-11865.145 3-58403.649 4-11613,560 541838,790 30 209756,758 2-42726,247 2 60679,370 324339,751 3.74531,813 4-32194,238 5-74349,117 31 2-15000,677 2-50000,035 2-90503,148 3-37313,341 3-91385,745 4-53803,949 6-08810,064 32 220375,694 2-57508,276 3-00670,759 3-50805,875 4-08998,104 476494,147 6-45338,668 33 2-25885,086 2-65233,524 311194.235 364838,110 4-27403,018 5 00318,854 6-84058,988 34 231532.213 2-73190,530 3-22036,033 3-79431.634 4-46636,154 5-25334,797 7-25102,528 35 2-37320,519 2-813S6.245 333359.015 4-66734,781 5-51601.537 7-68608,679 36 2 43253,532 2-89827,833 3-45026,611 4-10393,255 4-87737,846 5-79181,614 8-14725,200 37 2-49334,870 2-98522,668 3-57102,543 -l-i.Miv.i-r, 509686,049 6-08140,694 863608,712 38 2-55568,242 307478,348 3-69601,132 4-43881,345 5-32621,921 6-38547,729 9-15425,235 39 2-61957,448 3-16702,698 3-82537,171 4-61636,599 5-56589,908 6-70475,115 9-70350.749 40 2-68506,384 326203,779 395925,972 480102,063 5-81636,454 703998,871 1028571,794 41 2-75219,013 409783.381 4-99306,145 6-07810,094 7-39198,815 10-90266,101 42 2-82099,520 3-46060,569 4-24125.799 5-19278,391 6-35161,548 776158,755 11-55703,267 43 •J Vil.52.00* 3-56451,677 4-38970.202 5-40049,527 6-63743.818 8- 14966,693 12.25045,463 44 2 96382,808 3-67145,227 454334,160 5-61651,508 6-93612,290 8-15715,028 12-98548,191 45 3-03790,328 3-78159,584 4-70235,655 5 81117,568 7-24824,843 8-98500,779 13-76461,083 46 3-11385,086 3-89504,372 4-86694,110 607482,271 7-57441,961 9-43425,818 14-59048,748 47 3-19169,713 4 01189,503 5-03728,404 6-31781,562 7-91526,849 990597,109 15-46591,673 48 3-27148,956 4-13225.168 5-21358,898 6-57052,824 8-27145,557 1040126,695 16-39367.173 49 3-35327,6S0 4-25621,944 5-39600,459 6-83334,937 864367,107 10-92133,313 17-37750,403 50 3-43710,872 4-38390,602 558492,686 710668,335 903263,627 1046739,978 18-42015,427 51 352303,644 451542,320 5-78039,930 7-39095,068 9-43910.490 12-04076,977 19-52536,353 52 3-61111,235 4-65088,590 5 98271.327 7-68658,871 9-86386,463 12-64280,826 20-69688,534 53 370139,016 4-79011,247 6 19210,624 799105,226 10-30773,853 13-27494,868 21-93869,846 54 3-79392,491 4-93412,485 6-408-53.202 8-31381,435 10-77158,677 13-93869.611 23-25502,037 55 :; *--::. :;o:> 5-08214,859 6-6331 1.111 8-64636,692 11-25630,817 14-63563,092 24-65032.159 56 3 0- ',00,230 5-23461,305 6-86530,108 8-99222,160 11-76284,204 15-36741,246 26-12931,089 57 4-08564,217 539165.144 7-10558,662 935191,046 12-29216,993 16-13578.308 27 69710,134 58 4- 18778.322 5-55340,098 7-35428,215 9-72598,688 12-84531,758 16-94257,224 2935892,742 59 4-29247,780 5-72000,301 7-61168,203 10-11502,636 13-42335,687 17-78970,085 3112046,307 60 4-39976,975 5 89160,310 7-87809,090 1051962,741 1402740,793 18-67918,589 32-98769,085 61 4-50978,419 606835,120 815382,408 10-94041.251 14-65864,129 19-61314,519 34-96695,230 62 4-62252,910 6-25040,173 8-43920,793 11-37802,901 1531828,014 20-59380,245 3706496,944 63 4-73809,233 6-43791,379 8-73458,020 11-83315,017 1600760,275 21-62349,257 39-28886,761 64 485654,464 6-63105,120 9 04029,051 12-30647,617 16-72794,467 22-70466,720 41-64619,967 65 497795,826 6-82998,273 9-35670,068 12-79873,522 17-48070,239 23-83990,056 4414497,165 66 510210,721 7-03483,222 9-68418,520 13-31068,463 18-26733,400 2503189,559 46-79366,994 67 5 22996,739 7-24592,868 1002313,168 1 1381311,201 19-08936,403 26-28349,036 49-60129,014 68 5-36071,658 7-46330,654 10-37394,129 ' 14-39683,649 19-94838,541 27-59706,488 52-57736,755 69 5-49473,449 7-68720,574 1073702,924 14-97270,995 20-84606,276 28-97754,813 5573200,960 70 5-63210,286 7-91782,191 11-11282.526 i 15-57161,835 21-78413,558 30 42642,553 5907593,018 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 103 II. Table showing the Present Value of £1 receivable at the End of any eiven Year, from 1 to 70, reckoning Compound Interest, at 2fc, 3, 3i, 4, 4£, 5, and 6 per Cent. 5 2 >< l 3 per Cent. 3 per Cent. 3 i per Cent. 4 per Cent. 44; per Cent. 5 per C lit. 6 per Cent. 1 1-97560,976 0-970*7,379 096618,357 0.96153,846 0-95693,780 0-95238,095 0-94339,623 2 •95181,440 ■91259,591 •93351,070 ■92455,621 •91572 995 •911702.0 IS •88 1,614 3 ■92859,941 ■91514,166 •90194,270 •88899,636 ■87629,660 ■86363,760 1,928 4 •90595,064 •83818,705 •87144,223 ■85480,419 •83856,134 •70 09,366 5 •88385,429 ■86260,878 ■81197,317 •82102,711 ■80245,105 ■78352,010 •74725,817 6 •86229,687 •83748,426 •81350,064 ■79031,453 ■70789,574 7 1621,540 96,054 7 ■84126,524 •81309,151 •78599,096 •75991,781 •73182,816 ■71068,133 05,711 8 •82074,657 •78910,923 ■75941,156 •73069,020 •7031-8,513 •67683,936 ('•27 11,237 9 •8(1072,836 ■76641,673 •73373,097 ■70258,674 ■67290,413 •01 100. 892 •59189,846 10 •78119,840 •74409,391 •70891,881 ■67556,417 ■01392,763 •61391,325 •55830,478 11 •76214,478 •72212,120 •68191,571 ■64958,093 •61619,874 ■58467,929 •52678.753 12 •74355,589 •70137,988 ■66178,330 •62159,705 •58966,386 •55683,7 12 •49696,936 13 ■72542.038 •68095,134 •63910,115 ■60057,409 •56 427,164 ■53032,135 •46883,902 14 •70772,720 •66111,781 ■61778,179 •57747,508 ■53997,286 ■50506,795 •44230 096 15 •69046,556 •64186,195 ■59689,062 •55520,450 •51672,044 ■18101,710 •41720,506 16 •67362,493 •62316,694 ■57670,591 •53390,815 •49446,932 ■45811,152 •39301.028 17 •65719,506 •60501,645 ■55720,378 •51337,325 •47317,639 •43629,669 •37130,412 18 ■64116,594 •58739,461 •53836,114 •49362,812 •45280,037 ■41552,065 ■35034,379 19 •62552,772 •57028,603 ■52015,569 •47464,242 •43330,179 ■39573,396 •33051,301 20 •61027,094 •55367,575 ■50256,588 •45638,695 •41464,286 ■3768S.918 ■31180,473 21 ■59538,629 ■53754,928 ■48557,090 •43883,360 •39678,743 •35894,236 •29115 540 22 •58036,467 ■52189,250 •46915,063 •42195,539 ■37970,089 •31181.987 ■27750.510 23 ■56669,724 •50669,175 •45328,563 •40572,633 •36335,013 ■32557,131 ■26179,726 24 ■55287,535 •49 193,3; 4 •43795,713 ■39012,1 17 •34770.317 ■31006,791 •24697,855 25 •53939,059 •47760,556 •42314,699 •37511,680 •33273,000 ■29530,277 ■23209.803 26 ■52623,472 •46369,473 •40883,767 •30068,923 •31810,248 •281 2 1,073 •21981.003 27 •51339,973 •45018,906 •39501,221 •310-1,057 •30469,137 •26784,832 •20730.705 28 •50087,778 •43707,675 •38165,434 •33317,717 •29157,069 ■25509.364 •10503,014 29 •48866,125 •42434,636 •36874,815 •32065,141 •27901 502 ■2 129 1.032 •18455.074 30 •47674,269 •41193,676 •35627,841 ■30331,867 •26700,001 •23137,745 •17411,013 31 •46511,451 •39998,714 •34423,035 •29646,026 •25550.241 ■22035,947 •16 125,484 32 •45377,055 •33833,703 •33258,971 •28505,794 •24449,991 ■20980,617 •15195,7-10 33 •44270,298 •37702,625 •32134,271 •27409,417 •23397.121 ■19987,254 •11018,622 34 •43190,534 •36604,490 •31017,605 •26355,209 ■22389,589 •19035,480 ■13791,153 35 •42137,107 •35538,310 •29997,6S6 •25341,547 •21425,444 18129,029 ■13010,522 36 •41109,372 •34503,243 ■28933,272 •24366,872 •20502,817 •17265,741 ■12271,077 37 •40106,705 •33493,294 •28003,161 ■23429,085 ■19019,921 •16413,563 11579,318 33 ■39128,492 •32522,615 •27056,194 •22528,543 •18775,044 ■15660,536 •10923,885 39 ■38174,139 •31575,355 •26141,250 •21602,061 ■17966,549 ■14914,797 10:05,552 40 •37213,062 •30655,684 •25257,247 •20828,904 •17192,870 ■11204,568 •09722,219 41 •36334,695 ■29762,800 ■24403,137 •20027,792 •16452,507 •1352S.160 •09171,905 42 •35448,483 •28895,922 •23577,910 •19257,493 •1574-1,026 •12883,962 03652,740 43 •34583,886 •28054,294 •22780,590 •18516,820 ■15066,054 ■12270,440 •08162,902 44 ■33740,376 •27237,178 22010,231 •17804,635 14117,276 •11686,133 •07700,908 45 •32917,440 ■26443,862 •21265,924 •17119,811 •13796,437 •11129,651 •07205,007 46 ■32114,576 •25673.652 •20516,787 •16461,386 •13202,332 •10599,668 06853,781 47 •31331,294 ■21925,877 •19351,968 •15828,256 ■12633,810 •10094,921 ■Oli 105,831 48 •30567,116 ■24199,880 •1918(1.015 •15219,476 •12089,771 ■09614,211 •06099,840 49 •29821,576 •23495,029 •18532,024 •14634,112 •11569,158 •09156,391 ■05754.566 50 ■29094,221 •22810,708 •17900,337 ■14071,202 •11070,965 •08720,373 •05428,836 51 •28384,606 •22146,318 •17299,843 •13530,059 •10594,225 •08305,117 ■05121,544 52 •27692,298 "21501,280 •16714,824 •13009,672 •10138,014 ■07909,635 •04831,645 53 •27016,876 •20875,029 ■16149,589 •12509,300 •09701,419 ■07532,986 •01558,156 54 •26357,923 •20267,019 ■15603,467 ■12028,173 •09283,083 •07171.272 •04300,147 55 •25715,052 •19676,717 ■15075,814 •11505,551 •08883,907 •06832.640 •01056,742 56 ■25087,855 •19103.609 ■11560,004 •11120,722 •08501.347 •06507,276 •03827,115 57 ■21175,957 •18517,193 •14073,433 •10693,002 •08135,260 •06197,106 03610,486 58 ■23878,982 •18006,984 •13597,520 ■10281,733 •07784,938 •05902,291 •03106,119 59 •23296,563 •17482.503 •13137,701 ■09886,282 •07449,701 ■05621,230 ■03213,320 60 •22723,359 •16973,309 12693,431 •09506,040 •07128,901 05353,552 ■03031,434 61 •22174,009 •16478,911 •12-264,184 09140,423 •06821,915 ■05098,621 •02859,843 62 •21633,179 •15998,972 •11819,453 •08788.808 •06528,118 •04855,830 •02097.965 63 •21105,541 •15532,982 ■lllls. 717 •08150,835 •06247,032 •01621,600 02545,250 - 61 ■20590,771 •15080,565 •11001,591 ■08125,803 •05978,021 •01404.381 •02101,179 65 ■20038,557 •14611,325 •10687,528 •07813,272 •05720,594 •04194,648 •02265,264 66 •19593,593 •14114,879 •10326,114 •07512.700 ■05474,253 •03994,903 •02137,041 67 •19120,578 •13800,853 •09976,922 •07223,809 •05238,519 •03804,670 •02016,077 68 •18654,223 •13398,887 ■09639,538 •06945.970 •05012,937 •03623,495 •01901,959 69 ■18199,212 •13008,628 •09313,563 •06678,818 •04797,039 ■03450.948 •01794,301 70 17755,358 •12629,736 •08998,612 ■06421,940 04590,497 •03286,617 ■01692,737 104 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. III. Table showing the Amount of an Annuity of £1 per Annum, improved at Compound Interest, at 2£, 3, 3^, 4, 4^,5, and 6 per Cent, at the End of each Year, from 1 to 70. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 CO 2£ per Cent. 1-00000,000 2-02500,000 3-07562,500 4-15251,562 5-25632,852 6-38773,673 7-54743,015 873611,590 995451,880 1120338,117 12-48346,631 13-79555,297 1514044,179 16-51895,284 17-93192,666 19-38022,493 20-86473,045 22-38634,871 23 94600,743 25-54465,761 27-18327,405 28-86285,590 3058442,730 32-34903,79* 34 15776,393 36 01170,^113 3791200,073 39-85980,075 4185629,577 4390270,316 46-00027,074 48-15027,751 50-35403,445 52-61288,531 54-92820,744 57-30141,263 59-73394,794 62-22729,664 64-78297,906 67 40255,354 70-08761,737 72-83980,781 75-66080,300 78-55232,308 81 51613,116 84-55403,443 87-66788,529 90-85958,243 9413107,199 97-48434,879 100 92145,751 10444449,395 10805560,629 111-75699,645 115-55092,136 119-43969,440 12342568,676 12751132,893 13169911,215 135-99158,995 140-39137,970 144 90116,419 14952369,330 154-26178,563 159-11833,027 16409628,853 16919869,574 174-42866,313 179-78937,971 185-29411,421 3 per Cent. 3^ per Cent 1 00000,000 203000,000 3-09090,000 4-18362,700 5-30913,581 6-46840,968 766216,218 8-89233,605 10-15910,613 11-46387,931 1280779,569 14-19202,956 15-61779,045 1708632,416 18-59891,389 20-15688,130 21-76158,774 2341443,577 25- 116-6 844 2687037,449 28-67648,572 30-53678,030 3245288,370 34-42617,022 36-45926,432 38-55304,225 4070963,352 42-93092,252 45-21885,020 47-57541,571 50-00267,818 52-50275,852 5507781,128 57-73017,652 60-46208,181 63-27594,427 66-17422,259 6915944,927 7223423,275 7540125,973 78-66329,573 8202319,645 85-48389,234 89-04840,911 92-71986,139 96-50145,723 100-39650,095 104-40839,598 108-54064,785 112-79686,729 117-18077,331 121-69619,651 126-34708,240 13113749,488 13607161,972 141-15376,831 146-38838,136 151-78003,280 157-33343,379 16305343,680 1-00000,000 203500,000 3-10622,500 4-21494,287 5-36246,588 6-55015,218 7-77940,751 9-05169,677 1036819,581 11-73139,316 1314199,192 14-60196,164 16- 11303,030 17 67698,636 19-29568,088 20-97102,971 22-70501,575 2449969,130 26-35718,050 28-27968,181 30-26947,068 32-32890,215 34-46041,373 36-66652,821 38-94985,669 4131310,168 43-75906,024 46-29062,734 48-91079,930 5162267,728 54-42017,098 57 33450,247 60-31121,005 63-45315,240 6667401,274 70-00760,318 73-45786,930 77-02889,472 80-72490,604 84-55027,775 88-50953,747 92-60737,128 96-84862,928 101-23833,130 105-78167,290 11048403,145 115-35097,255 120-38825,659 125-60184,557 130-99791,016 ! 136-58283 [142-36323. 148-34594; 154-53605. 160-94688. ;167.58003. 174-44533, 181-55091. 488-90520. ,196 51688. 4 per Cent. 4^ per Cent 1-00000,000 1-04000,000 312160,000 4-24646,400 541632,256 6-63297,516 7-89829,448 921422,626 10-58279,531 12-00610,712 13-48635,141 15-02580,546 16-62683,768 18-29191,119 2002358,764 21-82453,114 23-69751,239 25-64541,288! 27-67122,940. 29-77807,858 31-96920,172 34-24796,979 36-61788,858 3908260,413 4164590,830 44-31174,463 47-08421,441 49-96758.299 52-96628,631 56 08493,776 59-32833,527 6270146,868 66-20952,743 69-85790,853 7365222,487 77-59831,387 81-70224,612 85-97033,628 9049914,973 9502551,572 99-82653,635 104-81959,780 11001238,171 115-41287,698 121 02939,206 126-87056,774 132-94539,045 13 '-26320,607 145-63373,431 152-66708,368 77376 16471 85130. 84535. 15917, 80553. 79776. 14907. 87565. 0906N 168-94503. 17501339, 181-26379. 187-70170, 194-33275, 201 16274, 208' 19762 21544355 222-90685 23059406 991 264' 110 212 284 220 662 229 762 239 055 248 ,277 257 145 267 ,800 278 ,374 288 39497,378 54879,786 98800,579 72258,599 76287,650 11957,718 80376,238 82689,406 20083,535 93786,459 248-51031, 25945072 270-82675, 282 66190, 294-96838, 307-76711, 321 07780 334-92091 34931774, 364-29045, 1-00000,000 2-04500,000 3-13702,500 4-27819,112 5-47070,973 6-71689,166 801915,179 938001,362 10 80211,423 12-28820,937 13-84117,879 15-46103,181 17-15991,327 18-93210,937 2078405,429 22-71933,673 24 74170,689 26-85508,370 2906356,246 31-37142,277 33-78313,680 36-30337,795 38-93702,996 41-68919,631 44-56521,014 47 57064,460 50-71132,361 53-99333,317 5742303,316 6100706,966 64-75238,779 68-66624,524 72-75622,628 77-03025,646 81-49661,800 86-16396,581 9101131,127 96-13820,476 101-46442,398 107 03032,306 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent 112-84668 118-92478, 125-27640 131-91384 138-84996 14609821 153-67263, 161-58790 169-85935, 178-50302, 167-53566 196-97476 206-83863, 21714637, 227-91795, 239-17426, 250-93710, 263-22927. 276-07459, 289-49795. 1-00000,000 2 05000,000 3-15250,000 4-31012,500 5-52563,125 6-80191,281 8-14200,845 9-54910,888 11-02656,432 12-57789,254 14-20678,716 15-91712,652 17-71298,285 1959863,199 21-57856,359 2365749,177 25-84036.636 28-13238,467 30-53900,391 33-06595,410 35-71925,181 3850521,440 41-43047,512 44-50199,88' 47-72709,882 5111345,376 54 66912,645 58-40258,277 62-32271,191 66-43884,750 70-76078,988 75-29882,936 8006377,033 85-06695,937 90-32030,734 9583632,271 101-62813,884 107-70954,579 114-09502,308 100-79977,423 ,455 220 946 232 408 245 201258 938 272 755 287 959 302- 953 318 710 335 397 353 83976,294 23175,109 99333,864 14300,558 •70015,586 •68516,365 11942,183 02539,292 42666,257 34799,570 81539,548 85616,526 49897,352 77392.220 71261,831 34824,922 71566,168 85114,477 79401,700 58371,785 265 303 516|318 416 333 133 349 050 366 572 383 035 401 236 421 886 441 881 461 52536,190 18400,319 50228,333 50988,608 23783,096 71853,335: 98586,735j 07523,138 02361,679; 86967,955 372-26290,375 391-87604,893 412-46985,138 43409334,395 456-79801,115 480-63791,170 505-66980,729 53195329,765 55955096,254 588-52851,066 1-00000,000 206000,000 318360,000 4-37461,600 5-63709,296 697531,854 8-39383,765 9-89746,791 11 49131,598 1318079,494 14-97164,264 16-86994,120 188,-213.767 21-01506,593 23-27596,988 25-67252,808 28-21287,976 30-90565,255 33-75999,170 36-78559,120 39-99272,668 4339229,028 46-99582,769 50-81557,735 54-86451.200 59-15638,272 6370576,568 68-52811,162 73-63979,832 7905818,622 84-80167,739 9088977,803 9734316,471 104- 18375,460 111-43477,987 119-12086,666 127-26811,866 135 90120,578 14505845,813 154-76196,562 165 04768,356 17595054.457 187-50757,724 199-75803,188 212-74351,379 226-50812,462 211 09861,209 256-56452,862 272-95840,055 290-33590,458 308-75605,886 328-28142,239 348 97830,773 37091700,620 394- 17202,657 418-82234,816 444-95168,905 472-64879.039 502-00771,782 533- 12818.069 566-11597,174 601 08282,404 63814779,349 67743666,110 71906286,076 76322783,241 810-02150,235 85962279,249 91220016,004 967-93216,964 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 105 IV. Table showing the Present Value of an Annuity of£l per Annum, to continue for any given Number of Years, from 1 to 70, reckoning Compound Interest, at 2£, 3, 3£, 4, 4$, 5, and 6 per I lent. t* 2,j per Cent. 3 per Cent. Zh per Cent. 4 per Cent. 1 4* per Cent.. 5 per Cent. B per Cent. 1 60,976 0-97037,379 096618,357 0-96153,846 095693,780 095238,095 9.339 623 2 1-92742,415 1-91316,969 1-89969,427 1-83609,467 1-87266,775 1-85941,043 183339,267 3 2-85602,356 2-32-61,135 280163,698 2-77509,103 274896,435 2-72324,803 2-67301,195 4 3-76197,421 371709,810 3-673(17,021 3-62989,522 358752,570 354595,050 3-46510,561 5 464582,819 4-57970,719 4-51505,237 4-45182,233 4-38997,674 432947,667 4 21 2.(6.378 6 1 2,536 541719,144 5-32855,302 5-24213,686 5-15787,248 5-07569,207 491732,432 7 6 34939,060 6-23028,295 611454,398 6-00205,467 589270,094 578637,340 558238,144 8 717013,717 7 01969,219 6-87395,553 6-73274, 188 6-595vs.r,<>: 6- 16321,276 6-20979,381 9 7-97036,553 7-78610,892 7-60768,651 7-43533.161 7-26879,049 7 10782,167 6-80169,227 10 8-75206,393 8-53020,284 8-31660,532 8-11089,578 7-91271,818 7-72173,493 : 7-36008,705 11 9-51420,871 9-25262,410 9-00155,103 8-76047,671 8-55891,692 8-30641,422 7-88687,457 12 10-25776,460 9-95400,398 9-66333, 133 9-38507,376 9-11858,078 8-86325,164 1 8-38384,393 13 10-98318,497 10-63495,532 10-30273,648 9-98561,785 9-68285.242 9-39357,2(19 8-3.V263.295 14 11-69091,217 11-29607,312 10-92052,027 10-56312,293 10-22282,528 9-89864,094 929498,392 15 12-38137.773 11-93793,507 10-51741,089 11-11838,744 10-73954,573 1037965,804 9-71224,898 16 13-05500,266 12-56110,201 12-09411,681 11-65229,561 1123101,505 10-83776,956 10-10589,526 17 13-71219,772 13 16611,845 12-65132,038 12-16566,886 11-70719,113 11-27406,025 1047725,968 18 14-35336,363 13-75351,306 13 18968,172 12-65929,698 12-15999,180 11-68958.600 1082760,347 19 14-97889,134 14-32379,909 13-70983,741 13 13393.910 12 59329,359 1208532,086 1 1 15*1 1,648 20 15-58916,228 14-87747,484 14-21240,330 , 13-59032,635 1300793,615 12-40221,034 11-46992,121 21 16- 18 154,857 1541502,412 14-69797,420 1102915.995 13-40472,388 12-82115,271 U '76407,661 22 16-76543,824 1593691,662 1516712,483 14-45111,53! 1378442,476 13-16300.258 1201158.171 2:i 17 33211,048 16-44360,837 15-62011.017 14-85684,167 14-14777,439 13-48857,388 12-3033f,897 21 17-88498,583 16-93554,210 16-05836,760! 15-21696,314 14-49547,837 13-79864,179 1255035,752 25 18-42437,642 1741314,766 16-48151,459| 15-62207,995 14-82820,896 14-09394,457 1278335,615 26 18-95061,114 17-87684,239 16-89035,226! 1598276,918 15-14661,145 14-27518,530 1300316,618 27 19-46401,087 18-32703,145 17-28536,450 1632958.575 15-45130,282 14 61303.362 13-21053,113 28 19-96488,865 18-76410,820 17-66701,884' 16-66306,322 15-74287,351 1 14-89812,726 1340616,428 29 20-45354,991 19-18845,456 18-03576,700 169837 1,461 16-02188,853 15-14107,353 13-59072,101 30 20-93029,259 19-60044,132 1839204,541 17-29203,330 16-28888,854 1537245,103 1376483,115 31 21-39510,741 20-00012.847 18-73627,576 17-58849,356 16-54139 095 15 59281,050 13-92908,599 32 2181917,796 20-38876,550 19-06886,547 17-87355,150 16-78889,086 15-80267,667 14-08104,338 33 22-29183 093 2076579,175 19-39020,818 18-14764,567 17-02286,207 16 00254,921 1 1-23022,961 31 22-72378,628 21-13183,665 19-70068,423 18-41119,776 17 24675,796 16*19290,401 14-36814,114 35 23- 14515,734 2148722,004 20 00066,109 18-66461,323 17-46101,240: 16-37419,429 14 49821.636 36 23-55625,107 21-83225,217 20-29049,381 18-90828,199 17-66604,0581 16-54685,171 14-62098,713 37 2395731,811 22-16723,541 20-57052,542 1914257,880 17-86223,979' 16-71128,734 14-73678,031 38 24-34860,304 22-49216,156 20-84108,736 19-36786,424 18-01999,023; 16-86789,271 14-84601,916 39 24-73034,443 22-80321,510 21-10249,987 19-58148,484 18-22965,572! 17-01704,007 14-94907,468 40 2519277,505 2311477, 195 21-35507,234 1979277,389 18-40158,412! 17-15908,636 1501629,687 41 2546612,200 23-41239,995 21-59910.371 19-99305,181 18-56610,949 17-29436,796 15-13801,591 42 25-82060,683 23-70135,917 21-83488,281 2018562,674 18-72354.976 17-42320,758 1522454,331 43 26- 16644,569 23-98190.211 22-06268,870 20-37079,494 18-87421,029 1 17-54591,198 15-30617,294 44 26-50381,945 21-25427,389 22-28279,102 20-54884,129 19-01838,306 17-66277,331 15-38318,202 45 26-83302,386 24-51871,251 22-49545,026 20-72003,970 19 15634,742 17-77406.982 15-45583,209 46 2715416,962 24 77544,904 22-70091,812 20-88465.356 19-28837,074 17-88006,650 15 52436,990 47 27-46748,255 25-02470,780 22-89943,780 21 -01293,6 12 19-41470,884 17-98101,571 1558902,821 48 2777315,371 25-26670,660 2309121,425 21-19513,088 19-53560,655 18-07715,782 15-65002,661 49 2^-07136,947 25-5A 165,689 2327656,449 21-34147,200 1965129,813 18-16872,173 15-70757,227 50 28-36231,168 2572976,397 23-45561,787 21 48218,462 19-76200,778 18-25592,546 15-76186,063 51 28-64615,774 25-95122,716 2362361,630 21 61748,521 19-86795,003 18-33897,663 15-81307,607 52 2892308,072 2616623,996 23 79576,454 21 -74758, 1 93 1 996933,017 18-41807,298 15-86139,-i52 53 29-19324,918 26-37499,025 2395726,043 21-87267,493 2006634,466 18-49340,284 15 901)97,407 51 29-45682,877 26-57766,043 2411329,510 21-99295,667 20-15918,149 18-56514,556 15-94997,554 55 29-71397,928 26-77442,761 24-26405,323 22-10861,218 20-21302,057 1363347,196 15-99054,296 56 2996485,784 26-96540,370 24-40971,327 22-21981,940 2033303,401; 1869854,473 1602881,412 57 30-20961,740 2715093,563 24-55014,700 22-32674.943 2011138.664 18 76051,879 1606491,898 58 30-44840,722 2733100,546 24-68642,281 22-42956,676 2049223.602' 18-81954,170 16-09898,017 59 30-68137,290 27-505S3.055 24-81779,981 22-52842,957 20-56673,3031 18-87575,400 1613111,336 60 30 90865,649 27-67556,364 24-94473,412 22-62348,997 20-63802,204 18 92928,953 1616142,770 fil 3113039,657 27-84035,304 2506737,596 22-71489,421 20-70624,119 18-98027,574 1619002,613 62 31-34672,836 28-00034,276 25- 18587,049 22 80278,289 2077152,267 19 02886.404 1621700,579 63 3155778,377 28-15567,258 25-30035,796 22-88729,124 2083399,298 1907508,003 10-21245,829 64 3176369,148 2830647,823 25-41097,388 2296854,927 20-89377,319 19-11912,384 16-26647,008 65 3196457,706 28-45289,149 2551784,916 23 04668,199 20-95097,913 1916107,033 16-28912,272 66 32- 16056.29S 28-59504,028 25-62111,030 23 12180,959 21 00572, 165 19-20101,936 16-31049,313 67 32-35176,876 28-73304,881 25-72087,951 23-19104,768 21-05810,685 19-23906,606 16 33065,390 68 32-53831,099 28-86703,768 25-81727,489 2326350,739 21' 1 0823,622 19-27530,101 1634967,349 69 32-72030,341 2899712,396 25 91011,053 2333029,556 21 15620,691 19-30981.048 1636761. 650 70 32-89785,698 29- 12342, 132 2600039,664 23-39451,497 21-20211,187 19-34267,665 16 38154,387 106 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. V. Table of Mortality ; showing tin- Number of Persons alive at the End of every Year, from 1 to 100 Years of Age, out of 1,000 born together, in Hie different Places, and according to the Authorities undermentioned. < England. France. Sweden. Vienna. Berlin. Switzer* land. Silesia. Holland. SV2 1-3 <§ 1 ■< 715 to- ■a a s g, S 3 s 3 60 i| if SI s, £ > 3 1 6-0 713 816 731 768 7-0 542 633 811 769 804 2 51S 625 778 709 632 672 730 471 528 765 638 768 3 492 582 725 6S2 591 625 695 430 485 735 614 736 4 452 553 700 662 557 599 671 400 434 715 585 709 5 426 536 680 617 540 583 656 377 403 701 563 689 6 410 521 668 631 523 573 614 357 387 688 546 676 7 397 509 659 624 511 566 634 314 376 677 532 664 8 388 499 654 615 501 560 625 337 367 667 523 052 9 380 492 649 607 494 556 618 331 361 659 515 646 10 373 487 646 600 489 551 611 327 356 653 508 ! 639 11 367 483 613 595 486 547 606 322 353 648 502 633 12 361 478 640 590 482 543 602 318 350 643 497 627 13 356 474 637 585 479 538 597 314 347 639 492 621 14 351 470 634 5-1 476 534 594 310 311 635 488 616 15 347 465 630 57^ 172 529 590 306 341 631 483 611 16 313 461 626 57 1 468 521 586 302 338 626 479 606 17 338 457 622 570 464 519 582 299 335 622 474 601 16 S3! 452 618 565 459 514 578 295 332 618 470 596 19 329 416 613 561 455 508 574 291 328 614 465 590 20 3-25 441 609 556 419 502 570 288 324 610 461 584 21 321 434 605 551 445 456 565 284 320 606 456 577 22 316 . 423 601 545 438 490 560 2-0 315 602 451 571 23 310 421 596 540 432 484 555 276 310 597 446 566 21 305 415 592 534 430 478 551 273 305 502 411 559 25 299 409 588 529 419 471 546 269 297 587 436 551 26 294 402 584 523 414 465 511 265 293 582 431 543 27 288 396 579 517 408 458 535 261 287 577 426 535 28 283 389 575 512 402 452 530 256 281 572 421 526 29 278 383 570 506 398 445 525 251 275 567 415 517 30 272 376 * 564 500 388 438 519 247 269 563 409 508 31 266 370 559 495 3-1 432 513 213 264 558 403 499 32 260 364 553 490 377 425 507 239 259 553 397 490 33 254 357 517 484 371 418 501 235 254 548 391 482 31 248 351 542 479 366 411 495 231 249 514 384 474 35 212 344 536 471 355 404 488 226 243 539 377 467 36 236 338 531 460 339 397 482 221 237 533 370 460 37 230 331 525 464 341 390 477 216 230 527 363 453 38 224 325 519 459 334 383 471 211 223 520 356 446 39 218 318 514 454 330 376 465 205 216 513 349 439 40 212 312 508 449 314 369 459 199 209 506 342 432 41 207 305 501 414 310 362 453 194 203 500 335 425 42 201 299 499 439 302 355 445 189 197 494 328 419 43 194 292 487 434 297 348 437 185 192 488 321 413 44 187 285 480 429 292 341 430 1-1 187 482 314 407 45 180 279 473 424 279 334 422 176 182 476 307 400 46 174 272 466 419 273 327 414 171 177 469 299 393 47 167 265 459 413 269 320 407 165 172 461 291 386 48 159 259 452 408 262 312 400 159 167 451 283 378 49 153 252 456 402 258 305 392 153 162 441 275 370 50 147 245 440 396 242 297 385 147 157 431 267 362 51 141 238 434 390 239 289 376 142 152 422 259 354 52 135 231 428 384 233 282 367 137 147 414 250 345 53 130 224 421 378 229 271 358 133 112 406 241 336 54 125 217 414 371 221 265 349 128 137 397 232 327 55 120 210 407 363 212 258 340 123 132 388 224 318 56 116 203 4(10 355 | 207 219 331 117 127 377 216 309 57 111 196 392 346 202 210 322 111 121 : 364 209 300 58 106 1-9 384 338 191 232 312 106 115 348 201 291 59 101 182 375 329 190 223 303 101 109 331 193 282 60 96 175 361 319 168 211 293 96 103 314 186 273 61 92 168 352 30!) 165 204 282 91 97 299 178 264 62 87 161 310 299 157 195 271 87 92 286 170 255 63 83 154 327 288 150 186 259 82 - 274 163 245 64 78 117 311 278 144 176 217 77 84 262 155 235 65 71 140 302 267 135 166 285 72 80 250 147 225 66 70 133 289 256 126 157 224 67 75 236 140 215 67 65 126 277 1 215 117 147 212 62 70 220 132 205 68 61 119 265 ' 234 106 137 200 57 65 202 124 195 69 56 113 251 222 96 129 187 52 60 184 1 17 185 70 52 106 210 211 90 118 175 48 55 166 109 175 71 47 99 228 199 86 108 162 1 44 51 153 101 165 72 43 92 214 187 75 99 149 1 40 1 47 140 93 155 73 39 85 200 175 70 89 135 1 36 43 129 85 145 74 35 78 184 162 63 60 121 1 33 39 119 77 135 75 32 71 168 148 52 72 108 30 ; 35 109 69 125 1 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. Table of Mortality. — (continued.) 107 i <5 England. France. Sweden. Vienna. Berlin. Switzer- land. Silesia. Holland. it ii •So 8 a 1? a 1 = fa a. a i §■ JfB, if art 1 50 £1 u -1 76 28 65 152 134 47 63 96 27 32 98 61 114 77 25 58 136 120 42 56 84 24 29 85 53 103 78 22 52 121 106 36 48 75 21 26 71 55 92 79 19 46 108 94 34 41 65 18 23 58 38 82 80 17 40 95 81 23 35 56 16 20 46 32 72 HI 14 35 84 70 21 29 47 14 18 36 26 62 83 12 30 73 59 18 24 38 12 16 29 22 53 83 10 25 62 49 15 19 31 10 14 24 18 45 84 8 20 53 40 12 15 24 8 12 20 15 38 85 7 16 45 33 10 12 19 7 10 17 12 31 Sfi 6 12 37 26 8 9 14 6 8 14 9 25 87 5 9 30 21 7 7 11 5 7 11 6 19 88 4 7 23 16 5 6 8 4 6 9 4 14 89 3 5 18 12 4 5 6 3 5 7 2 10 90 4 14 8 3 4 5 2 4 5 1 7 91 1 3 10 5 3 3 3 1 3 4 5 92 2 8 3 2 3 2 2 3 4 93 1 5 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 94 1 4 1 1 2 1 1 95 3 1 1 96 2 1 97 2 1 98 1 99 1 Km VI. Table of the Progressive Decrement of Life among 1,000 Infants of each Sex, born together, according to Mr. Finlaison's Observations on the Mortality of the Nominees in the Government Tontines and Life Annuities in Great Britain. Age. Males Fe- males. Age. Males. Fe- males. Age. Males. Fe- males. M 2-77 13 46-51 31 3368 40 21-81 66 11-27 83 4 65 100 2-28 14 45-75 32 3303 50 21-11 67 10-75 84 4 39 101 1-79 15 4500 33 32-36 51 2039 68 10-23 85 4 12 102 1-30 16 44-27 34 31-68 52 1968 69 9-70 86 390 103 083 17 43 57 35 31-00 IX. Table giving a Comparative View of the Results of the undermentioned Tables of Mortality, in Relation to the following Particulars. By Mr. Finlaisnn's By Dr. Price's Table, By the First Mr. De- parcieux's Table, By Mr. Milne's By Mr. Griffith Davies's Table, founded on the Experience of the Govern- ment Life Annuities. founded on the Register of Births and Burials at Northamp- ton. Table,, as published by Dr. Price;' for both Belts. founded on the Mortality in the French Tontines, prior to 1745. founded on the Mortality observed at Carlisle. Table, founded on Expe- rience of the Equitable Life Insur- ance Office. Accnrlin* to his First Investiga- tion, as men- tioned in his Evidence in liZi. According to Ins .'cvnd [nsesuga tion, as men- tioned in his Evidence in 1827. Mian of Mian »/ both Sexes, hulk Sexes. Of 100,000 persons ~| aged 25,there would 1 be alive at the age f 34,286 43,137 51,033 51,335 49,330 53,470 53,950 of 65 - --- J Of 100,000 persons "1 aged 65, there would 1 be alive at the age (* 28,738 23,704 29,837 31,577 37,267 38,655 37,355 of 80 - - - - J Expectation of life at ^ the age of 25 years j 30-85 34-58 37-17 37-86 37-45 38-35 38-52 Expectation of life at \ the age of 65 years j 10-88 1010 11-25 11-79 12-35 12-81 12-50 Value of an annuity 1 on a life aged 25, in- I terest being at 4 per f £15-438 £16-839 £17-420 £17-645 £17-494 £17-534 £17-634 : cent. - - - - J Value of an annuity"! on a life aged 65, in- I terest being at 4 per f £7-761 £7-328 £8-039 £8-307 £8-635 £8-896 £8-751 cent. . ... J Value of a deferred"! j annuity commenc- 1 ing at 65, to a life i- £0-55424 £0-65842 £0-85452 £0-88823 £0-88723 £0-99078 £0-98334 now aged 25, inte- terest at 4 per cent. J Note— In all the Tables above mentioned, it is to be observed that the mortality is deduced from an equal, or nearly equal, number of each sex ; with the single exception of Mr. Davies's Table, founded on the experience of the Equitable, in which ollice, from the practical objects of life insurance, it is evident the male sex must have composed the vast majority of lives subjected to mortality. Hut as it is agreed on all hands that the duration of life among females exceeds that of males, ii follows that the results of Mr. Davies's Table fall materially short of what they would have been, if the facts on which he has reasoned had comprehended an equal number of each sex. The Tables have not, in all cases, been computed at 4 -J- per cent-, the rate allowed by government. INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 109 X. Table showing the Value of an Annuity on a Single Life, according to the Northampton Table of Mortality. | Age. 3 per Cent. •1 per Cent. 5 per Cent. Age. i pa i wit 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. Age. 65 i pa t ent ". p. i i cut 1 1002! 13 465 11-563 33 16313 14347 12-740 8 301 7-761 7-276 2 18-599 15 633 13 420 34 16-142 14-195 12-623 66 7 994 7-488 7-034 3 19-575 16462 14 135 35 15-938 14039 12502 67 7-682 7211 6-787 4 20 210 17010 14*613 36 15-729 13-880 12-377 68 7-367 6 930 6-536 5 20" 173 17-248 14-827 37 15-515 13716 12-249 69 7051 6-647 6-281 6 80-7*7 17-482 15041 38 15298 13-548 12-116 70 6 731 6361 6-023 7 20853 17-611 15-166 39 15075 13375 11-979 71 6-418 6075 5764 8 20-885 17-662 15226 40 14-848 13197 11-837 72 6-103 5 7(i() 5-504 9 20812 17-625 15-210 41 14-620 13018 11-695 73 5-791 5507 5-245 10 20663 17-523 15-139 42 14391 12-838 11 551 74 5-491 5-230 -1 990 11 20480 17-393 15043 43 14162 12657 11-407 75 5199 4-962 4-744 12 20-283 17-251 14937 44 13-929 12-472 11*58 76 4-925 4710 4511 13 20081 17-103 14-826 45 13-692 12-283 11-105 77 4-652 4-157 4-277 14 19-872 16-950 14710 46 13-450 12089 10-917 78 4-372 4-197 4-035 15 19657 16 791 14-588 47 13-203 11-890 10-784 79 4-077 3921 3-776 16 19-435 16625 14-460 48 12-951 11-685 10-616 80 3-718 3-643 3-515 17 19-218 115-462 14334 49 12-693 11-475 10-443 81 3-499 3377 3263 18 19013 16-309 14217 50 12-436 11-264 10-269 82 3229 3- 122 3020 19 18-820 16- 167 14 108 51 12-183 11-057 10097 83 2-982 2-887 2-797 20 18638 16033 14007 52 11-930 10-849 9-925 84 2-793 2-708 2-627 21 18470 15912 13-917 53 11-674 10637 9-478 85 2620 2-513 2-171 22 18-311 15-797 13-833 54 11-414 10421 9-567 86 2-461 2393 2-328 23 18-148 15-680 13746 55 11150 10-201 9-382 87 2-312 2-251 2- 193 24 17-983 15-560 13658 56 10-882 9-977 9- 193 88 2185 2131 2080 25 17814 15-438 13567 57 10-611 9-749 8-999 89 2015 1-967 1-924 26 17 642 15312 13-473 58 10 337 9516 8-801 90 1-794 1-758 1723 27 17-467 15184 13-377 59 10058 9-280 8-599 91 1 501 1474 1-447 28 17-289 15 053 13-278 60 9-777 9039 8-392 92 1190 1-171 1153 29 17107 14918 13177 61 9-493 B-795 8181 93 0-839 0827 0-816 30 16-923 14781 13072 62 9-205 8-547 7-966 94 536 0-530 524 31 lti 73-2 14639 12-965 63 8-910 8-291 7 742 95 0242 240 02S8 32 16-540 14495 12-854 64 8611 1 8-030 7514 96 o-ooo 0000 1 0:000 XI. Table showing the Value of an Annuity on a Single Life, according to the Carlisle Table of Mortality. Age. 1 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. Age. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. Age. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 336 20085 16-556 13995 36 18-183 15856 13-987 70 7123 6-709 2 21501 17/728 14-983 37 17-928 15-666 13-843 71 6-737 6-358 6-615 3 22-683 18-717 15-824 38 17-669 15-471 13695 72 6-373 6-026 5-711 4 23-285 19233 16-271 39 17-405 15-272 13512 73 6044 5-725 5-435 5 23-693 19-592 16-590 40 17143 15074 13390 74 5752 5-458 5190 6 23-846 19747 16-735 41 16-890 14-883 13-245 75 5512 5-239 4-989 7 23-867 19-790 16-790 42 16-640 14-694 13101 76 5-277 5 024 4-792 8 23-801 19-766 16786 43 16-389 14-505 12-957 77 5-059 4-825 4-609 9 23677 19693 16-742 44 16130 14308 12-806 78 4-838 4-622 4-422 10 23-512 19-585 16-669 45 15-803 14104 12-648 79 4-592 4-394 4-210 11 23 327 19-460 16581 46 15585 13889 12-480 80 4-365 4-183 4015 12 23 143 19336 16-494 47 15-294 13662 12-301 81 4119 3-953 3-799 13 22-957 19-210 16-406 48 14-986 13419 12107 82 3-898 3-716 3-606 14 22-769 19082 16316 49 14-654 18153 11-892 83 3-672 3-534 3-408 15 22-582 18956 16-227 50 14303 12869 11-660 84 3454 3-329 3-211 16 22-404 18-837 16- 144 51 13-932 12-566 11-410 85 3-229 3115 3009 17 22-232 18-723 16066 52 13-558 12-258 11154 86 3033 2-928 2-830 18 22058 18608 15987 53 13-180 11-945 10-892 87 2-873 2-776 2-685 19 21-879 18-488 15-904 54 12-798 11-627 10-624 88 2-776 2-683 2-597 20 21-691 18-363 15-817 55 12-408 11-300 10347 89 2-6(15 2-577 2495 21 21 -504 18-233 15-726 56 12014 10966 10-063 90 2-499 2-116 2339 22 21-304 18095 15-628 57 11-614 10-625 9-771 91 2-481 2-398 2-321 23 21-098 17-951 15-525 58 11-218 10-286 9-478 92 2-577 2-492 2-412 24 20-885 17801 15417 59 10841 9-963 9199 93 2-687 2-600 2-518 25 20-665 17645 15-303 60 10-491 9-663 8-940 94 2-736 2-650 2.569 26 20-442 17-486 15187 61 10180 9-398 8-712 95 2-757 2-674 2-596 27 20-212 17320 15065 62 9875 9137 8-487 96 2-704 2-628 2-555 28 19981 17154 14-942 63 9567 8-872 8-258 97 2-559 2-492 2-428 29 19-761 16-997 14-827 64 9-246 8-593 8016 98 2-388 2-332 2-278 30 19-556 16852 14-723 65 8-917 8-307 7-765 99 2 131 2-087 2-045 31 19348 16-705 14-617 66 8-578 8010 7503 100 1-683 1-653 1 624 32 19 131 16-552 14-506 67 8228 7-700 7227 101 1-228 1-210 1192 33 18-910 16390 14387 68 7-869 7-380 6-941 102 0-771 0-762 0753 34 18675 16-219 14-260 69 7-499 7049 6643 103 0324 0321 0317 35 18-433 16041 14127 Vol. n.— k 110 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. XII. Table showing the Value of an Annuity on the joint Continuance op Two Lives otp equal Ages, according to the Northampton Table of Mortality. Ages. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. Ages. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. Ages. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5per Ctnt 1& 1 9-490 8-252 7-287 33&33 12079 10-902 9919 65 & 65 5 471 5201 4-960 2— 2 12-789 11-107 9793 34 — 34 11 902 10759 9-801 66 — 66 5-231 4-982 4 759 3— 3 14191 12-325 10-862 35 — 35 11-722 10-612 9-680 67 — 67 4-989 4 760 4 555 4 — 4 15-181 13185 11-621 36 — 36 11-539 10-462 9-555 68 — 68 4-747 4 537 4-348 5— 5 15-638 13.591 11-984 37 — 37 11-351 10-307 9-427 69 — 69 4-504 4-312 4140 6— 6 16099 14-005 12-358 38—38 11160 10149 9-294 70 — 70 4261 4-087 3930 7— 7 16375 14-224 12-596 39 — 39 10-964 9986 9-158 71—71 4020 3-862 3719 8— 8 16-510 14-399 12-731 40 — 40 10-764 9820 9016 72 — 72 3781 3 639 3510 9— 9 16-483 14396 12744 41 — 41 10-565 9-654 8-876 73 — 73 3-548 3-421 3 304 10 — 10 16-339 14277 12669 42 — 42 10-369 9-491 8-737 74 — 74 3324 3211 3105 11 — 11 16 142 14133 12546 43 — 43 10175 9-326 8-599 75 — 75 3 114 3-015 2-917 12—12 15-926 13966 12411 44 — 44 9-977 9161 8 457 76 — 76 2 926 2-833 2750 13 — 13 15702 13-789 12-268 45 — 45 9-776 8-990 8-312 77—77 2-741 2-656 2-583 14 — 14 15-470 13-604 12-118 46 — 46 9-571 8-8)5 8- 162 78 — 78 2-550 2-470 2410 15 — 15 15-229 13-411 11-960 47 — 47 9-362 8-637 8-008 79 — 79 2-338 2-271 2-217 16 — 16 14979 13-212 11-793 48 — 48 9149 8453 7-849 80 — 80 2 122 2068 2018 17—17 14737 13019 11-630 49 — 49 8930 8-266 7686 81—81 1-917 1-869 1-827 18—18 14-516 12-841 11-483 50 — 50 8-714 8-080 7522 82 — 82 1-719 1-681 1-642 19—19 14-316 12-679 11-351 51—51 8-507 7-900 7 366 83 — 83 1-538 1-510 1-472 20 — 20 14133 12-535 1 1232 52 — 52 8-301 7-723 7213 84 — 84 1-416 1-387 1-357 21—21 13-974 12-409 11-131 53 — 53 8 098 7-544 7056 85 — 85 1-309 1-339 1-256 22 — 22 13-830 12-293 11-042 54 — 54 7-891 7362 6-897 86 — 86 1-218 1195 1171 23 — 23 13-683 12 179 10951 55 — 55 7681 7-179 6-735 87—87 1111 1124 1098 24 — 24 13-534 12062 10858 56 — 56 7 470 6-993 6571 88 — 88 1103 1030 1063 25 — 25 13383 11-944 10764 57 — 57 7 256 6-805 6404 89 — 89 1036 1015 1 001 26 — 26 13-230 11-822 10667 58 — 58 7041 6-614 6234 90 — 90 0938 0-922 909 27 — 27 13074 11 699 10567 59 — 59 6826 6-421 6 062 91—91 0769 0-756 748 28 — 28 12 915 11-573 10466 60 — 60 6606 6-226 5-888 92—92 0-591 0583 576 29 — 29 12-754 11-445 10362 61 — 61 6-386 6030 5712 93 — 93 0369 0-365 0361 30 — 30 12589 11-313 10-255 62 — 62 6166 5-831 5533 94 — 94 0203 201 199 31 — 31 12-422 11179 10146 63 — 63 5-938 5626 5347 95—95 0060 0060 0059 32 — 32 12-252 11042 10034 64 — 64 5-709 5417 5-158 96—96 0000 0000 0000 XIII. Table showing the Value of an Annuity on the Joint Continuance of Two Lives of equal Ages, according to the Carlisle Table of Mortality. Ages. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. Ages. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. Ages. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 4.367 5 per Cent. 1& 1 14079 11-924 10299 36&36 14-477 12-919 11-627 70 & 70 4-556 4-191 2— 2 16155 13671 11-793 37 — 37 14231 12724 11-470 71 — 71 4-217 4050 3-893 3— 3 18-030 15-260 13162 3S — 38 13-981 12-525 11-309 72 — 72 3904 3-755 3-615 4— 4 19-065 16147 13-932 39 — 39 13727 12-322 11144 73 — 73 3631 3 497 3371 5— 5 19-815 16801 14-507 40 — 40 13-481 12125 10 984 74 — 74 3400 3279 3165 C— 6 20-156 17112 14-7N9 41—41 13-254 11-945 10 839 75 — 75 3231 3119 3015 7— 7 20-280 17242 14-917 42 — 42 13036 11-772 10701 76 — 76 3 068 2-966 2870 8— 8 20261 17251 14-942 43 — 43 12-822 11-602 10-566 77 — 77 2 927 2833 2-744 9— 9 20146 17-179 14-898 44 — 44 12-600 11-426 10-425 78 — 78 2-784 2 698 2617 10—10 19963 17049 14-803 45 — 45 12-371 11-213 10-278 79 — 79 2-610 2-533 2-460 11 — 11 19-748 16-891 14-684 46 — 46 12-128 11-047 10119 80 — 60 2-459 2-390 2324 12—12 19-538 16-737 14-568 47 — 47 11-870 10-837 9947 81 — 81 2-283 2-222 2163 13 — 13 19-327 16-582 14-450 48 — 48 11-591 10-607 9756 82 — 82 2- 135 2079 2027 14—14 19115 16425 14-331 49 — 49 11 279 10-315 9 535 83 — 83 1-978 1-929 1-882 15—15 18-908 16-272 14-215 50 — 50 10942 10059 9291 84 — 84 1-825 1-782 1-741 16—16 18-719 16- 134 14112 51—51 10579 9-748 9023 es- 85 1-657 1-619 1-583 17 — 17 18542 16007 14018 52 — 52 10-215 9-434 8-751 se— 86 1-509 1-476 1-444 18—18 18-365 15-880 13-925 53 — 53 9-849 9117 8-474 87 — 87 1-389 1-359 1-331 19—19 18-182 15748 13-827 54 — 54 9-480 8-796 8- 192 88 — i-s 1-328 1-301 1-275 20 — 20 17-993 15-610 13-724 55 — 55 9- 103 8-465 7-900 89 — 89 1-248 1 223 1199 21—21 17-797 15-466 13-616 56 — 56 8-721 8-128 7-600 90 — 90 1-088 1066 1045 22 — 22 17-588 1.V310 13-497 57 — 57 8334 7-783 7293 91 — 91 1050 1028 1007 23 — 23 17-372 15148 13-372 58 — 58 7-954 7-444 7-988 92 — 92 1120 1096 1 073 24 — 24 17-148 14-978 13-240 59 — 59 7605 7131 6705 93 — 93 1-226 1-199 1173 25 — 25 16-916 1 1-800 13101 60 — 60 7-295 6854 6456 94 — 94 1-302 1 273 1-245 26 — 26 16-681 14-620 12-960 61—61 7014 6-630 6257 95 — 95 1-383 1-353 1 323 27 — 27 16-437 14-431 12811 62 — 62 6-804 6-417 6067 96 — 96 1-424 i-394 1-364 28 — 28 16- 196 14-244 12-663 63 — 63 6-563 6 202 5875 97 — 97 1-395 1-366 1-339 29 — 29 15976 14-075 12-530 64 — 64 6-308 5974 5669 98 — 98 1-375 1-349 1-323 30 — 30 15-784 13-930 12-419 65 — 65 6-047 5-738 5-456 99 — 99 1.294 1 -272 1-251 31—31 15-591 13784 12-308 66 — 66 5774 5-490 5230 100 — in,) 0991 0-976 0962 32 — 32 15392 13-632 12191 67 — 67 5-4S6 5-228 4-990 101 — 101 637 0679 670 33 — 33 15180 13-469 12064 68 — 68 5-188 4954 4-737 102 — 102 0-387 0383 0379 34 — 34 14-954 13294 11-926 69 — 69 4-877 4666 4471 102 — 103 0108 0107 0106 35 — 35 14720 13111 11-780 INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. Ill XIV. Table showing the Value of an Annuity on the Joint Continuance of Two Lives, when the Difference of Age is Five Years, according to the Northampton Table of Mortality. Ages. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent 5 per Cent. A g e, 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent, Age. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent 1& 6 12-346 10741 9-479 32 & 37 11-775 10659 9-716 62&67 5503 5-285 4-986 2— 7 14461 12-581 11100 33 — 38 11-591 10508 9-591 63 — 68 5-205 5017 4*786 3— 8 15-300 13-319 11-755 34 — 39 11-401 10-354 9-463 64 — 69 5025 4798 4 585 4— 9 15809 13775 12 165 35 — 40 11-213 10196 9-331 65 — 70 4-782 4-573 4-378 5—10 15974 13-933 12-315 36 — 41 11-021 10037 9- 198 66 — 71 4-540 4 349 4-109 6-11 16-110 14068 12447 37 — 42 10-828 9-877 9-062 67 — 72 4-298 4- 124 3-960 7 — 12 16 137 14 111 12498 38 — 43 10 634 9716 8927 68 — 73 4059 3-901 3-752 8—13 16089 14-089 12492 39 — 44 10-437 9-550 8-787 69—74 3825 3 683 3-547 9—14 15957 13992 12421 40 — 45 10-235 9381 8-643 70—75 3-599 3471 3-347 10 — 15 15762 13841 12-302 41—46 10033 9210 8 497 71—76 3366 3270 3 159 11 — 16 1553S 13664 12158 42 — 47 9-829 9037 8-350 72 — 77 3175 3070 2-971 12—17 15308 13480 12-009 43 — 48 9-623 8-862 8-200 73 — 78 2-963 2-869 2-780 13 — 18 15086 13303 11-664 44 — 49 9-414 8683 8046 74—79 2-743 2-659 2-580 14 — 19 14870 13- 130 11-723 45 — 50 9-204 8-503 7-891 75—80 2-526 2-448 5-381 15 — 20 14660 12-961 11-585 46 — 51 8-997 8-326 7-737 76 — 81 2325 2-258 2-195 16 — 21 14457 12-799 11-452 47 — 52 8-790 8-147 7-582 77—82 2131 2077 2013 17 — 22 14-265 12-646 1 1-327 48 — 53 8-579 7965 7424 78 — 83 1-947 1-699 1-838 18 — 23 14-082 12 500 11-209 49 — 54 8-366 7-780 7262 79 — 84 1-792 1-751 1-750 19 — 24 13 908 12361 11-096 50 — 55 8151 7-593 7-098 80 — 85 1-645 1-608 1-573 20 — 25 13-741 12229 10989 51—56 7910 7409 6-936 81—86 1-510 1-478 1-447 21—26 13 584 12- 105 10-890 52 — 57 7730 7225 6-774 82 — 87 1-385 1-356 1-329 22 — 27 13433 11-987 10796 53 — 58 7-518 7-039 6-609 83—88 1-284 1-259 1-235 23 — 28 13 280 11-866 10-699 54 — 59 7304 6-850 6-442 84 — 89 1-187 1104 1145 24 — 29 13124 11-743 10-600 55 — 60 7-068 6659 6-272 85 — 90 1074 1054 1 -038 25 — 30 12966 11-618 10499 56 — 61 6-870 6-465 6- 100 86 — 91 0921 0-902 0-892 26 — 31 12-805 11-489 10-396 57 — 62 6-651 6-270 5-925 87—92 0755 0-738 734 27 — 32 12-641 11-359 10-289 58 — 63 6-427 6070 5-744 88—93 0561 0554 0-547 28 — 33 12-474 11-225 10181 8 59 — 64 6-201 5-867 5-561 89—94 6-377 0373 0369 29 — 34 12 304 1 1-088 10069J 60 — 65 5-970 5-658 5-372 90 — 95 0-179 0-177 0-175 30 — 35 12131 10-948 9-954 B 61—66 5 737 5-447 5-180 91—96 o-ooo 0000 o-ooo 31 — 36 11-955 10805 9-837 I XV. Table showing the Value of an Annuity on the Joint Continuance of Two Lives, when the Difference of Age is Five Years, according to the Carlisle Table of Mortality. Ages. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent 5 per Cent. Ages. 3 per Cent 4 per Cent. 6 per Cent. Ages. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 1& 6 16-828 14-269 12331 34&S9 14-290 12-773 11-508 67 & 72 4-580 4-386 4-207 2— 7 18-087 15-341 13-258 35 — 40 14048 12-581 11-354 68 — 73 4-297 4123 3-961 3— 8 19-100 16-214 14019 36 — 41 13-812 12-394 11-204 69 — 74 4035 4-878 3731 4— 9 19-584 16-644 14-402 37 — 42 13579 12-209 11056 70 — 75 4-804 3661 3-528 5—10 19-874 16-913 14-649 36 — 43 13346 12021 10907 71 — 76 3-568 3439 3-319 6 — 11 19-935 16-989 14-731 39 — 44 13- 107 11-833 10753 72 — 77 3353 3237 3-127 7—12 19-889 16-975 14-736 40 — 45 12-868 11-641 10 598 73 — 78 3- 152 3047 2-948 6 — 13 19-771 16-900 14-689 41 — 46 12-630 11-450 10444 74 — 7(1 2-952 2-857 2-767 5—14 19-606 16785 14-606 42 — 47 12-389 11-256 10-287 75 — 80 2-790 2-704 2-623 10—15 19-410 16-643 14-500 43 — 48 12139 11053 10121 76 — 81 2-618 2-540 2-467 11 — 16 19-208 16-435 14-389 44 — 49 11-868 10830 9-937 77 — 82 2-471 2-400 2-333 12— 17 19014 16-354 14-284 45 — 50 11-580 10-591 9737 78 — 83 2-318 2-255 2- 194 13—18 18-820 16213 14-178 46 — 51 11-271 10-332 9519 79 — 84 2155 2099 2045 14—19 18-622 16068 14069 47 — 52 10955 10 065 9-292 80 — 85 1-993 1-943 1 895 15 — 20 lis-423 15-922 13-959 48 — 53 10628 9-787 9054 81 — 86 1-834 1-790 1-747 16 — 21 18230 15781 13.853 49 — 54 10-284 9-492 8-799 82 — 87 1-704 1-664 1-626 17 — 22 18036 15-639 13-746 50 — 55 9924 9-181 8-528 83 — 88 1-606 1-569 1-535 18 — 23 17-838 15-493 13-636 51—56 9-500 8-855 8242 84 — 89 1-496 1-464 1-433 19—24 17-633 15-341 13-520 52 — 57 9172 8-524 7950 ss- 90 1-835 1-307 1-279 20 — 25 17-421 15182 13-398 53 — 58 8-797 8-194 7-657 se— 91 1-255 1 229 1-203 21—26 17-204 15019 13-272 54 — 59 8-439 7-876 7375 87 — 92 1-245 1-218 1192 22 — 27 16-917 14-846 53137 55 — 60 8-098 7-574 7-106 88 — 93 1-272 1-245 1-219 23 — 28 16 747 14-670 13000 56 — 61 7-788 7-299 6-860 89 — 94 1-266 1-240 1-214 24 — 29 16524 14-500 12-867 57 — 62 7-480 7-025 6-615 90 — 95 1-217 1-191 1-167 25 — 30 16-311 14-339 12-742 58 — 63 7175 6752 6-370 91 — 96 1-210 1185 1161 26 — 31 16097 14176 12-615 59 — 64 6-875 6-482 6- 127 92 — 97 1-230 1-205 1181 27 — 32 15-875 14006 12-482 60 — 65 6-589 6-225 5-89 93 — 98 1-262 1-238 1 215 28 — 33 15 648 13-830 12-344 61—66 6 323 5-986 5-678 94 — 99 1-234 1-212 1191 29 — 34 15424 13-657 12-206 62 — 67 6-054 5 713 5-458 95 — 100 1-072 1055 1-038 30 — 35 15209 13491 12078 63 — 68 5-779 5-493 5-230 96 — mi 0.851 0-839 0-828 31 — 36 14-989 13321 11-944 64 — 69 5-490 5 229 4-988 97 — 102 0-568 0-562 0-555 32 — 37 14764 13146 11-806 65 — 70 5193 4-956 4-737 98 — 103 0254 0252 0249 33 — 38 14-531 12-964 11-661 66 — 71 4-882 4667 4-469 The Northampton Table (No. 7.), by under-rating the duration of life, was a very advantageous guide for the insurance offices to go by in insuring lives ; but to whatever extent it might be beneficial to them in this respect, it became equally injurious when they adopted it as a guide in selling annui- ties. And yet, singular as it may seem, some of the insurance offices granted annuities on the same terms that they insured lives ; not perceiving that, if they gained by the latter transaction, they must obviously lose by the former. Government also continued for a lengthened period to sell annuities according to the Northampton Tables, and without making any distinction between male and female lives! A glance at the Tables of M. Deparcieux ought to have satisfied them that they were proceed- ing on entirely false principles. But, in despite even of the admonitions of some of the most skilful mathematicians, this system was persevered in until within these few years! We understand that the loss thence arising to the public may be moderately estimated at 2,000,000*. sterling. Nor will this appear a large sum to those who recollect that, supposing interest to be 4 per cent., there is a differ- ence of no less than 91*. Is. in the value of an annuity of 501. for life, to a person aged 45, between the Northampton and Carlisle Tables. 112 INVOICE, IONIAN ISLANDS. INVOICE, an account of goods or merchandise sent by merchants to their correspon- dents at home or abroad, in which the peculiar marks of each package, with other particulars, are set forth. — (See example, vol. i. p. 207.) IONIAN ISLANDS, the name given to the islands of Corfu, Paxo, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cephalonia, Zante, Cerigo, and their dependent islets. With the exception of Cerigo, which lies opposite to the south-eastern extremity of the Morea, the rest lie pretty contiguous, along the western coasts of Epirus and Greece ; the most northerly point of Corfu being in lat. 39° 48' 15" N., and the most southerly point of Zante (Cape Kieri, on which there is a light-house) being in lat. 37° 38' 35" N. Kapsali, the port of Cerigo, is in lat. 36° 7' 30" N., Ion. 23° E. The area and present population of the different islands may be estimated as follows : — (■lands. Area in Square Miles, 15 to a Degree. Population. Corfu -----.-- Cephalonia - - - - - Zante ___'--. Santa Maura - - - - - Ithaca and Calamos - Cerigo and Cerigotto - - - - - Paxo and Antipaxo - Totals 1076 16-20 5-60 5 25 332 450 1-90 59,839 56,589 35,422 18,108 9,387 8,550 4,953 47-12* 192,848 Soil and Climate. — These are very various — Zante is the most fruitful. It consists principally of an extensive plain, occupied hy plantations of currants, and having an air of luxuriant fertility and rich- ness. Its climate is comparatively equal and fine, but it is very subject to earthquakes. Corfu and Cephalonia are more rugged and less fruitful than Zante; and the former from its vicinity to the snowy mountains of Epirus, and the latter from the Black Mountain (the Mount iEnos of antiquity) in its interior, are exposed in winter to great and sudden variations of temperature. In January, 1833, the cold was more rigorous than usual, the frost damaging to a great extent the oranges and vines of these islands and those of Santa Maura. The latter is, in the hot season, exceedingly unhealthy, — a consequence of the vapours arising from the marshes, and the shallow seas to the N. E. Cerigo is rocky and sterile ; it is subject to continued gales, and the currents seldom permit its waters to remain unruffled. History, Government, Src. — These islands have undergone many vicissitudes. Corfu, the ancient Corcyra, was famous in antiquity for its naval power, and for the contest between it and its mother state Corinth, which eventually terminated in the Peloponnesian war. Ithaca, the kingdom of Ulysses ; Cephalonia, sometimes called Dulichium, from the name of one of its cities ; Zante, or Zacynthus ; Santa Maura, known to the ancients by the names of Leucas or Leucadia, celebrated for its promon- tory, surmounted by a temple of Apollo, whence Sappho precipitated herself into the ocean ; and Ce- rigo, or Cythera, the birth-place of Helen, and sacred to Venus ; — have all acquired an immortality of renown. But, on comparing their present with their former state, we may well exclaim, — Hen quantum hose JVjofte, Niobe distabat ab Hid ! — After innumerable revolutions, they fell, about 350 years ago, under the dominion of Venice. Since the downfall of that republic, they have had several protectors, or rather masters, being successively under the dominion of the Russians, the French, and the English. By the treaty of Paris, in 1815, they were formed into a sort of semi-independent state. They enjoy an internal government of their own, under the protection of Great Britain ; a Lord High Commissioner, appointed by the king of England, having charge of the foreign relations, and of the internal, maritime, and sanitary police. His Ma- jesty's commander in-chief has the custody of the fortresses, and the disposal of the forces. It is stipulated in the treaty of Paris, that the islands may be called upon for the pay and subsistence of 3,000 men, as well as for the repair of their fortresses occupied by the British troops. The executive government is vested in a president nominated by the commissioner, and a senate of 5 members (1 for each of the larger islands of Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, and Santa Maura, and 1 representing collec- tively the smaller ones of Ithaca, Cerigo, and Paxo, by each of which he is elected in rotation). The senators are elected at the commencement of every quinquennial parliament (subject to a negative from the commissioner) from a legislative chamber of 40 members, themselves elected by the consti- tuencies of the ditferent islands, for 5 years. The senate and legislative assembly, together with the commissioner, are thus the supreme authority: they are, when united, termed the Parliament, and, as such, pass, amend, and repeal laws, in the mode prescribed by the constitution of 1817. Besides the general government, there is in each island a local administration, composed of a regent, named by the senate, and from 2 to 5 municipal officers elected by their fellow citizens. The Stute of Society, in these islands, is far from being good, and was formerly the most depraved imaginable. The people, when they were placed under the regis of England, were at once lazy, igno- rant, superstitious, cowardly, and bloodthirsty. Their vice may, we believe, be, in a great degree, ascribed to the government and religion established amongst them. The latter consisted of little more than a series of fasts and puerile observances ; while the former was both weak and corrupt. The Venetians appointed to situations of power and emolument belonged mostly to noble but decayed families, and looked upon their offices merely as means by which they might repair their shattered fortunes. Hence the grossest corruption pervaded every department. There was no crime for which impunity might not be purchased. Justice, in fact, was openly bought and sold ; and suits were de- cided, not according to the principles of law or equity, but by the irresistible influence of faction or of gold. In consequence, the islands became a prey to all the vices that afflict and degrade a corrupt and semi-barbarous society. Sandys, one of the best English travellers who ever visited the Levant, having touched at Zante in 1610, expresses himself with respect to the inhabitants as follows : — " In habite they imitate the Italians, but transcend them in their revenges, and infinitely less civil. They will threaten to kill a merchant that will not buy their commodities; and make more conscience to breake a fast than to commit a murther. He is weary of his life that hath a difference with any of them and will walke abroad after daylight. But cowardice is joined with their crueltie, who dare due nothing but sodainly upon advantage; and are ever privately armed. They are encouraged to villainies by the remissnesse of their laws. The labourers do go into the fields with swords and par- * This is equal to 10013 English square miles of 69.15 to the degree- IONIAN ISLANDS. 113 t'rzans, as if in an enemie's countrey ; bringing home their oils and wines in hogskins, the inside turned out."— (p. 7. ed. 1637.) If the Zantiotes did not deteriorate during the next 2 centuries, which, indeed, was hardly possible, they certainly did not improve. Dr. Holland, by whom they were visited in 1812, tells us that he beard, "on sure authority, that the number of assassinations in /.ante has been more than 1 for each day of the year, though the population was only 40,000 I" — (Travels in the Ionian Isles, See. lto ed. p. 23.) Matters were, if not quite so bad, very little better in the other islands. In Cephalonia, the inhabi- tants were divided into factions, entertaining the most implacable animosities, and waging a war of extermination against each other. A little vigour on the part of their rulers would have served to suppress their murderous contests. But this was not an object they wished to attain : on the contrary, their selfish and crooked policy made them seek to strengthen their own power by fomenting the dis- sensions that prevailed amongst their subjects. — (Bellin, Description dn Golfe. tie Fentse, p. lto .) Con- sidering the state of society at home, we need not wonder that the Cepbalonians, who were distin- guished among the islanders for activity and enterprise, were much addicted to emigration. The Venetians attempted to check its prevalence; but, as they neglected the only means by which it could be prevented, — the establishment of security and good order at home, — their efforts were wholly unsuccessful. The islanders did not, however, satisfy themselves with attempting to stab and prey upon each other. They were much addicted to piracy, particularly the inhabitants of Santa Maura and Cerigo; and it has been alleged that the Venetian government participated in the profits of this public robbery, which, at all events they took little pains to suppress. A long series of years will be required to eradicate vices so deeply rooted, and to effect that tho- rough change in the habits and morals of the people that is so indispensable. The power and influence of the British government has already, however, had a very decided effect: assassination has become comparatively unknown ; piracy has been suppressed ; and a spirit of industry, sincerity, and fair dealing is beginning to manifest itself. The present generation of nobles possess a superior degree of information, and a knowledge of the true interests of their country, which, if not -ill that could be wished, was, at least, unknown to their fathers. R is not easy to exaggerate the difficulties with which Sir Thomas Maitland had to struggle during the first years of the British government. He was opposed by every means that feudal rancour, corruption, and duplicity could throw in his way. Those accustomed to the treachery, shuttling, and jobbing of the Venetian and Russo- Turkish governments, and the intrigues of the French, could neither appreciate nor understand the plain, straightforward course natural to British officers. These difficulties have, however, materially diminished ; and it is to be hoped that the influence of our example, and of that education now pretty generally diffused, will gradually accomplish the regeneration of the islanders. Manufactures, Sec. — These islands possess few manufactures properly so termed. The wives of the villani, or peasants, spin and weave a coarse kind of woollen cloth, sufficient in great part for the use of their families. A little soap is made at Corfu and Zante. The latter manufactures a considerable quantity of silk gros-de-Naples and handkerchiefs ; the art of dyeing is, however, too little studied, and the establishments are on too small a scale. The peasantry, in general, are lazy, vain, delighting in display, and very superstitious. Those of Zante and Cephalonia are more industrious than the Corfiotes ; in the first particular, their superior condition is probably to be ascribed, in part at least, to the nobles residing more on their estates in the country, and contributing, by their example, to sti- mulate industry. In Corfu, the taste for the city life, which prevailed in the time of the Venetian government, still operates to a great degree. The Corfiote proprietor resides but little in his villa; his land is neglected, while he continues in the practice of his forefathers, who preferred watching opportunities at the seat of a corrupt government, to improving their fortunes by the more legitimate means of honourable exertion and attention to their patrimony. In this respect, however, a material change for the better has taken place during the last 20 years. Imports of Grain, See. — Great part of the land is held under short tenures, on the metayer system, the tenant paying half the produce to the landlord. Owing to the nature of the soil, and the superior at- tention given to the culture of olives and currants, the staple products of the islands, most part of the grain and cattle required for their consumption is imported. The hard wheat of Odessa is preferred, and about 800,000 dollars may be annually sent to the Black Sea in payment. The imports of wheat in 1826 were 178,288 moggi, or about 891,440 bushels. The parliament, in March, 1833, repealed the duties on the introduction of corn ; and the grain monopoly of Corfu, which had been established in favour of government, in order to provide against the possibility of a general or partial scarcity, was then also suffered to expire. These 2 sources of revenue, while they existed, did not probably pro- duce less than 20,0002. annually. Cattle. — They are similarly dependent upon Greece and Turkey for supplies of butcher's meat ; a small number only of sheep and goats being bred in the islands. Oxen, whether for agriculture or the slaughterhouse, are brought from Turkey, to the annual amount of more than 90,000 dollars. The beef eaten by the troops is 6 weeks or 2 months walking down from the Danube, and the provinces that skirt it, to the shores of Epirus, where they remain in pasture until fit for the table. Exports. — The staple exports from these islands are oil, currants, valonia, wine, soap, and salt. The first is produced in great abundance in Corfu and Paxo, and in a less quantity in Zanle, Santa Maura, and Cephalonia. Corfu has, in fact, the appearance of a continuous olive wood ; a conse- quence, partly, of the extraordinary encouragement formerly given to the culture of the plant by the Venetians. Although there is a harvest every year, the great crop is properly biennial; the tree generally reposing for a y£ar after its effort. (In France and Piedmont the period of inactivity is of 2 and 3 years.) During 5 or 6 months, from October till April, the country, particularly in Corfu, pre- sents an animated appearance, persons of all ages being busily employed in picking up the fruit. It is calculated that the islands produce, one year with another, about 95,000 barrels, of 18 gallons each, and that of this quantity 80,000 are exported, principally to Trieste. The average price may be about 11. lis. per barrel. Under the old Venetian system, the oil could only be carried to Trieste. An ml valorem duty of 19t per cent., payable on the export, produces upon an average 28,0002. annually. The quality might be much improved by a little more care in the manufacture, the trees being gene- rally filer than in any other country. Currants, originally introduced from the Morea, are grown in the isles of Zante, Cephalonia, and Ithaca, but principally in the first The plant is a vine of small size and delicate nature, the cultiva- tion of which requires much care. Six or 7 years elapse after a plantation has been made, before it yields a crop. In the beginning of October, the earth about the roots of the plant is loosened, and gathered up in small heaps, away from the vine, which is pruned in March ; after which the ground is again laid down smooth around the plant, which grows low, and is supported by sticks. The crops are liable to injury in spring from the blight called the "brina," and rainy weather at the harvest season produces great mischief. The currants are gathered towards September, and, after being carefully picked are thrown singly upon a stone floor, exposed to the sun in the open air. The drying process may occupy a fortnight or longer, if the weather be not favourable. A heavy shower or thunderstorm (no unfrequent occurrence at that season) not only interrupts it. but sometimes causes fermentation. The fruit is then only fit to be given to animals. Should it fdcape these risks, it is k. 2 15 114 IONIAN ISLANDS. deposited in magazines called " seraglie," until a purchaser casts up. The " seragliente," or ware- house keeper, delivers to the depositor a paper acknowledging the receipt of the quantity delivered, which passes currently in exchange from hand to hand till the time of export. Under the old Vene- tian government, the liberty of traffic in this produce was exceedingly restricted. In Zante,5 persons chosen out of the council of nobles assembled in presence of the proveditore, regulated what should be the price ; and those who wished to purchase were under the necessity of declaring to the govern- ment the quantity they desired. This system was called the " collegetto."* The export duties con- sisted of an original duty of 9 per cent, ad valorem ; a dazio fisso, or fixed duty of about is. id. per cwt. ; and afterwards of a novissimo, or most recent duty, of 2s. 2d. per cwt. This latter was remit- ted in favour of vessels bringing salt fish, &c. from the northern ports (chiefly English, Danes, and Dutch) : it was afterwards relaxed in favour of Russian vessels from Odessa, and abandoned alto- gether as vexatious and unproductive. The proveditore received in addition 2 per cent., and each of his 2 Venetian councillors 1 per cent. ; so that the fruit, the original cost of which was about 9s. the cwt., stood the exporter in little less than 18s. or 19s. Even under British protection, the fruit, which some years before had fetched as much as 30s. and 32s. the cwt., but had declined in 1832 to 8s. the cwt. was burdened with the dazio fissn of 4s. id., and a duty of 6 per cent, ad valorem, being equiva- lent together, at that price, to an ad valorem duty of nearly 60 per cent. ! In the mean time the British parliament had, in 1829, raised the import duties payable in England to the enormous amount of 44s. id. the cwt., which, at the same low price, made an ad valorem duty of 500 per cent. ! The consequence was rapidly visible ; a decline took place in the culture of the plant, as well as in the circumstances and in the affections of the proprietors, whose staple export and means of existence were almost an- nihilated. As the prices fell, and the distress became greater, the necessitous grower was obliged to borrow money at ruinous interest from foreign merchants, or from the Jews, who were, consequently, able to dictate the price at which they would take his produce. A legislative enactment, on a scale commensurate with the difficulties which it had to grapple with, was, after much deliberation, ma- tured and adopted by the 4th parliament in its session of 1833. By it tbe whole of the duties upon cur- rants were commuted for an ad valorem tax of 19s- per cent., being the same as that laid upon oil. The same act increased, in a small degree, the duties previously paid on the importation of coffee, tea, and sugar, and upon foreign wines, silks, and gloves, — articles which, beimr chiefly consumed by the affluent, were more appropriately subjected to an increase of duty, to supply in part the serious de- falcation of revenue naturally consequent to the reduction of the currant duty. The duties thus in- creased upon objects of luxury may now amount to from 20 to 25 per cent., which is far from exorbi- tant. The good effects of this enactment were manifested by an almost instantaneous rise in the price of the fruit which had remained on hand of the crop of 1832. It is calculated that the average quantity of currants produced during the 4 years ending with 1832, has been 19,680,800 lbs. a year ; the export has been 17,885,300 lbs. It appears from the accounts laid before the finance committee, that, in 1826, there were exported from the islands 176,974 lbs. of valonia; 32,063 casks of wine; and 723,646 lbs. of soap. Tonnage Duty. — The late act of parliament abolished the tonnage duty of Is. Id. per ton payable by every ship sailing under Ionian colours, which, together with the heavy fees demanded by the British consuls in the Levant, had driven most of the Cephalonite vessels to seek for protection under the flag of Russia. Loan Banks. — Another act, intended to alleviate the distress experienced by the growers who had been the victims of usury in consequence of their pecuniary difficulties, provided for the establish- ment of loan banks with capitals (in the larger isles of 20,000/. each, and in the smaller ones in pro- portion), for lending money at 6 per cent, to the agricultural interest, on agricultural security, and thus employing the surplus which might otherwise lie idle in the treasury. These measures, it is pre- sumed, will go far towards bettering the condition of the islands ; and the anticipated reduction of the oppressive import duty upon currants in this country will do more. — (See Currants.) Salt may be obtained in considerabie quantities in Corfu, Zante, and Santa Maura, for exportation : the latter island alone produced it until the late act of parliament, which provided that government should let the salt pans in all the islands to those bidders who should otfer, by sealed tenders, to sup- ply it at the lowest rate to the consumer, paying at the same time the highest price to government. No export duty is charged upon it. It is apparent from these statements, that heavy duties are levied upon the exportation of the staple products of the islands, — an objectionable system, and one which, if it is to be excused at all, can only be so by the peculiar circumstances under which they are placed. There is no land tax or impost on pro- perty in the Ionian Islands, such as exists in many other rude countries ; and, supposing it were desira- ble to introduce such a tax, the complicated state of property in them, the feudal tenures under which it is held, and the variety of usages with respect to it, oppose all but invincible obstacles to its imposition on fair and equal principles. At the same time, too, a large amount of revenue is required to meet the expenses of the general and local governments, to maintain an efficient police, and to prevent smuggling and piracy. However, we cannot help thinking that some very material retrenchments might be made from the expenditure ; and it is to this source, more, perhaps, than to any other, that the inhabitants must look for any real or effectual relief from their burdens. Revenue and expenditure. — In 1830, the revenue and expenditure were as follows : — Revenue. Expenditure. L. t. d. L. a. d. Customs - 30,037 14 3-4 General and local governments, salaries 56.831 2 3 1-4 Transit duty - 845 9 7 Public quarters (hire) . - - 10,119 15 9 3-4 E *P° rt I Currants" I I I 35,048 7 9 3-4 Education ..... 6,666 11 1-4 28,407 10 10 General and local contingencies, hospi- Wines and spirits - 6,767 15 4 1-2 tal, &c. - 8,369 1 Tobacco ..... 6,600 16 5 1-2 Collection of revenue ... 11,169 8 1-2 Cattle 2,939 9 1-2 Flotilla 8,693 2 8 1-2 Corn, in commutation of tithes - 13,333 10 13 4 Public works, fortresses - 35,.IS1 15 6 Salines (salt pans) 3,767 434 Staff pay and contingencies 11,600 1 3 12 Public lands and houses ... 7,587 6 6 Inspectors of Ionian militia 2,629 15 6 1-2 Tonnage duties .... 860 11 10 Mounted orderlies .... 440 4 4 1-2 Port duties - - 2,432 12 7 Half-pay (Ionian officers) • 935 12 8 1-2 Sanita, post-office, police, judicial tariff, Barrack stores, papers of officers, cou- surplus received 8,169 19 9 riers, &c. - . - - 2,504 '2 4 1-2 Valonia and gunpowder monopolies, and Engineer department ... 2,478 15 11-2 municipal balances ... 9,145 7 6 3-4 Total expenditure 157,934 7 8 1-2 Total income • 153,948 3 1-1 * A bill for reviving this institution, brought in by a Zantiote member, passed the legislative assem- bly in May, 1833 ; but the senate threw it out, trusting that the enactments mentioned in this article would suffice to relieve the grower from the usurious oppression of the currant speculator. IPECACUANHA. 115 The Ionian republic affords, perhaps, the only example of a state expending nearly ^fourth part of its revenue on public works and fortresses. Without, however, questioning the importance of the objects for which so heavy an expense has been incurred, we are inclined to think thai the industry and prosperity of the islands would be far more like!) to be advanced bj the effectual reduction of the duties on the exportation of oil and currants than by any, even the most judicious outla y pf the re- venue derived from them. tended for the supply of the contiguous provinci i of 1 .1. eceand Tur- key. The amount of exports depends material!) on the circum- stance whether the year tie one in which there is, or is not, a crop of olives. A/t'/N-y.— 'Accounts are kept in sterling money Spanish doubloons pass at 3s. Grf. , Spanish dollars -it 4s. 4d., and Venetian dollars at -is. Exchange with England at d. per dollar. Weights.— The pound, peso grosso, or great weight of 12 oz. = 7.384 grains Troy; 94 8 lbs. = 100 lbs. avoirdupois. The pound, peso sottile, or small weight, used for precious metals and drugs, is 1-31 lighter than the foregoing; 12 oz. peso sottile corresponding to 8 oz. peso gros*o. The oke, used in the southern islands, weighs about IH^ftOO grains Troy, or 27- 10 lbs. avoirdupois. The Levant can tar, or quintal, should contain 44 okes. The migliajo (1,000 lbs.), for currants, in Zante, is 1 per cent, light- er than for other articles. Measures oj Length. — The Venetian foot of 12 onue = 13 3-4 inches English. Braccio for clrAhs, &c. = 27 3-16 inches English. Do. fo'i silks = 25 3-8 Land is measured by the mixura or 1-8 of a mpggio, or bacile ; 400 square sassi being l hiisura, or bacile, about 3-10 of an acre English. Vineyards are measured by the zappada ; 3 zappade ta computed day's ■ irk) being I misura. Firewnml is measured by the square passo, usually, however, only 2 feet thick, this depending on the quality of the wood. Stone is measured by (he pisso cubo. Measures of Capacity,— Corn. Corfu and Paxo : Moggio of 8 misure, about 5 Winchester bushels. Cephalonia: Bacile should contain 80 lbs. peso grosso, best quality wheat Zante: Bacile should contain 72 lbs. peso grosso, best quality wheat. Santa Maura : Cado, of S crivelli, 4=3 mog. ; I cado =334 bushels English. Ithaca: 5 Bacile = 1 moggio. Cerigo : ChiK the measure of Constantinople, = 1 bushel Eng- lish. Wine— Corfu and Paxo : 32 quartucci = 1 jar, and 4 jars = 1 bar- rel = 18 English wine gallons. Cephalonia and Ithaca: 2 quartucci = 1 boccale; 12 boccali = 1 se?chio ; 6 secchio = 1 barrel = IS English wine gallons. Zante: 13 1-3 quartucci = 1 lire; 40 quartucci ~ 1 jar; 3 jars = 1 barrel = 17 5-8 English wine gallons. Santa Maura: 22 quartucci =1 stamiio; 6 stamni = 1 barrel = IS English wine gallons. Cerigo: 2 agosten = 1 boccia ; 30 boccie = 1 barrel = 18 Eng- lish wine gallons. 0*7.— Corfu and Faxo : 4 quartucci = 1 miltro ; 6 miltri = I jar; 4 jars = 1 barrel = 18 English wine gallons. Cephalonia: 9 pasliazzi = 1 barrel =18 Eng. wine galls. Zante : 9 lire, or 3 jars of 46 qu. each = 1 barrel = 17 5-8 Eng- lish wine gallons. Santa Maura; 7 stamni = 1 barrel = 18 Eng. wine galls. Ithaca: 13 pagliazzi =1 — =18 Cerigo : 24 bozze =1 — =14 0-5 Salt.— Centinajo, about 4,000 lbs. Venetian peso grosso. Lime. — Corfu, measure of 4 English cubic feet. In compiling this article, we have consulted, besides the works referred to above, the Voyage Historique, Ptttoiesque, <$-c, by Saint Sauveur, — a diffuse but valuable work. The account of Zante, in the last volume (tnme iii. pp. 101 — 278.), is particularly good. We have also looked into the Voyage en G>ece, of Scrofani, 3 tomes, Pa- ris, IS01 ; the Archives du Commerce; the Papers laid before the Finance Committee, &c. But by far the most important part of the information we have been able to lay before the reader has been de- rived from manuscript notes obligingly communicated by Lord King, late secretary to the British government in these islands. Ports —The principal ports in the Ionian republic are Corfu and Z-uiU- 111 lb.- islands nl the 3.ime name, ami ArgOStoli in Ci pluh>ui. The city and port of Corfu lie on the east side of "he island, on the ■ in. I or channel between it and the opposite continent, which is here abottl 5 mites wide. The citadel, which projects into the sea, is furnished with a light-house, 240 feel high , the latter h.- ue m lat. 39' 37' N., Ion. I9 a 56' E. The town is but indifferently built. Population about 17,000, exclusive of the military. The fortifica tion- ire very strong, both towards thi- sea and the land. The canal has deep water throughout j its navigation, which is a little dit ficult, has been much facilitated by the erection of a light-house on the rock of Tignoso in the northern entrance, where the channel is less than a mile in width j and by the mooring of a floating light off Point l^schimo, in the southern entrance. Ships anchor between the small but well fortified island of Vido and the city, in from 12 to 17 fathoms water. • The port, or rather gulf, of Argostoli in Cephalonia lies on the south west side of the island. Cape Aji, forming its south-western extremity, is in lat. 38 p 8' 40" N., Ion. 20* 23' 30" E. Cape San Nicholo, forming the other extremity, is about 4 3 4 miles from Cape Aji ; and between them, within about 1 1-2 mile of the latter, is the small islet of Guard iani, on which is a light house. From this island the gulf stretches N. 1-2 W. from 7 to 8 miles inland. The town of Argostoli lies on the west side of a haven on the east side of the gulf formed by Point Statura. The situation is low, and rather unhealthy. When visited by Dr. Holland, its population did not exceed 4,000. Its appearance and police, particul irly the iatter, have been much improved since its occupation by the English- There is deep water and good anchorage ground in most parts ol In- gulf. The best entrance is between Cape San Nicoln ;nnl (iurwdiani, keeping rather more than a mile to the eastward of the latter, on ac- count of a reef that extends N. E. and S. W. from it nearly that distance. The port and city of Zante are situated on the eastern side of the isl md, in lat. 37-' 47' N., Ion. 20* 54' 42" E. The city, the largest in the Ionian islands, extends along the shore for nearly 1 1-2 mile, but it is no where above TOO yards in breadth, except where it ascends the hill on which the citadel is erected. The style of building is chiefly Italian ; an 1 the interior of the city displays every where greed neat- ness, and even a certain degree of magnificence. Population esti- mated by Or. Holland at from 16,000 to 18,000. It has a mole or jetty of considerable utility, at the extremity of which a light-house is erected ; and a lazaretto, situated'a litlle to the south-west. I he harbour is capacious. Ships anchor opposite the town at from riOO to 1,000 yards' distance, in from 12 to 15 fathoms, availing themselves of the protection of the mole when the wind is from the N. E. When our troops took possession of Zante, in 1810, the fortifications were found to he in very bad repair; but immense sums have been since been expended upon their improvement and extension. Shtppi/ig.— The entries (in tons) for 1826, the last year for which we have seen any detailed statement, were as follows: — Flags. Tons. Flags. Tons. Ionian 169,371 Papal 11,856 British 2", 116 Sardinian 9,753 Austrian 92,541 Turkish 5,421 Russian 3,869 Greek 7,620 French 2,90s All other 3,393 Neapolitan - 13,179 Total 317.027 Trade with England.— This is but of very limited extent ; a con- sequence, principally, of the enormous duty on currants. During the year 18-U, we imported from the Ionian Hands 162.363 cwt. Currants, 22 1-2 tons fustic, 251 cwt. flax, 100,242 gillnns olive oil, 7,461 cwt. valonia, and £9S gallons wine. The real or declared value of the articles of Bri'ish produce and manufacture exported to them during the same year, amounted to only 5 n ,983i. The total value of the imports from all countries in 1831, is esti- mated at 510,753/., and that of the exports at 249,058!. But a consi- derable part of the imports is not destined for the consumption of the islands, but is seut thither merely as a convenient entrepot, being in- IPECACUANHA (Fr. Ipecacuanha,- Ger. Amerikanische brechwurzel ,- It. Ipecoa- canna ,• Port. Cipo de camaras, Ipecacuanha ,• Sp. Ipecacuana, Raiz de ora), the root of a perennial plant (Cephaelis ipecacuanha) growing in Brazil and other parts of South America. It is, from its colour, usually denominated white, grey, or ash-coloured, and hrown. Little of the first variety is found in the shops. The grey and brown varieties are brought to this country in bales from Rio Janeiro. Both are in short, wrinkled, variously bent and contorted pieces, which break with a resinous fracture. The grey is about the thickness of a small quill, full of knots and deep circular fissures, that nearly reach down to a white, woody, vascular cord that runs through the heart of each piece ; the external part is compact, brittle, and looks smooth ; the brown is smaller, more wrinkled, of a black- ish brewn colour on the outside, and whitish within : the white is woody, and has no wrinkles. The entire root is inodorous : but the powder has a faint, disagreeable odour. The taste is bitter, sub-acrid, and extremely nauseous. In choosing, ipecacuanha, the larger roots, which are compact and break with a resinous fracture, having a whitish grey, some- what semi-transparent, appearance in the outside of the cortical part, with a pale straw- coloured medullary fibre, are to be preferred. When pounded, ipecacuanha forms the mildest and safest emetic in the whole materia medica. Though probably employed in America from time immemorial, it was not introduced into Europe till the time of Louis XIV., when one Grenier, a French merchant, brought 150 lbs. of it from Spain, with which trials were 116 IRON. made at the Hotel Dieu. Helvetius first made known its use in dysentery, for which Louis XIV. munificently rewarded him by a douceur of 1,000/. sterling. — {Thomson's Dispensa- tory ; Thomson's Chemistry.') IRON (Dan. Jem ; Du. Yzer ,- Fr. Fer ; Ger. Eisen ,• It. Ferro ,■ Lat. Ferrum, Mars ; Pol. Zelazo,- Por. Ferro ; Rus. Scheleso ,■ Sp. Hierro ,• Sw. Jem ,■ Gr. lUtifos: Sans. Loha; Arab. Htdeed ,- Pers. Ahun), the most abundant and most useful of all the metals. It is of a bluish white colour ; and, when polished, has a great deal of brilliancy. It has a styptic taste, and emits a smell when rubbed. Its hardness exceeds that of most other metals; and it may be rendered harder than most bodies by being converted into steel. Its specific gravity varies from 7-6 to 7 - 8. It is attracted by the magnet or loadstone, and is itself the substance which constitutes the loadstone. But when iron is perfectly pure, it retains the magnetic virtue for a very short time. It is malleable in every temperature, and its malleability in- creases in proportion as the temperature augments ; but it cannot be hammered out nearly as thin as gold or silver, or even as copper. Its ductility is, .however, more perfect; for it may be drawn out into wire as fine at least as a human hair. Its tenacity is such, that an iron wire 0-078 of an inch in diameter, is capable of supporting 549*25 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. Historical Notice.— Iron, though the most common, is the most difficult of all the metals to obtain in a stale fit for use ; and the discovery of the method of working it seems to have been posterior to the use of gold, silver, and copper. We are wholly ignorant of the steps by which men were led to prac- tise the processes required to fuse it and render it malleable. It is certain, however, that it was pre- pared in ancient Egypt, and some other countries, at a very remote epoch ; but it was very little used in Greece till after the Trojan war. — (See the admirable work of J\I. Goguet on the Origin of Laws, Jirts, I'iJ-c, vol. i. p. 140.) jSpccies of Iron. — There are many varieties of iron, which artists distinguish by particular names ; but all of them may be reduced under one or other of the 3 following classes : cast or pig iron, wrought or soft iron, and steel. 1. Cast or pig iron is the name given to this metal when first extracted from its ores. The ores from which iron is usually obtained are composed of oxide of iron and clay. The object of Hie manu- facturer is to reduce the oxide to the metallic state, and to separate all the clay with which it is combined. This is effected by a peculiar process ; and the iron, being exposed to a strong heat in furnaces, and melted, runs out into moulds prepared for its reception, and obtains the name of cast oi pis iron. The cast iron thus obtained is distinguished by manufacturers into different varieties, from its co- lour and other qualities. Of these the following are the most remarkable : — a. White cast iron, which is extremely hard and brittle, and appears to be composed of a congeries of small crystals. It can neither be filed, bored, nor bent, and is very apt to break when suddenly heated or cooled. b. Grey or mottled cast iron, so called from the inequality of its colour. Its texture is granulated. It is much softer and less brittle than the last variety ; and may be cut, bored, and turned on the lathe. Cannons are made of it. c. Black cast iron is the most unequal in its texture, the most fusible, and least cohesi va* of the three 2. Wrought or soft iron is prepared from cast iron by a process termed a refinement or finery. The wrought iron manufactured in Sweden is reckoned the finest in the world. 3. Steel consists of pieces of wrought iron hardened by a peculiar process. The Swedish iron im- ported into this country is mostly used in the manufacture of steel.— (See Steel.) — (Thomson's Che- mistry.) Uses of Iron. — To enumerate the various uses of iron would require a lengthened dissertation. ■ No one who reflects for a moment on the subject, can doubt that its discovery and employment in the shape of tools and engines has been of the utmost importance to man; and has done more, perhaps, than any thing else, to accelerate his advance in the career of improvement. Mr. Locke has the fol- lowing striking observations on this subject : — " Of what consequence the discovery of one natural body, and its properties, may be to human life, the whole great continent of America is a convincing instance ; whose ignorance in useful arts, and want of the greatest part of the conveniences of life, in a country that abounded with all sorts of natural plenty, I think may be attributed to their igno- rance of what was to be found in a very ordinary, despicable stone — I mean the mineral of iron. And whatever we think of our parts or improvements in this part of the world, where knowledge and plenty seem to vie with each other ; yet, to any one that will seriously reflect upon it, I suppose it will appear past doubt, that, were the use of iron lost among us, we should in a few ages be unavoid- ably reduced to the wants and ignorance of the ancient savage Americans, whose natural endowments and provisions came no way short of those of the most flourishing and polite nations ; so that he who first made use of that one contemptible mineral, may be truly styled the father of arts and author of plenty ." — (Essay on the Understanding, book iv. c. 12.) Mm a fun are of Iron in Great Britain. — Iron mines have been wrought in this country from a very early period. Those of the Forest of Dean, in Gloucestershire, are known to have existed in the year 1066. In consequence of the great consumption of timber which they occasioned, they were re- strained by act of parliament in 1581. Soon after this, Edward Lord Dudley invented the process of smelting iron ore with pit-coal instead of wood fuel ; and it is impossible, perhaps, to point out an instance of another invention that has proved more advantageous. The patent which his Lordship had obtained in 1619, was exempted from the operation of the act of 1623 (21 Jac. I.e. 23.), setting aside monopolies : but though in its consequences it has proved of immense value to the country, the works of the inventor were destroyed by an ignorant rabble, and he was well nigh ruined by his efforts to introduce and perfect his process ; nor was it till about a century after, that it was brought into general use. In the early part of last century well-founded complaints were repeatedly made of the waste and destruction of woods caused by the smelting of iron; and the dearth and scarcity of fuel that was thus occasioned, led, about 1710, to the general adoption of Lord Dudley's process for using pit-coal, which was found to be in every respect superior to that previously in use. (Report of Committee of the House of Commons on Patents, p. 168. &c.) From this period, the progress of the manufacture has exceeded the most sanguine expectations. In 1740, the quantity of pig iron manu- factured in England and Wales amounted to about 17,000 tons, produced by 59 furnaces. The quan- tities manufactured at the undermentioned epochs, in Great Britain, have been us follows: — 1750 - 22,000 tons. I 1806 - 250,000 tons, produced by 169 furnaces. 1788 - - 68,000 — produced by 85 furnaces. 1820 - - 400.000 — unknown. 1790 - 125,000 — — 121—] (See next page.) IRON. 117 The extraordinary increase that lias taken place in the production of iron since 1823. is principally to be ascribed lO the high prices of 1824, 1825, anil IS-21'i, when pig iron met with a ready sale at from 91. to I'il. and 131. a ton. lint, in consequence partly of tiie failure or postponement of most oi the projects as to rail- roads, Sec, that were then on foul, and partly of the vast additional supplies which the extension of the manufacture threw on the market, the price fell in 1828 to from 51. to 7/ ;i ton : and continued gradually to decline, till in 18:12 it was only worth •(/. 15s. So heavy a fall had the effect of introducing the severest economy into every department of the manufacture, iii despite, however, of all the saving that could he effected in this way. many of the manufacturers Were in- volvi :i in much distress, ami the production of iron is believed to have been considerably diminished. This, coupled with the increasing demand for iron, naturally led to a reaction. Prices began to rise early in 1833 ; and the advance has been such, that at present (January, 1831), pig iron fetches 62. a ton, and the manufacture is in a state of great activity. The following statements as to the number of furnaces and the quantity of iron produced in the dif- ferent districts where the manufacture is carried on, in 1823, 1825, 1828, and 1830, appeared originally in the Birmingham Journal. — We have been assured that their accuracy may be depended upon. Number of Furnaces. Tons of Iron produced. Districts. 1823. 1825. 1828. 1830. Total. Total. In Blast. Out. Total. In Blast. (lilt. Total. 1S23. 1825. 1828. 1830. South Wales 72 109 80 27 100 89 II 113 IS2.325 230,412 279,512 277,643 Stafibrdshire 84 108 80 27 120 95 25 12:! 133,590 182,156 219,492 212,604 Nhm|,sliire 38 49 36 13 48 31 17 48 73,418 69,596 81,224 73,418 Yorkshire 26 34 22 12 34 17 17 27 27,311 39,104 32,968 27,926 Scotland 22 25 17 8 25 IS H 27 24,500 33,540 37,700 37,500 Derbyshire 15 19 14 5 18 14 4 IS 14,038 22,672 22,360 17,999 North Wales Uo J f u 8 b 19 12 7 -1 12,000 17,756 25,768 25,000 Forest of Dean - U J- " \' S 2 1 20 2,600 Various • <• • I 1 1 2,379 1,560 6,327 Ireland - Total I 2 2 J 3,000 277 374 259 103 367 278 90 376 469,561 618,236 703, 1S4 67S.417 About 3-10ths of the total quantity of iron produced are used as cast iron, being consumed princi- pally in Great Britain and Ireland; the exports, not exceeding 12,000 tons, go chiefly to the United States and British North America. The other 7-10ths are converted into wrought iron, being formed into hars, bolts, rods, &c. The exports of the different sorts of iron amount at present to about 115,000 tons, which, at 8/. 10s. a ton, would be worth 1,232,5002. The increase of the iron manufacture has not only led to its exportation in very large quantities, but has reduced our imports of foreign iron for home consumption from about 34,000 tons, which they amounted to at an average of the 5 years ending with 1805, to about 18,000 or 20,000 tons, consisting principally of Swedish iron, which is subsequently manufactured into steel. The following is An Account of the British Iron (including unwrought Steel) exported from Great Britain in the Year 1835.—*** Quarters of a Hundred Weight and Pounds are omitted in the printing of this Table, but they are taken into account in the summing up. Wrought, &c. Of all Iron Wire. ported. Bar Iron. Pig Iron. Cast Iron. Anchors Sorts (ex- wrought Steel. and Hoops. Nails. cept Ord- Grapnels. nance. Tons.cwt. Tons.cwt. Tons.cwt. Tons.cwt. Tons. ct. Tons.cwt. Tons.cwt. Tons.cwt. Tons.cwt, Russia - 71 12 63 16 6 6 3 5 60 13 7 10 10 23 3 46 £ Sweden 25 6 63 9 9 1 17 6 1 11 15 8 2 6 Norway 17 36 S 2 11 3 4 II 27 16 s 55 19 3 14 Denmark 1,270 19 294 6 921 10 10 12 1 10 47 2 361 1 19 301 15 1 1 Prussia 168 15 284 6 170 6 5 15 159 17 1 16 38 6 3 3 IV 5,223 5 1,815 n 814 4 131 17 172 11 48 6 1,255 2 101 14 1,056 4 91 12 Holland 5,317 1 808 2 2,982 15 738 15 76 14 186 17 3,258 15 7 13 1,996 4 117 9 Belgium 15 16 3S 1,897 10 28 13 105 29 7 12 10 2 68 15 101 19 France 2,178 17 240 6 10,324 5 187 6 7 16 261 14 545 9 1 6 856 7 259 6 Portugal, Azores. &c. - 3,724 13 1,527 17 92 214 5 II 4 108 2 1,351 14 123 1 333 1 3 7 n I the Canaries 139 13 HI 1 1 145 39 18 19 15 30 18 1,308 14 20 196 17 8 12 Gibraltar 527 2 13 9 3 4 15 55 17 289 5 10 17 149 17 1 15 Italy ■ 7,962 5 1,985 3 610 118 7 28 18 85 19 821 6 3 948 17 11 10 Malta ■ 268 7 71 11 11 3 1 39 3 26 12 36 10 1 be Ionian Islands 306 3 31 6 2 6 1 56 5 10 1 39 12 Turkey anr waistcoats — 2 2 1 2 7 7 Currycombs, 6 barred - dozen 2 9 2 6 1 5 11 1 Candlesticks, brass, 6 inch pair 2 11 2 1 7 1 2 1 Coinnio le knobs, brass, 2 inch • dozen 4 3 6 1 6 1 2 1 4 Fry i lis pans cwt. 1 5 1 1 18 0, IN 16 6 Hinges, cist butts, 6 inch - dozen 10 ii :'.:,' 2* 4 6 9 3 9 3 2 9 2 5 Latches for doors, bright thumbs — 2 3 2 2 1 9 8 Locks for doors, iron rims, 6 inch — 1 18 i 12 15 18 6 9 for guns, single rollers each 6 5 2 1 10 1 6 I 8 Plated stirrups pair 4 6 3 9 1 6 1 8 Sad irons aud nlher castings cwt. I 2 6 1 11 11 0, . 10 Shovel an 1 tongs, fire-irons - pair 1 1 9 5sr 7 Tinned table spoons - gross 17 15 10 (1 6 9 II 6 Trace chains cwt. 1 8 5 19 6 15 6 13 6 Vies for blacksmiths — 1 10 1 8 1 2 17 a lb 6 Japanned tea trays, 30 inch each 4 6 3 6 2 1 6 II 1 4 Iron wire. No. 6. • bundle 16 13 9 6 5 6 Brass wire ... lb. I 10 II 1 4 1 II 9 9i [Iron ore occurs in great abundance in the United States. Immense masses of it have lately been discovered beyond the Alleghany mountains, especially in Kentucky and Mis- souri. But it is, perhaps, in Vermont, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, that it has hitherto been chiefly worked. Extensive, however, as has been the production of American iron, there can be little or no doubt that this branch of our home industry is shortly destined to a very great expansion. In every successive year, iron is applied to uses never dreamed of by the preceding genera- tion : only a few years have elapsed since an extraordinary demand for it was created by the constructing of rail-roads ; and it is not improbable that vast quantities of it will be wanted, before long, as the most desirable material for the building of houses and ships. But the enlarged demand for iron would have comparatively little effect in altering the relative proportions of it produced in the country itself and imported from abroad. The former of these will be augmented in a remarkable degree, at the expense, so to speak, of the latter, on account of the success which has attended the experiments lately made, on the Lehigh, in Schuylkill county, and elsewhere in Pennsylvania, for smelting the ore with an- thracite coal instead of wood. This improvement, on account of the vicinity of the anthra- cite to the ore, cannot but diminish considerably the cost of producing iron, and therefore its price ; which will, of course, be followed by an augmented production and consumption of it. Any diminution of the importation of iron into the country, which may be consequent upon the introduction generally of the improvement just mentioned, ought not to be re- garded as in itself a national advantage. It can have no permanent effect in preventing the existence of an undue excess of importation above exportation. These, as every one in a slight degree only conversant with political economy is aware of, have a certain determinate average relation to each other, — a relation which is preserved, by whatever restrictive or forcible measures either the amount of the commodities imported, or that of the commodities exported, may be attempted to be diminished. If less iron than heretofore shall hereafter be procured from other countries, the inevitable result must be that the exports of the products of American capital and labour will be lessened in the same proportion. The indebtedness of the United States to Europe, in an embarrassing and more than ordinary degree, can only be prevented from recurring, at intervals of a very few years, when some mode shall have been devised of effectually guarding against an undue expansion of our currency, which, by causing a general rise of prices, offers an inducement for importing more from abroad, as well as for exporting less to foreign countries. The importations of iron and steel have been very considerable. They have amounted, in the last five years, to nearly fifty millions of dollars. And the duties remitted on iron, — chiefly rail-road iron, — from the 1st of January, 1832, to June 30th, 1839, exceeded the sum of three -millions and a half of dollars; "being in fact," says the Secretary of the Treasury, " a donation, or free subscription, by the general government, to that amount, chiefly in aid of rail-roads." — Am. Ed.] IRON-WOOD (Ger. Eisenholz ,■ Du. Yserhout ; Fr. Bois de fer ,■ It. Legno di ferro ; Sp. Palo hierro ; Lat. Sideroxyloa, Lignum ferreum), a species of wood of a reddish cast, so called on account of its corroding as that metal does, and its being remarkably hard and ponderous, — even more so than ebony. The tree which produces it grows principally in the West India islands, and is likewise very common in South America, and in some parts of Asia, especially about Siam. ISINGLASS (Ger. Hausenblase, Hausblase ,- Fr. Colle de poisson, Carlock ,• It. Cola ISLE OF MAN— IVORY. 119 di pesce ; Rus. Kiel rilbui, Kiirlult), one of the purest and finest of the animal glues. It is a product, the preparation of which is almost peculiar to Russia. It is made of the air- bladders and sounds of diHerentkinds of fish which are found in the large rivers that fall into the North Sea and the Caspian. That prepared from the sturgeon is generally esteemed the best ; next to that the beluga ; but isinglass is also prepared from sterlets, shad, and barbel, though not so good. The best is usually rolled in little ringlets ; the second sort is laid together like the leaves of a book ; and the common sort is dried without any care. When fine, it is of a white colour, semi-transparent, and dry. It dissolves readily in boiling water, and it is used extensively in cookery. It is also used for stiffening silk, making stick- ing plaster, &c. The imports, in 1831 and 1832, amounted, at an average, to l,984j cwt. a year. The price varies at present (January, 1834) from 5s. to Ms. 6r/. per lb. — (See Thomson's Chemistry ,■ and Tooke's Vieiv of Russia, 2d ed. vol. iii. p. 343.) ISLE OF MAN. See Man, Isle of. JUICE OF LEMONS, LIMES, or ORANGES. The 9th section of the act 6 Geo. 4. c. HI. is as follows : — " For ascertaining the degrees of specific gravity or strength, accord- ing to which the duty on the juice of lemons, limes, and oranges shall be paid, it is enacted, that the degrees of such specific gravity or strength shall be ascertained by a glass citrometer, •which shall be graduated in degrees in such manner, that distilled water being assumed as unity at the temperature of 60° by Fahrenheit's thermometer, every degree of the scale of such citrometer shall be denoted by a variation of T ~- Q r(j parts of the specific gravity of such water." JUNIPER BERRIES. See Berries. IVORY, the name given to the teeth or tusks of the elephant, and of the walrus or sea- horse. Each male elephant come to maturity has 2 tusks. These are hollow at the root, tapering, and of various sizes, depending principally on the age of the animal. Colour externally yellowish, brownish, and sometimes dark, internally white. The best are large, straight, and light-coloured, without flaws ; not very hollow in the stump, but solid and thick. The most esteemed come from Africa, being of a closer texture, and less liable to turn yellow, than those from the East Indies. The trade in London thus divide them : — First sort, weighing 70 lbs. or upwards ; second sort, weighing 56 lbs. to CO lbs. ; third sort, weigh- ing 38 lbs. to 56 lbs. ; fourth sort, weighing 28 lbs. to 37 lbs. ; fifth sort, weighing 18 lbs. to 27 lbs. All under 18 lbs. are called scrivellues, and are of the least value. In purchasing elephants' teeth, thosi; that are very crooked, hollow, and broken at the ends, or cracked and decayed in the inside, should be rejected ; and care taken that lead or any other substance has not been poured into the hol- low. The freight is rated at 16 cwt. to the ton. — (Milbarri's Orient. Com.) . Supply of Ivory. — The imports of elephants' teeth, in 1831 and 1832, were, at an average, 4,130 cwt., of which 2,950 cwt. were retained for consumption. The medium weight of a tusk may be taken at about 60 lbs.; so that the yearly imports of 1831 and 1832 may be taken at 7,709 tusks ; a fact which supposes the destruction of at least 3,854 male elephants ! But, supposing the tusks could only be obtained by killing the animal, the destruction would really be a good deal greater, and would most probably, indeed, amount to 4,500 or 5,000 elephants. Occasionally, however, tusks are accidentally broken, one lost in this way being replaced by a new one ; and a good many are, also, obtained from elephants that have died in the natural way. Still it is sufficiently obvious, that the supply from the sources now alluded to cannot be very large ; and if to the quantity of ivory required for Great Britain, we add that required for the other countries of Europe, America, and Asia, the slaughter of elephants must, after every reasonable deduction is made, appear immense, and it may well excite surprise, that the breed of this noble animal has not been more diminished. The western and eastern coasts of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, India, and the countries to the eastward of the Straits of Malacca, are the great marts whence supplies of ivory are derived. The imports from Western Africa into Great Britain, in 1831, amounted to 2,575 cwt. ; the Cape only furnished 198 cwt. The im- ports during the same year from India, Ceylon and other Eastern countries, were 2,173 cwt. —(Pari. Paper, No. 550. Sess. 1833.) The Chinese market is principally supplied with ivory from Malacca, Siam, and Sumatra. The chief consumption of ivory in England is in the manufacture of handles for knives; but it is also extensively used in the manufacture of musical and mathematical instruments, chess- men, billiard-balls, plates for miniatures, toys, &c. Ivory articles are said to be manu- factured to a greater extent, and with better success, at Dieppe, than in any other place in Europe. But the preparation of this beautiful material is much better understood by the Chinese than by any other people. No European artist has hitherto succeeded in cutting concentric balls after the manner of the Chinese : and their boxes, chess-men, and other ivory articles, are all far superior to any that are to be met with any where else. Historical Notice. — It is a curious fact, that the people of all Asiatic countries in which the elephant is found, have always had the art of taming the animal and applying it to useful purposes, but that no such art has ever been possessed by any native African nation. Is this owing to any difference between the Asiatic and African elephants, or to the inferior sagacity 120 KELP— KERMES. of the African people '? We incline to think that the latter is the true hypothesis. Alex- ander the Great is believed to have been the first European who employed elephants in war. It appears pretty certain, that the elephants made use of by the Carthaginians were mostly, if not wholly, brought from India; and that they were managed by Indian leaders. Some of the latter were captured by the Romans, in the great victory gained by Metellus over Asdrubal. — (See, on this curious subject, two very learned and valuable notes in the An- cient Universal History, 8vo ed. vol. xvii. p. 529. and p. 549. Buffon's Article on the Elephant is a splendid piece of composition.) The price per cwt., duty (1Z. per cwt.) included, of elephants' teeth in the London market, in De- cember, 1833, was — £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ 5. <1. 1st, 79 to 90 lbs. - 29 to 31 5th, 18 to 27 lbs. - 18 ll to 21 2d, 56 — 60 — - 25 — 23 Scrivelloes - 14 — 35 3d, 38 — 55 — - 23 (1 — 26 Sea horse teeth - 0— 5 u 4th, 28 — 37 — - 20 — 24 K. KELP. A substance composed of different materials, of wLich the fossil or mineral alkali, or, as it is commonly termed, soda, is the chief. This ingredient renders it useful in the composition of soap, in the manufacture of alum, and in the formation of crown and bottle glass. It is formed of marine plants ; which, being cut from the rocks with a hook, are collected and dried on the beach to a certain extent ; they are afterwards put into kilns prepared for the purpose, the heat of which is sufficient to bring the plants into a state of semifusion. They are then strongly stirred with iron rakes ; and when cool, condense into a dark blue or whitish mass, very hard and solid. Plants about 3 years old yield the largest quantity of kelp. The best kelp has an acrid caustic taste, a sulphurous odour, is compact, and of a dark blue greenish colour. It yields about 5 per cent, of its weight of soda. — (Barry's Orkney Islands, p. 377. ; Thomson's Dispensatory.) The manufacture of kelp is, or rather was, principally carried on in the Western Islands, and on the western shores of Scotland, where it was introduced from Ireland, about the middle of last century. Towards the end of the late war, the kelp shores of the island of North Uist let for 7,000Z. a year. It has been calculated that the quantity of kelp annually manufactured in the Hebrides only, exclusive of the mainland, and of the Orkney and Shetland isles, amounted, at the period referred to, to about 6,000 tons a year; and that the total quantity made in Scotland and its adjacent isles amounted to about 20,000 tons. At some periods during the war, it sold for 20Z. a ton ; but at' an average of the 23 years ending with 1822, the price was 10Z. 9s. Id. — (Art. Scotland, Edinburgh Ency- clopaedia.) Unluckily, however, the foundations on which this manufacture rested were altogether factitious. Its existence depended on the maintenance of the high duties on barilla and salt. Inasmuch, how- ever, as kelp could not be substituted, without undergoing a very expensive process, for barilla, in a great many departments of industry in which the use of mineral alkali is indispensable, it became necessary materially to reduce the high duty laid on barilla during the war. The ruin of the kelp manufacture has been ascribed to this reduction ; but though barilla had been altogether excluded from our markets, which could not have been done without great injury to many most important ma- nufactures, the result would have been perfectly the same, in so far as kelp is concerned, unless the high duty on salt had also been maintained. It was the repeal of the latter that gave the kelp manu- facture the covp de grace. The purification of kelp so as to render it fit for soap-making, is a much more troublesome and expensive process than the decomposition of salt ; and the greatest quantity of alkali used, is now obtained by the latter method. Had the duty on salt not been repealed, kelp might still have been manufactured, notwithstanding the reduction of duty on barilla. The manufacture is now almost extinct. Shores that formerly yielded the proprietors a rent of 200Z. to 500/. a year, are now worth nothing. The price of kelp since 1822 has not been, at an average, above 41. a ton ; and the article will, most probably, soon cease to be produced. This result, though injurious to the proprietors of kelp shores, and productive of temporary distress to the labourers employed in the manufacture, is not to be regretted. It could not have been obvi- ated, without keeping up the price of some of the most important necessaries of life at a forced and unnatural elevation. The high price of kelp was occasioned by the exigencies of the late war, which, besides obstructing the supply of barilla, forced government to lay high duties on it and on salt. The proprietors had not the vestige of a ground for considering that such a state of things would be permanent ; they did right in profiting by it while it lasted ; but they could not expect that government was to subject the country, during peace, to some of t'le severest privations occasioned by the war, merely that they might continue to enjoy an accidental advantage. KENTLEDGE, the name sometimes given to the iron pigs cast in a particular form for ballasting ships, and employed for that purpose. KERMES (Ger. Scharlachbeeren ,■ Du. Grein, Scharlakenbessen ,- It. Grana, Chermes, Crernese, Cocchi ,- Sp. Grana Kermes, Grana de la coscoja), an insect (Coccus ilicis Lin.) of the same species as the true Mexican cochineal, found upon the quercus ilex, a species of oak growing in Spain, France, the Levant, &c. Before the discovery of America, kermes was the most esteemed drug for dyeing scarlet, and had been used for that purpose from a very remote period. Beckmann inclines to think that it was employed by the Phoenicians, and that it excelled even the famous Tyrian purple. — (Hist, of Invent, vol. ii. p. 197. Eng. cd.) From the name of coccum or coccus, clolh dyed with kermes was called coccinum, and persons wearing this cloth were said by the Romans to be coccinati. — (Mart lib i. KINO— KONIGSBERG. 121 epig. 97. lin. 6.) It is singular, however, notwithstanding its extensive use in antiquity, that the ancients had the most incorrect notions with respect to the nature of kermes : many of them supposing that it was the grains (grana) or fruit of the ilex. This was Pliny's opinion : others after him considered it in the same light, or as an excrescence formed hy the puncture of a particular kind of fly, like the gall nut. It was not till the early part of last century that it was finally and satisfactorily established that the kermes is really nothing but an insect, assuming the appearance of a berry in the process of drying. The term kermes is of Persian origin. The Arabians had been acquainted with this production from the earliest periods in Africa; and having found it in Spain, they cultivated it extensively as an article of commerce, as well as a dye drug for their own use. But since the introduction of cochineal, it has become an object of comparatively trifling importance. It is still, how- ever, prepared in some parts of Spain. Cloths dyed with kermes are of a deep red colour; and though much inferior in brilliancy to the scarlet cloths dyed with real Mexican cochi- neal, they retain the colour better, and are less liable to stain. The old tapestries of Brus- sels, and other places in Flanders, which have scarcely lost any thing of their original vivacity, though 200 years old, were all dyed with kermes. The history of this production has been treated with great learning by Beckmann (Hist, of Invent, vol. i. pp. 171 — 191. 1st ed. trans.) ; and by Dr. Bancroft (Permanent Colours, vol. i. pp. 393 — 409.) KINO (Fr. Gomme de Kino ,■ Ger. Kinoharz ,■ It. Chino), a gum, the produce of trees that grow in the East and West Indies, Africa, Botany Bay, &c. The kino now found in the shops is said by Dr. A. T. Thomson to come from India, and to be the produce of the nauclea gambir. The branches and twigs are bruised and boiled in water. The decoction is then evaporated until it acquires the consistence of an extract, which is kino. It is im- ported in chests containing from 1 to 2 cwt. ; and on the inside of the lid of each chest is a paper, inscribed with the name of John Brown, the month and year of its importation, and stating that it is the produce of Amboyna. It is inodorous, very rough, and slightly bitter when first taken into the mouth : but it afterwards impresses a degree of sweetness on the palate. It is in small, uniform, deep brown, shining, brittle fragments, which appear like portions of a dried extract broken down ; being perfectly uniform in their appearance. It is easily pulverised, affording a powder of a lighter brown colour than the fragments. But it may be doubted whether the inspissated juice of the nauclea gambir ought to be con- sidered as kino. Dr. Ainslie says that Botany Bay kino is the only kind he had seen in an Indian bazaar. The tree which yields it grows to a great height : it flows from incisions made into the wood of the trunk. — (Thomson's Dispensatory ,■ Ainslie 's Materia lndica.) KNIVES (Ger. Messer ,• Du. Messen ,• Fr. Couteaux ,■ It. Coltelli ,- Sp. Cuchillos ,- Rus. Noshi) well known utensils made of iron and steel, and employed to cut with; they are principally manufactured in London and Sheffield. Knives are made for a variety of purposes, as their different denominations imply ; such as table knives, penknives, oyster knives, pruning knives, &c. Although England at present excels every part of the world in the manufacture of knives, as in most branches of cutlery, the finer kinds were imported until the reign of Elizabeth. It is stated by Mr. Macpherson (Annals of Com. Anno 1563), that knives were not made for use in England till 1563; but there can be no doubt that this is an error. They had been made, though probably of a rude and clumsy pattern, for centuries before, in the district called Hallamshire, of which Sheffield is the centre ; and the cutlers of London were formed into a corporation in 1417. — (Manufactures in Metal, vol. ii. c. i. in Lardner's Cyclopaedia.) KONIGSBERG, the capital of East Prussia, in lat. 54° 42' 11" N., Ion. 20° 29' 15" E. Population 68,000. Port, Sfc— Konigsberg is situated on the Pregel, which flows into the Frische Haff, or Fresh Bay, — a large lake having from 10 to 14 feet water. The bar at the mouth of the Pregel has only from 5 to 6 feet water, so that none but flat-bottomed boats can ascend to the city. Pillau, in lat. 54° 33' 39" N., Ion. 19 3 52' 30" E., on the north side of the entrance from the Baltic to the Frische Haff, is pro- perly the port of KSnigsberg. Within these few years, a light-house has been erected on a rising ground, a little to the south of Pillau, the lantern of which is elevated 103 feet above the level of the sea. The light is fixed and brilliant. The entrance to the harbour is marked by buoys ; those on the larboard side being surmounted by small flags. A Gothic building, 120 feet above the level of the sea, has been erected to serve for a land-mark ; at a distance it looks like a three-masted ship under sail. There is usually from 15 to 16 feet water between the buoys on entering the harbour ; but par- ticular winds occasion material differences in this respect. Trade of Konigsberg. — Being situated on a navigable river of considerable importance, Konigsberg has a large command of internal navigation, and is the principal emporium of a large extent of country. Wheat, rye, and other species of grain, are the chief articles of export. The wheat is somewhat similar to that of Dantzic, but of inferior quality, being larger in the berry, and thicker skinned. The rye is thin, and also the barley, with few ex- ceptions, and light. Peas are of a remarkably large quality. Oats are common feed, with ■ a slight admixture of tares ; but as these last answer in some degree the purpose of beans, the value of the oats is rather enhanced than otherwise by the circumstance. More tares are shipped here than from any other port in the Baltic. The prices of all sorts of grain are usually lower at Konigsberg than at the neighbouring Prussian ports. Hemp, flax, lin- Vol. II.— L 16 122 LAC. seed, yarn, and bristles, are largely exported ; with smaller quantities of wool, ashes, feathers, wax, hides and skins, &c. The bristles are the best in the Baltic. Timber, deals, and staves, are as good as at Memel, but are rather scarce. The imports are coffee, sugar, cotton stuffs and yarn, hardware, dye woods, spices, tobacco, coals, rum, &c. Salt is a government monopoly ; any person being allowed to import it, but he must either sell it to government at a price fixed by them, or export it again. Money, Weights, and Measures, same as at Dantzic ; which see. Account of the Exports of the different Species of Grain from Konigsberg during each of the Four- teen Years endrng with 1831. 1818. 1319. 1820. 1821. 1822. 1823. 1824. 1825. 1826. 1S27. 1823. 1829. 1830. 1831. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. Lasti. Lasts. Wheat 3.129 1,232 2,861 1,559 591 42S 1,002 816 1,483 3,754 9,543 7.69? 7,505 7,565 Rye 8,429 7,3t>0 6,769 1,459 100 1,030 393 657 692 7,228 12,920 8,154 23,420 16,900 Barley 4,423 2,952 818 215 292 24 298 1,531 201 2,322 1,34 b 2,272 l,6»7 988 Oats 3,859 1,513 5,565 864 200 116 1,566 593 5,321 8,4 '0 1,36? 3,660 8,310 4,092 Peas 2,953 1,991 1,210 234 20S 215 412 712 863 503 919 422 2,360 1,506 Beans 136 41 98 56 | 607 3:0 ( 99 134 Tares 439 4S8 78 22 926 716 929 318 ( 141 326 Linseed.liemp, and rapeseed 1,823 2,497 1,864 3,173 320 1,257 1,016 2,271 2,728 2,884 3,718 3,873 3,321 1,884 Malt Total - 4 28 49 SO 2 10 24,622 18,143 19,665 7,612 1,711 3,094 5,613 7,306 12,315 25545 30,421 26,459 48,843 33,395 Exclusive 1831 were— £-4,U-4 iO,i1J U|W) | I,U14 | i, Ml .',..'.'* O t UIO [ /,OUO U.J1.5 t &2fJ-i? | JU.Hil ^U, principally made by English emigrants, who have Warp net, \ settled in France. *** We are indebted for this learned and very excellent articlo to Mr. Robert Slater, of Fore Street, London. 128 LA GUAYRA. is good ; and notwithstanding the openness of the road, vessels properly found in anchors and cables run very little risk of being driven from their moorings. Trade. — The principal articles of export are coffee, cacao, indigo, hides, sarsaparilla, &c. The quan- tities and values of these articles exported in 1829, 1830, and 1831, are exhibited in the following Table :— Years. Coffee. Cacao. Indigo. Hides. Sarsaparilla. Sugar. Weight. Value Sterling Money. Weight. Value in Sterling Money. Weight. Value Sterling Money. Number. Value Sterling Money. Weight. Value Sterl. Mon. Weight. Value in Sterling Money. 1829 11-30 1631 Lbs. 4,6-2.221 4 870.609 6.26-«.646 L. 53,753 51,801 6S,S30 Lbs. 1.S24.222 2,121,453 1,791,814 L. 4 '.,029 57,043 42,741 Lbs. 393,974 217,052 192,035 L. 81,069 3S,237 31,456 8,983 6,990 12,508 L. 2,295 2,J30 4,169 Lbs. 4.201 32.172 14,^20 L. 90 782 365 Lbs. 3,214 73,410 232,672 L. 56 966 2,289 The principal articles of import are cotton, linen, and woollen goods, principally from England; with provisions, hats, machinery and utensils, hardware, wine, &.e. The entire value of the imports, in 1831, was supposed to amount to 162,503/. ; of which 62,423/. was furnished by England; 26,082'. by Germany ; 32,759/. by the United States ; 29,344/. at second hand by St. Thomas ; and the residue by France, Spain, &c. The duties are moderate. Cottons and linens pay 27 per cent, ad valorem. Smuggling has been very prevalent; but efforts have recently been made, by establishing a sort of coast-guard, to effect its suppression. Arrivals in 1831. Countries. Vessels. Tons. Countries. Vessels. Tons. England .... France .... Germany .... Holland .... Denmark .... 9 3 4 13 17 1,411 430 744 649 1,322 United States Colombia - - . - Total - 29 16 3,254 SS2 91 8,792 Port Charges payable by a Ship of 300 Tons, discharging and loading at the Port of La Guayra. Tonnage duty ... Entrance fee Anchorage ... Captain of port's fee Interpreter's fee and translating manifest Permit to discharge and stamp - Health officer's fee - Municipal charge for water Dollars, cents. 1-'. L Foreign (not privileged). Municipal bill of health Permit to load, and stamp Certificate of sea - worthiness from captain of port, prior to loading, and stamp - Value in sterling money Dollars, cents. 2 0, i 12-; Foreign (not privileged). Dollars, cents. 2 0, 1 12i JV. B. — A ship introducing a cargo, and sailing in ballast, would be liable to all the above charges, with the exception of the last two. The charge for water is levied without regard to tonnage ; viz. sloops and schooners, 20 dollars each, brigs 30, and ships 40. Port Reputations— On casting anchor, a visit is paid by the collector of customs, or his agent, ac- companied by other officers, who take from the master his register, manifest, and muster-roll, and an officer is left on board until the cargo is discharged. The master must swear to his manifest within 21 hours after his arrival, when the permit to discharge is granted, and within 3 days all invoices must be presented. The discharge completed, the same officers repair on board to examine the vessel, and all being found in order, the officer is withdrawn. The clearing of a vessel outwards (that has entered with cargo) in ballast is then completed by paying the port charges ; proof whereof being produced, the permission to sail is signed by the governor and harbour master. If the vessel take cargo on board, then the same formality, as to visiting, is pursued, as on the entry of a vessel. Credit. — Goods imported are almost invariably sold upon credit; those exported are, on the other hand always sold for ready money. The terms of credit vary from 2 to 6 months, or more. Bank- ruptcy is very rare. Commission, Brokerage, Sec. — Any one who pleases may undertake the functions of broker, factor, or merchant in Venezuela. The only obligation is the paying the patent or licence, that must be taken out by every one exercising such trades. This varies, according to the business, from about 11. 3s. 4d., to 66/. 18s. 4a\ a year, and falls on natives as well as foreigners. The rates of commission are as follows : — On sales of goods imported - - - - 5 per cent. Guaranteeing the same without regard to time - 2\ — On sales of produce - • - • - 2-i- — On shipping produce, as returns for goods imported, a or upon orders where cash is provided for the pur- chase • - • • - - • 2^ — But upon orders where the amount has to be drawn for, or when provision is made in bills of ex- change • . - - - -5 — Collecting monies, and remitting the same - - 1 — Insurance. — There are no establishments for conducting the business of insurance in Venezuela. ^ Money, Weights, and Measures. — The currency of the country consists of silver money, known by the name of macuquena, divided into dollars of 8 reals, i do. of 4 reals, besides reals, i reals, and quar- tillas or j- reals. This money is of very unequal weight and purity, the coins issued since the com- mencement of the revolutionary war having been often a good deal defaced. The real should be worth 5d. sterling. Weights and measures same as those of Spain, but it is intended to introduce the British Imperial gallon. Tares. — Real tare is taken both at the Custom-house and by the merchant. Commercial Prospects. — The commerce and industry of Venezuela suffered severely from the revo- lutionary struggle of which she has been the theatre. But the country is now comparatively tranquil, and there seem to be good reasons for thinking that she is about to enter on a career of prosperity. As the riches of Venezuela consist entirely of the products of her agriculture, the legislature has wisely exerted itself to give it all the encouragement possible. In this view tithes have been abolished, and heir collection was finally to cease on the 1st of January, 1S34. The tobacco monopoly has also - 2\ per cent • 2' — But when monies are collected, and remittance dered in bills of exchange, including guaran the same ..... Negotiating and indorsing bills On money remitted as return for goods sold - - i On bills remitted as return for goods sold, including guarantee thereof, as may be agreed - - 1 to 2 j — Advancing money upon letters of credit, and drawing — for the same - - - • 2£ — Collecting or procuring freight for vessels * .5 — LAMAR— LAMP. 129 been abolished, and invitations bave been held om to foreigners to settle in the country ; bin there is little prospect of their In- in;: much attended to, at least fur some considerable time. Toe final recog- nition bj Spain of the independence of this and the other new states would materially promote iitetr interests ; and it is to be hoped that it may not be much longer deferred. We li ive derived these details principally from the c irefully drawn up Answers made by sir Robert Ker Porter, the British consul at Caraccas, to the Circular Queries. (L \M \It, formerly Cobija, a sea-port of the republic of Bolivia, the ci-devanl I ppej I'cu, on the west coast of South America, in lat. 22° 30' 30" S., long. 70° 12' W. Po- pulation, 2,000.? in 1833 Lamar was declared a free port, and in it centres almost the whole foreign trade of the re- public [ts >itu ition is however, very unfavourable. It labours under a great want of fresh water ; and is obliged to import all its provisions by sea, either from Valparaiso, on the one hand, or from Anci, on the other. The desert of Ataeama lies between it and the internal and populous part of the country, where the towns of Potosi, Cochabamba, Charcas, &c. are situated. The produce imported ir is conveyed across the desert on the backs of mules to the interior ; the gold and silver of the mines being brought in the same way to the |iort to be shipped. These, with copper, saltpetre, and chinchtlli skins, form the principal articles of export. Saltpetre is found in large quantities in the desert ; the copper is found near the coast, and owing to the scarcity of fuel, most pan of it is export- ed in the shape of ore. Peru possesses a long narrow slip of land, stretching alone the coast of the Paeific from Arequipa to the lias- of Pica, which ought naturally to belong to Bolivia, being, in fact the liltorul of the latter, ivian government lias set on fool various negotiations to obtain the cession of this tract, Which, besides greatly improving the frontier of the republic, would, at the same time, render her mistress of An. a, which is, in all respects, much better fitted than Lamar for becoming the entrepot of her trade. Hitherto, however, these negotiations have proved abortive, so that, as already stated, Lamar at present engrosses the whole foreign trade of the state. We subjoin the decree constituting Lamar a free port : — 1. From and after the 1st of July of this present year, 1S33, Port ] 10. Merchants, either in person or by a representative, must pro- duce to the commissioner of the port a certificate of ttie delivery of the goods at Ihe custom-house lor whicSJthey are destined wilhin 6 months from the day of their entry ; in case they do not, they must at the end of tttit period pay the wii.de In it-s on them. 1 1. From and after the 1st of July, 18^3, all goods enter, d at Port Lamar shall pay a duty of only 5 per cent, over and above that of half per cent, to the consulado. 12. The duty of 5 per cent, shall be paid thus : at the port 2 per cent, on the valuation made as aforesaid ; and the other 3 at Ihe cus- tom-house in the interior for which the goods are destined. In each case one half at the end of 3, the other half at the end of 5 months. 13. All eoods carried from Port Lamar by land to any of the ad- joining republics shall only pay a transit duiy of 2 per cent. 14. A duty of 2 per cent shall be paid on three fourths of all gold and silver money entered at any of the custom houses in Ihe interior for exportation through Port Lamar. 15. It is absolutely prohibited to export gold or silver, in bullion or plate, except in small quantities for the use of the person carrying it out. It will be seized wherever it is found on this side Ihe dis- tricts of San Antonio, San Vincente, Atoca, Agua de Caslilla, Leque- pate, or the line of 'he canal. 16. All hardware for agriculture and mining, machinery, instru- ments of scienceor the arts, iron, s'eel. quicksilver, and moral books, may be introduce 1 free of duty into the republic, and productions of Bolivia may be exported likewise free. 17. A premium of 2 per cent, on their value shall he allowed on the exportation through Port Lamar, of cascarilla, wool, tin, cotton, and coffee, in the shape of remission from duties to Ihe amount on goods carried into the interior from the same port. The remaining articles of the decree are of a purely local na- ture. p shall i« absolutely free and open. j of e\ery nation may enter this port and remain as long lathe; please, without being subjected to any tax whatever, either ing lh ii ^' >\ ir on their departure. 3. They shall be free from all duties of anchorage, tonnage, shift ling, or reloading of cargo, deposit, storage, or any other may be deposited in private warehouses, without auy in- terven'ion on the part of 'he government. 5. The cus'oui-house of Port Lamar is suppressed. In its slead i iiiii.i-sioner's office, for the purpose of distributing per- mits for the transportation of goods into the interior. 6. Whenever goods are to be sent into the interior, they must first besubmitted to the commissioner, together with the invoice corres- ponding. 7. The commissioner will register them in a book, together with their valuation, made by two merchants of the place, and the names of their owi ers, of the person of whom, and Ihe place where Ihey nt. This is to be signed by the person entering the goods, Mine time binds himself to have them transported direct to the customhouse for which they are destined, without opening any of the cases, bags, or other envelopes, each of which shall be ■sled, marked, and numbered before departure. These points are to be expressed in the permit. 8. The commissioner shall by the earliest post send a notice to the t he custom-house fir which any merchandise is destined, epecifying the numbers, characters, quantities, and qualities of the I ticles. 9. The 1,'oods must not be carried by any unaccustom. d ma Is, but only through Calama and the public thoroughfares : and whenever I; ough anyplace at which a guard or commissioner is stationed, the permits must be exhibited, in order that their arrival with their seals unbroken may he ascertained. (See Digest nf Commercial Regulations published by the Government of the United States, vol. iii. p. 443. Balbi, Abregi de la Oeographie, p. 1106.)— Sup.) LAMB-SKINS (Ger. Lammsfelle • Fr. Peaux (Tagneaux • It. Pelli agnelline ,■ Sp. Pielles de corderos). The value of lamb-skins varies according to the fineness, brilliancy, and colour of the wool. Black lamb-skins are more generally esteemed than those of any other colour. English lamb-skins are seldom to be met with perfectly black ; but since the introduction of Merino sheep into this country, many of the white fleeces have, in point of quality, arrived at a pitch of perfection which justly entitles them to be ranked with some of the best fleeces in Spain. 'The importation of lamb-skins is immense, having amounted, on an average of 1831 and 1832, to 2,365,635. Eight tenths of the whole quantity are supplied by Italy. They are mostly used in the glove manufacture. LAMP (Ger. Lrtmpe ; Fr. Lainpe ,- It. Lucerna ,■ Sp. Lampara ,■ Rus. Lampadu), an instrument used for the combustion of liquid inflammable bodies, for the purpose of pro- ducing artificial light. It is unnecessary to give any description of instruments that are so well known. We may, how- ever, remark that the discovery of Sir II. Davy, who, by covering the flame with wire gauze, suc- ceeded in producing a lamp that may be securely used in coal mines charged with inflammable gas, is one of Hie most ingenious and valuable that, has ever been made. The following extracts from a com- munication of Mr. Buddie, one of the ablest and best-informed coal engineers in the kingdom, evince the great importance of Sir Humphry Davy's invention. "Besides the facilities afforded by this invention to the working of coal mines abounding in fire damp, it has enabled the tlirectors and superintendents to ascertain, with the utmost precision and expedition, both the presence, the quantity, and correct situation of the gas. Instead of creeping inch by inch with a candle, as is usual, along the galleries of a mine suspected to contain fire damp, in ordpr to ascertain its presence, we walk firmly on with the safe lamps, and, with the utmost confi- dence, prove the actual state of the mine. By observing attentively the several appearances upon the flame of the lamp, in an examination of this kind, the cause of accidents which happened to the most experienced and cautious miners is completely developed ; and this has hitherto been in a great measure matter of mere conjecture. 17 130 LAMP-BLACK— LEAD. "It is tint necessary that T should enlarge upon the national advantages which must necessarily resr.lt from r\n invention calculated to prolong our supply of mineral coal, because I think them obvious to every reflecting mind ; but I cannot conclude without expressing my highest sentiments of admira- tion for those talents which have developed the properties, and controlled the power, of one of the most dangerous elements which human enterprise has hitherto had to encounter." LAMP-BLACK (Ger. Kienruss ,• Fr. Ntrir de fumee ,• It. Nero di fumo, NegrofumOf Sp. Negro de hurtui). " The finest lamp-black is produced by collecting the smoke from a lamp with a long wick, which supplies more oil than can be perfectly consumed, or by suf- fering the flame to play against a metalline cover, which impedes the combustion, not only by conducting off" part of the heat, but by obstructing the current of air. Lamp-black, however, is prepared in a much cheaper way for the demands of trade. The dregs which remain after the eli juation of pitch, or else small pieces of fir wood, are burned in furnaces of a peculiar construction, the smoke of which is made to pass through a long horizontal flue, terminating in a close boarded chamber. The roof of this chamber is made of coarse cloth, through which the current of air escapes, while the soot remains." — (Ure's Diction- ary.) LAND-WAITER, an officer of the Custom-house, whose duty it is, upon landing any merchandise, to taste, weigh, measure, or otherwise examine the various articles, &c, and to take an account of the same. They are likewise styled searchers, and are to attend, and join with, the patent searchers, in execution of all cockets for the shipping of goods to be exported to foreign parts; and, in cases where drawbacks or bounties are to be paid to the merchant on the exportation of any goods, they, as well as the patent searchers, are to certify the shipping thereof on the debentures. LAPIS LAZULI. See Ultramarine. LAST, an uncertain quantity, varying in different countries, and with respect to different articles. Generally, however, a last is estimated at 4,000 lbs. ; but there are great dis- crepancies. The following quantities of different articles make a last, viz. — 14 barrels of pitch, tar, or ashes; 12 dozen of hides or skins ; 12 barrels of cod-fish, potash, or meal ; 20 cades, each of 1,(100 herrings, every 1.000 ten hundred, and every 100 five score ; 10^ quarters of cole-seed ; 10 quarters of corn or rape-seed ; in some parts of England, 21 quarters of corn go to a last ; 12 sacks of wool ; 20 dickers (every dicker 12 skins) of leather ; 18 barrels of unpacked herrings ; 10,000 pilchards ; 24 barrels (each barrel containing 100 lbs.) of gunpowder; 1,700 lbs. of feathers or flax. Last is sometimes used to signify the burden or lade of a ship. h LATH, LATHS (Du. Lalten ,■ Fr. Latles ,- Ger. Latten ,■ It. Correnti ,• Rus. Slegv), long, thin, and narrow slips of wood, nailed to the rafters of a roof or ceiling, in order to sustain the covering. Laths are distinguished into various sorts, according to the different kinds of wood of which they are made, and the different purposes to which they are to be applied. They are also distinguished, according to their length, into 5, 4, and 3 feet laths. Theii ordinary breadth is about an inch, and their thickness^ of an inch. Laths are sold by the bundle, which is generally called a hundred: but 7 score, or 140, are computed in the hundred for three feet laths ; 6 score or 120, in such as are 4 feet ; and for those which are denominated 5 feet, the common hundred, or 5 score. LATTEN. a name sometimes given to tin plates; that is, to thin plates of iron tinned over. — (See Tin.) LAWN (Ger. and Fr. Linon ; It. Li none, Rensa ,- Sp. Cambmy clarin), a sort of clear or open worked cambric, which, till of late years, was exclusively manufactured in France and Flanders. At present, the lawn manufacture is established in Scotland, and in the north of Ireland, where articles of this kind are brought to such a degree of perfection, as nearly to rival the productions of the French and Flemish manufactories. In the manu- facture of lawns, finer flaxen thread is used than in that of cambric. LAZARETTO. See Quarantine. LEAD (Ger. Bley, Blei ,- Du. Lood, Loot; Fr. Plomb ; It. Piomho ,■ Sp. Plomo ; Rus. Swinetz ; Pol. Olovo ; Lat. Plumbum ,■ Arab. Anuk ,■ Hind. Sua ,- Pers. Surb), one of the most useful metals. It is of a bluish white colour, and when newly melted is very bright, but it soon becomes tarnished by exposure to the air. It has scarcely any taste, but emits, on friction, a peculiar smell. It stains paper or the fingers of a bluish colour. When taken internally, it acts as a poison. It is one of the softest of the metals : its specific gravity is 11-35. It is very malleable, and may be reduced to thin plates by the hammer; it may also be drawn out into wire, but its ductility is not very great. Its tenacity is so small, that a lead wire J.-^ inch diameter is capable of supporting only 18'4 lbs. without breakins. It melts at 612°. — {Thomsons Chemistry.) Lead is a metal of much importance, as, from its durability, it is extensively used in the construction of water-pipes and cisterns, as a covering for flat surfaces or tops of buildings, &c. &c. Its salts, which are poisonous, are used in medicine to form sedative external ap- plications ; and frequently not a little, by the disreputable wine merchant, to stop the pro- gress of acetous fermentation. Wine thus poisoned, may, however, be readily distinguished ; a small quantity of the bicarbonate of potassa producing a white precipitate, and sulphureted hydrogen a black one. Pure wine will not be affected by either of these tests. " The oxide LEAD. 131 of lead enters into the composition of white glass, which it renders clearer and more fusible: it is also used in glazing common earthen vessels ; hence the reason that pickles kept in common red pans become poisonous. Lead, with tin, and a small quantity of some of the other metals, forms pewter ; with antimony, it forms the alloy of which printing types are made." — {Joyces Chem. Mineralogy.) The lead mines of Great Britain have been wrought from a very remote era. Previously to 1829, however, it would seem that those of Derbyshire only had been explored. But in the vear now mentioned, lead mines were discovered in Wales ; and the fact being as- certained, that the ore of these mines produced some silver, increased attention was paid to their working. The produce of the lead mines at present wrought in Great Britain cannot be accurately ascertained. Mr. Stevenson supposes (art. England, Edin. Ency.) that the lead mines of Derbyshire annually produce 5,000 or 6,000 tons ; but they seem to be on the decline. Those on the borders of Cumberland and Northumberland are supposed to yield, at an average, from 11,000 to 12,000 tons. The total produce of the Scotch lead mines is estimated at 65,000 bars; which, as each bar is 1 cwt. 1 qr. 2 lbs., is equal to 4,120 tons. — (General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. Addenda, p. 7.) Some of the most productive of the Welsh lead mines have either been wrought out, or have been rendered unserviceable from inundations. Subjoined is An Account of the Exports and Imports of Lead and Lead Ore, &c. for Thirteen Years, ending the 5th of January, 1833. Years. Exports. Imports. Pig and Rolled Lead .in 1 Shot. Litharge. Red Lead. White Lead. Lead Ore. Total British Lead and Lead Ore. Foreign Lead in Pig. Foreign Lead Ore. Lead. Lead Ore. 1821 1822 1823 [824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 Tons. 18,300 15,646 13,781 11.011 10,833 8,616 10,222 13,275 10,001 6,832 7,442 6.777 12,181 Tons. 395 573 576 816 586 831 901 1,140 1,545 463 490 335 433 Tons. 229 242 441 280 338 338 408 534 382 382 520 281 396 Tons. 603 652 574 549 885 616 629 1,012 1,133 750 662 435 652 Tons. 252 287 455 225 350 139 249 256 195 220 194 105 236 Tons. 19,779 17,400 15,830 12,914 12,991 10,560 12,409 16,217 13,250 8,647 9,308 7,933 13,898 Tons. 4 69 298 749 3,655 1,847 2,282 1,785 1,700 859 1,234 957 Tons. 12 - 9 Tons. 4 72 369 712 6,163 913 2,164 2,450 1,533 662 1,232 1,090 Tons. 275 811 177 191 1,603 1,120 1,076 5,016 175 341 321 269 An Account of British Lead and Lead Ore exported from the United Kingdom from the 1st of January, 1832, to the 1st of January, 1833 ; distinguishing the Countries to which it was sent. — (Quarters and Pounds omitted in the Columns, but allowed for in the summing up.) Countries to which exported. British Lead and Lead Ore. Foreign Lead and Lead Ore. Pig and Rolled Lead and Litharge. Red Lead. White Lead. Lead Ore. Total of British Lead and Pig Lead. Whito Lead. Shot Lead Ore. Tons. cwt. Tons. cwt. Tons. cwt. Tons. cwt. Tons. cwt. Tuns, cwt Tons. cwt. Tons. cwt. Russia - 1,324 9 141 5 6 19 10 11 I,4S3 6 498 10 Sweden .... 49 3 9 It 11 9 44 15 115 Norway .... 51 7 16 1 18 4 70 9 Denmark - - - - I2S 12 18 4 9 17 125 11 2S2 5 Prussia . . . . 69 8 29 II 7 1 49 19 156 I Germany 173 13 126 19 123 3 54 477 17 4 7 The Netherlanas ... 186 29 10 89 2 10 149 456 1 371 18 France .... 65 7 19 4 5 70 11 32 14 Portugal, Azores, and Madeira 104 2 5 7 10 38 11 155 3 Spain and the Canaries 27 1 4 2 3 1 33 5 Gibraltar .... 18 15 4 18 19 Paly .... 40 14 45 17 11 3 7 45 5 151 17 Malta .... 4 3 5 7 5 Ionian Islands ... 1 1 4 2 4 Turkey an 1 tlie Levant 55 12 10 4 15 4 64 17 22 18 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Man . - - - 248 3 15 1 10 7 259 7 6 4 East In lies and China 2,908 12 55 14 15 10 2,979 16 18 14 New South Wales. Van Diemen's Land, and Swan River 206 IS 9 15 15 223 3 15 Cape of Good Hope - 85 7 4 16 6 17 1 10 98 II Other p»rts of Africa • 234 15 11 10 40 336 5 British North American colonies 3S2 16 6 2 91 12 4S0 11 British West lurlies ... 413 7 13 25 14 439 15 Fnreisn West Indies - 69 5 4 73 5 United States of America 4,844 14 61 2 4,895 17 Brazil .... 402 3 22 6 42 16 58 15 526 1 Mexico .... 5 12 18 Columbia - 2 16 7 3 3 Chili 11 7 11 7 Peru ..... 7 9 7 7 7 9 6 Slates of La Plata Total . 14 7 5 4 2 10 17 6 12,181 3 432 14 396 5 652 5 235 15 13,89* 3 956 15 22 18 Fall of Prices. Spanish, Lead Mines.— The falling off in the exports of British lead, the increased amount of the imports, and the extraordinary fall that has taken place in the price of lead since 1825, 132 LEAD— LEATHER. seem to be principally owing to the vast supplies of that metal that have recently been furnished by the mines of Adra, in Granada, in Spain. These have been wrought to a vastly greater extent within the last few years than previously ; and the richness of the ore, and the facility with which it is ob- tained, enable the Spaniards, who are but indifferently skilled in the art of mining, to undersell every other people, and to supply most markets to which they have ready access. So much is this the case, that several of the least productive of the lead mines of Germany, and other countries, have been already abandoned ; and it is even doubtful whether the duties on foreign lead will be sufficient to binder some of our mines from sharing the same fate. Inasmuch, however, as lead is of primary importance in the aits, the reduction of its price, though injurious to those engaged in its production, is, undoubtedly, a great public benefit. We therefore trust that nothing may be done, either by rais- ing the duties on foreign lead, or otherwise, artificially to increase its price. The competition of the Spaniards has already led, both here and in Saxony, to the adoption of various processes calculated to lessen the expense of lead-making; and to the introduction of a degree of economy into every de- partment of the business that was not previously thought of. This is the only way in which the natural advantages on the side of the Spaniards can be met with any prospect of success. We un- derstand too, that there are good grounds for thinking that it will answer the object in view; but though it were to fail, it would be ridiculous to suppose that the miners could be beneficially assisted by Custom-house regulations. Neither is there any thing so peculiarly valuable about the mere manufacture of lead as to make us prefer a high-priced indigenous metal to a cheaper article brought from abroad. Price of Lead per Ton in Great Britain since 1800. Years. P ice per Average for Years. Price per Average for Years. Pri ce per Are ra?e for Ton. Ten Years. Ton. Ten Years. 1 on. Ter Years. £ s. d. £ S. d. £ S. d. £ s. d. £ .?. d. £ s. d 1800 19 16 1811 24 6 1822 22 7 1801 22 8 6 1812 23 3 6 1823 22 5 1602 24 16 6 1813 25 14 1824 21 1803 27 15 6 1614 26 11 1825 25 6 1804 28 1815 20 16 1826 19 1S05 27 11 1816 16 5 1827 18 7 1806 35 12 6 1817 18 5 1828 17 1807 30 3 6 1818 27 5 6 1829 14 5 20 7 1808 30 1 1819 22 11 23 6 6 1830 14 1809 31 3 27 14 6 1820 21 10 6 1831 14 1810 28 16 1821 22 10 1832 13 10 The consumption of lead in France is rapidly increasing. It is nearly all imported; and the im- portations have increased from 6,211,500 kilogrammes, at an average of the 4 years ending with 1822, to 15,742,192 kilogrammes, at an average of the 2 years ending with 1S30. The imports are almost entirely from Spain ; and their increase is, no doubt, principally a consequence of the fall of prices. — (Journal des Mines, Troisiime Serie, torn. iii. p. 517.) Lead Mines of the United States. — These have recently become of considerable importance. We subjoin an Account of the Lead manufactured in the United States, during each of the Ten Years, ending the 30th of September, 1832. Years. Fever River. Missouri. Total. Years. Fever River. Missouri. Tolal. Lbs. Lbs. Lis. Lbs. LI?. Lbs. 1823 335,130 335,130 1829 13,348,150 1, lis, 160 14.541,310 1824 175,220 175,220 1630 8,323,998 8,060 >,332.058 1825 664,530 386,590 1,051,120 1831 6,381,900 67,180 6,449,080 1S26 1827 958,842 5,112,1^0 1,374,962 910,380 2,333,864 6,092,560 1832 4,281,876 4,281,876 1828 11,105,S10 1,205,920 12,311,730 Total 50,752,636 5,151,252 55,903,8S8 The decrease has been explained, partly, at least, by the fact of no leases having been granted in Missouri, since the act of 1829, authorising the sale of all the mineral lands in that State, and by the interruption of the works on the Upper Mississippi in consequence of the Indian war. LEAD, BLACK, on PLUMBAGO. See Black Lead. LEAD, RED, or MINIUM. See Minium. LEAGUE, a measure of length, containing more or fewer geometrical paces, according to the customs of different countries. — (See Weights and Measures.) LEAKAGE, in commerce, an allowance in the customs, granted to importers of wine, for the waste and damage the goods are supposed to receive by keeping. — (See Warehousing Act, in art. Warehousing System.) LEATHER (Ger. Leder ,■ Du. Leder, Leer,- Da. Lender ,■ Sw. Liider ,- Fr. Cuir ,■ It. CitnJD ; Sp. Cuero ,• Rus. Kosha ,■ Lat. Curium), the skins of various quadrupeds, dressed in a particular manner for the use of manufacturers, whose business it is to make them up, according to their different employments. The leather manufacture of Great Britain is of very great importance, and ranks either third or fourth on the list ; being inferior only in point of value and extent to those of cotton, wool, and iron, if it be not superior to the latter. Sir P. M. Eden, in his work on Insurance, estimated the value of the different articles manufactured of leather, in 1803, at 12,000,000/.; and there is reason to think that this statement was not very wide of the mark. The total quantity of ail sorts of leather tanned, tawed, dressed, and curried in Great Britain, may at present be estimated at about 50,000,000 lbs. ; which, at Is. 8d. per lb., gives 4,166,000/. as the value of the leather only. Now, supposing, as is sometimes done, the value of the leather to amount to une third of the value of the finished articles produced from it, that would show the value of the manufacture to be about 12,500,000/. : but if, as others contend, the value of the leather does not exceed one fourth part of the LEDGER— LEECH FISHERY. 133 value of the finished articles, then the value of the manufacture must exceed 10,000,000/. We, however, arc inclined to think that vvc shall be nearer the truth, if we take the smaller' sum', ami est male the value of the manufacture at 12,500,000/. To get the number of persons employed, we have first to deduct from this sum, 4,000,000/. for the material, which leaves 8,500,000/. as the aggregate amount of profits, wages, &c. And setting aside 20 iter cent as profit, rent of workshops, compensation for capital wasted, d. sterling Wii'gAft and MaKvra.— The pound by which gold and silver and ali sori< of nierch udise are weighed, is divided into 12 ounces, 96 drachms, 2-8 denari, and 6,112 grani. It is = 33i)-i42 French grammes or s, '40 English grains. Hence 100 I hs. of Leghorn = 74-%' 4 lbs. avoidvpois: hut in mercantile calculations it is usual to reckon 100 His. of Le Inns, I n ; if of 90 tone or under, ami above 'M) tons, 5 men ; if of 80 tons or under, and ahove 60 Ions, li men ; if of 100 tons or under, ami above BO tons, 7 men ; and above thai tonnage, I man for every 15 tons of such additional tonnage ; or if a lugger, than in the following proportions; (that is to say,) if of 30 Ions or under, 8 men; if of 50 tons or under, and ahove .'111 tons, '.I men ; If of (iO tons or under, and ahove 50 tons, 10 men ; If of 80 tons or under, ami ahove Oil tons, 1 1 men ; if of 100 tons or under, and ahove 80 tons, 12 men ; and if above 100 tons, I man for every 10 tons of such additional tonnage, which shall be found within 100 leagues of the coast of the United Kingdom, shall he forfeited, unless such vessel, boat, or lugger, shall he especially licensed for that purpose by the commissioners of customs. — # 17. Ctrl, mi Particulars to be inserted in Licences far Vessels anil Hunts. — Every license granted hy the commissioners of customs under this act shall contain the proper description of the vessel or boat, the name or names of the owner or owners, with bis or their place or places of abode, and the manner and the limits in which the same is to be employed, and, if armed, the numbers and description of arms, and the quantity of ammunition, together with any other particulars which the said commis- sioners may require and direct ; and it shall be lawful for the commissioners of customs to restt ii t Ihe granting of a licence for any vessel or boat in any way that they may deem expedient for the security of the revenue. — $ 18. The Owners to give Security by Bond, with the Condition herein-mentioned — Before any such licence shall be issued or delivered, or shall have effect for the use of such vessel or boat, the owner or owners of the same shall give security by bond in the single value of such vessel or boat, with condi- tion as follows ; (that is to say,) that the vessel or boat shall not be employed in the importation, landing, or removing of any prohibited or uncustomed goods, contrary to the true intent and meaning of this act or any other act relating to the revenues of customs or excise, nor iu the exportation of any goods which are or may be prohibited to be exported, nor in the relanding of any goods contrary to law, nor shall receive or take on board or be found at sea or in port with any goods subject to foi - feiture, nor shall do any act contrary to this act, or any act hereafter to be made relating to the re- venues of customs or excise, or for the protection of the trade and commerce of the United Kingdom, nor shall be employed otherwise than mentioned in the licence, and within the limits therein mentioned; and in case of loss, breaking up, or disposal of the vessel or boat, that the licence shall be delivered, within (i months from the date of such loss, breaking up, or disposal of such or boat, to the collector or principal officer of customs at the port to which such vessel or boat slmll belong; and that no such bond given in respect of any boat shall be liable to any stamp duty, -i 19. Penalty not to exceed 1,000?., or single Value of the Vessel. — Nothing herein contained shall authorise the requiring any bond in any higher sum than 1.000/., although the single value of the vessel or boat for which such licence is to be issued may be more than 1,000/, — $ 20. Licence Bunds given by Minors to be valid — All bonds given by persons under the age of 21 years, in pursuance of the directions herein conuined, shall be valid and effectual to all intents and purposes, any thing in any act, or any law or custom, to the contrary in anywise notwithstanding.— J 21. Vessels not to be used in any Manner not mentioned in the Licence.— When any vessel or boat shall he found or discovered to have been used or employed in any manner or in any limits other than such as shall be specified in the licence, or if such licence shall not be on board such vessel or boat, or shall not at any time be produced and delivered for examination to any officer or officers of the army, navy, or marines duly employed for the prevention of smuggling, and on full pay, or any officer of customs or excise, demanding tiie same, then and in every such case such vessel or boat, and all the goods laden on hoard, shall he forfeited. — J 22. Certain Vessels, Boats, and Luggers not required to be licensed — Nothing herein contained shall ex- tend or be deemed or taken to extend to any vessel, boat, or lugger belonging to any of the royal family, or being in the service of the navy, victualing, ordnance, customs, excise, or post-office, nor to any whale boat, or boat solely employed in the fisheries, nor to any boat belonging to any square- rigged vessel in the merchant service, nor to any life boat, or tow boat used in towing vessels belong- ing to licensed pilots, nor to any boat used solely in rivers or inland navigation, nor to any boats solely used in fishing on the coasts of the North and West Highlands of Scotland, nor to any boats so used on the coast of Ireland. — { 23. Penalty for counterfeiting or falsifying Licences, or making Use thereof. — If any person or persons shall counterfeit, erase, alter, or falsify, or cause to be counterfeited, erased, altered, or falsified, any In em e so to be granted as aforesaid, or shall knowingly make use of any licence so counterfeited, erased, altered, or falsified, such person or persons shall for every such offence forfeit the sum of 500/.— i 24. How long Bonds are to be in Force. — No bond given on account of the licence of any vessel or boat under the said act for tin; prevention of smuggling shall be cancelled until the space of 12 months after the licence for which such bond had been entered into shall have been delivered up to the proper officer of the customs, and such bond shall remain in full force and effect for 12 months after the deli- vering up of the licence as aforesaid. — { 25. Licences and Bonds granted precious to this Act. to continue valid.—?! 26. Provisions as to Licences to extend to Guernsey, Jersey, Mderney, Sack, and Man. — $27. Licences, in the excise, are required in order that individuals may engage in certain bu- sinesses. — (See Table in the next page.) Licences, in the stamps, are required by those engaged in the professions and businesses mentioned below : — Fawnb-okers, in London and Westminster, or within twopenny post limits - In any other pi ice . • • Appraisers (not being auctioneers) Paukers ---.... Ph)»ic, to exercise Ihe faculty of • Ail peisons trading in gold or silver plate, in which any quantity of gold exceeding 2 pennyweights, and under i ounces, or any quantity of silver exceeding 5 penny weights and under 30 ounces, in I piece Do. of greater weight, and every pawnbroker taking in or delivering out pawns of such plale, and every i efiner of gold or silver ------ Gold or silver lace is nol deemed plate. LIGHT-HOUSE, a tower situated on a promontory, or headland on the sea coast, or on rocks in the sea, for the reception of a light for the guidance of ships at night.* There are also floating lights, or lights placed on board vessels moored in certain stations, and intended for the same purposes as those on shore. * Usvs ejus, nncturno navium eursu ignes ostendere, ad pra-nuntianda vada, portusque introitum, (P/in. Hist. JVaf. lib. xxxvi. cap. 13.; M 2 18 138 LIGHT-HOUSE. An account of the Businesses that cannot be carried on in Great Britain without Excise Licences ; of the Sums charged for such Licences ; of the Number of Licences granted for carrying on each Bu- siness in the Year ended the 5th of January, 1833, and of the Total Amount of Revenue derived therefrom. Rate of Number Rate of Number Description of Licence. Licence per Annum. of Annual Licences Description of Licence. L ,er of Annual Licences granted. A uum. granted. L. i. d. /.. i. d. Auctions. Paper. Auctioneers - 5 3,392 Alakers of paper, pasteboard, or scale- Beer. 4 535 Brewers of strong beer, Printers, painters, or stainers of paper 4 104 not exceeding 20 brls. 10 8,593 Soap. Exceeding 20 — 50 — 1 6,844 Soap makers • 4 278 — 50 — 100 — 1 10 9.162 Spirit-. — 100 — 1,000 — 2 16,!>2- Distillers .... 10 246 — 1,01.0 — 2,000 — 3 619 Rectifiers .... 10 119 — 2.000 — 5,0.10 — 7 10 488 Dealers in spirits, not being retailers • 10 3,415 — 5,CO0 — 7,500 — 11 5 124 Retailers of spirits « hose premises are — 7,500 — 10,000 — 15 71 rated under 10/. per annum 2 25,842 — 10.000 — 20,000 — 30 89 at 10/. and under 20 — 4 4 22,733 — 20,000 — 30,000 — 45 23 20 — 25 — 6 6 3,262 — 30,000 — 40.000 — 60 6 25 — 31 — 7 7 1,875 exceeding 40,000 — 75 16 30 _ 40 — 8 8 3.527 Brewers of table beer, 40 — 50 — 2 Retailers having a licence to retail beer 250 — 300 — 2 5 712 i and spirits .... 2 2 20,656 300 — 350 — 2 12 6 577 Passage. 350 — 400 — 3 485 Vessels on board which liquors and 400 — 450 — 3 7 6 381 tobacco are sold 1 255 450 — 5t0 — 3 15 345 500 — 550 — 4 2 6 308 exceeding 550 — 4 10 1,862 not exceeding 5 — 2 6 1,3-10 Total am )unt of eve Que derived from licences, L.7S5,622 19j. 3d. Excise Office, London, 5th of August, 18 13. G. A. COTTRELL, First C eneral Acco antant. Historical Notice. — The lighting of fires for the direction of ships at night is of such obvious utility, that we need not wonder at the practice having originated at a very remote era. The early history of light-houses is, however, involved in much obscurity ; but it is reasonable to suppose that no long period would elapse after fires were lighted for the pre- monition and guidance of mariners, till towers would begin to be constructed for their re- ception. The most celebrated of all the ancient light-houses was that erected by Ptolemy Soter, on the small island of Pharos, opposite to Alexandria, — noc/urnis ignibus cur sum natrium regens. — (Plin. lib. v. cap. 31.) It was of great height, and is said to have cost 800 talents.* Its celebrity was such, that Pharos rapidly became, and still continues to be in many countries, a generic term equivalent to light-house. In the ancient world, there were light-houses at Ostia, Ravenna, Puteoli, Caprea, Rhodes, on the Thracian Bosphorus, &c. — (See Suetonii Opera, ed. Pitisci, torn. i. p. 755. ; and the Ancient Universal History, vol. ix. p. 366. 8vo ed.) The Tour de Cnrdouan, at the entrance of the Gironde, the Eddystone light-house, oppo- site to Plymouth Sound, and that more recently constructed on the Bell Rock, opposite to the Frith of Tay, are the most celebrated modern light-houses. The Tour de Cordouan was begun in 1584, by order of Henry IV., and was completed in 1611. It was at first 169 feet (Fr.) high; but in 1727 it was enlarged, by the addition of an iron lantern, to the height of 175 French, or 186£ English feet. It used to be lighted by a coal fire, but it is now lighted by reflecting lamps of great power and brilliancy. It is altogether a splendid structure ; and is, besides, remarkable for being the first light-house on which a revolving light was exhibited. — (See Bordeaux.) *. Dr. Gillies tells us (Hist, of Alexander's Successors, vol. ii. p. 138. 8vo ed.) that the tower was 450 feet in height ; that each side of its square base measured 600 feet, and that its "beaming summit" ■was seen at the distance of 100 miles! It is almost needless to add, that there is no authority for such statements which, indeed, carry absurdity on their face. LIGHT-HOUSE. 139 The first light-house erected on the Eddystone rocks only stood about 7 years, having been Mown down in the dreadful storm of the 27th of November, 170:1; a second, erected in 1708, was burnt down in 1755. The present light-house, constructed by the celebrated engineer Smeaton, was completed in 1759. It is regarded as a masterpiece of its kind; and bids fair to be little less lasting than the rocks on which it stands. The Bell Rock light-bouse was built by Mr. Stevenson on the model of the Eddystone. Numerous light-houses, marking the most dangerous points, and the entrance to the principal harbours, are now erected in most civilised maritime countries. They are particu- larly abundant in the Baltic and in the Sound, and have contributed, in no ordinary de- gree, to render their navigation comparatively safe. Within these few years several new ones have been erected on the British coasts, and on those of France, the United States, &c. Precautions as to Light-houses. — Many fatal accidents have arisen from ships mistaking one light for another; and hence the importance of those on the same coast being made to dilFer distinctly from each other, and of their position and appearance being accurately laid down and described. The modern inventions of revolving, intermitting, and coloured lights, afford facilities for varying the appearance of each light unknown to our ancestors, and have been, in that respect, of the greatest importance. Chart of Light-houses, $c— A good descriptive work on light-houses, beacons, &c. is a desidera- tum. That of Coulier, Gnulr dee Marines pendant la Navigation nocturne, Faris, lb'29, is perhaps the best. It must not be judged by its preface, which is as bad as possible; consisting of scraps from the must fantastical parts of Bryant's Mythology, and of attacks on us for our conduct in relation to Parga, and the alleged ill-treatment of the crew of a vessel wrecked on the island of AJderney I The honk is really pretty good, which could not certainly be anticipated from such a commencement. The reader will find the existing English and Irish light-houses, and the greater number of those belonging to Scotland, laid down in the chart attached to the article Canals in this work. Its accu- racy may be depended upon ; as it has been copied from the beautiful chart of the light-houses on the Briiish and contiguous coasts recently published by the Trinity House ; the corporation having readily and obligingly granted permission to that effect. In the Supplement the reader will find the position, description, &c. of the principal British and Irish light-houses and floating lights. La o as to British Light-houses. — The S Eliz. c. 13. empowers the corporation of the Trinity House to erect beacons, Sec. to prevent accidents to ships ; and though the act does not expressly mention light- houses, it has been held to extend to them ; and on its authority, and the privileges attached to the oriice of buoyage and beaconage conferred on the Trinity House in 1594, the corporation erects light- houses. The tolls for their maintenance are generally collected tinder the authority of letters patent from the crown ; those for the support of the Eddystone light, and some others in different parts of the kingdom, being, however, established by act of parliament. The first light-house erected by the Trinity Corporation was in 1675; but several had been previously erected by private parties in virtue of let- ters patent. Customs' officers are prohibited from making out any cockct .or other discharge, or taking any report outwards for any ship, until the light duties are paid, and the master shall have produced a light-bill testifying the receipt thereof. It is lawful for persons authorised by the Trinity House to go on board any British or foreign ship to receive the duties, and for non-payment to distrain the tackle of the ship ; and in case of delay of payment for 3 days after distress, the collectors of the said duties may cause the same to be appraised bv two persons, and proceed to sell the distress. (6&7 Will. 4. c.79. $ 54.) All the light-houses, floating lights, &c, exclusive of harbour lights, from the Fern Islands, on the coast of Northumberland, round by Beachy Head and the Land's End, to ihe coast of Cumberland, have always belonged to the Trinity House, with the exception of about a dozen lights, viz. Tyne- mouih. Spurn (shore), Winterton and Orford, Harwich, Dungeness, Skerries, &.C These lights have been partly public and partly private property; provision has. however, been made in the act now referred to, for vesting them exclusively in the Trinity House. — (See below.) The duties on their account have been, for the most part, always payable to the Trinity collectors. Fees on Account of Light-hovsea. — A wish to keep the charges on native ships as low as possible, and to insure them a preference, seems to have given rise to the practice that has long existed, of exacting comparatively high duties from the foreign shipping entering our ports. But whatever may have been the motives for making this distinction, its policy seems more than questionable. It is quite right that the foreign ships coming to our shores for commercial purposes should be made to pay the same light and harbour duties as British vessels ; but the imposition of comparatively high duties on them 16 decidedly injurious, inasmuch as it provokes retaliatory measures on the part of other slates, obstructs the resort of foreigners to our markets, and, consequently, checks the growth of commerce. This system was very properly condemned in a report by a committee of the House of Commons, in lb"22. There is, in the evidence annexed to that report, some well-authenticated instances of foreign ships having been totally lost, from the disinclination of the captain to enter a British port, while it wis in their power, on account of the heavy charges to which they would have been exposed for lights, &c. ! Down, indeed, to 1835, all ships, whether native or foreign, coming into any British port by strc-s of treat her, were charged with full light duties ; but we are glad to say that this inhospitable regulation has been repealed by an order in council of the 7th of February that year, issued on the recommendation of the Trinity House, which exempts such vessels from all charge on account of lights. Our whole policy as to light duties, port charges, &x. has. within these few years, been ma- terially improved, and is now the very reverse of illiberal. It is true that the discriniinatingduties on foreign ships are still kept up ; but in consequence of the general establishment of reciprocity trea- ties, the distinction has become rather nominal than real, and affects comparatively few of the ships usin» our seas.* We are glad, also, to have to announce, that very large deductions have been, in most instances, * We stated inadvertently in the former impressions of this work, that light duties were charged on foreign ships, if in the prosecution of their voyage they came within sight of any of our light-houses. But in point of fact, no light duties are charged by the Trinity House either upon foreign or British ships for voyages from one foreign port to another ; unless, in the course of such voyages, they actu- ally come to or touch at a Briiish port or roadstead. (See No. 3. of Instructions to Trinity Collectors, given below.) But foreign vessels sailing along the Irish coasts are charged id. a ton for eacji light passed, except harbour lights, which are only charged upon vessels entering the same. 140 LIGHT-HOUSE. made from the light-house duties. It is, indeed, quite essential to their utility that these should be moderate. They have ihe same influence upon the intercourse carried on by sea, that tolls have upon that carried on by land ; and it is needless to add, that oppressive tolls are amongst the most effectual of all the engines by which rapacious ignorance has contrived to injure a country.* Charges on Account of Collection* <$*c— The charges under this head for the lights under the control of the Trinity House, amounted, in 1834, to 7,034/. 5s. 3kd., the expenses of maintenance (including pay- ments on account of works at different lights, 4,207/. 2s. 5d.) for the same year being 37.299/. 16s. Id., leaving a balance of 47,403/. Is. Xd.nett surplus. It is plain, therefore, that the light-house revenue is, at this moment, more than twice as great as is necessary for keeping the establishment in the most perfect state of efficiency. The surplus revenue is, we believe, in so far at least as the Trinity H.mse is concerned, very judiciously expended in maintaining decayed seamen, and other useful pur- poses. Hut considering the vast importance of low shipping charges, we agree with the committee of 182*2 in thinking that such persons might be provided for in some less onerous way, and that the light duties should be still further reduced. They ought not, in fact, to exceed such a rate of charge as may be required to keep the lights in the most perfect state. Originally they seem to have been imposed only in this view; but, whether this were really so or not, the interests of navigation re- quire that they shoiild now be established on that principle. Instead of reducing the charges gene- rally on all lights, it has been proposed to make some of the more important lights duty free, as by this means the expense of collection would be saved, and business materially facilitated. This, however, would in effect impose a proportionally heavy charge on the ships belonging to the less frequented ports ; so that, on the whole, the general reduction of the rates would seem to be the better plan. References. The duties r>n account of the light-houses nn the east coast (with the exception of those for the Spurn flowing liirhl) are p.iyaLle by all ves-elsonc^- only for the whole voyage out and home : but a single passage subjects them to the payment of the full duties. Spurn Ftoatn,* L>ght.— The duties for this light are to be col- lected from such foreign and British oversea traders as actually enter the river Humber, aiyj are payable in those cases for each time of passing. Coalers and colliers are subjec thereto for each time of pass ng coastwise, if 1 iden ; but not otherwise. Thedu;ies for the Channel lights a re payable for each time of parsing. The dulies for ihe lights in the Bristol and St. George's Channels are pay djle for each time of passing, with the exception of the Bard- sey light, .is hereunder stated ; but the fjllowing directions must be attended to, viz — Flathohn L>ght — Coasters between the Land's End and St. Da- vid's Head fiuarket b->ats and fishing vessels excepted) are to pay Ij. per vessel. Caldy L>ght,— The duties for this light are payable by such ves- sels only as may put into any port, place, or roadstead, between the Worm's Head and St. Gowen's Head. Lundy Light.— Duties payable only by vessels on their voyage to or from ports in the Bristol Channel, or to or from any ports to the eastward of a line drawn from Hartlaiid Point to St. Gowen's Head. BardUey Light. —Duties for foreign vesstls and British oversea traders are payable once only for the whole voyage out and home; for coasters and colliers coastwise, each time of pacing, if laden, but not otherwise. South Stack Light.— British or Irish ships and vessels to or from Liverpool, Chester, and ports to the northward thereof, to any other ports to the northward of the Calf of Man) at the south part'of the Jsle of Man) or to the eastward of Holyhead, with all other vessels bound to or from Liverpool and pons adjacent, to any othvr ports whatsoever, sailing in or out of the North Channel, viz. " by Fair- head on the coast of Ireland, and the Mull of Cantire on the coast of Scotland," are not subject to pay the duties to the said light. This exemption, however, is confined and restricted to ships and vessels of ihe United Kingdom, navigating within the limits above de- scribed. N.S.— By the term "each time of passing*' is to be understood ice for the outward and once for the inward passage. Trinity Lights.— The rules and regulations as to lights may be altered by the Trinity House, with con- sent of the privy council. We subjoin a copy of the existing instructions issued by the Corporation to their collectors. TRINITY HOUSE, LONDON. Instructions to for the collection of the duties payable to the Corporation of Trinity House, at the port of 1st. You are to dt mind and receive from the master or agent of every ship or ve-sel which hah passed, or is about to pass, in any direction the s-veral lights belonging to this Corporation, the re- spective tolls and duties as particularly set forth in the Table here- unto annexed ; observing, nevertheless, the regulation contained in the 3 1 article, and also that British vessels, and such foreign vessels as are or shall be privileged in respect to charges as British vessels, are exempt from payment of duties to this Corporation, when navi- gated wholly iu ballast. 2i You are to 'ake care to rate all Bri ish vessels, of every class or description to the full amount of their register tonnage, except for those puticular lights, for the duties to which colliers and coasters are chargeable per vessel only. Foreign vessels are to be charged to the full amount of their tonnage, as ascertained by the officer of his Majesty's customs. 3d. You are to observe that neither British nor foreign vessels are to be charged with the duties on account of a passage which may have taken place, or may be thereafter contemplated, being from one f jreign port to another foreign port, unless in the prosecution of such voyages tb y shall actually arrive or touch at, a port or roadstead in Great Bri aim ■4th. The duties are to be collected from all British ships at the ports in Gieit Britain where they load or deliver Iheircargoes. No collection is theiefore '0 be made from any British ship which may happen to louch at ynur port on herpassige to anoiherport in Great Britain ; but you are to observe that this rule is nut to be applied in respect of vessels touching at your port in their passages to ports not in Great Britain. 5th. You are *o charge all vessels helnnging to the following states with the tame duties in every respect, as British vessels: -The ves- sels of those states are in fact to be considered, sn far as respects charges made on account of this Corporation, as British ships, until further orJers ; viz. Portugal, Brazil, United Slates of America, the kingdom of the Netherlands, Hanover, Sweden, Norway, Russia, Hamburgh, Bremen, I.uheck, Denmark, and Prussia ; to which are to be added vessels belonging to the duchies of Oldenhurzh and Mecklenburgh, as well as th>se belonging 'o the kingdom of France, which have been als > admitted to the privilege of reciprocity in re- spect of charges , but as that privilege is granted to vessels of those states under some limitations, it is necessary you should particularly observe the directions contained in the recitals of the orders in coun- cil and treaty hereunder givent, whereby you will perceive that vesselsof those states are still liable, in certain cases, to the foreign rate of duty. 6th AH vessels helnn?ing to Ihe United Kingdom, and trading be tween Great Britain and Ireland, are to be deemed and charged as coasting vessels, iu respect of all light and other duties payable to this Corporation. 7th. You are to give your receipt on a light bill, to the master of everv ship or vessel who >hall pay you any of the hereimfter men- uoned tolls or duties, expressing (plainly and fully) his name, the tame of the vesiel, and the place to which she beluogs, her voyage and tonnage, the money paid, and time of payment. You are to in- sert all those seveial particulars in the counterpart of each light bill, which counterpart is to be signed by the master or his agent, and the books returned, containing the same, to this house, at the end of every . You are to take care that none of the blank light'-bills which shall be lodged with you fall into improper hands, or be wasted. You are in all cases to require 'he production of the light bill for the duties last paid; and you are not to admit or allow that the master of any vessel hith piid elsewhere without seeing the light-bill, duly signed by the collector for the port at which it may be alleged the duties have been paid; and whenever you sh.ill be satisfied that the duties for any ship or vessel have been paid at any other port or place, you are to note (he same in your book, and also in your accounts in the column prepared for that purpose, expressing the several particulars as in your light-bills, with the time and place of payment. Books, containing each a number of bl -nk light bills, will be furnished you from this house, on your application, whenever required. You are to keep an exact account of all monies which t Oldenburgh Vessels. — Extract of his Majesty's order in council, da'ed the 19th of October, 1824:— t( His Majesty, by virtue of the powers vested in him by the acts above reciled, and by and with the advice of his privy council, is pleased to order, and it is hereby ordered, that from and after the date of this order, Oldenburgh vessels entering the ports of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in ballast or laden, direct from any of the ports of Olden- burgh, or departing from the ports ot ihe said United Kingdom, to- gether with the cargoes on board the same, such cargoes consisting of ar icles which may be legally imported or exported, shall not be subject to any other or higher duties or charges whatever than are or shall be levied on British vessels entering or departing from such ports." Mecklenburgh Vessels. — The purport of the order in council grant- ing the privilege of reciprocity to Mecklenburg vessels, is precisely the san e as the foregoing order in rtspect of Oldenburgh vessels, and is dated the 14th of June, IS25. French Vessels.— Exlract from a convention of commerce and na- vigation between his Majesty and the King of France, dated 26th of January, 1826:— "That from and after the 5th day of April, 1826, French vessels coming from or departing for the ports of France, or, 1 if in ballast, coming from or departing for any place, thai! not be I subject, in the ports of the United Kingdom, either on entering into ' or departing from the same, to any higherduties of tonnage, harbour, light-house, pilotage, quarantine, or other similar corresponding du- i ties, of whatever nature, or under whatever denomination, than those to which British vessels, in respect of the same voyages, I are or may be subject on entering into or departing from such ports." Colliers are to be charged by the number of tons expressed in their ' registers, and not by the chaldron; and colliers bound to or from foreign parts are to pay the same as other British ships bound fo- reign. * There is nothing new in this statement :— " A vara manus partus claudit ; et cum digitos contrahit, jutvium siwul vela conclndit ; vieritd enim ilia mereatores cuncti refugiunt qua sibi dispendia esse cognos- cunt." — (Cassiodorus, lib. vii, cap. varia, 9.) LIGHT-HOUSE. 141 you stall from time to lime collect ; and, before vou (ill up jour the prln'ed form furnished from this house, together with the balance light bii:s. t .-,,-., the same distinctly in a book lobe provided by of your collection, af tei .. deduction o in ihe yourself for that purpose, v. uliculan which are pound foryoui are, trouble, and otdmarj expeusts therein, to the hereio-before directed to be expressed in your light bills are mk aecrelary or theCurpoiationat thiah entered ;-.,i ill which you are, utiiAin 14 data al ei the lal of Ja Bj command of the Corpoiatum, r July, and the lit of October (to (Signed) J. II t-RBLRr, Secretary. which periods you in- to make up your accoun s), to send a copy on Account specifying ihe various Lighthouses and Floating Lights under the management of the Cor- poration of the Trinity Mouse of Deptford Strond ; Ihe Rates of Charge on the British a. . d. L s. d. L. t. d. L. s. d. L. s. d. Harwich light houses 1'34 9.S34 16 11 1,860 15 4 8,074 1 7 4,844 8 111 3 221 12 7£ lt-35 10,469 12 8 1,7-7 14 1 8,691 18 7 6,215 3 2 3,476 15 5 Dungeness light-houses 1*34 5.V.5 13 II 1,366 7 7 4,1^9 6 4 2,094 13 2 2.0''4 13 2 1835 <>.S)6 11 3 1,3-2 16 5 4.463 14 10 2,231 17 5 2.231 17 5 Wintertooness and Orfordness 1834 9.4S7 16 5 1,871 5 3 7,616 11 2 3,-08 5 7 3,>0S 5 7 1835 10,086 1 6 1,984 II 2 8,101 10 4 4,050 15 2 4,0i0 IS 2 Hunstanton Cliff - 1834 657 11 1-4 18 6 472 12 6 - 472 12 6 1835 631 12 1 226 2 11 405 9 2 - 405 9 2 Harwich Lights, held by General Rebow, under lease from the the light-houses, &c, become, at the expiration of the lease, the pro perty of the Crown, as in the case of the Dungeness and Wmlerlon ligh s. The duties are lo be reduced to a half in 1X37 There are several other lights, of the revenue of which we have seen no late account. The charges for the undermentioned lights are as follow : — Foreign British Ships. Ships. Id. per ton. I -2d. per Ion, Harwich ... Hunstanton Longships (off Land's End) Mumbles (near Swansea) - Skerries tSt. George's Channel) Dungeness I 2d. I -2d. l-4d- l from the =>th of January, IS27, paying to the Crovru 3-511)8 of the ne t dutv collected. DlUlgtneSt Light!, tied under lease from the Crown bv Thomas William Coke, Esq. for 20 years from Midsummer 1829. Nett pro- duce of the du'ie-. equally divided between the Crown and the les-ee. The duties .ure reduced at the Ten wal of the lease from Id. to l-2d.pertnn; and it is (>ro,ided, that at its term nation the light- houses and building* connected thercw ith, and the ground on which thev are erecte I. shAl I become th - property of the Crown. rVintt rtonn&t and Orfordtitu Light*, held by Lord Braybrooke on J era lease from he Crown, which expires on the 1st of June, 184-1. Nett produce of the duties equally divided between the Crow n and his Lordship. The duties were reduced at the last renewal of the lease in 1828. from Id. to t 2d. per ton. At the expiration of I Wintertan and Orford the lease, the light houses, grounds, &c. becom; the properly of the j Smalls (S'. George's Channel) Crown. Ditto (ditto) (coasting) Hunstanton Cliff Light, held by S. Lane, Esq, under a lease Spurn (Shore) mouth of Humber from thcCrown, which expires in Ia49. From the I6ih of October. Tynemouih 1837, 4-1 ith parts of the nett produce are to go to the Crown; and | Ditto (additional) - The nett revenue of the Smalls light-house in St. George's Channel amounted, at an average of the 2 years ending with 1832, to 10,510i. 10s. bd. a year. The lease had then 44 years lo run. In 18'22, the Trinity Corporation having proposed to purchase the reversion, the lessees demanded for it 148,4302.! The Corporation has recently effected the purchase; but owing to the increase of com- merce in tint interim, they have had to pay a larger sum, notwithstanding the diminished length of the lease. This fact affords a striking illustration of the extreme inexpediency of the practice of leasing light-houses to private parties. Wherever they are necessary, they ought to be raised at the public expense, and the fees kept as low as possible. "There cannot, in fact, be any greater improvidence or abuse, than to make over to a private individual or association a power to levy, for a long series of years, a certain amount of toll on the ships passing particular lights. The renewals mentioned above are. however, the last transactions of the sort that are ever likely to occur; for by the act 6&7 Will. 4. c. 79., the whole right and properly in the Harwich, Dungeness, Winterton and Orford, and Hunstanton lights is vested in the Trinity House, subject to the existing leases; and for these the Corporation is at present (1836) in treaty. The Skerries is by far the most valuable of the private light-houses. It is situated on a small islet or rock to the north-west of the island of Anglesey ; and was granted to the ancestor of the present proprietor, to be fur ever holden by him, his heirs and assigns, by the act 3 Geo. 2 c. 36. This light produced, at an average of the 7 years ending with 1834, a nett revenue of 12,524/. \bs. 25/. 14s. 2d. was col- lec'ed in Great Rritain The rates of charge are as follow :— Foreign vessels, 1-2(2. per ton for each light passed; except har- bour lights, which are only chargeable lo vessels entering the porti within which thi-y are situated. Brilish and Irish, l-4d. per ton (l-Sot. if in ballast) for each light, except as atiove. With a duty of 2s. on every entry, cocket, or warrant, when from foreign ports, but not otherwise. Compensation to Private Parties. — The authority acquired by certain individuals and public bodies, under letters patent, acts of parliament, and otherwise, of levyingcertain duties on account of lights, beacons, pilotage, harbour, dues, &c entitles them, for the most part, to demand higher fees from fo- reign than fr British shipping. When, therefore, we entered into reciprocity treaiies with foreign power-, government had to compensate the parlies in question for the diminution that consequently took place in iheir charges on foreign ships. The total sum paid on ibis account, in 1832, amounted to 35,1821. Of this stun 1,5662. was paid to the lessees of the Smalls light-house already alluded to, and -i.'c-.O/. to the proprietors of the Spurn and Skerries lights. The Trinity Corporation relinquished their claim to compensation some time since ; and the act 6 & 7 Will. 4. c. 79 forbids such compen- sation being made to them, the Commissioners of Northern Lights, and the commissioners for manag- ing the Irish lights —'For some account of the Trinity Corporation, the reader is referred In that article ; and for accounts of the charges on account of Beaconage, Ballasuige, Pilotage, &c. see these titles.) (The following important regulations, in respect of light-houses, are erribodied in the act of last session, 6 &. 7 Witt. 4. c. 79. Jill F.vglish Lights to be subjected to the Control of the Trinity House.— Provision is made by this act for placing all lizhl-hniises, floating lights, harbour lights, buoys, beacons, &c. on and round the coasls of England and Wales, under the control and management of the Trinity House ; and also for placing ill light-houses, &C. on the coasts of Scotland and of Ireland respectively under the control and management of the Commissioners of Northern Lights and of the Commissioners for Improving the Port of Dublin. — (r parties having the management of the Sken ies, Spurn Point, and the Tynemouth light-houses. Should the Trinity Hmi.se, and the parties interested, nut lie aide to agree as to the sum to be paid the latter, the matter, in all such eases, is to be referred to the decision of a jury, the method of u hose proceeding is pointed out in the act. It is also enacted that no new light-house shall in future be erected on the .Scotch or Irish coasts, without the approval of the Trinitj House having been previously obtained ; and that the officers of the latter shall have power at all times to enter upon and examine such Scotch and Irish lights.— ({ J 2, 3, 4. &c.) Dalits on account of Scotch Lights.— ll is enacted that front and after the ist of January, 1837, all British ships, ami all foreign privileged ships, not wholly in hallast, shall pay .' i n • »" ii 49 53 37 6 19 23 W. Agnes' Island. niiuute. Lnngships.* Longships Rock, Land's End. Lizard Point. Fixed. 14 Stone. £8 36 50 4 5 44 Lizard.* 2 Fixed. 20 White. E. 221 Both 45. 49 57 18 5 10 39 W. 224 Gddjntone.* Eddystone Rock. 1 Fixed. 13 Stone. 72 72 50 10 54 4 15 3 Casqiiela.* Casquet Rucks. 3 Revolving. Every 15 seconds. 13 Stone. 80 One 13, the 49 42 17 2 23 34 Portland.* Bill of Portland. 2 High light revolving, low light fixed. Every 2 minutes. 19 13 White. 198 131 others 38. 25 70 50 31 22 2 26 49 Hurst. Hurst Beach. 2 Fixed. 12 9 Red. Highest 66, lowest 29. 60 23 50 42 23 1 32 50 Needles.* Needles Point, Isle of Wight. 1 Fixed. 2S White. 469 26 50 39 53 133 55 Owcrs, floating. East end of the Owers shoah),coa8l of Sussex. 1 Fixed. 9 Carries a flag. 26 • • 50 41 39 Beachy Head.* Bdlclout Cliff. 1 Revolving. Every 2 n. mules. 28 White. 2S5 20 50 44 13 E. Il'ingmess.* t)un ,- „ Sea at High :\''' v '!'!" Water, in mteel - Feet. Position. Latitude. Longitude. Tyne. Front of Dock Wray Fixed. 18 White. 123 49 © / it 55 ° i i> 126 W. Square ; lowest near 15 77 76 Clifford's Fort. Tynemouth Cas- Tynemouth Castle 1 Revolving. Every 18 Stone. 148 S2 55 I 125 tle.* Yard. minute. Outer Fein. Longstone Rock. 1 Revolving. Every | 13 Stone. 74 71 55 39 138 minute. Inner Fern. S. W. point of Great 2 Highest Everj f 14 Stone. Revolving 28 55 37 1 40 Fern Island. revolving, lowest fixed. minute. 10 81, the other 40. 16 Berwick. East end of the Pier. 2 Fixed. " IS Stone. 44 24 333 55 46 1 58 St. Pees.* St. Bees Head. 1 Fixed. 24 White. 33 54 31 3 39 Walney.* South Point of Walney Island. 1 Revolving. Every 5 minutes. 15 Stone, 70 60 54 4 3 12 Formbv.* Formby Point. 1 12 53 32 21 3 3 61 Black Rock. Rock Point, entrance of the Mersey. 1 Revolving. Every minute. 15 White. 88 75 53 2d 43 3 2 36 Leasowe. On the shore, between the Mersey and Dee. 1 Fixed. 16 White. 118 118 53 24 49 3 7 27 Bidston.* Bid-Ion Hill. 1 Fixed. 20 Stone. 300 50 S3 2 ; 3 4 Upper Hoylake. Hovlake. 1 Fixed. 10 Brick. 56 39 53 24 3 11 Lower Hoylake. Hoylake. 1 Fixed. 9 Brick. 34 19 Liverpool, floating. At 'he entrance of the Horse Channel. 3 Fixed. 9 Carries a flag. 36 53 23 3 17 Air.* Point of Air. 2 Fixed. II 7 Striped red and white, hori- zontally. 49 12 49 53 21 2S 3 19 14 Lynas.* Point Lynas, Isle cf Anglesea. 2 Fixed. 12 Brick. 80 19 53 25 4 17 16 Skerries.* Island of Skerries. 1 Fixed. 20 White. 117 64 53 25 4 35 South Stack.* South Slack Ruck, off the north-west point of Holyhead Is land Bardsey Island. Revolving. Every 2 minutes. 19 Stone. 201 69 53 18 4 41 Bardsey.* 1 Flashing. 17 Stone. 141 79 52 45 4 47 Smalls* Smalls Rock. 1 Fixed. 15 Red. 70 58 11 43 5 Id Milford.* St. Ann's Point 2 Fixed. 19 17 White, red top. 192 159 44 17 51 41 5 10 25 Caldy.* Caldy Island, south point. 1 Fixed. 20 Grey stone, red top. While. 210 40 5137 56 4 40 57 Mumbles.* Mumbles Head. 1 Fixed. 15 14 56 5134 3 3 51 10 Swansea Pier. Western Pier Head. I Fixed. 3 White, black top. 28 20 5137 3 56 Nash.* Nash Point. I 61 24 3 33 Usk.* West side of the en- trance to the Usk. I Fixed. 10 Stone. 39 32 5132 3 Flatholm.* Flatholm Island, south point. 1 Fixed. 17 White, red top. 156 77 51 22 35 3 7 3 Lundy.* Luudy Island. 2 Upper Every 45 30 Stone. 642 79 51 10 7 4 40 15 revolving, seconds. 28 470 6 fixed. Those marked * are what a re calle d first-class li£ hts. II. SCOTCH LI GHT-H OUSES. Inchkeith.* Highest part of Inch- keith Island. 1 Revolving. Every minute. 20 Stone. 220 45 56 2 3 8 W. Isle of May.* Highest part of Isle of May. Bell Rock. 1 Fixed. • 21 Stone. 240 57 56 11 2 33 Bell Rock* 1 Revolving. Every 2 14 White. 90 1C0 56 26 2 23 minutes. Dundee Ferry. On the ferry piers. 3 Fixed. 2 i White. 10 16 56 28 2 58 Buttonness.* Buttonness. 2 Fixed. 9 12 White. 85 65 70 50 56 28 2 45 Arbroath. Northern Pier. 1 Fixed. 3 While. 15 - 56 33 2 3-i Montrose. North side of the en- trance. 2 Fixed. 8 White. 35 45 56-12 2 27 Aberdeen. Head of the North 1 Fixed. • 4 Red. 20 - 57 9 2 4 Girdleness.* Pier. Girdleness. I 57 8 2 3 Buchanness.* Buchanness. 1 Flashing. Every 5 seconds. IS Stone. 130 ;oo 57 23 146 Kinnaird.* Kinnaird Head. 1 Fixed. 18 Stone. 120 57 57 42 2 1 Tarbet. Tarbetuess. 1 Inter- mittent. Every 3 minutes. 18 Stone. 175 120 3- 18 Dunnet.* Dunnet Head. 1 Fixed. 24 Stone. 310 45 5140 322 IV:, i,ni Sker- Largest of the islands. 2 Fixed. 12 Stone. 1(10 80 30 10 58 41 38 2 55 Stirl.* Start Point, Sandy Is land, Orkney. I Revolving. Every minute. 15 Stone. 100 SO 59 IS 224 Sumburgh.* F-imburgh Head, Shet land. Cape Wrath. I Fixed. 24 Stone. 300 35 59 51 1 16 Cape Wrath.* 1 Revolving. Every 2 24 White. 400 50 58 37 5 Glass.* North - e^st point of 1 Fixed. 15 Stone. 130 80 57 r >2 633 Island Glass, Harris Isles. Bernera Island. Bara Head.* 56 43 7 38 Lismore.* I-ewi* Islands. Mousdale Island, Ar-| 1 Fixed, j 15 . 103 56 30 5 38 , sy'i. 1 L LIGHT-HOUSE. 145 Scotch Light-Housea — continued. r, Time of Rev. In- Flask I 'll'llll ill Height or Position. Name of Light. Place whereon L ght-house stands. ?. Description of Light. "is Ligh I., .re. 01 i ' . | ] Day. ali.. vi He Sea al High Water, in Feet. Height ol Building in Feet. N. Latitude. Longitude. R>. inns of Hay.* Ovcrsay Island, near I ! Flashing. Every 12 IS Stone. 150 80 55 41 *! 1 II 6 29 Hay. seconds. Kintyre.* S. W. Headland of Kinlyre. Plad la Island, off s. 1 Fixed. 22 Stone. 297 28 55 19 6 49 Pladda.* 2 Fixed. 15 Stone. 13) 80 55 25 5 9 W. point of An. hi 12 77 27 Island. Cunibrae.* Little Cunibrae Island. 1 Fixed. 15 White. IOC 28 55 43 4 55 Toward* Toward Point. 1 Revolving. Every II White. 63 44 55i.2 4 57 i lough.* dough Point. 1 Fixed. minu c. 12 White. 76 76 55 58 4 52 Corsewall.* Coreewall Point. 1 Revolving. Every 2 IS Stone. 112 92 55 1 5 10 Mull of Gallo- South point of Wigton- 1 In'er- Every 3 21 Stone. 325 70 64 38 4 52 way.* shire. mitteut. minutes. Sateruess.* Satemess Point. I Fixed. 10 White. 50 54 53 3 37 HUSH LIGHT-HOUSES. Cape Clear.* Cape Clear Island. I Revolving. Every 2 miuuies. 28 White. 455 42 5126 3 9 29 20 Kilivilr.* Ill 1 Heal of Kinsalc. 1 Fixed. 23 White. 294 42 51 r6 45 8 32 16 Cork llubour * R.i he's Point. 1 Fixed. II While. 92 2d 51 48 8 14 Hook 'lower.* Hook Ileal, R. side of en ruice to Water- 1 Fixed. 17 White. 139 110 52 7 25 6 55 58 Duncannon. Duncannon Fort, en- tnnce to Wateiford, ¥.. side I'm Hi id, W. side of 2 Fixed. 6 White. 40 > 25 52 13 6 56 Dunmore Harbour. 1 Fixed. 8 White. 44 36 52 10 6 53 entrance to Water f.i 1. Off Coniogbeg Rock. Conhigboc, or Sal 2 Fixed. . 9 Carries a flag. 25 81 52 3 6 37 test, Boating liih'.» '1 i.sk-u. " Tuskar Rock. 1 Revolving. Every 2 minutes. 15 White. 101 52 12 9 6 12 37 Arklow filiating South end of Arklow 1 8 Carries a flag. 25 62 44 5 48 light.* Bank. Wicklow.* Wicklow Head. 2 Fixed. " 21 Mi While. 250 121 58 29 52 68 5 57 Kingstown Har- East Pier. 1 Revolving. Every 9 Brown. 31 19 53 18 6 9 bour. niinuie. 6 15 North Wall. End of North Dublin 1 Fixed. 9 Granite. 33 23 63 21 Quiy. Poolbcg.* End of S. wall, at the euuance to Dublin Harbour. 2 Fixed. 13 Stone. 68 63 33 20 32 6 1013 Kith, dialing Off north point of Kish 3 Fixed. Carries a flag. 25 53 19 5 58 light. >■ Buk Howlb Bully* Howih Bailly Point. N. side of Dublin Hav 1 Fixed. 17 White. 114 42 53 22 6 4 Howth Harbour. End of EnstPier. Fixed. 11 Whi'e. 43 37 f3 23 6 5 Bllbriigen Har- houi Pier, laiboird hand in entering. Fixed. 11 White. 35 33 53 37 6 12 r.iim ford.* Haulbowhng Rick. Fixed. 15 White. 101 111 54 1 6 6 i irliogibnl Lough. Greenore Poiut. Revolving. Every4-| seconds. 8 White. 29 26 54 I 53 6 7 62 South Rock.* South Rock. Revolving. Every aud half. 12 White. 52 60 54 24 5 26 Cnpelaud.* Small Copeland Is laud. Maiden Rocks, north Fixed. 15 White. 131 52 54 42 5 32 Mai lens r Fixed. 14 While. F4 60 54 56 5 45 auilsoiiih. 10 94 60 Innistrahul.* Innistrahul Island. Revolving. Every 2 miuuies. IS While. 167 26 55 26 7 14 t/iush Swillv.* Fannet Point. Fixed. 14 White. P0 26 55 26 25 7 38 14 Tory Wand.* I'oiy Island, north Fixed. 16 Stone. 122 63 55 16 26 8 15 Arranmore. N'irili point of Arran [aland. Fixed. 2D White. 209 Killyhe-s. St. J dm's Point. Fixed. 14 White. 104 41 54 33 8 28 Eagle Islands.* Bigle Island. Inins>22 43,226,710 3,374,993 46,601,703 17,112 9 2 1823 48,066,591 3,169,006 51,235,597 17,705 5 10 1821 40,466,950 3,020,427 49,493,377 17,114 13 10} 1825 52,559,678 2,553,587 55,113,265 12,015 9 64 1826 r The expona ioi.s o Great Bri ~) 2.726,297 ... 10,219 17 « 1827 ) 1828 ") tain cannot be asc rt.ined f.r •hese years, the cross channel trade having Keen asiiiniUled by ( 4,284.566 C 3,214.911 . 12,114 9,491 7 8 5 1829 C law to a coasting traffic. _) 2,386,223 - - 6.8K0 1 11 Of these exports, more than 12-13rhs have been to Great Britain. The total average export, during the 3 years ending with 1825, was 51,917,113 yards, of which 49,031,073 came to this country ; the ex- ports to all other parts l>"iti<; only 2,916,310. Since 1825, t lie trade between Ireland ami Great Britain has been placetl on the footing of a coasting trade, so that linens are exported and imported without any specific entry at the Custom-house. Scotch Linen Mannf/cture. — In 1727, a Board of Trustees was established in Scotland for the superintendence and improvement of the linen manufacture. It is not easy to sup- pose that the institution of this Board could of itself have been of any material service; but considerable bounties and premiums being at the same time given on the production and ex- portation of linen, the manufacture went on increasing. Still, however, it did not increase so fast as cotton and some others, which have not leceived any adventitious support, until machinery began to be extensively employed in the manufacture; so that it is very doubtful whether the influence of the bounty has been so great as it would at first sight appear to have been. The regulations as to the manufacture, after having been long objected to by those concerned, were abolished in 1822; and the bounties have now ceased. We subjoin LINEN. 149 An Account of the Quantity and Value of the I.inen Cloth manufactured and stamped for Bale in Scot- land during the Ten Years ending with 1822, being the latest Period to which it can he made up. Average Average Years. Yards. Value. Trice per Yard. Years. Yards. Value. Price per Yard. ,1 L. t. d. d. /.. a. d. k«13 19.799,146 1 2 977.382 1 7 1-2 114 1818 31,2 S,ICfl 1-2 l.2 - >3,528 8 1-2 9-6 ISM 26,12i).6iO 1-4 l,2.'>3,'.74 16 1(1 1-2 11-5 1819 29,334,42H 1-4 1,157,923 4 II 94 ISIS 32,0.'>6.0'5 1-4 1,403,766 15 2 10-5 1820 27,2W,0II 1 4 1,038,708 19 5 1-4 9 I IRIS 26,112,045 1-2 1,026,674 1 11 3-1 a-4 1821 30,47:1,461 1-2 1,2)2.113-1 1=, 4 3-4 9-7 1817 28,7-4,967 14 1,092,689 2 8 1-4 91 1S22 36.26:-, .31 I ■?. 1,396,285 19 II 12 This account is not, however, of much use. The stamp was only affixed to linen- on which a bounty was paid, Unit is, on linen intended for exportation. Linen manufactured for home use, or intended for private sale, was not stamped. — (Head ride's Survey of Forfar, p. 506.) Dundee is the grand seat of the Scotch linen manufacture ; and its progress there during the last few years has been so extraordinary, that the following details in respect to it may not be unacceptable. The manufacture appears to have been introduced into Dundee some time towards the beginning of last century ; but, for a lengthened period, its progress was comparatively slow. In 1745, only 74 tons of flax were imported, without any hemp; the shipments of linen cloth during the same year being estimated at about 1,000,000 yards, no mention being made either of sail-cloth or bagging. In 1791, the imports of flax amounted to 2,444 tons, and those of hemp to 290 tons; the exports that year being 7,842,000 yards linen, 280,000 yards sail-cloth, and 65,000 do. bagging. From this period the trade began to ex- tend itself gradually, though not rapidly. Previously to the peace of 1815, no great quan- tity of machinery was employed in spinning ; but about this period, in consequence, partly and principally of the improvement of machinery, and its extensive introduction into the manufacture, and partly of the greater regularity with which supplies of the raw material were obtained from the Northern powers, the trade began rapidly to increase. Its progress has, indeed, been quite astonishing; the imports of flax having increased from about 3,000 tons in 1814, to 15,000 tons in 1830 ! The exports of manufactured goods have increased in a corresponding proportion. During the year ended the 31st of May, 1831, there were imported into Dundee 15,010 tons of flax, and 3,082 do. hemp; and there were shipped off 366,817 pieces, being about 50,000,000 yards, of linen ; 85,522 pieces, or about 3,500.000 yards, of sail-cloth; and about 4,000,000 yards of bagging — in all, about 57,500,000 yards ! — (See an excellent article on this subject in the Dundee Chronicle, 16lh of October, 1832.) In the year ending the 31st of May, 1833, the imports of flax amounted to 18,777 tons, besides 3,380 tons of hemp. The shipments of linen, sail-cloth, &c. have increased in a corresponding ratio ; and were valued, in the year now mentioned, at about 1,600,000/. It appears, therefore, that the shipments of linen from this single port are quite as great as those from all Ireland ; and while the manufacture has been very slowly progressive in the latter, it has increased at Dundee even more rapidly than the cotton manufacture has increased at Manchester. It is not easy to give any satisfactory explanation of this wonder- ful progress. Something must be ascribed to the convenient situation of the port for ob- taining supplies of the raw material ; and more, perhaps, to the manufacture having been long established in the towns and villages of Strathmore, the Carse of Cowrie, and the northern parts of Fife, of which Dundee is the emporium. But these circumstances do not seem adequate to explain the superiority to which she has recently attained in this depart- ment ; and, however unphilosophical it may seem, we do not really know that we can as- cribe it to any thing else than a concurrence of fortunate accidents. Nothing, in fact, is so difficult to explain as the superiority to which certain towns frequently attain in particular departments of industry, without apparently possessing any peculiar facilities for carrying them on. But from whatever causes their [ire-eminence may arise in the first instance, it is very difficult, when once they have attained it, for others to come into competition with them. They have, on their side, established connections, workmen of superior skill and dexterity in manipulation, improved machinery, &c. Recently, indeed, the advantages in favour of old establishments have been, to a considerable extent, neutralised by the preva- lence of combinations amongst their workmen ; but it is to be hoped that means may speedily be devised for obviating this formidable evil. Value of the Manufacture. Number of Persons employed. — There are no means by which to form an accurate estimate of the entire value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain and Ireland. Dr. Colquhoun estimated it at 15,000,000/.; but there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that this is an absurd exaggeration. In the former edition of this work we expressed our conviction that it could not be valued at more than 10,000,000/.; but fur- ther investigation has satisfied us that even this estimate is very decidedly beyond the mark, and that the entire produce of the manufacture in the United Kingdom does not exceed 7,500,000/.* Some very intelligent individuals, largely engaged in the trade, do not esti * Sir F. M. Eden estimated the entire value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain, in 1600. at 2,000,000*.— ( Treatise on Insurance, p. TO.) 150 LINEN. mate it at so much ; and we feel fully confident that this sum, if not much beyond, is at all events not within the mark. Now, if we set aside a third part of this sum for the value of the raw material, and 25 per cent, for profits, wages of superintendence, wear and tear of capital, coal, &c, we shall have 3,125,000/. to be divided as wages among those employed in the manufacture. And supposing each individual to earn, at an average, 18/. a year, the total number employed would be about 172,000. It may be thought, perhaps, that 18/. is too low an estimate for wages; and such, no doubt, would be the case, were not Ireland taken into the average. But as a great many persons are there employed in the manufacture at very low wages, we believe that 18/. is not very far from the mean rate.* Linen Trade of the United Kingdom. — The following official statements show, in detail, the state of the import and export trade of the country in this department, in 1830, with the results for the subsequent years. Account of the Quantities of Hemp and Flax, dressed and undressed, Hemp Tow, Flax Tow, and Linen Yarns, imported into Great Britain and Ireland, from Foreign Parts, in the year ended the 5th of January, 1831 ; distinguishing the Ports of Importation, and the Countries whence imported, together with the Real and Official Values thereof.— (Part. Paper, No. 534. Sess. 1832, ifc.) Imports into Great Britain and Ireland from Foreign Parts in the Year ended 5th of January, 1! 131. Linen Ports of Importation. Hemp Flax ana Tow or Cndillaof Hemp Linen Countries from which Hemp Flav, and Tow or Colilla of Hemp undressed. and Flax, dressed or undressed. Yarn. imported. undressed. and Flax, dressed or undressed. Yarn. England, Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Greal Britain. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. London - 181,315 112,550 671 Russia - 441,219 695,593 5,642 Rye 3 Denmark 77 Chiche&'er 100 Prussia • 5,409 84,891 6,402 Portsmouth 5,395 Germany 326 5,211 Southampton 232 The Netherlands 32 113,909 58 Hooie ■ 1,607 France - 30,175 Lyme - 5.387 21,419 Italy 22,132 294 Exeter - 5,4^7 Malta - 5 Plymouth 12.369 1,635 Sierra Leone and River Falmouth 2,705 Gambia 16 Truro • 212 790 421 Cape of Good Hope 514 Penzance East India Company's ter- Bridgwater ritories 14,080 Bristol - 12,034 661 Philippine Islands 50 Gloucester 539 41 New South Wales 6,?46 Newport 59 United States of America - 595 665 Chester - 471 123 Chili 9 Liverpool 63,392 28,714 639 Guernsey and Jersey (fo- Lancaster 703 24,691 443 80 VVIntehaveo Berwick 4,816 676 121 229 Total • 484,509 932,456 17,313 Newcastle SuiHerland I3,4'2 12, .37 13,393 21 106 Ireland. Stockton 11,450 Russia • 19,830 7,989 Hull 67,550 118,193 11,199 Prussia 1,218 706 1,816 Goole 15,662 2 Germany 68 Grimsby 1,305 The Netherlands 2,945 14 Lyon - 1,540 Italy . 1,151 Blacknry and Cto 7 101 Hayti - 13 Yarmouth SC0tld7U Leith 7,085 19,377 18,632 4,0S3 Total . Aggregate of the importa- 22,262 11,640 1,898 Borron3foness 2,069 tions into the United Grangemouth 1,063 Kingdom from the va- KirkalUy 316 43,737 404 rious countries 506,771 944,096 19,211 Dundee • 41,119 363.962 209 Montrose 1,071 92,588 Official value thereof, viz. L. L. L. Aberdeen 7,019 53,657 Great Britain • 411 832 1,923.428 104,559 Binff - Inverness Thurso - 6,891 738 654 Ireland Total • 1^,926 18,803 19.623 427,758 1,942,231 124,182 Stnrnoway 66 Official value of exports - 11,798 7,720 Greenock 946 200 Total official value of hemp Port Glasgow Glasgow Irvine • * 4,507 8,740 497 2,378 383 and flax left for com- sumption in the United Kingdom, in 1S30 415,960 1,934,511 121,182 Campbeltown ■ • 9S Ireland. Dublin - 3,816 6,259 Waterford 3,851 t66 Cork - m 4,776 175 Limerick 786 Gal way - - 610 Londonderry - 502 Coleraioe 147 Belfast - 7,303 4,160 1,893 Newry - 451 60 Dundalk Aggregate of the import 20 20 • ations from foreign countries in'o the vari ous ports of the Unite Kioglom 503,771 944,096 19,211 Exports from the U. K during the same year - Left for borne consumption 9,587 3,633 497, HI 940,463 19,211 Retained for home con sumption in 1831 504,308 9I?,'81 17,352 Ditto in 1832 7( 8.«46 98J,869 13,594 Ditto in 1833 537,890 1,127,726 * A vast number of persons in Ireland are only partly employed in the manufacture ; but the above estimate supposes that the 172,000 individuals are wholly employed in it. LIQUORICE. 151 Account of the Quantity of Foreign Linens retained for Home Consumption in Great Britain, in ihe Year ended 5th of January, 1831. Species of Linen. Quantify retained for Home Con- sumption in Gieat Britain- 203 12 11,187*. 17*. Id. Species of Linen. Quanti'y retained foi Home Con cunipii n Gre i Bri am. 8,295 1-2 23C 213*4 27.979 1 4 2ft/ 07 3 4 460J. It*. lOrf. Lawns, not French - - square yards Plain liliensand di^ppr unenumfrateil — Lawna, not French, plain linens an! diapers ur.ei.umerated, and manu- factures of linen, entered at value declared value Damask and tlamabk diaper - square \atds DriUiius. ticks, aud twilled linens — Sail-cloth — Cambrics and French lawns plain pieces ditto bord. handken fnefs — Sails • - - declared value Account exhibiting the Quantity of British and Irish Linen Chilli of all Sorts, separately exported from England, Scotland, and Ireland, during 1830; specifying the Quantities sent from each to the different Foreign Countries importing the same, with their Heal or Declared Values, and the Ilounty paid on Exportation. Countries to which exported. England. Scotland. Ireland.* United Kingdom. British Linen. Irish Linen. British Linen. Irish Li lieu. Iiish Liuen. Total Exports. British and Irish Linen. Total Declared Value of Exports. Europe. Rus-ia ... Sweden Norway ... Denrmtk - - - Gernuuy The Netherlands . France Portugal, Azores and Madeira Spain and the Canaries Gibraltar Italy .... Malta Ionian Islands Turkey Isles Guernsey, Jersey, AN deniev, and Man - Asia. Jlji ica. - America. British Northern colonies • British West Indies • Foreign West Indies United Stales- Brazil Mexico ... Colombia P.ru • Chili .... Stales of the Rio de la Plata . Total - Number rf yards of linen upon which bounty was paid in ihe year ending 5'h of Jan.lt3l- Amount of bounty piid thereon lard*. 5,6*6 14'' 11/21 2.184 70 254 71,2'8 102,793 772.4 2 4,710,059 1,212.133 277,904 t0,15. 14 62 40,550 234,9S3 Faro's. 160 78 618 2'0 102,645 217,762 57,229 15.919 14,014 (80 5,112 11.994 Faro's. 806 6,4' 8 8,123 3,378 234,702 37,977 102,' 49 3,360 2,715 Yards. 13,300 554 Yards. 402 30,697 1,5C0 3,322 Yards. 6,452 140 17,838 2.J44 78.455 75.214 10-2,9: 3 1,140,506 4,9-9098 1,371,' 6. 295,3 3 97,5. : 9 Id, 08 45,t62 2' 3,(2 1 L. s. d. 330 4 3 8 15 <-"! 15 1 139 3,92> 12 1 4,i 64 2 3 II,I3S 14 36,0(3 II It 143 444 9 10 43,181 6 5 2l,2ll 6 10 4,2,-9 19 '2 1.024 2 i 2,8j8 6 14,6'3 12 7,606,332 474,794 6.3,419 574.783 5,066,741 2,71>,:49 4,160.052 3,722,604 1,527.753 843,052 2; 3.24: 85,744 407,:.<6I 426,411 20,810 7,1 2d 95,365 815.9 >3 631,746 4,463 685 1,059,816 1,946; Mil 2.230 467,998 233,100 31 95,18 124,713 2.430 1,866,133 3,29 -,327 2,632,1-25 10,668,224 1,221,418 S 16,209 27-,559 13 851 239 43,215 180,SS0 £6,349 28.106 11,128 2,C3! 57,620 35,91 1 950 135,613 1,076,038 I,3l4,4r9 79,34 j 8,482.046 121,506 t63.7 II 8 134,8 4 2 3X525 5 10 31,865 7.970 4 6 3I,S93 1 28.129,651 10,248,997) 20,50-,356 393,<-.92 2,642,267 61,919,963 2,017,775 11 lOt 25,133,749 L. s. d. 69.S78 1 .'£ 7,849,987 20,392,010 L. «. rf. L. ». rf. 23,146 7 lljjl 53,603 IS 8 315.992 L. s. d. 952 14 3 1,921,870 L. s. d. 5,628 19 2 55,613,609 L. s. rf. 153,110 1 5j For the quantity and value of linens exported during 1S36, and 1837, see Table on the following page. Consumption of Foreign Linens. — It appears from the second of the foregoing accounts, that the consumption of foreign linens in this country is quite inconsiderable ; the real or declared value of those entered for home consumption, in 1830, could hardly amount to 20,000/. Repvlatiovs as to the Liven Mavvfacture— Any person, native or foreigner, may, without paying any thine, set up in any place, privileged or not, corporate or not, any branch of the linen manufacture ; and foreigners practising the same shall, on taking the oath of allegiance, &c, be entitled to all the privileges of natural born subjects.— (15 Clta. 2. c. 15.) Persons affixing stamps to foreign linens in imitation of the stamps affixed to those of Scotland or Ireland, shall forfeit 51. for each offence; and persons exposing to sale or packing up any foreign linens as the manufacture of Great Britain or Ireland, shall forfeit the same, and 51. for each piece of linen so exposed to sale or packed up.— (17 Geo. 2. c. 30.) Any person stealing to the value of 10/. any linen, woollen, silk, or cotton goods, whilst exposed during any stage of (he manufacture in any building, field, or other place, shall, upon conviction, be liable at the discretion of the court to be transported beyond seas for life, or fnr any term not less than 7 years, or to be imprisoned for any term not exceeding 4 years, and, if a male, to be once, twice, or thrice publicly or privately whipped, as the court shall think tit.— (7 &. 8 Geo. 4. c. 29. $ 14.) LIQUORICE (Ger. Sussholz ,- Fr. Reglisse, Racine douce,- It. Regolizia, Logorizia, Liquirizia,- Sp. Regaliz Orozuz), a perennial plant (Glycirrhiza glabra), a native of the south of Europe, but cultivated to some extent in England, particularly at Mitcham in Sur- rey. Its root, which is its only valuable part, is long, slender, fibrous, of a yellow colour, and when fresh very juicy. The liquorice grown in England is fit for use at the end of 3 years ; the roots, when taken up, are either immediately sold to the brewers' druggists, or to common druggists, by whom they are applied to different purposes, or they are packed ill sand, like carrots or potatoes, till wanted. * No British linen sent from Ireland. t The declared value of the linens exported in 1831 was 2,4G1,704J. 152 LIQUORICE JUICE, LISBON. Account of the Quantity and Value of Linen manufactured Goods and Linen Yarn exported from the United Kingdom in 1S36 and 1837; specifying the Countries to which they were exported, and the Quantity and Value sent to each. 1536. 1837. Linen Manufactures. Linen Manufactures. Thread, Thread, Countries to which exported. Entered by the Yard. Tapes, and Small Linen Yarn. Entered by the Yard. Tapes, Small Linen Yarn. Wares. Wares. Quantity. Declared Value. De- clared Value. Quantity. Declared Value. Quantity. Declared Value. lie clared Value. Quantity. Declared Value. Yards. L. L. Lbs. L. Yards /„ L. Lis. L. Russia 4,477 378 59 1,840 143 9.170 1,013 64 3,082 219 Swe-lcn . _ . 1.7-3 37 11 7.W 60 2.780 104 2,055 2o7 Norway 30,635 1,237 370 192 6 11,538 602 963 820 62 Denmark Prussia Gemiany - 12 615 798 8 1 13,4S9 773 5 191.728 17.40S 7,027 316,784 26.210 205.02? 16332 6,978 320.C39 25,010 H.iland 75,172 4,917 1.153 124.476 7,839 86,013 4,102 1,873 024.746 19,406 Belgium 126,475 11.403 238 5 -,082 3.520 85.927 8,200 479 583,505 26,274 France ... 1,994,153 118,666 722 4,012,141 276,942 3,363,3*8 142,Si2 1,7.-6 7,010,943 401,Uv7 Portugal. Azores. & Madeira 6-9,941 23,275 14 1,164,261 31.157 Spain and the Canaries 6,264,019 209,581 155 151 69 4,475,063 157,139 1,327 934 96 G.braltar ... 8*9,149 27,574 40 zoo 2.i 1,023,80 30. -'95 487 Italy .... 611,255 45.S14 761 55,433 3,612 4 12,0; 9 33.774 24 92,818 5,240 Ma^ta 30,165 1,567 203 61,659 2,722 145 Ionian I lands 22,636 1,307 133 - . 24,224 1,445 308 Turkev and Continental Greece 66,858 4,821 106,354 5,629 10 Mores and Greek Islands - 737 30 4,677 147 12 Ca e of G.iod Hope - 662.474 24,814 1,483 3*0,510 13,132 852 Other Paris of Africa 302.19? 14.616 270 376,412 14,943 1 East Indies and Chini 804,435 44,165 874 774,813 31,494 631 Ne.v South Wales, Van Die- niPn's Land, and Swan River 834,161 34,363 1,536 1,023,S39 43,098 626 British North American Co- lonies 2.897,031 107,504 13.264 2.367,428 fi«,017 8,459 5,095 338 British West Indies - 11,226,000 401,463 3.378 2,011 205 12,391.446 370.144 5,499 2,100 170 Foreign West Indies 3,911,021 140.' 95 5.324 4,531,470 125,653 9,315 United Slates of America 39.937,620 1,6 9,343 44,531 2,425 135 13.415.453 562,779 21 BIS 18,983 1,190 Mexico ... 691,534 17,153 34 . • 1,628,738 65,872 30 Guatemala - ( niumoia - 1,457.498 35,205 73 1,205386 26,31? 165 Brazil 5,646.997 193,997 1,924 . 4,655,711 121.142 1,557 States of the Rio de la Plata - 794,772 27.814 460 1.177,392 42.591 656 Clu'i- 826.S99 39.2 "7 30 1,337,167 48.751 330 Peru .... 719,715 32,306 . 1,462,552 53,629 445 Isles of Guernsey, .Jersey, Alderney, and Man Total - 230,595 17.073 215 56 10 313,076 15,566 153 2,240 28 82,088,760 3 23 -.031 84.294 4.5T4,504 3!S,772 54,426.333 2,C63,425 64,f20 8.373,100 479,307 LIQUORICE JUICE (Succus Liquoritix), popularly black sugar, the inspissated juice of ihe roots just mentioned. Very little of this extract is prepared in Britain, by far the larger part of our supply being imported from Spain and Sicily. The juice obtained by crushing the roots in a mill, and subjecting them to the press, is slowly boiled till it becomes of a proper consistency, when it is formed into rolls of a considerable thickness, which are usually covered with bay leaves. This is the state in which we import it. Most part of it is afterwards redissolved, purified, and cast into small cylindrical rolls of about the thickness of a goose quill, when it is called refined liquorice. It is then of a glossy black colour, brittle, having a sweet mucilaginous taste. It is used in the materia medica, particularly in coughs, colds, &c. — {Thomson's Chemistry ,■ Thomson's Dispensatory.') The imports in 1831 and 1832 amounted, at an average to 7,321 cwt. a year. It is loaded with the oppressive duty of 3/. 15s. a cwt., producing rather more than 22,000/. a year of revenue. LISBON, the capital of Portugal, situated on the north bank of the river Tagus, the observatory of the fort being in lat. 38° 42' 24" N., Ion. 9° W 50" W. Population about 200.000, but formerly greater. Trade, c-j-c. — Lisbon is one of the best situated commercial cities of Europe. But, not- withstanding this circumstance, the excellence of the port, and the command of the naviga- tion of the Tagus, her commerce is comparatively trifling. The despotism, intolerance, and imbecility of the government have weighed down all the energies of the nation. The law and the police being alike bad, there is no adequate security. Assassination is very frequent. Industry of all sorts is, in consequence, paralysed ; and since the emancipation of Brazil, commerce has rapidly declined. Formerly Lisbon had about 400 ships, of from 300 to 000 tons burden, employed in the trade with South America. But at present there are not above 50 ships belonging to the port engaged in foreign trade ; and, of these, the average burden does not exceed 150 tons ! The produce of Portugal sent to foreign countries, is almost entirely conveyed to its destination in foreign ships. The trade between Lisbon and Cork is, we believe, the only exception to this; it being principally carried on in Portuguese vessels, which take salt from St. Ubes, and bring back butter in return. About 200 small craft belong to the city, which are exclusively employed in the coasting trade. LISBON. 153 There are neither price currents, shipping lists, nor officii returns of any kind, published in Lisbon. The principal exports are lemons ami oranges— which, however, are very inferior to those of Spain ; wine, particularly Lisbon and Calcavella : wool, oil, tanned bides, woollen caps, vinegar, salt, cork, &c. Besuics colonial produce, the principal imports consist of cot- ton, woollen, and linen goods; hardware, earthenware, dried fish, butter, corn, cheese, tim- ber and deals, hemp, && The declared or real value of all articles exported from Great Britain to Portugal in 1831 amounted to 97f>,991/., of which cotton stuffs and yarn made nearly a half; but of these exports a large proportion went to Oporto. Port — The harbour or ruber road of Lisbon is one oftlie finest in the world, and Hie quays are at once convenient and beautiful. Fort St. Julian murks the northern entrance ol the rag.is. It is built on a steep projecting rock. There is a light-house in the cenire, 20 I eel above the level nrthe sea At the month of ih • Tagus are two large hanks, called the North and South tachnpa. There are two channels for entering the river; the north or little, and the south nr great channel, exhibited in the subjoined plan. On th» middle of Hie South Cachop, about li mile fr Fori St. Julian, is the Bugio fort and light-house, the I itter being 66 reel in height. The leasi depth ol water in the north channel on the bar is I fathoms, and in the soulh 6. The only danger in entering the port arts s trom the slreie.'lh of the tub- ; I he eh 1 , running down at Ih l rate of 7 miles an hour ; and after heavy rams, wh here is a great deal of fresh water in the river, the difficulty of entering is considerably aug- mented. When, at such periods, there is a strong wind from ihe sea, there is a complete bieak an over the bar; vessels moor tin and down the river with open hawse lo the southward. In some pans they may come within 2(10 yards of itie slime, being guided by the depth ol water, which, hum nearly 20 fathoms in mid-channel, shoals gradually to the edge. i I Nautic MPe*. -i 1 1 References to Plan.— A, Fort St. Julian and light-house. B, Bugio fort and lizht-hnilse. C, Barca- rena look-out house. D, Belem Castle. E, Point Cassilhas. F G, Bugio fort and Sugar Loaf Al ill in one, mark Hie north channel. Money.— Accounts are kept in rees, 1,000 of which = 1 milree. In the notation of accounts the milrees are separated from the rees by a crossed cvph r (©), and the milrees from Hie millions by a colon : thus, Rs. 2;700 © 500 = 2,700 milrees and 500 rees. The crusado of exchange, or old crnsado, = 400 rees ; the new crusado = 480 rees ; the testoon = 100 rees ; and the vinten or vintem = 20 rees. The gold piece of 6,400 rees = 35s. llrf. sterling; the gold crusado = 2s. 3d.; and the milree. valued in gold, = 07k/. sterling. It appears, however, from assays made at the London mint, in 1812, on modern silver crusados, that the average value of the milree in silver may be estimated at 60c/. or 5s. sterling. Weights and Measures.— The. commercial weights are, 8 ounces = 1 marc; 2 marcs = 1 pound or arratel ; 22 pounds = 1 arroba ; 4 arrobas = 1 quintal ; 100 lbs. or arratels of Portugal = 101 19 lbs. avoirdupois = 45 895 kiiog. = 94-761 lbs. of Hamburgh = 92918 lbs. of Amsterdam. The principal measure for corn, salt, &.C. is the mnyo, divided into 15 fanegas, 60 alqttiires, 210 quartos. 480 selemis, &c. The moyo = 2303 Wlnchestei bushels. The principal liquid measure is the altitude, divided into 2 potes, 12 canadas, or 48 qunrtellos ; 18 almudes = 1 h.iril ; 20 almudes = 1 pipe; 52 almudes = 1 tonelada. Thealmude = 437 English wine gallons ; and Ihe tonelada = 227j ditto. A pipe of Lisbon is estimated bv the Custom-house (British) at 140 gallons ; and this pipe is sup- posed to be 31 almudes. A pipe of port is 16s gallons, divided into 21 almudes of Oporto. Of measures of length, 2 pes = 3 pa lines = 1 covado, or cubit ; If covados = 1 vara ; 2 varas = I branca. The pe or foot = 12-944 English inches j 100 feet of Portugal = 107 -8 English feet ; the vara ~For freight a last is reckoned at 4 pipes of oil or wine, 4 chests of sugar, 4,000 lbs. of tobacco, 3,600 lbs. of shiimac. . , . , ., .. ,, But from one place in Portugal to another, a tonelada is reckoned at 52 almudes of liquids, or 54 almudes of drv goods. Coffee is sold per arroba ; cotton, indigo, and pepper per lb. ; oil, per almude ; wine, per pipe ; corn, per aliquicre ; salt, per ttiovo. Grain, seed, fish, wool, and timber, are sold on board. Wei«hls and long a.easures are the same throughout Portugal ; but there is a great discrepancy in lie measures of capacity. The almude and alquiJre, at the principal places, are in English measures as follows • 154 LISBON. Lisbon - Almtirlp. = 5-37 gall. Eng. wine meas. Faro — - Alqiii.'re= 3 07 — inch. meas. Figuiera Ofmrto - Aliunde = ('s — wine mens. — — - Alquiere=3f — Winch, meas. Vianna Faro - Aliunde =H — wine meas. — Alqttiere = 3J gall. Winch, meas. Aliunde = S j — wine meas. Winch, meas. Alqni're = Aliunde =bi Alqni're = 31 (Kttlifs Cambist — wine meas.. — Winch, meas. vol. i. art. Lisbon.) Bark of Lisbon. — This establishment was founded in 1822. lis capital consisted, in 1833, of about 691,1(10/. sterling divided into 6,911 shares of about 100/. each. The shareholders are not liable beyond the amount o ^heir shares. The bank discounts bills not having more than 3 months to run, at 5 per cent lis dividends, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1831, were about 6 per cent. It enjoys the singular but valuable privilege of having its claims on all estates p:< id off in full, provided the estnte am. mils to so much ; other creditors being obliged to content themselves with a division of the residue, "if there beany. Duties. — T.'.ese ait- moderate. British goods pay a duty of 15 auihorities at Belem, who deliver the signal the vessel is to hoist per cent, (hi a valuation tijed in 1782; tut this on gouJ deal ii.oie, and on oiheis le^s. '1 he importation of tobacco, snuff, and so p is p ohiui ed, ixr.pt for the use of the conlraclms lo whom ilie manufacture and sale f ihtse ankles is assigned. All ex- po te I ar.icn s pay a :u:y (ammUa -o) of A per cent, ad valorem. The aulies col ucied :it re liferent Ct.5loni. nouses in Lisbon,— for of t.use there are no f.ruer ll.au stvai, — amounted, in |S3l,to about A. rivals. 1829, \-M). 1(81. British Portuguese Foreign .SA>pt. 322 320 Tun<. \ships 34,203 i!sited by tie Cus oni houses archer. The on duvs have In he piid in different offices ; tut the vested is not subject lo any oil er charges. All gnoda sent on boird for exp Tta'ion must be accompanied by a permit from the Custom house. When the clearances are obtainel. the papers are presented by the master, or the ship's agent to the going to s There is no regular warehousing and bonding system at Li-^on. All imported dry goods are allowed to remain in the Cust'-m-house stores 2 years, and liquids 6 months, without being charged warehouse rent, provided hey are intenJed for consumption, an I pay iheduties accordingly. Hut if, alter tl at period, trey are taken out to be ex ported, tbey are charged 2 per Ct-nt. duty. Pi ti C/.argts— on a foreign ship of '300 tons entering the port of Lisbon, with a general or mixed cargo, and cbariug out with the Rets. Royal passport - 7,200 Petty exper ses on entering at the ) Custom house, about • Anchonge * Rallas* cleirance Tonnage. ICO rees per ton - • Lights, f.O rees per ton * Contr.bution to Hoard of Trade lettv charges • Bill of hearth - 00 500 4C0 30,000 15,000 l,E-00 720 240 R. 5b,2G0 = 1U. €s, Orf. sterl. Vessels cominz with a cargo ( or in ballast, and depariirg in ballast, pay ^C0 rtes per ton ligh's, or 4 times as much as it they sailed wjih cargoes. Vessels comii.g with a cargo, and sailing with the same cargo, pay no tonnage duty. Commission — I he ordinary rales of commission are, on the sale of goods, 2 \-i per cent. ; del credere, 2 1-2 per cent. ; on the value of goods landed from a vessel putting in to effect repairs, I per cent.; on ships' disbursements, 5 per cent Insurant a are effected to a trifling amount. There is I national company for effecting insurances ; but it enjoys little C:edit. Zla res are not regulated by any certain rule. Those allowed are generally those invoiced or ma-ked on the package. — (bee JJ/muairt du Commrrce Maritime, p 2 0. ; Kt'.ly's Cambist; Consul's An- swers to C rcular Queries, fyc.) (Tn return for the privilege conceded to the Portuguese under the Methuen treaty (see Treaties), of admitting their wines to entry for consumption in Great Britain, at 2-3ds the duty charged on French wines, British woollens were admitted into Portugal at a duty of 15 per cent. This rate of duty was afterwards extended to all British articles: and, since 1782, it has been charged according to a tariff or valuation fixed that year. But, with the exception of goods from Brazil, all other foreign goods consumed in Portugal paid a duty of 30 per cent. These distinctions are now, however, at an end ; the subjoined decree having fixed the duty on all goods admitted to consumption in Portugal, without regard to their origin, at 15 per cent. This regulation was a good deal complained of here, hut with- out reason. Having judiciously equalised the duties on French and Portuguese wines, we had no right or title to expect that the Portuguese should continue to render us the stipu- lated equivalent of what we had ourselves withdrawn. In so far, too, as we are concerned, the change is not really of any material importance, and will not sensibly affect our trade with Portugal. We subjoin the decree referred to : — I. All gor.ds and merchandise, of whatever nature and origin, and under wh. lever flag 'hey may be imported, are admitted into the Custom house of Lisbon and Oporto, to be despatched for consump Sect. I, Live pi?s gunpowder, and foreign olive and turnip oil, areexcep'ed finm the foregoing article. Sect. 2. The importation of grain will be rejulated by a special law; and in the mean time the existing dispositions thereunto re- lating, wi I continue in force. S. ct 3. Tobacco, sr.ap. and orchilla weed, continue subject to the laws and cm ditions of the s'ate contracts. Sect. 4- Wine, vinegar, brandy, and o'her spirits, of v\haterer quality they may be, are only admitted in bottles or jars of half a Canada, Lisbon measure, and in boxes containing 2 dozens of bot- tles each. Hum, however, is admit 'ed in casks of any s-ze. II, Goods admitted lo consumption by the present decree, if im- ported in Portuguese vessels from the country in which they are pro- duced, or in ships of that country comng direct, will pay 15 per cent, levied upon the tariff valuation, and where (here is no tariff, ad vat-rem. In the contrary ca*e will pay the duty hereby esta- blished increased by t 2 of the same duty. Sect. 4 Vir egar. wine, brandv, and all otter spirits, will pav 300 reis per bottle or jar. 'I he decree of Ihe7th of December. 1825. re- mains in full force as regards rum, wha'e-vei pact- it comes from. The goods comprehended in this paragraph remain subject to the clauses of the preceding article, as far as they areapplicab e. [ Palace of Neeessidades, ISth of April, li-34. Sup ) [The following decree of the Portuguese government is important to American ship- owners. Lisbon, the llfA of April, 1839. Article 1. All foreign ships entering the ports of 1 his kingdom in ballast, and loading a full cargo of salt, shall be free from the tonnage duty. Sec— Foreign ships entering any of the pons of I his king- dom in ballast, and sailing out again to take a full cargo of salt at another of our ports, are equally free from I he tonnage duty. Ann le 1. All foreign vessels entering the ports of this kingdom under Frangui, in order to complete their cargoes with salt, shall pay the duty of 100 reis per ton. Article 3. All foreign vessels entering the ports of i his kingdom to discharge cargoes of merchandise, and here, load a full cargo of salt, shall pay the duty of 100 reis per ton. Article 4. All foreign vessels which (having paid the duty in one of the ports of this kingdom) sailed in hall ist Tn another port of the kingdom, in order there to take full cargo of salt, are e tit it led to receive back the duty paid in the, first port, with the deduction merely of 100 reis per ton, on presenting to the competent authority of a legal certificate of said payment. — Am. Ed.] LITERARY PROPERTY— LOGWOOD. 155 LITERARY PROPERTY. See Books. LITHARGE (Ger. Gldtte, Gliltte; Du. Gelit; Fr. Litharge; It. IMargirio ; Sp. AU martoga, Li/a/jirio ,■ Rus. Gtets I.at. Lithargyrium), an oxide of lead in an imperfect 6tate of vitrification. Most of the lead met with in commerce contains silver, from a few grains to 20 ounces or more in the fodder : when the quantity is sufficient to pay the expense of separation, it is refined; that is, the metal is exposed to a high heat, passing at the same time a current of air over the surface: the lead is thus oxidised and converted into litharge, while the silver, remaining unchanged, is collected at the end of the process.-^-( Thomson's Chemistry, <$fc.) Litharge is used for various purposes in the arts, by potters, glass makers, painters, &c. [LIVERPOOL. See Supplement.— Am. Ed.] LOADSTONE (Ger. Magnet ; Du. Magneet ,■ Fr. Airnant ; It. Calamita ; Sp. Iman ; Rus. Mag* it ,■ Lat. Magnet). M. Haiiy observes, that the ores in which the iron contains the least oxygen without being engaged in other combinations, form natural magnets; and he calls the loadstones of commerce, which aie found in considerable masses in Germany, Sweden, Norway, Spain, Italy, China, Siain, the Philippine Isles, Corsica, and Ethiopia, oxidulaled iron. The loadstone is characterised by the following properties: — A very strong action on the magnetic needle. Specific gravity 4-2457. Not ductile. Of a dark grey colour, with a metallic lustre. — Primitive form, the regular octahedron. Insoluble in nitric acid. This singular substance was known to the ancients ; and they had remarked its peculiar propeity of attracting iron ; but it does not appear that they were acquainted with the wonderful property which it also has, of turning to the pole when suspended, and left at liberty to move fnely. Upon this remarkable circumstance the mariner's compass depends, — an instrument which gives us such infinite advantages over the ancients. It is this which enables the mariner to conduct his vessel through vast oceans out of the sight of land, in any given direction ; and this directive property also guides the miner in subterranean excava- tions, and the traveller through deserts otherwise impassable. The natural loadstone hass also the quality of communicating its properties to iron and steel; and when pieces of steel properly prepared are touched, as it is called, by the loadstone, they are denominated artificial magnets. — (See Compass.) LOBSTER (Fr. Ecrevixse : Lat. Cancer), a fish of the crab species, of which vast quan- tities are consumed in London. The minimum size of lnlisters offered for sale is fixed by 10 & 11 Will. 3. c. 24, at eizkt inches from the ii|i nl' the nose to the end cif the middle fin of the tail. No lobsters are to be taken on the coasts of Scotland between (he 1st of June and the 1st of September, under a penalty of bl The Scilly Is- lands and the Land's End abound in lobsters, as well as several places on the Scotch shores, particu- larly about .Montrose. I!ut the principal lobster fishery is on the coast of Norway; whence it is believed upwards of 1,200,000 lobsters are annually imported into London. Those of Heligoland are, however, esteemed the best; they are of a deeper black colour, and their flesh is firmer than those brought from Norway. Foreign caught turbols and lobsters may be imported either in British or foreign vessels free of duty. LOCK, LOCKS (Ger. Schfoser ,■ Du. Sloten ; Fr. Serrures ,■ It. Serrature ; Sp. Cer- raduras, Cerrajos ; Rus. Sam ki), a well known instrument, of which there are infinite varieties. A great deal of art and delicacy is sometimes displayed in contriving and varying the wards, springs, bolts, &c., and adjusting them to the places where they are to be used, and to the occasions of using them. From the various structure of locks, accommodated to their different intentions, they acquire various names, as stock locks, spring locks, padlocks, &c. Wolverhampton was, at a very early period, famous for the superior skill and inge- nuity of its locksmiths; but the best locks are now made in London and Biimingham. The grand difficulty to be overcome in making a lock is to construct it so that it may not be opened by any key except its own, nor admit of being picked; it should also be possessed of sulficient strength and durability, and not be too complex. Many ingenious contrivances have been proposed for the attainment of the desired security, — several of which are pos- sessed of considerable merit. We believe, however, that there is none that combines all the principal requisites of a lock in so eminent a degree as " Chubb's Detector Lock," so called from the inventor, Mr. Chubb, of Portsea. Common door-locks are now usually inserted in the wood, instead of being, as formerly, screwed to it ; and when so placed are called mortise locks. LOGWOOD (Fr. Bois de Campeche ,• Ger. Kampescholz ,- Du. Campecheont ,• Sp. Palo de Camptche), the wood of a tree (Hxnialoxylon Campechianarn Lin.), a native of America, and which attains the greatest perfection at Campeachy, ami in the West Indies. It thrives best in a wet soil, with a larcje proportion of clay. The logwood iree is like the whitethorn, but a great deal larger. The wood is hard, compact, heavy, and of a deep red colour internally, which it gives out both to water and alcohol. It is an article of great com- mercial importance, being extensively used as a dye wood. It is imported in logs, that are afterwards chipped. — (The logwood tree, and the adventures of those that were formerly engaged in cutting it, are described by Dampier; see his Voyages, vol.ii. part 2. p. 56. ed. 1729.) The entries for home consumption, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1632, amounted to 10,973 tons a year. The duty of Is. 6d. a ton on foreign logwood, and of 3s. on that from a Mulish. 156 LONDON— MACAO. plantation, produced, during the same 3 years, an annual revenue of 2.210;. Of 14, 853 tons of logwood imported in 1831, 8,666 were from the British West Indies, 4,8*5 from Mexico, and the remainder prin- cipally from Hay ti and Cuba. Its price in the London market in December, 1833, was ;— Jamaica, bl. lis. per ton ; Honduras, 5/. 10s. to 51. 15s. ; St. Domingo, 6/. to 6/ 6s. ; Campeachy, ~l. 15s. to SI. 8*. We borrow from the learned and able work of Dr. Bancroft, the following curious details with respect to the use of logwood in this country : — " Logwood seems to have been first brought to England soon after the accession of Queen Elizabeth : but the various and beau- tiful colours dyed from it proved so fugacious, that a general outcry against its use was soon raised ; and an act of parliament was passed in the 23d year of her reign, which prohibited its use as a dye under severe penalties, and not only authorised but directed the burning of it, in whatever hands it might be found within the realm ; and though this wood was after- wards sometimes clandestinely used (under the feigned name of black wood), it continued subject to this prohibition for nearly 100 years, or until the passing of the act 13 & 14 Chas. 2.; the preamble of which declares, that the ingenious industry of modern times hath taught the dyers of England the art of fixing colours made of logwood, alias blackwood, so as that, by experience, they are found as lasting as the colours made with any other sort of dyeing wood whatever ,• and on this ground it repeals so much of the statute of Elizabeth as related to logwood, and gives permission to import and use it for dyeing. Probably the solicitude of the dyers to obtain this permission, induced them to pretend that their industry had done much more than it really had, in fixing the colours of logwood ; most of which, even at this lime, are notoriously deficient in regard to their durability." — {On Permanent Colours vol. ii. p. 340.) [LONDON. See Supplement.— Am. Ed.] LOUIS D'OR, a French gold coin, first struck in 1640. It was subsequently made by the French mint regulations equal to 24 livres, or 1/. sterling. This, however, was under- rating it in respect of silver; and hence, as every one preferred paying his debts in the over- valued coin, silver became the principal currency of France, the gold coins being either sent to the melting-pot or exported. In Britain, the process was reversed. Gold having been, for a lengthened period, over-valued by our mint in respect to silver, it became the principal currency of the country. — (See vol. i. p. 384.) M. MACAO, a sea-port and settlement belonging to the Portuguese, on the island of the same name, at the mouth of the Canton river in China, in lat. 22° 12' 45" N., Ion. 113° 35' E. The situation of Macao strikingly resembles that of Cadiz. It is built near the extremity of a peninsula projecting from the south-west corner of the island of Macao, to which it is joined by a long narrow neck. Across this isthmus, which is not more than 100 yards wide, a wall is erected, with a gate and guard-house in the middle for the Chinese soldiers. The greatest length of the peninsula belonging to the Portuguese, from N. E. to S. W., is under 3 miles, and its breadth under j mile. The broadest part, to the north of the town, is flat, and of a light sandy soil ; but is well cultivated, principally by Chinese, and produces all sorts of Asiatic and European culinary vegetables. Provisions are obtained from the Chinese part of the island or from the main land ; and whenever the Portuguese do any thing to offend the Chinese authorities, the provisions are cut off till they are obliged quietly to submit. They are seldom allowed to pass beyond the narrow precincts of the territory as- signed to them. The population of the peninsula may amount to from 12.000 to 13,000, of whom considerably more than half are Chinese. The functionaries belonging to the East India Company's factory at Canton resided here during the whole of the dead season. The Portuguese obtained possession of Macao in 1586. It was for a considerable period the seat of a great trade, carried on not only with China, but with Japan, Siam, Cochin- China, the Philippine Islands, &.c. ; but for these many years past it has been of compara- tively little importance, though it is probable, that if it belonged to a more enterprising and active people, it might still recover most of its former prosperity. The public administration is vested in a senate composed of the bishop, the judge, and a few of the principal inhabitants ; but all real authority is in the hands of the Chinese mandarin resident in the town. The Hnrbovr is on the west side of the town, between it and Priest's Island ; but the water in it not being sufficiently deep to admit large ships, they generally anchor in the roads on the other side of the peninsula, from 5 to 10 miles E.S.E. from the town. All vessels coining into the roads send their boats to the Portuguese Customhouse on the south side of the town. When a ship arrives among the islands, she is generally hoarded by a pilot, who carries her into Macao roads. As soon as she is anchored, the pilot proceeds to Macao to inform the mandarin of the nation she belongs to. If there be any women on board, application must be made In (he bishop and senate, for leave to send Ihem on shore, as they will not be permitted to proceed to Wham pod in t tic ship. As soon as the mandarin has made the necessary inquiries, he orders off a river pilot, who brings with him a chup or licence to pass the Bocca Tigris, or mouth of the Canton river, and carries the ship to Wtiampoa. Trmle nf Miir.un. — The Chinese regulations do not permit any vessels, except surti as belong to Por- tuguese or Spaniards, of which there are very few, to trade at Macao. But tile Portuguese inhabi- MACE. 157 tants lend their names, for a triflins consideration, to such foreigners as wish to he associated with them for the purpose of trading from the port. Independently, however, of this, vessels ofothei nations usually experience no difficulty In obtaining the connivance of the Chinese officers to the landing or receiving of goods In the roads, l>y means of Portuguese boats. At intervals, indeed, the prohibitory regulation is strictly enforced ; but we believe that there has been no instance of this for the last .( years. ... , , j .. _, ■ . Is of other nations, If in distress, and not engaged in the contraband trade, are admitted into the harbour for repairs, on application to the senate. Part Charges.— The nieisurement duty pnil by Spanish and IW- t. i, ia moderate. When • vera I bu once paid the foil :■!.-! i.u the li>t of regutered shipa bi longing lo the port (limited bj the ( liiiuse to 25), she is liable .inly to a third ot the original charms, on every subsequent occasion of her entering, so long as she continues on the register. Portuguese vessels from Europe do not possess this privilege, unless they be registered as be- i i moradoi of Macao. •| >,, rales ol nieasuremenl d -itv, which vary, as at Canton, (which see.) on three classes of vessels, are the following:— Tails. 1st. On vessels of 154 covi.ls and upwards, 6-223 per covid. 2d. — from 120 to 1 VI covi.ls 5-72 — 3d. — from 90 to 120 covids 4- — These rates are nearly the sime as those levied on Canton junks, trading with foreign countries, and ought, in fact, to he entirely so. The dimensions are taken and calculated in the same manner as at ml i. p. 297.) ; but the Chinese, at both places, speak v id, but of the Chang of 10 covids. However, as this is only 2 decimal increase, it makes no difference in the method of cal- culation. The folllowing additional charges, to be calculated on the amount ment duty, are the same on every class of vessels, viz. 2 per cent, for inspectors. 8 — for ditlerence in weight by the treasury scales. 10 — for loss in melting. 17 — for making sveee. Also the sum of 70 laels forth- "public purse,'' or hoppo's treasury. on to these, the following are the charges levied by the boppo (collector of customs), or his deputy : — On a 1st class vessel from Europe, 250 taels ; if belonging to Ma- cao or Manilla, 50 taels. On a 2d class vessel from Europe, 240 taels; if belonging to Ma- cao or Manilla, 40 taels. On a 3d class vessel from Europe, 170 taels; if belonging to Ma- cao or Manilla, 30 laels. Ships importing rice are exempt from the measurement duty, and pay only 50 dollars, as fees to the procurador of Macao and the officers of "his department. Portuguese vessels from Europe, in addition to the measurement duty, have to pay to the Canton hong merchants a charge, termed by the Portuguese. Hanistagem, or Consoo charge, which is usually a matter of specific bargain, varying from about 200 dollars on a vessel of 200 tons, to 3,500 dollars and upwards on those of 500 tons and of larger sizes. Thechargea on goods carried by the inner passage, between Canton airt Macao, being generally lessihan those paid on goods to and from IVbampoa; and the duties levied by the Portuguese, on articles of merchandise imported by vessels belonging to Macao, being very the Chinese are often led to engage in speculations on boar 1 tin Macao vessels, the risk being so much less than in native junks. If the ship owners could manage their expenses so as to be satisfied With only the same freight as ischarged by English vessels, it would probably induce many more Chinese to make remittances in this way. Opium: — The trade in opium is prohibited at Macao by the Chi- nese government, as well as throughout the rest of ihe empire. It was, nevertheless, formerly carried on to a great extent by the Por- tuguese moradores, or citizens, to the exclusion of all others, even Portugue-e who were not citizens. But this testriction having occa- sion-it the decline of the trade, it was abolished in 1923, when the senate passed a regulation throwing open the trade to all, without dis- tinction, whether Portuguese or foreigners; securing to the latter ** hospitality, and Ihe utmost freedom in their speculations." At pre- sent, however, very little opium is imported, in consequence, it is said, of the heavy bribes demanded by the Chinese officers to insure their connivance. The hade, as already observed (vol. i. p, 2'I9.), is now principally carried on at Lintin, al m Macao. Imports.— Goods imported pay at the Portuguese Custom-house a duty of 6 per cent, en a fixed valuation, besides some fees and coolie hire. The following are a few articles extracted from the taritt": — Cotton Broad cloth, middling better than ordinary ordinary or coarse Camlets Betel nut Valuation Duty. Tads. TruUs. per picul 4 0.240 covid I 600 0-09S — o-soo 0-043 — 480 0028 — 1-280 0-016 picul 1-200 072 — 8 0-480 catty 22 400 1-341 picul 1-200 072 — 4 2-240 — 1-600 00t)6 — 4 0240 Birds' nests, lstsort Rattans Saltpetre, Bengal coast of Goa Pepper Opium imported in Portuguese ships, pays per chest, drs. 10 1-4 Do. foreign do. — 15 1-2 Gold and silver, whether in coin, in bullion, or manufactured, pay on importation, 2 per cent. ; except ia Spanish vessels from Manilla, when the charge is 1 1-2 per cent. Exports .—No duly is levied by the Portuguese on goods exported from Macao: nor does the Customhouse take any cognizance of thum. Duties and Charges on Goods landed at Macao. —Macao is a place without any manufacture or commerce of its own. Prices are, in consequence, generally dependent on those of Canton. Money is usually paid at 72 taels per I0J dollars. It is a point of some interest to ascertain the internal duties and expenses to which goods landed at Macao are liable, before coining into the Chinese purchaser's hands at Canton. But (be subject is so involved in mystery and uncertainly, the charges varying according to the quantity of goods laden in one boat, &C, that' i' is scarcely possible to arrive at any accurate information respecting it. We be- lieve, however, that the following may be considered as a pretty close approximation to the real amount of charges incurred on cotton landed at Macao : — Portuguese duty, fees, &c. • * • mace, 2—6 per picul Duti&s and charges on conveyance to Canton 6—3 — Canton charges, difference of weight, broker- age on sale, &c. • - • 8— — Total, about taels, 2—6—9 — The duties and charges on conveyance from Macao to Canton are, for pepper, per picul - mace, 9—0 Rattans — .... 4—5 Betel nut — .... 4—5 The hoppo's examiner charges 90 taels per boat of 1,000 piculs, the largest quantity allowed to be conveyed by a single boat ; but the same charge of 90 taels is levied, although the boat should only con- tain 100 piculs. The duty on exporting goods from Canton to Macao is in some cases less, in other cases greater, than the Whampoa duty. Thus, nankeens to Macao pay 2 dollars per 100 less than to VVhampoa. Most descriptions of silk piece goods also pay. less duty. Oa the other hand, tea. pnper, China ware, &c, pay a higher duty to Macao than to Whampoa. For details as to the Weights, Measures, fyc. used at Macao, see Canton. For further particulars, see Hamilton's Fait India Gazetteer, art. Macao; Mil burn's Orient. Com.; and the Anglo-Chinese Kalendar and Companion to the Almanac, Macao, 1832. MACE (Ger. Maris, Muskatenbluthe ; Du. Foelie, Foely, Muscaatbloom ; Fr. Maris, Fleur de muscade ; It. Mace ,• Sp. Mario ; Port. Maxris, Flor de noz moscada ; Lat. Maris), a thin, flat, membranous substance, enveloping the nutmeg; of a lively, reddish yel- low colour, a pleasant aromatic smell, and a warm, bitterish, pungent taste. Mace should bo chosen fresh, tough, oleaginous, of an extremely fragrant smell, and a bright colour — the brighter the better. The smaller pieces are esteemed the best. The preferable mode of pack- ing is in bales, pressed down close and firm, which preserves its fragrance and consistence. Account of the Quantity of Mace retained for Home Consumption, the Rates of Duty on it, and the total Revenue derived therefrom, since 1810. Quantities Quantities retained for Nett Amount retained for Nett Amount Years. Home Con- sumption in of Duty received Rates of Duty charged thereon. Years. Home Con- sumption in , of Dutv received Rates of Duty charged thereon. the United thereon. the United thereon. Kingdom. Kingdom. Lbs. L. s. d. Of the East Indies. Lb!. L. t. d. Of the East Indies. 1810 5,136 2,707 4 J 7j. id. per lb. and 21. 13s. id. 1 per ceutum ad valorem. IS20 1S2I 12,193 11,5721-4 2,174 7 1,805 6 5 (From 5 July) 3s. 6d. per lb. ditto. 1811 7,949 4,057 1 10 ditto- 1822 13,498 2.361 10 ditto. 1812 11,907 5,433 2 2 ditto. 11-23 14,3183-4 2,484 10 4 ditto. C (From 15 April) 1824 16,878 3-4 2,967 3 1 ditto. 1813 Records destroyed } 9s.ll-4d.perlb.and31.3i.4d 1825 14,6513-4 2,601 15 1 ditto. 1 per centum ad valorem. IS 26 15.6001-4 2,719 17 6 ditto. 1814 5,490 3.2S9 14 11 (From 10 April) 9j. 2d. per lb. 1-27 16,760 1-2 2,962 IS 9 dilto. 1815 7.834 3,592 14 7| ditto. 1823 16,094 l-2i 2,829 10 4 ditto. 1816 6.499 2,9,(4 4 5 ditto. 1829 14,2541-4 2,548 15 4 ditto. 1817 8,6 12 3,960 15 9 ditto. 1830 12,600 2,205 dilto. 1818 10,836 4,966 10 3 ditto. 1831 18,894 3,206 ditto. 1819 1 5,352 i 3,526 14 5 (From 5 July) 3>. 6d. per lb. 1832 15.93S 1 2,762 dilto. Vol. II.— O 158 MADDER. A production is met with on the coast of Malabar, so like mace, that at first it is not easy to be dis- tinguished ; but it has not the least flavour of spiciness, and when chewed has a kind of resiny taste. Eight cwt. of mace are allowed to a ton. — (Milburn's Orient. Com.) MADDER (Ger. Farberbthe; Du. Met ; Ft. Alizari, Garance ; It. Robbia ; Sp. Granza, Rubia; Rus. Mariona, Krap ; Hind. Munjith), the roots of a plant (Rubia tinctorum), of which there are several varieties. They are long and slender, varying from the thickness of a goose-quill to that of the little finger. They are semi-transparent, of a reddish colour, have a strong smell, and a smooth bark. Madder is very extensively used in dyeing red ; and though the colour which it imparts be less bright and beautiful than that of cochineal, it has the advantage of being cheaper and more durable. It is a native of the south of Europe, Asia Minor, and India; but has been long since introduced into and successfully cultivated in Holland, Alsace, Provence, &c. Its cultivation has been attempted in Eng- land, but without any beneficial result. Our supplies of madder were, for a lengthened period, almost entirely derived from Holland (Zealand) ; but large quantities are now im- ported from France and Turkey. Dutch or Zealand madder is never exported except in a prepared or manufactured state. It is divided by commercial men into four qualities, distinguished by the terms mull, gamene, ombro, and crops. The roots being dried in stoves, the first species, or mull, con- sists of a powder formed by pounding the very small roots, and the husk or bark of the larger ones. It is comparatively low priced, and is employed for dyeing cheap dark colours. A second pounding separates about a third part of the larger roots ; and this being sifted and packed separately, is sold here under the name of gamene, or gemeens. The third and last pounding comprehends the interior, pure, and bright part of the roots, and is sold in Hol- land under the name of kor kraps, but is here simply denominated crops. Sometimes, however, after the mull has been separated, the entire residue is ground, sifted, and packed together under the name of onberoofde, or ombro. It consists of about one third of gamene, and two thirds of crops. Prepared madder should be kept dry. It attracts the moisture of the atmosphere, and is injured by it. The Smyrna or Levant madder (Rubia pei'egrina), the alizari or lizary of the modern Greeks, is cultivated in Bceotia, along the border of lake Copais, and in the plain of Thebes, It also grows in large quantities at Kurdar near Smyrna, and in Cyprus. The madder of Provence has been raised from seeds carried from the latter in 1761. Turkey madder affords, when properly prepared, a brighter colour than that of Zealand. It is, however, imported in its natural state, or as roots: the natives, by whom it is chiefly produced, not having industry or skill sufficient to prepare it like the Zealanders, by pounding and separat- ing the skins and inferior roots ; so that the finer colouring matter of the larger roots being degraded by the presence of that derived from the former, a peculiar process is required to evolve that beautiful Turkey red which is so highly and deservedly esteemed. — (Thomson's Chemistry ; Bancroft on Colours, vol. ii» pp. 221 — 278.: see also Beckmann, Hist, of In* vent. vol. iii. art. Madder.) In France, madder is prepared nearly in the same manner as in Zealand. The following instructive details as to its cultivation, price, &c. in Provence, were obligingly furnished to us by an English gentleman intimately acquainted with such subjects, who visited Avignon in the autumn of 1829 : — "This town (Avignon) is the centre of the madder country, the Cultivation of which was introduced here about the middle of the 18th century, and, with the exception of Alsace, is still confined (in France) to this department (Vaucluse). The soil appears to be better adapted for its cultivation here than any where else, and it has long been the source of great wealth to the cultivators. Of late years, however, the prices have fluctuated so much, that many proprietors have abandoned, or only occasionally cultivated this root, so that the crop, which was formerly estimated to average 500,000 quintals, is now suppose! not to exceed from 300,000 to 400,000. "The root is called alizari, and the powder (made from H) ga- rance. The plant is raised from seed, aud requires 3 years to come to maturity. It is, however, often pulled in 18 months, without in- jury to the quality ; the quantity only is smaller. A rich soil is ne- cessary for its successful cultivation; and when the soil is impreg- nated with alkaline matter, the root acquires a red colour— in other cases it is yellow. The latter is preferred in England, from the long habit of using Dutch madder, which is of this colour ; but in France the red sells at 2 fr. per quintal higher, being used for the Turkey red dye. " It is calculated that when wheat sells at 20 fr. per hectolitre, ali- zari should bring 35 fr. per quintal (poids de table), to give the same remuneration to the cultivator. That is, wheat 63*. per Eng. quar- ter, and alizari 3U. per Eng. cwt. The price has, however, been frequently as low as 22 fr. per quintal. "Prices undergo a revolution every 7 or 8 years, touching the mi- nimum nf 22, and rising as high as 100 fr. As in every similar case, the high price induces extensive cultivation, and this generally pro- duces its full effect 4 or 5 years after. The produce of Alsace, which is inferior both in quantity and quality to that of Vaucluse, is gene- rally sold in Strasburgh market " England employs both the root and the powder, according to the purpose for which they are intended. The Dutch madder is more employed by the woollen dyers, and the French by the cotton dyers and printers. "In making purchases of garance it is essential to employ a house Of confidence, because the quality depends entirely upon the care and honesty of the agent. The finest is produced from the roots after oeing cleaned and stripped of their bark. The second by grinding the roots without cleaning. A third by mixing the bark of the^ri* while grinding; and so on to any degTee of adulteratiou. "The price of alizari in the'eountry, which was only 25 fr. in July, is now, (November, 1829) a! 36 fr., ;tnd is expected to be at 40 fr. very shortly. The crop being deficient both here and in Holland, and the certainty of its being also deficient next year, added to the small quantity existing in England, give reason to believe that the price will reach 60 fr. before mauy mouths, and will continue to ad- vance for a year or two more. " The quintals above mentioned are of 100 lbs. poids de table— the weight in general use over the south of France, and even in Mar- stdlcs.— This weight is different in the different provinces, varying from 22 to 25 per cent, lighter than the poids metriqite. At Avignon, 124 lbs. p. de table = 50 kilog., consequently 126 lbs. are equal to 1 cwt. Eng. At the exchange of 25-50, the cwt. costs (including II*. for freight, dutv, and all charges till delivered iu London or Liver- pool) 6lf. or 60*. u It is considered that only one sixth or one seventh of the present crop remains for sale. " M adder does not deteriorate by keeping, provided it be kept dry, " Cornpte simule.— Fr, Cost of 1 quintal of roots in the country - • - 35 Expenses in do. - - - - - - 2 37 The root gives B5 per cent, powder, consequently 1 quintal powder .....-- 43-50 Grinding and cask * - - - - - 3 Transport 2-50 F. 49-0 The English cwt. costs therefore All expenses till on board at Marseilles Besides commission ■ Fr For an account of East India madder or munjeet, see MunjuL MADEIRA, MADRAS. 159 Account of the Quantity of Madder and Madder Roots respectively entered for Ilomc Consumption each Year since 1820; with the Rates of Duty, and the Produce of the Duty on each.— (From Papers published by Board vf Trade.) Years. MadJer. Madder Roots. Quantity Rate of Duty. Quantity Rate of Duty, all Sorts. entered for Mull Nett Revenue. entered for Nett Revenue. Consumption. manufactured. Consumption. CwU Per cwt. L. Cwt. Per cwt. L. 1820 6(1,375 Is. to 15s. 3i,909 19,737 6s. 4,909 1821 48,466 27,328 44,309 10,960 1822 84,232 All sorts. 46,479 48,584 12,119 1823 76.4S6 12s. 33,577 40,500 - 10,102 1-24 60,064 35,954 69,285 17,205 1825 73, '55 6s. 29,750 36,830 Is. Cd. 5,620 1826 49,4V7 14,088 40,376 3,000 1S27 86.739 26,137 49,777 3,680 1823 9i,652 28,979 67,243 * 5,049 1829 69,658 21,223 39,805 - 2,982 1830 49,205 14,903 35,686 - 2,710 1X31 48,756 14,615 53,862 - 4,044 1832 60,346 18,143 51,767 3,8S2 Of the imports of prepared madder in 1831, amounting to 43.935 CWt, 22,637 were brought from France, an 1 18,726 from Holland. :. r rnnt imported the same year, amounting to 52,449 cwt., 23.627 were from France, 23.833 from Turkey, 2,570 from the 9 (munjeet), and 2.377 from Italy. The duly on madder is now reduced to 2s. a cwt., and on roots to 6rf. a cwt. : and their price, duty included, in the London market, in December, 1833, was as follows: — Madder, Dutch mull - gamene L. s. d. L. s. d. - 16 to 1 5 per cwt. - 1 10 0—2 5 — L. s. d. L. s. d. - 2 18 0to3 8 per cwt. • 3 10 — 3 IS — 0s. 0s. SFF — -280 — 2 16 — - 2 15 — 2 16 — East India, o'r munjeet - I 14 0—1 16 bond. Madder, the produce of Europe, is not to be imported for home consumption except in British ships, or in ships of the country of which it is the produce, or from which it is imported, under forfeit- ure of the same, and 100*. by the master of the vessel.— (3 &. 4 IVxU. 4. c 52. sect. 58.) Madder, Dutch ombro crop - French SPFF Spanish roots, Turkey MADEIRA. See Wijje. MADRAS, the principal emporium on the coast of Coromandel, or western shore of the Bay of Bengal, in lat. 13° 5' N., Ion. 80° 21' E. It is the seat of government of the second presidency of the British possessions in India, having under it a territory of 154,000 square miles, with a population, according to a recent census, of 15,000,000, paying a gross annual revenue of above 5,000,000/. sterling. The town is situated in the Carnatic pro- vince — a low, sandy, and rather sterile country. It is without port or harbour, lying close upon the margin of an open roadstead, the shores of which are constantly beat by a heavy surf. Besides these disadvantages, a rapid current runs along the coast ; and it is within the sphere of the hurricanes or typhoons, by which it is occasionally visited. In every re- spect, indeed, it is a very inconvenient place for trade, and its commerce is consequently greatly inferior to that of either Calcutta or Bombay. It has been in possession of the English 192 years, being founded by them in 1639. In 1823, the number of houses was ascertained to be 26,786 ; which allowing 6 inhabitants to each, makes the total population about 160,000. Fort Saint George is a strong and handsome fortification, lying close to the 6hore. The Black Town of Madras, as it is called, stands to the north and eastward of the fort, from which it is separated by a spacious esplanade. Here reside the native, Armenian, and Portuguese merchants, with many Europeans unconnected with the government. Like most other Indian towns, it is irregular and confused, being a mixture of brick and bamboo houses. Madras, like Calcutta and Bombay, is subject to English law; having a Supreme Court of Judicature, the judges of which are named by the Crown, and are altogether inde- pendent of the local government, and the East India Company. In Madras roads, large ships moor in from 7 to 9 fathoms, with the flagstaff of the fort bearing W.N.W., 2 miles from shore. From October to January is generally considered the most unsafe sea- eon of the year, in consequence of the prevalence, during that interval, of storms and typhoons. On the 15th of October the flagstaff is struck, and not erected again until the 15th of December ; during which period, a ship coming into the roads, or, indeed, any where within soundings on the coast of Coromandel (reckoned from Point Palmyras to Ceylon), vitiates her insurance, according to the con- ditions of the policies of all the insurance offices in India. In the fort there is a light-house, 90 feet above the level of the sea, and which may be seen from the deck of a large ship, at 17 miles' distance, or from the mast-head at a distance of 2b' miles. The cargo boats used for crossing the surf, called Massula boats, are large and light ; made of very thin planks sewed together, with straw in the seams, instead of caulking, which it is supposed might render them too stiff. When within the influence of the surf, the coxswain stands tip, and beats time in great agitation with his voice and feet, while the rowers work their oars backwards, until overtaken by a strong surf curling up, which sweeps the boat along with friehtful violence. Every oar is then plied forward with the utmost vigour to prevent the wave from taking the boat back as it recedes; until at length, by a few successive surfs, the boat is thrown high and dry upon the beach. The boats belonging to ships in the roads sometimes proceed to the back of the surf, and wait for the country boats from the beach to come to them. When it is dangerous to have communication with the shore, a flag is displayed at the beach-house, which stands near the landing-place, as a caution. The fishermen and lower classes employed on the water, use a species of floating machine of a very simple construction, named a catamaran. It is formed of 2 or 3 logs of light wood, 8 or 10 feet in length, lashed together, with a small piece of wood inserted between them to serve as a stem- piece. When ready for the water, they hold generally 2 men, who with their paddles impel themselves through the surf, to carry waters, or refreshments in small quantities, to ships, when no boat can venture out. They wear a pointed cap made of matting, where they secure the letters, which take no damage. The men are often washed off the catamaran, which they regain by swimming, unless interrupted by a shark. Medals are given to such catamaran men as distinguish themselves by saving persons in danger. 160 MADRAS. The following are the established rates Light-house Dues. All British and foreign ships ■ * ■ Country ships ..... Snow, bri?, ketch, and schooner - Sloop and cutler ..... Large dhouies ..... Small dhonies ..... Anchorage Dues. Bri'ish ships, and ships under -foreign, Euro- pean or American colours Country ships, from 900 to 500 tons — 500 — 300 — — 300 — 200 — — 200- of port charges at "Madras : — Catamaran Bit*. Small catamarans, to all ships on anchoring • * — snow, brig, and ketch, do. - — sloop and cutter, do. - . — dhouies and large boats, do. — carrying letters io ships — carrying provisions or parcels Large catamarans, for landing or shipping a European N. Roads. cable of i3 to 16 inches - Ms. a. p. for do. do. 17 to 22 — for do. an anchor of 16 to 29 cwt. - for do. — 30 to SO — 100— 50 Rs. a. p. Native craft, from trips 50- 400- 300 — 2 ;0 200 — 100 100— 50 50—20 20—10 10 — Boat Hire. for an accommodation boat • Transhipments - Return trips .... Monsoon (rips .... 1) ). do. for an accommodation boat - Pa. transhipments ... 1)\ return trips - Deep water trips Extra hue on Sundays ... A b~>at loid of water Smd ballast, exclusive of boat hire Tarpaulin hire - 38 Port Regulations.— A notification shall be sent by the collector of the customs, through the mas er attendant, to the commanders of all ships coming into the roads, requiring them to transmit a true and full manifest of all goods and merchandises laden on board, accord* 10 I ing to a printed form ; which manifest being delivered to the col- 21 j lector, he shall, if he so thinks fit, require it to be verified by an affi- 17 davit on oath ; which forms being observed, permits are granted for 14 [ the lauding of the g>ods, uuder an oflicial signature. No articles are to be shipped or landed without a permit, or after 6 o'clock P. M. Any merchandise attempted to belauded without the prescribed forms, or that were not inserted in the manifest, are liable to double duty . and, where a fraudulent intention shall ap- pear, to confisration. All uoods (except on account of the East India Company) slra.ll be shipped or landed at the ghaut opposite to the Custom-house, or pay double duty. All goods, (except belonging to the Company), on bein^ landed, shall be brought to the Custom- house ; and when required to be passed, a written application, in tb following form, must be made to the collector. No other form w'fv be attended to.—" To the Collector of the Customs. Please to per mit the under-mentioned g'-ods to pass the Custom house, on accoun of, Sir, your obedient servant, ." 1 12 6 5 12 6 3 1 8 10 I S 12 1 8 9 No. and Name of Ship. Whence Imported. N. B.— These are to be left blank, and -filled up from the tariff by which the duties are regulated. Goods exported in British vessels, or in those belonging to the na- tive inhabitants of India, are exempt from duty, but must never- theless pass through the Customs' books, and thetr value be computed at the tariff prices. If any goqda are shipped, or attempted to be shipped, without per- mission obtained from the Customs, which must be applied for ac- cording to the following form, they are liable to a duty of 6 per cent, or 8 per cent., according to the country of the ship. — "To the Collector of the Customs. Please to permit the undermentioned goods to pass the Custom house, on account of, Sir, your obedient No Nature of Packages. Name of Ship. Rates of Manufactures and Produce. These are to be filled up from the tariff. The collector of customs is allowed a commission of 5 per cent, on ?>.c amount of the duty collected on zoods imported or exported, and upon the amount of the duty computed on goods imported or export- el free of duty ; ani whee goods become liable to be charged with the additional duty, 5 per cent is also due to the collector on such duty. Port clearances cannoi be granted to ships clearing outwards, until true and comp e'e manifests of the cargoes have been lodged with the collector of customs, and a certificate produced from the boat pay- master (the chief officer over the boats regularly kept for hire) that he has no demand. The port charges for clearance on every vessel, except paddy boats, Is I pagoda 24 fanams. For every paddy boat, 20 fanams. For every bale imported or exported in foreign vessels (except American), 1 pagoda. You cannot employ your own boat to unload your vessel without the permission of the master attendant ; and you can, in no case, let your boat for hire to another vessel, un:ler any pretence whatever. The rates of boat hire are according to your distance from the shore; double charge being made, if employed on a Sunday. A load of bal- last consists of 120 bakets of sand, according to a fixed size, at the average price cf 3 12 fanams. A boat load of water is 4 butts j the price is 55 fanams 40 cash. Customs.— The export and impc~*. duties at Madras are the same as at Calcutta: which see. Monies. — There is a considerable variety of coins in circulation in Madras and its vicinity. Of the gold coins, the principal are star or current pagodas = 7s. 5~d. ; commonly, however, valued at 8s. The gold rup?e, new coinage, is worth, according to the mint price of gold in England, 12. 9s. 2*424. The Arcot rupee (silver) and the new silver rupee are very nearly of the same value, being respect- ively worth Is. \\~d. and Is. lljd. The East India Company and the European merchants keep their accounts at 12 fanams the rupee ; SO cash = 1 fanam, and 42 fanams = 1 pagoda. Copper pieces of 20 cash, called pice, and of 70 and o cash called dodees and half dodees, are also current ; these are coined in England, and the value is marked on each. Commercial Weights, — Goods are weighed by the candy of 20 maunds ; the maund is divided into 8 vis, 320 pollams, or 3,200 pagodas; the vis is divided into 5 seers. The candy of Madras is 500 lbs. avoirdupois. Hence the pagoda weighs 2 oz. 3 grs. ; and the other weights are in proportion. These weights have been adopted by the English ; but those used in the Jaghire (the territory round Madras belonging to the Company), as also in most other parts of the Coromandel coast, are called the Mala- bar weights, and are as follows:— The gursay (called by the English garret contains 20 bartiays or candies: the baruay, 20 manunghs or maonds; the maund, 8 visay or vis, 320 pollams, or 3,200 vara-*, huns. The varahun weighs 52f English grains : therefore, the visay is 3 lbs. 3 dr. ; the maund, 24 lbs. 2 02. ; the baruay, 482J lbs. ; and the gursay, 9,615^ lbs. avoirdupois, or 4 tons 6 cwt. nearly. n s of Capacity. — The garce, corn measure, contains 80 parahs, or 400 marcals; and the mar- cal, 8 puddti's, or (il oilucks. The marcal should measure 750 cubic inches, and weigh 27 lbs. 2 oz. 2 dr. avoirdupois of fresh spring water: hence, 43 marcals = 15 Winch, bushels; and therefore the garce === 17} English quarters nearly. When grain is sold by weight, 9,256| lhs. are reckoned for 1 garce, being 18 candies 12-8 maunds. Banking.— There is but a single banking establishment at Madras, which is entirely a government concern, as the directors consist of the superior officers of government ; and the ministerial officers are r»n fixed salaries. The bank issues notes, receivable as cash at the public treasuries, within the MADRAS. 161 town of Madras ; it receives deposits and grants discounts. The accumulated profits of the bank, from its first institution in 1806, amounted to 620,2267., being at the rate of about 31,0001. a year ; bat as the Indian money is here reckoned ai the rate of 8s. the pagoda, which is much above both the mint prioe and the value in exchange, the real profits are considerably smaller. Mercantile Establish mi nts. — At .Madras there are but :i principal European mercantile establishments, or houses of agency, with 7 of an inferior class. There are 2 American houses, and I considerable native house of business. The daubashes, or native brokers of Madras, are expert, intelligent, and sometimes knavish. Among the native merchants there are few men of wealth ; ami the contrast, in this respect, with Calcutta and Bombay, is striking. The degree of liberality exercised by the respec- tive governments, and the prosperity of the different portions of the British territory in India, may safely be implied by the proportion of British settlers to lie found in them. Tried by this test, the Ma- dras "provinces will be found eminently wanting, as will be seen by the following brief Table :— 1813 - Bengal - 1,225 I Madras - 187 I Bombay - 469 1830 - — - 1,707 | — 134 | — - 308 Insurance. — There is but one insurance company, called the India Insurance Society; but there are agents of the Calcutta companies, who effect insurance on shipping. Agency and Commission.— The general rates of agency, commission, and warehouse rent, are as follow :— On diamonds, pearls, and jewellery, 2 1-2 per cent. On treasure r.nd bullion, t per cent. On all ^oods a nd merchandise withdrawn, shipped, or delivered to order, 12 commission. On all other descriptions of properly for sale, if withdrawn or otherwise disposed of by the owners, 1-2 commission. On tjoods transferred to auction or commission salesmen, 1-2 com- 16. On retail sales, 10 per cent. 17. On guaranteeing sales, bills, bonds, contracts for goods, or other engagements, 2 1-2 per cent. 18. On ships' disbursements, 2 1-2 per cent. 19. On advertising as the agents of owners or commanders of ships for freight or passengers; on ihe amount ot freight and pass-ago money, whether the same shall pass through the agent's hands or not, 5 per cent. 20. On effecting insurance, or writing orders for insurance, 1-2 per cent. 21. On settling losses, partial or general, and returns of premium, 1 per cent. 22. On procuring money on respondentia, wherever payable, 2 per cent. 23. On making up goods to order, and taking risk of advances, 10 per cent. 24. On giving orders for the provision of good?, where a commission is not chargeable on sale or shipment, 2 1-2 per cent. 25. On attending the delivery of contract goods, 2 per cent 1. On the total sum of a debit or credit side of an account, at the option of the agent, excepting items on which a commission of 5 per cent, is chargeable, 1 per cent. 2. On effecting remittances, or purchasing, selling, or negotiating bills of exchange, 1 per cent. 3. On subscriptions to government loans, purchasing, selling, trans- ferring, or exchanging public securities, 1-2 per cent. 4. On delivering up public securities, or lodging them in any of the public offices, 1*2 per cent. 5. On receiving and delivering private commissions of wines, cattle, and merchandise, 2 1-2 per cent. 6. On collecting rents, 2 12 per cent. 7. On purchase of lottery tickets and amount of prizes, 1 per cent. 8. On the sale of lottery tickets from the other settlements, 2 1-2 per cent. 9. On letters of credit granted, 2 1-2 per cent. management of estates, as executors, administrators, or attorneys, .-> per cent. 11. On debts, when a process at law or arbitration is necessary, 2 1*2 per cent. And if recovered by such means, 5 per cent. 12. On bills of exchange, notes, &c. dishonoured, 1 per cent. 13. On overdue debts collected by absentees, 2 1-2 per cent. 1*1. On becoming security for individuals to government, 1 per cent. 15. On all sales or purchases of goods, 5 per cent. With the following exceptional — On houses, lands, and ships, 2 1-2 per cent. Exports and Imports. — Madras trades with Great Britain and other European countries, the United States, the South American States, China, the Eastern islands, the Burnian empire, Calcutta, and Ceylon. In speaking of the trade of Madras, it is to be observed that it comprehends, for the most part, the trade of the whole coast of Coromandel. The principal articles of import are rice and other grain, chiefly from Bengal ; cotton piece goods, iron, copper, spelter, and other British manufactures ; raw silk from Bengal and China, with betel or areca nut, gold dust, tin, and pepper, from the Malay countries ; and rice and pepper from the coast of Malabar, with teak timber from Pegu. The exports consist of plain and printed cottons, cotton wool, indigo, salt, pearls of Ceylon, chank shells, tobacco, soap, natron, some dyeing drugs, and a little coffee produced on the table land of Mysore, and of which the quantity is increasing. The great staples of sugar, rice, opium, saltpetre, and lac dye, of 6uch importance in Bengal, are unknown as exports at Madras. The following is a statement of the value of the trade of Madras, and its subordinate ports, with Europe and America, in the years 1813-14 and 1828-29. Countries. 1813-1814. 1828-1829. Imports. Exports. Imports. Exports. Merchan- dise. Bul- lion. t„i,i iMerchan- TotaL | dise. Bullion. Total. | Me d r , c s ^ n - Bul- lion. Total. Merchan- dise. Bullion. Total. Greit Britain United States of America Portugal Brazils South Ante- Ma. rs. 2,717,492 71,128 1,223 Ma.rs. 2,625 Ma. rs. j Ma. rs. 2,717,492. 4,21)8,946 73,753 98,462 1,228 Ma. rs. 156,187 Ma. rs. 4,365,133 98,462 Ma. rs. 3,354,825 3,819 Ma. rs. 25,156 7,055 1,000 Ma. rs. 3,379,981 10,874 389,493 Ma. rs. 3,507,741 20,953 128,006 62,906 Ma, rs. 732,663 Ma. rs. 4,240,404 20,953 128,006 62,906 Total - 2,7-9,S-!8 2,12 > 2,792,475! 4.307,408 156,187 4,463,595 3,747,137 32.211 3,780.34- 3.719,606 732,663 4,452.269 Taking the Madras rupee at its British mint value of Is. 11nof 11,991 tons. The European tonnage employed in this trade is extremely fluctuating. In 1807, a year of extraordinary scarcity in the Madras provinces, the registered tonnage which cleared out from Calcutta for the Coromandel coast amounted to 94.236 tons, which conveyed 6,000,000 quarters of rice. Next year the tonnage amounted to only 6,261 tons. In 1812, another year of scarcity, it was 15,068 tons ; and in 1821, a year of plenty, it was but 2,642 tons. These striking facts show the vast importance of a free trade in corn to the countries in question. — (In compiling this article, we have made use of Hamilton's Description vf Hindostan ; Hamilton's East India Gazetteer, 2d ed. 1828; Phipp's Guide to the Commerce of Bengal ; Papers relative to the Trade with India and China, printed by order of the House of Commons, and Evidence taken before the Parliamentary Committee, in 1829, 1830, and 1831 ; Madras Almanack, for 1831 ; Kelly's Cambist, 2d ed. ; and Horsburgh's Directory, — an accu- rate and useful work.) MAGNESIA (Fr. Magnesie,- Ger. Gebraunte Magnesia ,- It. Magnesia), one of the primitive earths, having a metallic basis. It is not found native in a state of purity, but is easily prepared. It is inodorous and insipid, in the form of a very light, white, soft powder, having a specific gravity of 2-3. It turns to green the more delicate vegetable blues, is in- fusible, and requires for its solution 2,000 parts of water at 60°. MAHOGANY, the wood of a tree (Stvietenia Mahogani) growing in the West Indies and Central America. There are two other species of Swietenia found in the East Indies, but they are not much known in this country. Mahogany is one of the most majestic and beautiful of trees : its trunk is often 40 feet in length, and 6 feet in diameter ; and it divides into so many massy arms, and throws the shade of its shining green leaves over so vast an extent of surface, that few more magnificent objects are to be met with in the vegetable world. It is abundant in Cuba and Hayti, and it used to be plentiful in Jamacia ; but in the latter island, most of the larger trees, at least in accessible situations, have been cut down. The principal importations into Great Britain are made from Honduras and Campeachy. That which is imported from the islands is called Spanish mahogany; it is not so large as that from Honduras, being generally in logs from 20 to 26 inches square and 10 feet long, while the latter is usually from 2 to 4 feet square and 12 or 14 feet long, but some logs are much larger. Mahogany is a very beautiful and valuable species of wood : its colour is a red brown, of different shades, and various degrees of brightness; sometimes yellowish brown; often very much veined and mottled, with darker shades of the same colour. The texture is uniform, and the annual rings not very distinct. It has no larger septa; but the smaller septa are often very visible, with pores between them, which in the Honduras wood are generally empty, but in the Spanish wood are mostly filled with a whitish substance. It has neither taste nor smell, shrinks very little, and warps or twists less than any other species of timber. It is very durable when kept dry, but does not last long when exposed to the weather. It is not at- tacked by worms. Like the pine tribe, the timber is best on dry rocky soils, or in exposed situations. That which is most accessible at Honduras grows upon moist low land, and is, generally speaking, decidedly inferior to that brought from Cuba and Hayti; being soft, coarse, and spongy; while the other is close grained and hard, of a darker colour, and sometimes strongly figured. Honduras ma- hogany has, however, the advantage of bidding glue admirably well ; and is, for this reason, fre- quently used as a ground on which to lay veneers of the finer sorts. The best qualities of mahogany bring a very high price. Not long since, Messrs. Broadvvood, the distinguished pianoforte manufac- turers, gave the enormous sum of 3,000/. for three logs of mahogany ! These logs, the produce of a single tree, were each about 15 feet long and 38 inches square : they were cut into veneers of 8 to an inch. The wood was particularly beautiful, capable of receiving the highest polish ; and when po- lished, reflecting the light in the most varied manner, like the surface of a crystal; and, from the wavy form of the pores, offering a different figure in whatever direction it was viewed. Dealers in mahogany generally introduce an auger before buying a log; but, notwithstanding, they are seldom able to decide with much precision as to the. quality of the wood, so that there is a good deal of lottery in the trade. The logs for which Messrs Broadwood gave so high a price were brought to this country with a full knowledge of their superior worth. Mahogany was used in repairing some of Sir Walter Raleigh's ships at Trinidad, in 1597; but it was not introduced into use in England till 1724. MAIZE, MALAGA. 103 The cutting of mahogany at Honduras takes place at two different seasons; after Christmas, nnd towards midsummer. The negroes employed in felling the trees are divided into groups of from in to SO. The trees are cut ahout 12 feet from the ground, and are floated down the rivers. Of 11,542 tons of mahogan) imported in 1831, 8214 came from the British Wesl Indies (including Honduras, ami 2,623 from Hayti. The duty <»< foreign mahogany is ?.'. 10s. a ion, whereas Honduras mahogany pays only 1/ 10*., ami Jamaica mahogany it. The effect of such a duty must obviously be to force the consumption of the inferior in preference t<> the superior article. In 1832, the duty pro- duced 15,4052 (See Treigold's Principles vf Carpentry, p. '2(11.; Library of Entertaining Knowledge, vol eon Timber Trees and Fruit* ," ami Edward's IVttt /« Mahogany from Honduras, imported into any free warehousing port in the Hritish possession* in the Weal Indies or America, in a ship cleared out from Balize, and then warel sed as having been .so I and cleared, may be exported from the warehouse ami imported into tint United Kingdom, as if it had been imported direct in a Hritish ship, provided it In- slated in the ship's clearance that the mahopany had been so warehoused and exported. — (9 Geo. 4. c. 70. I) 13.) Mahogany not to he entered as being the produce of any Hrilish possession, unless the master of the ship importing the same deliver to the collector or comptroller a certificate, and declare; that the goods are tin- produce of such place. — (Sec ante, p. 8.) (The duly on foreign mahogany has heen reduced to 5/. per ton. — (6 & 7 Will. 4. cap. 60.)— Sup.) MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN (Fr. Bled de Turquie ,- Ger. TiirMsch horn, Mays,- It. C ratio Turco Siciliano ; Sp. Trigo de Indias, Trigo de Turquia), one of the cereal grasses (Zea Mays'), supposed to be indigenous to South America, being the only species of corn cultivated in the New World previously to its discovery. It was introduced into the Continent about the beginning, and into England a little while after the middle, of the 1 6th century. Its culture has spread with astonishing rapidity ; being now extensively grown in most Asiatic countries, and in all the southern parts of Europe. It has the widest geographi- cal range of all the ceralia, growing luxuriantly at the equator, and as far as the 50th degree of north, and the 40th of south latitude. It has been raised in England, in nursery gardens near the metropolis, for more than a century ; and recently it has been attempted to raise it in the fields, but with indifferent success. Like other plants that have been long in cultiva- tion, it has an immense number of varieties. The ear consists of about 600 grains, set close together in rows, to the number of 8, 10, or 12. The grains are usually yellow; but they are sometimes red, bluish, greenish, or olive-coloured, and sometimes striped and varie- gated. The maize of Virginia is tall and robust, growing 7 or 8 feet high ; that of New. England is shorter and lower; and the Indians further up the country have a still smaller sort in common use. The stalk is jointed like the sugar cane. The straw makes excellent fodder ; and the grain, as a bread com, is liked by some; but though it abounds in mucilage, it contains little or no gluten, and is not likely to be much used by those who can procure wheaten or even rye bread. — (Loudon's Encychpxdia of Agriculture, ° 51' 6" N., Ion. 14° 31' 10" E. Malta is about 20 miles long, and 10 or 12 br a L The island of Gozo. about a fourth part of the size of Malta, lies 10 ■est of the latter, at about 4 miles' distance; and in the strait between them is the small island of Cuinino. In 1835, the resident population of Malta amounted to 100,154; a . the total population amounted to 106,578. The population of Gozo, at the sarae period, was 16.547. The total population of both islands making 123.125. The entire revenue col- lected in Malta amounts to about 100,000/. a year, of which about 23,000*. is derived from the rent of lands; the expenditure, exclusive of that incurrea in England on account of the island, amounts to about S3 000/. Valetta, the capital of the island-, is defended by almost impregna- ble fortifical s lys Mr. Brydone, "are, indeed, most stupendous works. All the boasted catacombs of Rome and Naples are a trifle to the immense excavations that have been made in this little island. The ditches of a vast size, are all cut out of the solid rock; these extend for a great many miles; and raise our astonish- ment to think that so small a state has ever been able to make them." —{Tour thrrrugh Sicily and Malta, Letter 15.) Since the island came into our possession, the fortifications have been consider- ably improved; so that at present it is a place of very great stre'ngth- After the capture of Rhodes bv the Turks, the Emperor Charles V. maie a present of Malta to the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, in whose possession it remained till 1798, when it was taken by the French. It was t-feen from the latter by the English in 1SO0 ; and was definitively ceded to us in 1814. The island consists mostly of a rock, very thinly covered with soil, a gnod deal of which has been brought, at an immense expense, from 3icily; but being cultivated with the utmost care, it produces excel- lent frui's, particularly the celebrated Maltese oranges, corn, cotton, with small quantities of indigo, saffron, and sugar. The principal dependence of the inhabitants is on their cotton; the crop of which, amounting to about 4,000,000 lbs. a year, is partly exported raw and ' to the rahie of from 80,000/. to 100,0 /. Tbi corn raised in the island is not sufficient to feed the inhabi r ants for more than 5 or 6 months. The trade in corn used to be monopolised 6y srovernment ; and alter the monopoly was abandoned, duties on importation, varying like those iu this country, with the price, were imposed. But in 1806 these duties were abolished; and Ihe fixed duties on corn entered for consumption, specified in the subjoined tariff, were substituted in their stead. Malta presents utmsu.il facilities, which have not hitherto been taken proper advantage of, for becoming the entrepot of the corn trade of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Her warehouses for corn are, like those of Sicily and Birbary, excavated in the rock; and are, perhaps, the best fitted of any in Europe for the safe keeping of corn. The wheat lodged in them maybe preserved for an indefinite period ; and it is affirme i that though it should, on being deposited, be af fe cted by the weevil, it is very ooon freed from that destructive insect. It is not often that corn can be Brought direct from Odessa, Taganrog, &c. to Enj'and, without the risk of being damaged; but were it brought in the first instance to Malta, and bonded there, it might afterwards be conveyed in the best order to London, or any where else. Malta is also'admirably well suited for becoming the centre of the corn trade of Egypt, Barbary, Italy, fee. During the late war, particularly during the period when Napo- leon's anti-cnmmercial system was in operation, Malta became a great entrepM for colonial and other goods, which were thence con- veyed, according as opportunities offered, to the adjacent ports. This commerce ceased with the circumstances that gave it birth: and for some years after the return of peace, the trade of the island ■was depressed below its natural level, by the imposition of various oppressive discriminating duties. In 1S19, this vexatious system was partially obviated ; but it continued to exert a pernicious influence til! 1S3", when, pursuant to the recommendation of Messrs. Austin and Lewis, Commissioner! of Inquiry, the then existing tariffs of customs duties and port charges were wholly abolished ; and a new tariff (which is subjoined) was issued in their stead, ft imposes moderate duties, for the sake of revenue only, on a few article* in general demand, without regard to the country from whence they come, at the sime time that it equalises the tonnage duties, and reduces the warehouse rent on article* in bond to the lowest level. ,r has thus been done that was possible to second the natu- 1 igea enjoyed by Matra for becoming the grand entrepot of the Mediterranean trade : and we have little doubt ihey will power- fully contribute to bring about that result. There are some good springs of fresh water. Valetta is partly rapplie ) by water brought by an aqueduct a distance of about 6 miles, and partly by the rain water collected in cisterns. ff artour.— The harbour of Valet la is double, and is one of the finest in the world. The city is built on a narrow tongue of land, having the castle and light of St. Elmo at its extremity and an admi- in each side. That on the southeastern side, denominated port, is the most frequented. The entrance to it, about 2W Ulboms wide, his the formidable batteries of St. Elmo on the one hand, and iho-e of Fort Ricasoli on the other. In entering, it is necessary not to come within 50 or 60 fathoms of the former, on account of a spit which projects from it ; but iu the rest of the chan- nel there is from 10 to 12 fathoms water. The port, which runs about 13-4 mile inwards, has deep water *nd excellent anchorage throughout; the largest men of war coming close to the quays. Port MarsamuaceH, en the north-western side of the city, is also a noble harbour. The entrance to it, which is about the same breadth as lhat of the Grand Port, is between St. Elmo and Fort I the centre of the basin is an island, on which are built a castle and a lazaretto, for the convenience of the ships performing quarantine, by which the port is principally used. Owing to the narrowness of the entrance, and the usual variableness of the wind, it is customary for most vessels bound for Valetta to take a pilot on board before entering the harbour. Tariff (A).— Duties on Imports, and Dues for Store Rent, which the Collector of Customs is required to levy on the Account of the Govern- ment of Malta. Beer, per Maltese barrel • Cattle : bullock*, and other animals of the kind, per head - Horses and mules, per head Charcoal, per salm - Grain :— Wheat, per salm - Indian corn, per salm - Barley, per salm - Saggina, per salm Other inferior grains - Manufactured grain, per cantar - Wheat, Indian corn, barley, or o'her inferior grains, if damaged so as to be unfit for the food of man [commonly called frumentazzo), per salm Manufactured grain, if damaged so as to be unfit for the food of man, per cantar - Oil, olive, per cafflso - Potatoes, per cantar • Pulse and seeds Beans, caravances, chick-pens, kidney- beans, lentils, lupins, peas.and vetches, per salm .... Carob-beaus and cotton seeds, per can'ar Spirits ; viz. for every Maltese barrel of such spirits of any strength, not exceeding the strength of proof, by Sykes's hydrometer (namely London proof), and so in propor- tion for any greater strength than the strength of proof - Vinegar, per Maltese barrel • Wines, the value of n hich shall exceed 15?. per pipe of II Maltese barrels, per Maltese barrel - AJI other wines, per Maltese barrel Store nrt Rents on £E? Articles lodged n Bond. Duties. L, s. d. L. s. d. 2 1 6 1 10 2 6 Oi 2 2 3 010 2 5 2 6 2 2 2 3-002 I 2 2 2 2 2 Observations.—}. The duties payable by the salm on grs-in, pulse, and seeds (except large Sicilian beans) to be charged by tin- strike d easore. The lul ■■- on large Sicilian beans and on charcoal to be charged by the heaped measure. 2. Every liquid compounded of spirit and any other ingredient or lining more than 25 per o Strength of proof, ir> be liable to the duty on spirits which is imposed by the present tariff, 3. The store rents on grain lodged in bond to be payable from the day on which the grain was lodged. 'Ihe store rents on every other article mentioned in the present tariff to be payable from the tenth day after the day on which such article was lodged. Tariff (R).— Tonnage dues which the Collector of Customs is required to levy on ihe Account of Ihe Government of Malta. Vessels discharging merchandise in the Mai outwards, pay for every ton or any part Ihe Tariff (C>.— Fees which the Collectorof Customs is required to revy on the Account of the Go- vernment of Malta. L. s. d. For each certificate under Ihe office seal - • -026 For each sheet of printed official forms - -002 MAN (ISLE OF). 1G9 Tariff of Dues authorised to be levied for Account of Government, by the Superintendent of Qua- rantine, Malta. Shipping in Q" iranlinc— 1. Vessels entered upon a quarantine to pay, for each day of their conliuuauce in port, as follows:— ■ C d. Vessels not exceeding 25 loos - * - 6 — from 2b' tons to 50 — - - - -10 — from 51 — 100 — - . - 1 6 — from 101 — ISO — - - -20 — from 151 — 200 — . - - - 2 6 — from 201 — 2.0 — - . - . 2 9 — from 251 and upwards * • • -30 2. Vessels of whatever size, soiling in quarantine, having entered upon the performance thereof, to pay at the above rates, but in more than Is. a day for the remainder of the term of quarantine. Lble to quarantine, not having entered upon the perform- ance thereof, to pay. tbeii continuance in port. 4. Vessels compelled by stress of weather to enter the great harbour, to be subject, while they remain there, to the additional charge of 3s. a day, for every guard boat which the Superintendent of (J urantine m >y deem it necessary to place over them. mr, without cause, incurs Ibe penally oTvOO dot Ian in. aecond article of the proclamation, dated I2ih October, lc20. (No. x.ii.) j. Vessels having contagious diseases on board lo pay an ex'ra rate in proportion to the expense that may be incurred, but in no case to ei h to the usual ra'.e. Effect* received into the Ia2irei for depuration to be chargeable witn a due proportion of Hie actual expense thereof, ^ . sent, on ordinary occasions, is at the rate of 2s. Gd. a da] guardian, and U. bd. a day for each labourer, whom it may be neces- sary la employ. ('utile landed in the lazaret to be chargeable, for each t. d. Horse, mule, or ass - - - - - 3 Bullock, or other animal of the kind - - -20 Sheep, goat, pig, or other small animal • • - I Person* performing quarantine in the lazaret, to pay at the rate of 2s. Cd. a day, for etch guardian employed, but no single individual ban Is. 3d, a day. D-cunuiUs issued under the office teal, 2a. 6d. each. Tadle exhibiting the various Articles, and their Value, in Sterling Money imported into the Island of Malta during each of the Four Years ending with 1837. Species of Imports. Manufactures of all sorts Lined and crushed CoJfee and cocoa Iniigo - Stoicea - Raw sugar Tea Brimstone I)ru;s and articles used dying • Flax, hemp and tow Hides, salted and dried - Rosin in l tar * - Seeds in general Raw silk Tobacco leaf Wax Wood (timber, deals, &c.) Wool and cotton wool - Miscellanies (raw materials') Beans, peas, caravances, sag na, fee Biscuit 1834. 1835. 1836. 1837. L. L. L. L. 160,962 121.654 135,969 -'*..;"., 16,603 19,182 16,522 16.969 12,786 19,896 18,741 2,643 1,462 1,190 781 1,194 I.U3I 2,150 2,556 6.960 3,S39 10,4 48 2,740 27,320 17,461 22,429 17.799 2,458 2,019 2,922 2,989 1,171 2,970 2,178 1,952 2,646 4.437 3.4>"3 2,446 ■2,920 906 3.249 2,340 4,977 14,888 10.034 5,579 545 1,539 1,978 3,007 4.I-: 4.093 4 -'2. 4,654 13 1,235 5 946 15,335 J.,-.:, 20.445 14,356 464 2-21 - 1 2,175 8,373 10,437 6,168 8.450 357 2.5-6 1,855 2,985 2,103 2,876 2,604 1,263 29,065 23,894 42.529 29,858 100 277 1,515 none Species of Imports. Bullocks, pi^s, and sheep ; ana Coals and charcoal Cheese - Fish, salted and dried * Flour Fruits, dried Grain, viz.— Wheat Indian corn Barley Meat, salted, and dried - Mules, horses, and asses Oiive and linseed oil 0:i res, silted Olive stones and firewood Paste and macaroni Poiatoes - Rice Spirits (brandy and gin) Vinegar - Wines - Miscellanies (provisions) 1834. 1835. 1S36. 1S37. L. L. L. L. 24,418 27,729 11,711 3,102 2.451 10,514 18.773 4,522 4,474 12,6:6 11.476 12,183 5,556 162 619 l.ll' 293 16,860 14/67 10,756 98,337 I06>77 114,-33 87,4 3 6,978 ■ 621 3,103 6,380 7,166 6,318 8,549 6,511 2,322 2,983 426 348 527 995. I i 24.422 36.73v 29,54 j 1,050 431 736 452 8,518 6.9-7 6,3:9 700 1,322 806 1,314 1,606 2.1 - 3,140 2.t65 4.143 1,121 b.tV:2 17,629 11,041 9,463 1,453 282 82: 42,691 40.389 6",722 71,933 1,636 2,037 570,382 1,827 685,531 834 547,484 591,666 List of Vessels belonging to the Island of Malta on the 1st of January, 1638. Movement of Shipping- at Malta, during each of the Four Years ending with 1837. Average Prices of Wheat io Entre- pot at Malt j, during each of the Ten Years ending with 1837, per Sal ma, in Sterling Mo- nty. ■ Sizes. Tons. The Tear and Sizes. Ships inwards. Ships outwards. No. Tons. Men. No. | Tons, i Men. 3S 15 5 18 S3 II under 10 Ions each - from 10 to 25 tons 25 to 50 50 to 100 100 lo 150 245 364 168 1,402 4,659 3.637 2.265 2.720 2,040 1834. Vessels above 40 tons • under 40 Total 1835. Vessels above 40 tons - under 40 ' Total 935 788 140.632 11.289 10,052 1,025 715 153.116 10,992 15,662 7,852 Year. Price. 1,723 154,921 17,638 1,740 1 1CS.79S [lS,844 10 10 6 200 to 250 250 to 300 300 tons aod upwards 1,151 916 1S7.159 18,479 12,421 1.232 , 19 _ .6-3 13,23? 18 210 6,071 1829 1829 - 1^31 1832 1-33 1834 1835 1836 IS37 L. i. d. 1 16 134 1 15 10 1-4 1 9 2 1-2 1 12 3 1-2 1 12 3 12 1 9 1 34 1 9 10 14 1 10 934 1 7 1 1-4 1 6 9 171 of all sizes, making - 17,500 2,067 205,638 21.257 2,187 i 215.8S3 19,301 1836. Vessels above 40 tons - under 40 Total 1,263 703 186,616 13,884 12.-9: 6,745 1,351 202,737 732 | 13.530 13,863 7.059 1,963 199,500 19,636 2.0-3 216 267 20,922 1837. Vessels above 40 tons • under 40 Total 1,129 420 157.079 8.275 11.673 3,924 1,198 ' 168,398 439 1 8,624 12.434 4,101 1,549 165,354 , 15,597 1,637 177,022 16,535 The central jiosition, excellent port, and great strength of Malta. make il an admirable naval station for the repair and accommodation of the men-of-waranl merchant ships frequenting the Mediterranean, anil re n I r its posses-ion of material importance to 'he British em- pire. Since Malta bui't vessels were admitted into the ports of the United Kingdom on the same terms as those of British built, the trade of shit'-huild ng has materially increased in the island. The Maltese shipwright* are . 4d. ; the Sicilian dollar at 4t. 2rf. ; and the scudo of Malta at lj. Sd. IPetg/ifj and A/earwrei. — The pound or rottolo, commercial weight = 30 oncie = 12,216 English grains. Hence 100 mttoli (the cantaro) = 174 12 lbs. avoirdupois, or 79-14 kilog. Merchants usually reckon the cantaro at 175 lbs. The salma of corn, stricken measure = 8-221 Winchester bushels ; heaped measure is reckoned 16 per cent. more. ] sure for oil, contains 5 1-2 English gallons = 20-SI8 litres I h bar, rel is double the caffiso. Tt e Maltese fapl = 1 1 1-6'h English inches = ■2835 mires. The canna = 8 pal nil =81-9 English inches = 2 076 metres. Merchants usually convert Malta measure into Eng- lish in the proportion of 3 1-2 palmi to a yard, or 2 2-7th yards lo I canna. Bills on London are usually drawn at 30 and 60 days' sight. The deputy commissary general is obliged lo grant, at nil lini-s. bills on the treasury here for British silver tendered to him. at the rate of 100(. bill for every 1011. 10s. silver, receiving, at the some lime, other silver at a fluctuating rate of exchange. MAN (ISLE OF) is, as every one knows, situated in the Irish sea, at about an equal distance from England, Scotland, and Ireland. It is about 30 miles long, and 10 or 12 broad. The interior is mountainous, and the soil no where very productive. Population Vol. II.— P 22 170 MAN (ISLE OF). in 1831, 40,9S5. This island used to be one of the principal stations of the herring fishery; but for a considerable period it has been comparatively deserted by the herring shoals, — a circumstance which is not to be regretted ; for the fishery, by withdrawing the attention of the inhabitants from agriculture and manufactures, and leading them to engage in what has usually been a gambling and unproductive business, has been, on the whole, injurious to the island. The steam packets from Glasgow to Liverpool touch at the Isle of Man ; which has, in consequence, begun to be largely frequented by visiters from these cities, and other parts of the empire, whose influx has materially contributed to the improvement of Douglas and other towns. The feudal sovereignty of Man was formerly vested in the Earls of Derby, and more re- cently in the Dukes of Athol, — a circumstance which accounts for the fact of the duties on most commodities consumed in the island having been, for a lengthened period, much lower than those on the same commodities when consumed in Great Britain. This distinction, which still subsists, has produced a great deal of smuggling, and been in no ordinary degree injurious to the revenue and trade of the empire. During the present century, indeed, the clandestine trade of Man has been confined within comparatively narrow limits ; but to ac- complish this, a considerable extra force of Custom-house officers and revenue cruisers is required, and the intercourse with the island has to be subjected to various restraints. Nothing, as it appears to us, can be more impolitic than the continuance of such a system. The public has, at a very heavy expense, purchased all the feudal rights of the Athol family ; and havin"- done so, it is certainly high time that an end were put to the anomalous absurdity of having a considerable island, lying, as it were, in the very centre of the empire, and in the direct line between some of trie principal trading towns, with different duties on many important articles ! It might be necessary, perhaps, to make some compensation to the inha- bitants for such a change ; and this might be done, with advantage to them and without expense to the public, by modifying and improving the internal regulations and policy of the island, which are very much in need of amendment. We do not, indeed, imagine that the island would lose any thing by the proposed alteration ; for the temptation which the present system holds out to engage in smuggling enterprises diverts the population from the regular pursuits of industry, and, along with the herring lottery, is the principal cause of that idle- ness for which the Manx are so notorious. We subjoin an Abstract of 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 60., for regulating the Trade of the Isle of Man. Commencement. — To commence the 1st of September, 1833.—} 1. Duties payable on the Importation of Goodsinto the Lie of Man.— There shall he raised, levied, collect- ed, and paid unto his Majesty, his heirs and successors, the several duties of customs respectively set forth in the table herein-after contained, denominated " Table of Duties," upon importation into the Isle of Man of the several goods, wares, and merchandise, according to the quantity or value thereof specified in such table, and so in proportion for any greater or less quantity or value of the same ; (that is to say,) Table of Duties. A Table of tlie Duties of Customs payable on Goods, Wares, and Merchandise imported into the Isle of Man. L. v. d. Coals, from the United Kingdom - . - Free. Cofve. theduties of consumption in the United Kingdom not hiving been then paid thereon, the !b. • - 4 Hemp, the cwt. 1_ Hops, from the United Kingdom, the lb. - - 1* Iron, from foreign parts, for every lOOt. of the value thereof 10 Spirits ; viz. — Foreign spirits, the gallon - - - -046 of the British plantations, not exceeding the strength of proof by Sikess hydrometer, and s proportion tor any greater strength the gall Sugar, muscovado, the cwt. - - - - 1 Tea ; viz.— Bohea, the lb. 6 Green, the lb. 10 Tobacco, the lb. 16 Wine; viz.— French, the tun of 252 gallons - • - 16 any other sort, the tun of 252 gallons • - 12 Wood, from foreign parts ; viz.— Deal boards, for every 1001. of the value thereof - 10 Timber, for every IO0J. of the value thereof - 10 Goods, w.ir.-s, and merchandise imported from the (foiled Kin? loin, and entitled to any bounty or draw- back of excise on exportation from thence, and not f ire 'numerated or charged with duty, for every 1001. of tin- value thereof - - -600 Goods, wares, and merchandise imported from the British Goods from the United Kingdom to appear upon the Coekels.—'Ko goods shall be entered in the Isle of Man as being the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United Kingdom, or its being import- ed from thence, except such goods as shall appear upon the cockel or cockets of the ship or vessel Importing the same to have been duly cleared at some port in the United Kingdom, to be exported to the said Isle.— J 3. ' Goods enumerated in the fallowing Schedule importable only vnder Licence.— The several sorts of goods enumerated or described in the schedule herein-after contained, denominated "(Schedule of Licence Goods," shall not be imported into the Isle of Man, nor exported from any place to be carried to the Isle of Man, without the licence of the commissioners of customs first obtained, nor in greater quantities in the whole, in any one vear, than the respective quantities of such goods specified in the said sche- dule ; and such goods shall not be so exported nor so imported, except from the respective places set forth in the said schedule, and according to the rules subjoined thereto ; (that is to say,) L. ». d. United Kingdom, and not herein-before charged with duty, for every 1001. of the value thereof - ■ 2 10 Goods, wares, of merchandise imported from any place from whence such goo-'s may be lau fully impoited in- to the Isle of Man, and not herein-before charged with duty, for every 100/. of the value thereof - - 15 Except the several eoods, wares, and merchandise following, and which are to be imported into the Isle of Man duty free, (that is to say,) Flax, flax seed, raw or brown linen yarn, wood ashes, weed ashes, • flesh of all sorts ; also corn, erain, or meal of all sorts, when im- portable : any of which goods, wares, or merchandise may be im- ported into the said isle from any place in any ship or vessel. Any sort of while or brown linen cloth, hemp, hemp seed, horses, black cattle, sheep ; all utensils and instruments fit and necessary to be employed in manufactures, in fisheries, or in agriculture; bricks, tiles, all sons of young trees, sea shells, lime, soapers' waste, packthread, small cordage, for nets, salt, hoards, timber, wood hoops, being the growth, production, or manufacture of the United Kingdom, and imported from thence in British ships. Iron in rods or bars, cotton, indigo, naval st-ires. and any sort of wood COnunonly called lumber, (viz. deals of all sorts, timber, balks of all sizes, barrel boar-Is, clapboards, pipe boards or pipe hold, while boards for shoemakers, broom and cant spars, bow staves, capra- van, clap holt, el-ony wood, iu-admgs fir pipes and for hogsheads, and for barrels, hoops for co npers, ,.ars, pipe and hogshead staves, barrel staves, firkin staves, (runnels, sp< cfcled wood, sweet wood, small spars, oak plank, and wainscot,) being; of the growth, pro- duction, fir inruiiifu re of anv Ilritish colony or plantation in America "r the West Indies, and imported from the United King- dom in British ships.— Sect. 2. MAN (ISLE OF). 171 Schedule of Licence Goods. Wine, 1 !0 tuns. Bpiriti ; viz.— g brandy, m.rioo gallons. I . '. 111,0 Og. linns. From II n,...r from any place from with * Ibe nnir hi be imported miu ihc United Kiui;dniii t fur con- Rum of the British plantations, CO.OJO gallons. From i Bril in. "ilia. , -,,000 ll«. i ihi n'icsof consumptinnin the United Kingdom shall noil), 8,000 lbs. ,<00 lbs. nf i Import any nf the goods aforesaid into the Isle of Man shall be made in writing, and delivered, be- tween the 5th day of May and the 5th day of .Inly in each year, to the collector or comptroller of the port of Douglas in the sa"id isle; and Bitch application shall specify the date thereof, and the name, re- sidence, and occupation of the person applying, and the description and quantity of each article for whnh such licence is required ; and all such applications, with smh particulars, shall be entered in a bonk to be kept at the Custom-house at the port of Douglas, and to he there open for public inspection during the hours of business; and on the 5th day of .Inly in each year such hook shall he closed ; and within Mjdays thereafter the collector and comptroller shall make out and sign a true copy of such entries, specifying the applicants resident, and ihe applicants not resident in the said isle, and deliver or transmit such copy lo the govt rnor or lieutenant-governor of the said isle for the time being. — # 5. • Oovemor to allot Quantities. — Within 14 days after the receipt of such copy, the governor or lieu- tenant-governor of the said isle shall allot the whole quantity of each article, in the first place, among the applicants resident in the saitl island, in case the whole quantity nf any article shall not have been applied fir by residents ; then shall allot the quantity not so applied for among the non-resident ap- plicants, in Bitch proportions in all cases as he shall judge most fair and equitable ; and shall cause a report thereon to he drawn up in writing, and sign ami transmit the same to the Lords Commissioners of his Majesty's Treasury of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and shall cause a du- plicate of such report so signed, to he transmitted to the commissioners of customs. — H 6. Commissioners of Customs to grant Licences. — Upon receipt of such duplicate report the commissioners of customs shall L'rant licenses, to continue in force for any period until the 5th of July then next en- suing, for the importation into the Isle of Man nf the quantities of such goods as are allowed by law to he so imported, with their licence, according to the allotments in such report, and dividing the whole portion allotted to any one applicant into several licences, as they shall he desired and see fit; and such licences shall be transmitted without delay to the collector and comptroller of Douglas, to tie hy them delivered to the different applicants, after taking bond for the same under the provisions of this act.—} 7. Before Delivery of Licences, Bond to be given. — Previous to the delivery of any such licences to the persons to whom they are granted, the collector and comptroller of Douglas shall take the bond of such persona to his Majesty, his heirs and successors, with sufficient Security, for the. importation of the articles for which the said licences are respectively granted, on or before the 5th day of July succeed- ing the delivery of such licences, with such conditions, and for the forfeiture of such sums, not ex- ceeding Hie whole amount of duties payable in Great Britain on articles similar to those specified in such licences, as the commissioners of customs shall think fit : provided always, that if any person to whom such licence shall he granted shall not have given such bond prior to the 5th day of January next alter the granting such licence, it shall be lawful for the governor or lieutenant-governor of the said Isle, if he shall see tit, to transfer any such licence to any other person who shall be desirous lo take up the same, and willing and able to give such bond; and such transfer shall be notified by hi- nt on the licence, signed hy such governor or lieutenant-governor. — I) 8. Counterfeiting or falsifying Licence, Penalty 5001. — If any person or persons shall counterfeit or falsify any licence or other document required for the importation into the Isle of Man of any goods which would otherwise be prohibited to he imported into the said isle, or shall knowingly or wilfully make use of any such licence, or other document so counterfeited or falsified, such person or persons shall, for every such offence, forfeit the sum of 5007. — $ 9 Licence Goods not to be re-ei ported, d/c— It shall not be lawful to re-export from the Isle of Man any goo Is which have been imported into the said isle with licence of the commissioners of customs as aforesaid ; and it shall not be lawful to carry any such goods coastwise from one part of the said isle to another, except in vessels of 50 tons burden at the least, and in the eame packages in which such goods were imported into the said isle ; and it shall not be lawful to remove any wine from one part of the saitl isle lo another, by and except in such packages or in bottles. — J 10. Foreign Ooodt not to be exported to United Kingdom. — It shall not be lawful to export from the Isle of Man to any part of the United Kingdom any goods which are of the growth, produce, or manufac- ture of any foreign country. — $ 11. Ooodt imported or exported, ftc. contrary to Law forfeited, Sec — If any goods shall he imported into or exported from the Isle of Man, or carried coastwise from one part of the said isle to another part of the same, or shall be water borne, or brought to any wharf or oilier place with intent lo be waterborne, to he so exported or carried, or shall he removed iiy land within the said isle, contrary to any of the directions "r provisions of this act, the same, and the packages containing the same, shall he forfeited, together with all ships, vessels, or boats, and ail cattle and carriages used or employed therein ; and every person offending therein shall forfeit, fur every such offence, the sum of 10(1/., or the full amount of all ditties which would be payable in respect of such or similar goods, for home consumption of the same, in ihe United Kingdom, at the election of the commissioners of customs. — $ 12. Goods prohibited to be imported into the hie of Man.— The several sorts of goods enumerated or de- 172 MANGANESE— MANIFEST. scribed in the schedule herein-after contained, denominated " Schedule of Prohibitions," shall not be imported into the Isle of Man ; (that is to say,) Schedule of Prohibitions. Good*, the produce or manufacture of places-wrthin the limits of the spirits the produce of the British possessions in America, or of fh« United East India Company's charter; except from the United Cape of Good Hope: Kingdom : Rritish distilled spirits : Co'ton yarn, cotton cloth, linen cloth, glass manufactures, woollen All goods prohibited to be imported into the United Kingdom to be manufactures, unless bona fidt laden in and imported directly used or consumed therein, on account of the sort or description of from the United Kingdom: the same.— Sect. 13. Spirits of greater strength than 1 to 9 over hydrometer proof except Limiting the Quantity of Spirits, Tea, and Tobacco for Uses of Seamen. — If any decked vessel, bound from the Isle of Man to any port of Great Britain or Ireland, shall have on board for the use of the sea- men, any spirits exceeding the quantity of 5 gallon tor each seaman, or any tobacco exceeding 1 lb. weight for each seaman, or anytea exceeding 2 lbs. weight for the whole of the seaman on board such vessel, or if any open boat, bound from the Isle of Mm to any port of Great Britain or Ireland, shall have on board, for the use of the seamen, any spirits exceeding 1 quart for each seaman, or tiny tobacco exceeding { lb. weight for each seaman, or any tea exceeding 1 lb. weight for the whole of the seamen on board such boat, all such foreign spirits, tobacco, and tea respectively, together with the casks or packages containing the same, and also every such vessel or boat, together with all the guns, furni- ture, ammunition, tackle, and apparel thereof, shall be forfeited. — $ 14. Certificate fur Goods the Produce of the file of Jinn. — Before any °onds shall he shipped in the Isle of Man f >r exportation to the United Kingdom, as being the produce or manufacture of that island, proof eliall he made by the written declaration of some competent person, to the satisfaction of the collector and comptroller of the customs at the port of shipment, that such goods, describing and identifying the st me. are llf produce or the manufacture, as the case may he, of the said island, and in such de- claration shall he stated the name of the person by whom such goods are intended to be entered and shipped ; and such person, at the time of entry (not being more than 1 month after the date of such declaration) shall make and subscribe a declaration before such collector or comptroller, that the goods to be shipped in virtue of the entry are the same as are mentioned in such declaration ; and there- upon the collector and comptroller shall, on demand, give to the master of the ship in which the goods arc to be exported a certificate of such proof of produce, or of manufacture, having been made in respect of such goods, describing the same, and setting forth the name of the exporter, and of the exporting ship, and of the master thereof, and the destination of the goods ; and such certificate shall be received at the port of importation in the United Kingdom, instead of the certificate of the governor, lieutenant-governor, or commander-in-chief of the said island, heretofore required. — J 15. Management of Duties. — Section 16. relates to the appropriation of the duties, and is of no commer- cial importance. MANGANESE (Ger. Braunstein, Glasseise,- Du. Bruinsteen ,• Fr. Manganese, Maga- Icae, Savon du verre. • It. Man ganesia ,- Sp. Munganesia ,- Lat. Magnesia nigra, Mangane- sium), a metal which, when pure, is of a greyish white colour, like cast iron, and has a good deal or' brilliancy. Its texture is granular; it has neither taste nor smell ; it is softer than cast iron, and may be filed ; its specific gravity is 8. It is very brittle, and can neither be hammered nor drawn out into wire. Its tenacity is unknown. When exposed to the air, it attracts oxygen with considerable rapidity. It soon loses its lustre, and becomes grey, violet, brown, and at last black. These changes take place still more rapidly if the metal be heated in an open vessel. Ores of manganese are common in Devonshire, Somersetshire, &c. The ore of manganese, known in Derbyshire by the name of black ivadd, is remark- able for its spontaneous inflammation with oil. Oxide of manganese is of considerable use; it is employed in making oxymuriatic acid, for forming bleaching liquor. It is also used in glazing black earthenware, for giving colours to enamels, and in the manufacture of porcelain. It is the substance generally used by chemists for obtaining oxygen gas.— (Thomson's Chemistry, <$iC.) MANGEL WURZEL, or FIELD BEET (Yr. Bet t crave s ,■ Ger. Mangold Wurzel ,- It. Bi rt tola), a mongrel between the red and white beet. It has been a good deal cultivated in France, Germany, and Switzerland, partly as food for cattle, and partly to be used in dis- tillation, and in the extraction of sugar. Its culture in Great Britain is very recent; and Mr. Loudon questions whether it has any advantages over the turnip for general agricultural purposes. The preparation of the soil is exactly the same as for turnips, and immense crops are raised on strong clays. The produce per acre is about the same as that of the Swedish turnip : it is applied almost entirely to the fattening of stock, and the feeding of milch cows. — (Loudon's Ency. of Agriculture.) MANNA (Fr. Murine ,- Ger. Mannaesche ,- It. Manna), the concrete juice of the Frax- ittus ornits, a species of ash growing in the south of Europe. The juice exudes spontane- ously in warm dry weather, and concretes into whitish tears; but the greater part of the manna of commerce is obtained by making incisions in the tree, and gathering the juice in baskets, where it forms irregular masses of a reddish or brownish colour often full of impu- rities. Manna is imported in chests, principally from Sicily and Calabria. The best is in oblong pieces or flakes, moderately dry, friable, light, of a whitish or pale yellow colour, and in some degree transparent : the inferior kinds are moist, unctuous, and brown. It has a slight peculiar odour, and a sweet taste, with some degree of bitterness not very pleasant, and leaving a nauseous impression on the tongue. — (Thomson? 8 Dispensatory.) MANIFEST, in commercial navigation, is a document signed by the master, containing the name or names of the places where the goods on board have been laden, and the place or places for which Ihey are respectively destined; the name and tonnage of the vessel, the name of the master, and the name of the place to which the vessel belongs; a particular account and description of all the packages on board, with the marks and numbers thereon, the goods contained in such packages, the names of the respective shippers and consignees MANILLA. 173 as far as such particulars are known to the master, at. Arrobas. Arrolaa. Indigo, 1st ... 2.722 2d 3,102, 3d 310j 6,143* liquid • - - -24,9751 31.119 Sugar - ..... 6l7,737i Rice - ..... 1,074,170 Hemp - ..... 154,917 Oil, cocoa nut ..... 6,964 Tortoise shell, 1st - Arrolax, Coffee, clean ..... 14,624 Wax raw . . - • . 32 manufactured .... 964 999 Hides ...... 29,9,8 Horns ...... 303 Molhcr-o'-pearl shelli - ... \ 2Si Rum - - gallons 8,716 Sapan wood ..... 60,671 Tobacco ..... 4 ( 279 Eiclusive of bird's nests, pepper, mats, sharks' fins, biche da 245, 3d . . . 60T falzo - • 13j 35 Total value of imports in 1831, including specie - - 1,459,776 dollars. — of exports - - - - - - 1,303,621 — Amount of duties ------ 244,066 — In 1832, 136 ships arrived at Manilla, of which 35 were American, 34 English, and 53 Spanish. The Imports during the same year were, goods 1,204,894 dollars, and treasure 464,300 do., being together 1,669,194 dollars. The exports were, goods 1,531,540 dollars, treasure 317,990 do., together 1,849,530 dollars. It was believed that the crop of sugar in Luconia in 1833, would amount to about 2S,000 000 lbs. At this moment, the imports of British goods into the Philippines are estimated to amount to from 80,000*. to 100,000*. a year ; but we have no doubt that the opening the trade to China will very mate- rially Increase our intercourse with Manilla. Considering the great fertility and varied productions of the Philippines, and their pecu- liarly favourable situation for carrying on commerce, the limited extent of their trade, even with its late increase, may excite surprise. This, however, is entirely a consequence of the wretched policy of the Spanish government, which persevered until very recently in exclud ing all foreign ships from the ports of the Philippines — confining the trade between them and Mexico and South America to a single ship! Even ships and settlers from China were excluded. " Provisions," says La Perouse, " of all kinds are in the greatest abun- dance here, and extremely cheap; but clothing, European hardware, and furniture, bear an excessively high price. The want of competition, together with prohibitions and restraints p 2 174 MARBLE, MARITIME LAW. of every kind laid on commerce, render the productions and merchandise of India and China at least as dear as in Europe .'" Happily, however, this miserable policy, the effects of which have been admirably depicted by M. de la Perou.-e, has been materially modi- fied during the last few years. The events of the late war destroyed for ever the old colonial system of Spain ; and the ships of all nations are now freely admitted into Manilla and the other ports in the Philippines. An unprecedented stimulus has, in consequence, been given to all sorts of industry ; and its progress will no doubt become more rapid, according as a wider experience and acquaintance with foreigners makes the natives better aware of the ad- vantages of commerce and industry, and disabuses them of the prejudices of which they have been so long the slaves. The Monies, Weights, and Measures, used at Manilla, are nearly the same as in Spain. — (See Cadiz.) They have, however, this difference, — that they estimate weight by piastres: 16 piastres are supposed to = 1 lb. Spanish weight, though they are not quite so much; 11 ounces or piastres = 1 tale of silk; 22 ounces = 1 catty; 8 ounces =1 marc of silver; and 10 ounces = 1 tale of gold. 16 piastres or ounces = 15^ ounces avoirdupois; 100 catties = 1 picul = 133j lbs. avoirdupois. (Account of the Quantity and Value of the Produce exported from Manilla in 1837. Articles. By Foreign Vessels. By Spanish Vessels. Total. Price. Gross Amount. D U Bit. Doll. fljl. Sugar - It pieces 560 pieces 12 6,720 Mats .... 762 762 2 190 4 5P al • 2,012,638 65 1 20i MARBLE (Ger. Rus. and Lat. Marmor ; Du. Marnier ,• Fr. Marbre ,• It. Marmo ,• Sp. Marmot), a genus of fossils, composed chiefly of lime ; being a bright and beautiful stone, moderately hard, not giving fire with steel, fermenting with and soluble in acid menstrua, and calcining in a slight fire. The colours by which marbles are distinguished are almost innumerable. Some are quite black ; others, again, are of a snowy white ; some are greenish, others greyish, reddish, bluish, yellowish, &c. ; while some are variegated and spotted with many different colours and shades of colour. The finest solid modern marbles are those of Italy, Blankenburg, France, and Flanders. Great quantities of very beautiful marble have been lately discovered at Portsoy in Banffshire, and at Tiree and other places in the Western Isles. Kilkenny, in Ireland, has abundance of beautiful black marble inter- mixed with white spots, called Kilkenny marble. Derbyshire abounds in this mineral. Near Kem- lyn-hay, in Anglesea there is a quarry of beautiful marble, called verde di Corsica, from its also being found in Corsica. Its colours are green, black, white, and dull purple, irregularly disposed. Italy produces the most valuable marble, and its exportation makes a considerable branch of her foreign commerce. The black and the milk-white marble of Carara, in the duchy of Massa, are particularly esteemed. The marbles of Germany, Norway, and Sweden are very inferior, being mixed with a sort of scaly limestone. Marble is of so hard, compact, and fine a texture, as readily to take a beautiful polish. That most esteemed by statuaries is brought from the island of Paros, in the Archipelago: it was employed by Praxiteles and Phidias, both of whom were natives of that island ; whence also the famous Arunde- lian marbles were brought. The marble of Carara is likewise in high repute among sculptors. The specific gravity of marble is from 2700 to 2-b00. Black marble owes its colour to a slight mix- ture of iron. MARITIME LAW. By maritime law is meant the law relating to harbours, ships, and seamen. It forms an important branch of the commercial law of all maritime nations. It is divided into a variety of different departments ; such as those with respect to harbours, to the property of ships, the duties and rights of masters and seamen, contracts of affreightment, average, salvage, &c. The reader will find those subjects treated of under their respective heads. Sketch of the Progress of Maritime Law. — The earliest system of maritime law was compiled by the Rhodians, several centuries before the Christian era. The most celebrated MARITIME LAW. 175 authors of antiquity have spoken in high terms of the wisdom of the Rhodian laws: luck- ily, however, we are not wholly left, in forming our opinion upon them, to the vague though commendatory statements of Cicero and Straho. — {Cicero pro Lege Manilla ,• Strab. lib. xiv.) The laws of Rhodes were adopted by Augustus into the legislation of Rome; and such was the estimation in which they were held, that the Emperor Antoninus, being a Ti- cked to decide a contested point with respect to shipping is reported to have answered, that it ought to be decided by the Rhodian laws, which were of paramount authority in such cases, unless they happened to be directly at variance with some regulation of the Roman law. — (" Ego quidem mundi dominus, lex auttm maris legit id Rhodia, qua dt rebus nan- ticis prseseripta est, judicetur, quateniu nulla nostrarum legum adversatur. Hoc idem Divus quoqut Augustus judicavit") The rule of the Rhodian law with respect to average contributions in the event of a sacrifice being made at sea for the safety of the ship and cargo, is expressly laid down in the Digest (lib. xiv. tit. 2.) ; and the most probable conckv sion seems to be, that most of the regulations as to maritime affairs embodied in the compi- lations of Justinian have been derived from the same source. The regulations as to average adopted by all modern nations, are borrowed, with hardly any alteration, from the Roman, or rather, as we have seen, from the Rhodian law ! — a conclusive proof of the sagacity of those by whom they had been originally framed. The only authentic fragments of the Rhodian laws are those in the Digest. The collection entitled Jus Navale Rkodiorum, published at Bale in 1561, is now admitted by all critics to be spurious. The first modern code of maritime law is said to have been compiled at Amalphi, in Italy, — a city at present in ruins; but which, besides being early distinguished tor its commerce, will be for ever famous for the discovery of the Pandects, and the supposed invention of the mariner's compass. The Amalphitan code is said to have been denominated Tabula Arnal- phitana. But if such a body of law really existed, it is singular that it should never have been published, nor even any extracts from it. M. Pardessus has shown that all the authors who have referred to the Amalphitan code and asserted its existence, have copied the state- ment of Freccia, in his book De Subfeudis. — {Collection des Loix Maritimes, tome i. p. 145.) And as Freccia assures us that the Almalphitan code continued to be followed in Naples at the time when he wrote (1570), it is difficult to suppose that it could have en- tirely disappeared ; and it seems most prohable, as nothing peculiar to it has ever transpired, that it consisted principally of the regulations laid down in the Roman law, which, it is known, preserved their ascendancy for a longer period in the south of Italy than any where else. But, besides Amalphi, Venice, Marseilles, Pisa, Genoa, Barcelona, Valencia, and other towns of the Mediterranean, were early distinguished for the extent to which they carried commerce apd navigation. In the absence of any positive information on the subject, it seems reasonable to suppose that their maritime laws would be principally borrowed from those of Rome, but with such alterations and modifications as might be deemed requisite to accommodate them to the particular views of each state. But whether in this or in some other way, it is certain that various conflicting regulations were established, which led to much confusion and uncertainty ; and the experience of the inconveniences thence arising, doubtless contributed to the universal adoption of the Consolato del Mare as a code of mari- time law. Nothing certain is known as to the origin of this code. Azuni {Droit Mari- time de V Europe, tome i. pp. 414 — 439., or rather Jorio, Codice Ferdiuando, from whose work a large proportion of Azuni's is literally translated) contends, in a very able disserta- tion, that the Pisans are entitled to the glory of having compiled the whole, or at least the greater part, of the Consolato del Mare. On the other hand, Don Antonio de Capmany, in his learned and excellent work on the commerce of Barcelona — {Antiguo Comercio de Barcelona, torno i. pp. 170 — 183.), has endeavoured to show that the Consolato was com- piled at Barcelona; and that it contains the rules according to which the consuls, which the Barcelonese had established in foreign places so early as 1268, were to render their decisions. It is certain that the Consolato was printed for the first time at Barcelona, in 1502 ; and that the early Italian and French editions are translations from the Catalan. Azuni has, indeed, sufficiently proved, that the Pisans had a code of maritime laws at a very early period, and that several of the regulations in it are substantially the same as those in the Consoluto. But it does not appear that the Barcelonese were aware of the regulations of the Pisans, or that the resemblance between them and those in the Consolato is more than accidental ; or may not fairly be ascribed to the concurrence that can hardly fail to obtain among well-in- formed persons legislating upon the same topics, and influenced by principles and practices derived from the civil law. M. Pardessus, in the second volume of his excellent work already referred to, appears to have been sufficiently disposed, had there been any grounds to go upon, to set up a claim in favour of Marseilles to the honour of being the birthplace of the Consolato ,■ but he candidly admits that such a pretension could not be supported, and unwillingly adheres to Capmany'b opinion.—" Quoique Fran§ois," says he, " quoique portee par des sentimens de reconnois- sance, qu'aucun evenement ne sauroit afi'oiblir, a faire valoir tout ce qui est en faveur de 176 MARITIME LAW. Marseilles, je dois reconnoitre franchement que les probabilites l'emportent en faveur tie Barcelone." — (Tome ii. p. 24.) But to whichever city the honour of compiling the Consolalo may be due, there can be no doubt that its antiquity has been greatly exaggerated. It is affirmed, in a preface to the different editions, that it was solemnly accepted, subscribed and promulgated, as a body of maritime law, by the Holy See in 1075, and by the Kings of France and other potentates at different periods between 1075 and 1270. But Capmany, Azuni, and Pardessus, have shown in the clearest and most satisfactory manner that the circumstances alluded to in this preface could not possibly have taken place, and that it is wholly unworthy of the least attention. The most probable opinion seems to be, that it was compiled, and began to be introduced, about the end of the 13th or the beginning of the 14th century. And notwith- standing its prolixity, and the want of precision and clearness, the correspondence of the greater number of its rules with the ascertained principles of justice and public utility, gra- dually led, without the intervention of any agreement, to its adoption as a system of maritime jurisprudence by all the nations contiguous to the Mediterranean. It is still of high autho- rity. Casaregis says of it, though, perhaps, too strongly " Consulatus maris, in materiix maritimis, tunquam universalis consuetudo habens vim legis inviolabililer atltnda estapud omnas prooincias et nationes." — (Disc. 213. n. 12.) The collection of sea laws next in celebrity, but anterior, perhaps, in point of time, is that denominated the Roole des Jugements d'Okron. There is as much diversity of opinion as to the origin of these laws, as there is with respect to the origin of the Consolato. The prevailing opinion in Great Britain has been, that they were compiled by direction of Queen Eleanor, the wife of Henry II., in her quality of Duchess of Guienne; and that they were afterwards enlarged and improved by her son Richard I., at his return from the Holy Land : but this statement is now admitted to rest on no good foundation. The most probable theory seems to be, that they are a collection of the rules or practices followed at the principal French ports on the Atlantic, as Bordeaux, Rochelle, St. Malo, &c. They contain, indeed, rules that are essential to all maritime transactions, wherever they may be carried on ; but the references in the code sufficiently prove that it is of French origin. The circumstance of our monarch's having large possessions in France at the period when the Rules of Oleron were collected, naturally facilitated their introduction into England; and they have long en- joyed a very high degree of authority in this country. " I call them the Laws of Oleron," said a great civilian — (Sir Leo/ine Jenking, Charge to the Cinque Ports), "not but that they are peculiarly enough English, being long since incorporated into the customs and sta- tutes of our admiralties ; but the equity of them is so great, and the use and reason of them so general, that they are known and received all the world over by that rather than by any other name." Molloy, however, has more correctly, perhaps, said of the laws of Oleron, that " they never obtained any other or greater force than those of Rhodes formerly did ; that is, they were esteemed for the reason and equity found in them, and applied to the case emer- gent." — (DeJure Maritimo et Navali, Introd.) A code of maritime law issued at Wisby, in the island of Gothland, in the Baltic, has long enjoyed a high reputation in the North. The date of its compilation is uncertain ; but it is comparatively modern. It is true that some of the northern jurists contend that the Laws of Wisby are older than the Rules of Oleron, and that the latter are chiefly copied from the former ! But it has been repeatedly shown that there is not so much as the shadow of a foundation for this statement. — (See Pardessus, Collection, y laborious and learned persons, who selected the most valuable principles of all the maritime laws then existing; and which, in maiter, me- thod, and style, is one nf the most finished acts of legislation that ever was promulgated." The ordinance of 1681 was published in 1700, with a detailed ami most elaborate commen- tary by M. Valin, in 2 volumes, 4to. It is impossible which to admire most in this commen- tary, the learning or the sound good sense of the writer. Lord Mansfield was indebted for no inconsiderable portion of his superior knowledge of the principles of maritime jurispru- dence to a careful study of M. Valin's work. That part of the Code de Commerce which treats of maritime affairs, insurance, &c. is copied, with very little alteration, from the ordinance of 1681. The few changes that have been made are not always improvements. No system or code of maritime law has ever been issued by authority in Croat Britain. The laws and practices that now obtain amongst us in reference to maritime affairs have been founded principally on the practices of merchants, the principles laid down in the civil \\w, the Laws of (Heron and Wisby, the works of distinguished jurisconsults, the judicial deci- sions of our own and foreign countries, &c. A law so constructed has necessarily been in a progressive state of improvement; and, though still susceptible of material amendment, it corresponds, at this moment, more nearly, perhaps, than any other system of maritime law, with those universally recognised principles of justice and general convenience, by which the transactions of merchants and navigators ought to be regulated. The decisions of Lord Mansfield did much to fix the principles, and to improve and per- fect the maritime law of England. It is also under great obligations to Lord Stowell. The decisions of the latter chiefly, indeed, respect questions of neutrality, growing out of the con Aiding pretensions of belligerents and neutrals during the late war; but the principles and doctrines which he unfolds in treating those questions, throw a strong and steady light on most branches of maritime law. It has occasionally, indeed, heen alleged, — and the allega- tion is probably, in some degree, well founded, — that his Lordship has conceded too much to the claims of belligerents. Still, however, his judgments must be regarded, allowing for this excusable bias, as among the noblest monuments of judicial wisdom of which any country can boast. " They will be contemplated," says Mr. Serjeant Marshall, " with ap- plause and veneration, as long as depth of learning, soundness of argument, enlightened wisdom, and the chaste beauties of eloquence, hold any place in the estimation of mankind." — (On Insurance, Prelim. Disc.) The "Treatise of the Law relative to Merchant Ships and Seamen," by the late Chief Justice of the Court of King's Bench, does credit to the talents, erudition, and liberality of its noble and learned author. It gives, within a brief compass, a clear and admirable expo- sition of the most important branches of our maritime law ; and may be consulted with equal facility and advantage by the merchant or general scholar, as by the lawyer. Mr. Serjeant Marshall has entered very fully into some, and has touched upon most points of maritime law, in his work on Insurunce ,• and has discussed them with great learning and sagacity. The works of Mr. Justice Park, Mr. Holt, and a few others, are also valuable. Of the earlier treatises, the Lex Mercaturia of Malynes is by far the best; and, considering the period of its publication (1622), is a very extraordinary performance. 'Statutes; with respect to Importation and Exportation, Navigation, SfC — The preceding remarks refer merely to the principles, or leading doctrines, of our maritime law. These, however, have often been very much modified by statutory enactments ; and the excessive multiplication of acts of Parliament suspending, repealing, or altering parts of other acts, has often involved our commercial and maritime law in almost inextricable confusion, and been most injurious to the public interests. No one, indeed, who is not pretty conversant with the subject, would readily imagine to what an extent this abuse has sometimes been carried. From the Revolution down to 1786, some hundreds of acts were passed, each enacting some addition, diminution, or change, in the duties, drawbacks, bounties, and regulations previous- ly existing in the customs. In consequence the customs laws became so intricate and unin- telligible, that hardly one merchant in fifty could tell the exact amount of duty affecting any article, or the course to be followed either in entering or clearing out vessels; being obliged. to leave it entirely to the clerks of the Custom-house to calculate the amount of duties, am' to direct him how to proceed so as to avoid forfeiting the goods and the ship ! and yet, so powerful is the influence of habit in procuring toleration for the. most pernicious absurdities, that this monstrous abuse was allowed to go on increasing for 50 years after it had been de- nounced as intolerable. Mr. Pitt has the merit of having introduced something lik ■■ order into this chaos. Under his auspices, all the separate customs duties existing in 1787 were repealed, and new ones substituted in their stead ; consisting, in most instances, of the equi- valents, 60 far at least as they could be ascertained, of the old duties. In carrying this mea- 23 178 MARITIME LAW. sure into effect, the House of Commons passed no fewer than 3.000 resolutions. The regu- lations as to entries and clearances wore also simplified. The advantages resulting from this measure were very great; but during the war, so many- new duties and regulations were passed, that the necessity for a fresh consolidation hecame again very urgent, and was effected in 18 1 9. It was not, however, in the customs department only, or in the mere article of duties, that the merchant and ship owners were bewildered by the multiplicity of statutory regulations. There was not a single branch of the law regulat- ing their transaction that escaped the rage for legislation. Previously to 1822, no fewer than 113 statutes had been passed relating to the fisheries, and the makers and buyers of sails and cordage were supposed to be familiar with the various obscure and contradictory ons embodied in the Iweniy-thrte acts of parliament relating to these articles ! But tin enormity of the abuse will be rendered more apparent, by laying before the reader the following extract from the Report of the Lords' Committee on Foreign Trculex in 1820. " Before," say their Lordships, 'your committee proceed to advert to the points which have been the principal objects of their inquiry, they are anxious to call the attention of the House to the excessive accumulation and complexity of the laws under which the commerce of the country is regulated, with which they were forcibly impressed in the very earliest stasre of their proceedings. These laws, passed at different periods, and many of them aris- ing out of temporary circumstances, amount, as stated in a recent computation of them, to upwards of two thousand, of which no less than 1,100 were in force in 1815; and many additions have been since made. After such a statement, it will not appear extraordinary that it should be matter of complaint by the British merchant, that, so far from the course in which he is to guide his transactions being plain and simple — so far from being able to undertake his operations, and to avail himself of favourable openings, as they arise, with promptitude and confidence — he is frequently reduced to the necessity of resorting to the services of professional advisers, to ascertain what he may venture to do, and what he must avoid, before he is able to embark in his commercial adventures with the assurance of being secure from the consequences of an infringement of the law. If this be the case (as is stated to your committee) with the most experienced among the merchants, even in Eng- land, in how much greater a degree must the same perplexity and apprehension of danger operate in foreign countries and on foreign merchants, whose acquaintance with our statute book must be supposed to be comparatively limited, and who are destitute of the professional authority which the merchant at home may at all times consult for his direction 1 When it is recollected, besides, that a trivial unintentional deviation from the strict letter of the acts of parliament may expose a ship and cargo to the inconvenience of seizure, which (whether sustained or abandoned) is attended always with delay and expense, and frequently followed by litigation, it cannot be doubted that such a state of the law must have the most prejudi- cial influence both upon commercial enterprise in the country, and upon our mercantile relations and intercourse with foreign nations ; and perhaps no service more valuable could be rendered to the trade of the empire, nor any measure more effectually contribute to pro- mote the objects contemplated by the House, in the appointment of this committee, than an accurate revision of this vast and confused mass of legislation ; and the establishment of some certain, simple, and consistent principles, to which all the regulations of commerce might be referred, and under which the transactions of merchants engaged in the trade of the United Kingdom might be conducted with facility, safety, and confidence." — (p. 4.) Since this Report was printed, a very considerable progress has been made in simplifying and clearing up the statute law, on the principles laid down in it. The law as to shipping and navigation has been particularly improved. The principles laid down in the famous navigation acts of 1650 and 1600 were, indeed, sufficiently distinct and obvious; but when these acts were passed, there were above 200 statutes in existence, many of them antiquated and contradictory, which they did not repeal, except in so far as the regulations in them might be inconsistent with those in the new acts. But besides these, a number of statutes were passed almost in every session since 1660, explaining, limiting, extending, or modifying in one way or other, some of the provisions T>f the navigation acts; so that Ultimately there were questions perpetually arising, as to which it was very difficult to discover the precise law. On such occasions, recourse was often had to the courts; and the good sense and equity which generally characterised their decisions mitigated the mischievous consequences resulting from the uncertainty of the statute law, and even gave it the appearance of consis- tency. Latterly, however, this uncertainty has been well nigh removed. One of the bills introduced by Mr. Wallace for the improvement of the navigation laws repealed above twt hundred statutes ! and the new acts substituted in the place of those that were repealed wire drawn up with laudable brevity and clearness. But various alterations having been lently made in these acts, new statutes embodying the changes were passed last ses ■ion, The principal are — the 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 54., for the encouragement of British ship I navigation, which may he called the present navigation law — (see Natioatioh 1 . the :i & 4 Will. 4. c. 55., for the registry of British vessels — (see RbbistRt) ; tin '■'> iV 1 Will. 4. c. 52., containing the regulations with respect to importation and expor- MARK— MARSEILLES. 179 tation — {see Importation \m> I'vimiutation) ; and the act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 50., for regulating the trade \\\\\\ the British possessions abroad — (see Co lories ami Cokobtx Tiivdk). Mr. Hume, formerly of the customs, now of the Hoard of Trade; had the prin- cipal share in the compilation oi" these acts, which do honour to his sagacity, industry, and talents tor arrangement It may be worth while observing, that hardly a session passes without giving birth to more or fewer acts, making certain changes or modifications in those referred to above. Where these changes apply only to some particular emergency, without affecting the general prin- ciples or rules laid down in the statutes, there can he no doubt that they should be embodied in separate arts; but where any modification or alteration is to be made in the principles of tbi' law, the better w:iy. as it appears to us, would be to introduce it directly into the beading act on the subject — re-enacting it in an amended or altered form. In no other way is it pos- sible to preserve that unity and clearness which are so very desirable. The multiplication of statutes is a very great evil, not only from the difficulty of ascertaining the exact degree in which one modifies another, but from its invariably leading to the enactment of contra- dict, iry clauses. The property and transactions of merchants ought not to depend upon the subtleties and niceties of forced constructions, but upon plain and obvious rules, about which there can be no mistake. It would, however, he idle to expect that such rules can ever be deduced from the conflicting provisions of a number of statutes : those in the same statute arc not always in harmony with each other. MARK, on MARC, a weight used in several parts of Europe, for various commodities, especially gold and silver. In France, the mark, was divided into 8 oz. = 64 drachms = 192 deniers or pennyweights = 4,008 grains. In Holland, the mark weight was also called Troy weight, and was equal to that of France. When gold and silver are sold by the mark, it is divided into 24 carats. The pound, or livre, poids ilr mare, the weight most commonly used in retail dealings throughout France previously to t lie Revolution, was equal to 2 marcs, and consequently contained 16 oz. = 128 drs. = 33-1 den. = 9,216 grs. One kilogramme is nearly equal to 2 livres. — Subjoined is a Table of livres, jhihI.-- tk marc, from to 10, converted into kilogrammes. Any greater number may be learned by a simple multiplication and addition. lawns. A'/*;'. Livres. Kilnz. i Livres. Kilos;. I Livres. Kilns;. 1 = 04.95 4 = I-" ) 7 = 34>65 9 = 4-4066 2 = 09790 5 = 2-4475 * 8 = 3-9160 10 = 4-8951 3 = 14685 I 6 = 2-9370 | I MARK, a term sometimes used among us for a money of account, and in some other countries for a coin. The English mark is -fds of a pound sterling, or 13s. 4<;/. ; and the Scotch mark is -fds of a pound Scotch. The mark Lubs, or Lubeck mark, used at Ham- burgh, is a money of account, equal to 144ft/. sterling. MARKET, a public place in a city or town, where provisions are sold. No market is to be kept within 7 miles of the city of London ; but all butchers, victuallers, &c. may hire stalls and standings in the flesh-markets there, and sell meat and other provisions. Every person who has a market is entitled to receive toll for the things sold in it ; and, by ancient custom, for things standing in the market, though not sold ; but those who keep a market in any other manner than it is granted, or extort tolls or fees where none are due, forfeit the same. — (See Fairs.) MARSEILLES, a large commercial city and sea-port of France, on the Mediterranean, in lat. 43° 17' 49" N., Ion. 5° 22§' E. Population 125,000. Harbour.— The harbour, the access to which is defended by several strone fortifications, is in the centre of the city, forming a basin 525 fathoms in length, by about 150 do. in breadth. The tide is hardly sensible ; hut the depth of water at the entrance to ihe harbour varies from 16 to 18 feet, being lowest When the wind is N.W., and highest when it is S.W. Within the basin the depth of water varies from 19 to 'il feet, being shallowest on the north, and deepest on the south side. Dredgine machines are constantly at work to clear out the mud, and to prevent the harbour from filling up. Though not accessible to the largest class of ships, Marseilles is one of the best and safest ports in the world for moderate-sized merchantmen, of which it will accommodate above 1,000. Ships in the basin lie close alongside Hie quays ; and there is every facility for getting them speedily loaded and unloaded. The Isle de Kaltoieau, Pomegnes, and the strongly fortified islet or rock of If, lie W..S.W. from the port; the latter, which is the nearest to it, being only 1} mile distant, and not more than J of a mile from the projecting point of land to the south of the city. There is good anchorage ground for men-of-war and other large ships between the Isles de Raltoneau and Pomegues, to the west of the Isle d'lf. When coming from the south, it is usual to make the Isle de Planier, in lat. 43° 11' 54" N., Ion. 5° 13' 59" E. Alight-house erecledon this island is 131 feet high ; the flashes of the light, which is a revolv- ing one, succeed each other every J minnte, and in clear weather it may be seen 7 leagues off. Slops thai have made the Isle de Planier, or that of Le Maire, lying east from' it about 4i miles, steer northerly for the Isle d'lf, distant about 7 miles from each, and having got within J or j mile of it, heave i<> tor a pilot, who carries them into harbour: it is not, however, obligatory on ships to take a pilot on board ; but being obliged to pay for one whether they avail themselves of his services or not, they seldom dispense with them. The charge is 4 sous per ton in, and 2 sons per do. out, for French vessels, and the vessels of countries having reciprocity treaties with France. There is a light-house in the fort St. Jean, on the north side of the entrance to the port. The lazaretto, which is one of the best in Europe, lies a little to the north of the citv ; and there is an hospital on Raltoneau Island, for individuals whose health is dubious. With the exception of the above charge for pilotage, and the charges for such vessels as perform quarantine, there are no port charges on ships entering at, or clearing out from, Marseilles. Trade, >SfC. — Marseilles is a city of great antiquity, and has long enjoyed a very extensive commerce. Havre, partly, no doubt, from its being, as it were, the port of Paris, used to 180 MASTER. enjoy a greater share of the trade of France ; but, notwithstanding the increased importance of the former, it has recently been surpassed by Marseilles. The customs duties collected at Havre, in 1831, were 22,410,689 fr., whereas those collected at Marseilles during the same year, amounted to 25,813,063 fr. ; and, in 1832, the difference was still more decided irv favour of the latter. The following is a statement of the customs duties collected at Mar seilles during each of the 5 years ending with 1832 : — Fumes. ' Francs. 1828 - 24,315,130 1 1831 - 25.813,063 1839 - 23,914,947 1832 30,(378,584 1930 - 25,899,394 | This statement shows conclusively, that the trade of Marseilles is not only increasing rapidly, but that it is already very extensive. She is the grand emporium of the commerce between France and the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. To the Levant she exports colonial products, light woollens, silks, &c. To Italy, the exports consist of all kinds of colonial produce, woollens, linens, liqueurs, oil, hardware, and lead. The exports tc England consist of silks, brandy, madder, wines, verdigris, brimstone, soap, oil, preserved fruits, gloves, ribands, shawls, capers, anchovies, syrups, essences, perfumery, &c. The principal imports are, wheat from the Black Sea and the coast of Africa, sugar and coffee, cotton, indigo, fish, pepper, iron, lead, dye woods, hides, &c. Regulationo is to warehousing similar to those of Bordeaux ; which see. Arrivals. — In 1831 there arrived at Marseilles : — French ships from foreign countries from Frencli colonies coasters - from the fishery Foreign vessels - Totals Slips. 3,329 43 1,407 Tods. 82,612 20,469 176,353 1,851 185,941 5,731 472,236 The arrivals in 1832 were considerably greater, and among them were 77 British ships, of the burden of 12,831 tons. — (For further particulars see Jlnnvairc du Commerce Maiitoue for 1833, p. 247. ; Archive* (In Commerce, torn. i. p. 183. ; Administration des Douanes for 1831, p. 312. &c. The answers sent t»y the consul to the Circular Queries did not afford us any information of any sort whatever.) The Movies, Weights, and Measures of Marseilles are the uame as those of the rest of France. — (See Bordeaux.) MASTER, in commercial navigation, the person intrusted with the care and navigation of the ship. The situation of master of a ship is so very impoitant, that in some countries no one can be appointed to it, who has not submitted to an examination by competent persons, to ascer- tain his fitness for properly discharging its duties. —(See the famous French Ordonnance of 1681, tit. ii. art. 1. ; and the Ordonnance of the 7th of August, 1825. The latter speci- fies the various subjects on which candidates shall be examined, and the mode of conducting the examination.) But in this country the owners are left to their own discretion as to the skill and honesty of the master ; and although he is bound to make good any damage that may happen to the ship and cargo by his negligence or unskilfulness, he cannot be punished as a criminal for mere incompetence. No one is qualified to be the master of a British ship, unless he be a natural-born British subject, or naturalised by act of parliament, or a denizen by letters of denization ; or have become a subject of his Majesty by conquest, cession, &c, and have taken the oaths of allegiance ; or a foreign seaman who has served 3 years, in time of war, on board of his Majesty's ships. " The master is the confidential servant or agent of the owners; and in conformity to the rules and maxims of the law of England, the owners are bound to the performance of every lawful contract made by him relative to the usual employment of the ship." — (Abbott (late Lord Tcnterden) on the Law of Hhippinir, part ii. c. 2.) From this rule of law, it follows that the owners are bound to answer for a breach of con- tract, though committed by the master or mariners against their will, and without their fault. — {Id.) Nor can the expediency of this rule be doubted. The owners, by selecting a person as master, hold him forth to the public as worthy of trust and confidence. And in order that this selection may be made with due care, and that all opportunities of fraud and collusion may be obviated, it is indispensable that they should be made responsible for his acts. The master has power to hypothecate, or pledge, both ship and cargo for necessary repairs executed in foreign porta during the course of the voyage; but neither the ship nor cargo can be hypothecated for repairs executed at home. The master has no lien upon the ship for his wages, nor for money 'advanced by him for stores or repairs. In delivering judgment upon a case of this sort, Lord Mansfield said — " As to wages, there is no particular contract that the ship should be a pledge ; there is no usage in trade to that purpose ; nor any implication from the nature of the dealing. On the MASTER. 181 contrary, the law has always considered the captain as contracting personally with the owner ; and the case of the captain has, in that respect, been distinguished from that of all other persons belonging to the ship. This rule of law may have its foundation in policy, for the benefit of navigation ; for, as ships may be making profit and earning every day, it might be attended with great inconvenience, if, on the change of a captain for misbehaviour, or any other reason, he should be entitled to keep the ship till he is paid. Work done for a ship in England is supposed to be done on the personal credit of the employer : in foreign parts the captain may hypothecate the ship. The defendant might have told the tradesman, that he only acted as an agent, and that they must look to the owner for payment." The master is bound to employ his whole time and attention in the service of his employ- ers, and is not at liberty to enter into any engagement for his own benefit that may occupy any portion of his time in other concerns; and therefore, if he do so, and the price of such engagement happen to be paid into the hands of his owners, they may retain the money, and he cannot recover from them. — {Abbott, part ii. c. 4.) During war, a master should be particularly attentive to the regulations as to sailing under convoy ; for, besides his responsibility to his owners or freighters, he may be prose- cuted by the Court of Admiralty, and fined in any sum not exceeding 500/., and imprisoned for any term not exceeding 1 year, if he wilfully disobey the signals, instructions, or lawful commands of the commander of the convoy ; or desert it without leave. — (43 Geo. 3. c. 160.) Wilfully destroying or casting away the ship, or procuring the same to be done by the master or mariners, to the prejudice of the owners, freighters, or insurers ; running away with the cargo; and turning pirates ; are capital offences punishable by death. — (7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 29., and antecedent statutes.) After the voyage has been commenced, the master must proceed direct to the place of his destination, without unnecessarily stopping at any intermediate port, or deviating from the shortest course. No such deviation will be sanctioned, unless it has been occasioned by stress of weather, the want of necessary repair, avoiding enemies or pirates, succouring of ships in distress, sickness of the master or mariners, or the mutiny of the crew. — {Marshall on Insurance, book i. c. 6. § 3.) To justify a deviation, the necessity must be real, inevi- table, and imperious ; and it must not be prolonged one moment after the necessity has ceased. A deviation without such necessity vitiates all insurances upon the ship and cargo, and exposes the owners to an action on the part of the freighters. If a ship be captured in consequence of deviation, the merchant is entitled to recover from the owners the prime cost of the goods, with shipping charges ; but he is not entitled to more, unless he can show that the goods were enhanced in value beyond the sum above mentioned. If a merchant ship has the misfortune to be attacked by pirates or enemies, the master is bound to do his duty as a man of courage and capacity, and to make the best resistance that the comparative strength of his ship and crew will allow. By the common law, the master has authority over all the mariners on board the ship, — it being their duty to obey his commands in all lawful matters relating to the navigation of the ship, and the preservation of good order. But the master should, in all cases, use his autho- rity with moderation, so as to be the father, not the tyrant, of his crew. On his return home he may be called upon, by action at law, to answer to a mariner he has either beat or imprisoned during the course of the voyage ; and unless he show sufficient cause for chastising the mariner, and also that the chastisement was reasonable and moderate, he will be found liable in damages. Should the master strike a mariner without cause, or use a deadly weapon as an instrument of correction, and death ensue, he will be found guilty, according to the circumstances of the case, either of manslaughter or murder. — {Abbott, part ii. c. 4.) The master may by force restrain the commission of great crimes ; but he has no juris- diction over the criminal. His business is to secure his person, and to deliver him over to the proper tribunals on his coming to his own country. — (See art. Seamen.) If by shipwreck, capture, or other unavoidable accident, seamen, subjects of Great Bri- tain, be found in foreign parts, his Majesty's governors, ministers, consuls, or two or more British merchants, residing in such parts, may send such seamen home in ships of war, or in merchant ships homeward bound in want of men ; and if such ships cannot be found, they may send them home in merchant ships that are fully manned, but no such merchant ship shall be obliged to take on board more than four such persons for every 100 tons bur- then : and the master, upon arrival, and producing to the Navy Board a certificate from the governor, minister, consul, &c. where he shipped the men, and his own affidavit of the time he maintained them, shall receive 1*. 6d. per diem for all such seamen above his own com- plement of men.— (53 Geo. 3. c. 85.) A subsequent statute (58 Geo. 3. c. 38.) inflicts a penalty of 100/. on any master of a merchant vessel who shall refuse to take on board or bring home any seafaring man, a subject of Great Britain, left behind in any foreign country, upon being required to do so by the competent authorities. The master of a ship forcing any man on shore when abroad, or refusing to bring back Vol. II.— Q 182 - MASTER. such of the men he carried out with him as are in a condition to return, shall, upon conviction of such offence, be imprisoned for such term as the court shall award. — (9 Geo. 4. c. 31.) A penalty of 20/. is imposed on every master of a vessel, who, having, on account of sickness, left anv seafaring man at any foreign port or place, shall neglect or refuse to de- liver an account of the wages due, and to pay the same. — (58 Geo. 3. c. 58.) The law makes no distinction between carriers by land and carriers by water. The master of a merchatit ship is, in the eye of the law, a carrier ; and is, as such, bound to take rea- sonable and proper care of the goods committed to his charge, and to convey them to the place of their destination, barring; only the acts of God and the king's enemies. Every act which may be provided against by ordinary care renders the master responsible. He would not, for example, be liable for damage done to goods on board in consequence of a leak in the ship occasioned by the violence of the tempest, or other accident; but if the leak were occasioned by rats, he would be liable, for these might have been exterminated by or- dinary care, as by putting cats on board, &c. On the same principle, if the master run the ship in fair weather against a rock or shallow known to expert mariners, he is responsible. It' anv injury be done to the cargo by improper or careless stowage, the master will be liable. The master must not take on board any contraband goods, by which the ship and other parts of the cargo may be rendered liable to forfeiture or seizure. IVeither must he take on board anv false or colourable papers, as these might subject the ship to the risk of capture or detention. But it is his duty to procure and keep on board all the papers and docu- ments required for the manifestation of the ship and cargo, by the law of the countries from and to which the ship is bound, as well as by the law of nations in general, or by treaties between particular states. These papers and documents cannot be dispensed with at any time, and are quite essential to the safe navigation of neutral ships during war. — (See ■ Ships' Papers.) It is customary in bills of lading to insert a clause limiting the responsibility of the master and owners, as follows: — " The act of God, the king's enemies, fire, and every other dan- gers and accidents of the seas, rivers, and navigation, of whatever nature and kind soever, sore risk of boats, as far as ships are liable thereto, excepted." When no bill of lading is signed, the master and owners are bound according to the common law. The most difficult part of the master's duty is, when, through the perils of the sea, the attacks of enemies or pirates, or other unforeseen accidents, he is prevented from completing his voyage. If his own ship have suffered from storms, and cannot be repaired within a reasonable time, and if the cargo be of a perishable nature, he is at liberty to employ another ship to convey it to the place of destination. He may do the same if the ship have been wrecked and the cargo saved, or if his own ship be in danger of sinking, and he can get the cargo transferred to another,* and in extreme cases he is at liberty to dispose of the cargo for the benefit of its owners. But, to use the words of Lord Chief Justice Tenter- den, "the disposal of the cargo by the master is a matter that requires the utmost caution on his part. He should always bear in mind that it is his duty to convey it to the place of destination. This is the purpose for which he has been intrusted with it, and this pur- pose he is bound to accomplish by every reasonable and practical method. * What, then, is the master to do, if, by any disaster happening in the course of his voyage, he is unable to carry the goods to the place of destination, or to deliver them there? To this, as a general question, I apprehend no answer can be given. Every case must depend upon its own pe- culiar circumstances. The conduct proper to be adopted with respect to perishable goods, will be improper with respect to a cargo not perishable: one thing may be fit to be done with fish or fruit, and another with timber or iron : one method may be proper in distant regions, another in the vicinity of the merchant; one in a frequented navigation, another on unfrequented shores. The wreck of the ship is not necessarily followed by an impossibility of sending forward the goods, and does not of itself make their sale a measure of necessity or expedience: much less can the loss of the season, or of the proper course of the voyage, have this effect. An unexpected interdiction of commerce, or a sudden war, may defeat the * The most celebrated maritime codes, and the opinions of the ablest writers, have differed con- Blderably as to these points. According tn the Rbodian law (Pand. 1 10. § 1.) the captain is released from nil his engagements, if the ship, by the perils of the sea, and without any fault on his part, be- come incapable of proceeding on her voyage. The laws of Oleron (art. 4), and those of Wisby (arts. 16. 37. 55.), say that the captain may hire another ship; harmonising in tins respect with the present law of England. The famous French ordinance of 1081 (lit. I)u h'rci, art. 11.), and the Coile du Com- merce (art. 29li.), order the captain to hire unulher ship ; and if he cannot procure one, freight is to be du Iv for that part of the voyage which has been performed (pro rato ilineris peracti). Valin has ohji-rird to this article, and state's that practically it meant only that the captain must hire another ship If be would earn the whole freight. Emerigon (torn. i. p. 428.) holds that the captain, being the ■gi "i not onlj of the on ners of the ship, but also of the shippers of tin- goods on hoard, is bound, in lh ' absent e of both, tn us.- his best endeavours to preserve the goods, ami to do whatever, in the cir- cumstances, he thinks will most conduce to the interest of all concerned; or what it may be pre- sumed the shippers would do, were they present. This, which seems to be the best and wisest rule, ' laid down by Lords Mansfield and Tenterden, as stated above, and may be regarded as the law of Lngland on this point. MASTICH, MATE. 183 adventure and oblige the ship to stop in her course; but neither of these events doth of itself alone make it necessary to sell the cargo at the place to which it may be proper for the ship (o resort. In these and many other cases, the master may he discharged of his obligation to deliver the cargo at the place of destination; but it does not therefore follow that he is authorised to sell it, or ought to do so. What, then, is he to do ? In general, it may be said, he is to do thai which, a, ivi.se and prudent man will think most conducive to the benefit of all concerned. In so doing, he may expect to be safe, because the merchant will not have reason to be dissatisfied ; but what this thing will be, no general rules can teach. Some regard may be allowed to the interest of the ship, and of its owners; but the interest of the cargo must not be sacrificed to it. Trans-shipment for the place of destina- tion, if it be practicable, is the first object, because that is in furtherance of the original pur- pose : if that be impracticable, return, or a safe deposit, may be expedient. A disadvan- tageous sale (and almost every sale by the master will be disadvantageous) is the last thing he should think of, because it can only be justified by that necessity which supersedes all human laws." — {Law of Shipping, part iii. c. -i.) The master of a ship is liable for goods of which she is robbed in part; and the reason, as Lord Mansfield stated, is, lest room should be given for collusion, and the master should get himself robbed on purpose, in order that he might share in the spoil. The master is, however, entitled to indemnify himself out of the seamen's wages for losses occasioned by their neglect. If any passenger die on board, the master is obliged to take an inventory of his effects ; and if no claim be made for them within a year, the master becomes proprietor of the goods, but answerable for them to the deceased's legal representatives. Bedding and furniture become the property of the master and mate; but the clothing must he brought to the mast head, and there appraised and distributed among the crew. If a master die, leaving money on board, and the mate, becoming master, improve the money, he shall, on allowance being made to him for his trouble, account both for interest and profits. JVo master is to proceed on any voyage for parts beyond the seas without previously coming to an agreement, in writing, with his mariners, for their wages. If he do so, he shall forfeit, for every mariner so taken without a written agreement 5/. — (2 Geo. 2. c 36. § I.) The master of every vessel is required by the 2 Geo. 2. c. 36. to keep a regular account of the penalties and forfeitures due to Greenwich Hospital in consequence of the mariners' disobedience, to deduct the same from their wages, and to pay the amount thereof to the collector of the Greenwich Hospital duty, within 3 months after such deduction, upon pain of forfeiting treble the value thereof to the use of the said hospital. Masters of vessels laden with coals are directed by 6 Geo. 4. c. 107. § 120. to produce to any officer of customs demanding its production, a copy of the certificate originally delivered to them by the fitters or vendors, and to deliver the certificate to the collector or comptroller of the port to which the coals are carried. For the duty of the master, as respects Custom-house regulation, see the articles Impor- tation and Exportation, Quau a ntine, Smuggling, &c. ; and for a further discussion of this important subject, see the excellent work of Lord Tenterden on the Law of Ship- ping, part iii. c. 3. &c. ; Chitty on Commercial Law, vol. iii. c. 8. &c. ; and the articles Chartehparty, Freight, . enacts, that no Mediterranean (ass shall he issued for the benefit of any per- son as being an inhabitant of Malta or of Gibraltar but not being a person en:itied to be an owner of a British registered ship, unless such person shall have resided at Malta or Gibraltar, respectively, upwards of 15 yeais previously to the 10th of October, 1827. Mediterranean passes are ei'her granted for 1 voyage, or are attached to the ship's certificate of registry, and are in force so long as the said certificate. A stamp duty of 2/ is charged oa each pass so issued. When issued in the colonies, they continue in force for 12 mo::ths to colonial ships, and for 1 voyage to British ships supplied with them. The duty oo such passes is 5f. — We subjoin An Account of the Amount paid by Ships for the Mediterranean Pass ; stating the Number of Passes granted, the aearegate Amount received in the Years 1828-9, and to what Purpose the same was applied.— (Pari. Paper, No. 132. Sess. 1830.) For what Time in Force. 1828. One voyage ------ Attached to the ship's certificate of registry, and in force so long as the said certificate ...... Issued in the colonies, and in force for 12 mon'hs to colonial ships, and for 1 voyage to British ships supplied with them 1829. One voyage - Attached to the ship's certificate of registry, and in force 60 long as the said certificate ...... Issued in the colonies, and in force for 12 months to colonial ships, and for I voyage to British ships supplied with them Aggregate Charge on each. Deduct stamp duties 2 2 5 2 10 5 5 2 Deduct stamp duties L. t. d. 550 1,795 10 400 2,745 10 1,174 1,571 10 610 1,732 10 600 2,742 10 1,062 10 The foregoing fees for Mediterranean passes, after deducting the sums paid for stamps, have been applied, as all other fees are, in aid of the sum voted on the navy estimate for the contingent expenses of the Admiralty Office. MEMEL, a commercial town of East Prussia, in lat. 55° 41' 42" N., Ion. 21° 8' 14" E. Population 8,500. Memel is situated on the north-east side of the great bay, denomi- nated the Currische Haf, near its junction with the Baltic. It is, consequently, the princi- pal entrepot of the country traversed by the Niemen, and as such enjoys a pretty extensive commerce. Harbour— The harbour of Memel is large and safe ; but the bar at the mouth of the Currische Haf has seldom more than 17 feet water, and sometimes not more than 13 or 14 feet ; so that ships drawing more than 16 feet water are frequently obliged to load and unload a part of their cargoes in the roads, where the anchorage is but indifferent, particularly when the wind is N. or N.W. A light-house, ori- ginally 75, but now 100 feet in height, has been erected on the N.E. side of the entrance to the har- bour. The light, which is fixed and powerful, may be distinguished in clear weather at more than 29 miles distance. The outer buoy lies in 6 fathoms water, about a mile without the light-house, whicll bears from it, S.E. by E. J E. The channel thence to the harbour is marked by white buoys on tha north, and red on the south side. Three beacons to the north of the town, when brought into a line, lead directly into the harbour. Inasmuch, however, as the channel is subject to frequent changes, both in depth and direction, it is always prudent, on arriving at the outer buoy, to heave to for a pilot; but this is not obligatory; and the Prussian authorities have issued directions for ships enter*. a 2 24 186 MERCURY. ing without a pilot, which may be found in Mr. Nome's Sailing Directions for the Cattegat and Baltic, p. 36. Trade. — Timber forms the principal article of export ; for though that of Dantzic be considered bet- ter, it is generally cheaper, and almost always more abundant, at Memel. It comes principally from the estates of Prince Radzivil, and is floated down the river in rafts. Here, as at Dantzic, the best quality of all sorts of wood articles is called krohn, or crown, the 2d brack, and the 3d bracks brack. Large quantities of hemp and flax are also exported, as are bristles, hides, linseed (the finest fur crush- ing brought to England), wax, pitch and tar, &x. The exports of grain are sometimes very consider- able The wheat of Lithuania is reckoned the best. All flax and hemp shipped from Memel must be bracked, or assorted by sworn selectors. — (See Flax, and Hemp.) The imports consist principally of coffee, sugar, spices, dye woods, tobacco, rum, cotton stuffs and yarn, cutlery, wine, &.c. Merchants i generally send their bills to Konigsberg to be sold, charging their correspondents with 1 per cent, for bank commission, postages, &c. The navigation generally closes about the latter end of December, and opens about tint middle of March. .Notwithstanding the difficulties which our corn laws and timber duties throw in the way of our commerce with Prussia, we have a very extensive intercourse with Memel. Our imports consist principally of lir timber, and the ships that go out are mostly only partially loaded, or in ballast. We Bubjoin an Account of the Ships entering and clearing out from Memel in 1830, distinguishing those belonging to each Country, and those that entered and cleared out in Ballast. Flags. Ships. Lasts. Loaded. In Ballast. Ships. Lasts. Ships. Lasts. Danish - inward 22 1.744 7 541 15 1,203 outward 21 1,722 21 1,722 Mecklenburgh • inward 3 331 2 215 1 116 outward 3 331 3 331 Russian . inward 6 172 4 131 1 41 outward s 172 5 172 Swedish - * - inward 5 644 2 150 3 394 outward 5 544 3 394 2 150 Norwegian - inward 39 1,991 24 1,016 15 975 outward 39 1,991 39 1.991 British • • • inward 330 43,292 28 3,S11 302 39,451 outward 333 43.236 333 43,236 Hanoverian • • inward 35 2,314 10 416 25 1,898 outward 35 2,314 35 2,314 OMenburgh . inward 14 517 3 100 11 417 outward 14 517 14 517 Netherlands - • inward 32 2,286 5 251 27 2,035 outward 32 2,286 32 2,286 Prussian - - • . inward 212 28,254 59 7,549 153 20,705 outward Total - 213 28,264 212 2S.227 1 37 1,397 1 62.822 841 95,400 556 67,422 The Monies, Weights, and Measures of Memel are the same as those of Dantzic; which see. For further particulars see Oddy's European Commerce, pp. 220—224. ; Coulier sitr les Phares ; Fer- ber's JVetr Contributions to a Knowledge of the Commercial State of the Prussian Monarchy (Germ.), Berlin, 1832 ; Jacob's First Report on the Agriculture of the North of Europe, 4'C MERCURY, or QUICKSILVER (Fr. Vif argent ,- Ger. Quicksilber ,■ It. Argento vivo f Sp. Azogue ,- Rus. Rtut ,• Lat. Hydrargyrum ,■ Arab. Zibdkh ; Hind. Parah ; Sans. Pdrada). This metal was known in the remotest ages, and seems to have been em- ployed by the ancients in gilding, and separating gold from other bodies, just as it is by the moderns. Its colour is white, and similar to that of silver ; hence the names of hydrargy- rum, argentum viiwm, quicksilver, by which it has been known in all ages. It has no taste or smell. It possesses a good deal of brilliancy ; and when its surface is not tarnished, it makes a very good mirror. Its specific gravity is 13-568. It differs from all other metals in being always fluid, unless when subjected to a degree of cold equal to — 39°, when it be- comes solid. The congelation of mercury was first observed in 1759. — {Thomson's Che- mistry.') Mercury is found in various parts of the world. Among the principal mines are those of Almaden, near Cordova, in Spain ; Idria, in Carnolia ; Wolfstein and Morsfield, in the Palatinate; Guancave- lica, in Peru, &c. "Most of the ores of mercury are readily distinguished from those of any other metal ; in the 1st variety, globules of the metal are seen attached to or just starting on the surface, Which is at once a sufficient criterion, mercury being unlike every other metal ; in the 2d, by the fine white colour, and the action of the blow -pipe, which sublimes the mercury and leaves the silver behind ; the 3d, by its beautiful deep red tint, varying from cochineal to scarlet red, excepting in those termed hepatic cinnabars, which are generally of a lead grey ; the 4th, by its grey colour, its partial solubility in water, and its complete volatilisation by heat, emitting at the same time an arsenical odour. Be- fore the blow-pipe, these varieties burn with a blue flame and sulphurous odour, leaving more or less residue behind them, and which may consist of earthy matter, as silex and alumina, together with the oxides of iron and copper." — (.Joyce's Chem. Min.) Mercury is often adulterated by the admixture of lead, bismuth, zinc, and tin. When the metal quickly loses its lustre, is covered with a film, or is less fluid and mobile than usual, or does not readily divide into round globules, there is reason to suspect its purity. It is stated by Dr. A. T. Thomson, in his Dispensatory — a work generally distinguished for its accu- racy—that most of the mercury used in this country is brought from Germany. But whatever may have been the case formerly, this is not certainly true at present. On the contrary, of 314,286 lbs. of quicksilver imported in 183), none was brought from Germany ; 269,558 lbs. were brought direct from Spain, and 13,714 lbs. from Gibraltar; of the latter, a part was derived from Carniola, and a part from Spain ; 31,014 lbs. were brought from Italy. Only 192,310 lbs. were retained for home consump- tion in 1631— (Pari. Paper, No. 550. Sess. 1833.) Quicksilver is produced in several of the provinces of China. During the war, when the inter- course between Europe and America was interrupted, the price of quicksilver rose to such a height in the latter, that it answered to import it from China. But since the peace it has been regularly ex- ported to the latter. At an average of the 14 years ending with 1828, the imports of quicksilver by the English and Americans into Canton amounted to 648,085 lbs. a year, worth 310,262 dollars.— (Lords' Heportoflti31,p.6iT.) MILE— MINING COMPANIES. 187 There are 2 sulphurets of mercury ; the black or ethiopa mineral, and the red or cinnabar. When mercury and sulphur are triturated together in a mortar, the former gradually disappears, and the whole assumes the form of a black powder, denominated ethiopa mineral. 11" ibis powder be heated red-hot, it sublimes ; and on a proper vessel being placed to receive it, a cake is obtained, of a line reil colour, Which is called cinnabar. This cake, when reduced to powder, is well known in commerce b> the name of vermilion. Cinnabar may be prepared in various other ways. Calomel, or protochloride of mercury (mercurius dulcii), is the most useful of all the preparations Obtained from it. It is in the form of a (lull white, semi-transparent mass, having a specific gravity of 7-176, It is more generally employed, and with better elfect, than almost any other remedy in the whole ranee of the materia medica. Besides its uses in medicine, mercury is extensively employed in the amalgamation of the noble metals, In water-gilding, the making of vermilion, the silvering of looking-glasses, the making of ba- rometers and thermometers, &c. MILE, the usual measure of roads in England, being 8 furlongs, or 1,700 yards. MILK (Fr. Lait ; It. Lafle ; Lat. Lac), a fluid secreted by the female of all those animals denominated mammalia, and evidently intended for the nourishment of her offspring. The milk of every animal has certain peculiarities which distinguish it from all other milk. But the animal whose milk is most used by man, and with which, consequently, we are best acquainted, is the cow. The external character of all milk is that of a white opaque fluid, having a sweetish taste, and a specific gravity somewhat greater than that of water. When allowed to remain at rest, it separates into 2 parts ; a thick whitish fluid called cream, collecting in a thin stratum over its surface, and a more dense watery body, remaining be- low. .Milk which has stood for some time after the separation of the cream, becomes aces- cent, and then coagulates. When the coagulum is pressed gently, a serous fluid is forced out, and there remains the caseous part of the milk, or pure cheese. Butter, one of the most valuable animal products, is solidified cream, and is obtained artificially by churning. — (See Butter.) Milk has always been a favourite food of most European nations, and especially of the British. Larte et carne vivant, says Caesar of our ancestors; and the same articles still continue to form a large part of our subsistence. Mr. Middleton estimates (Agricultural Survey of Middlesex, 2d ed. p. 419.), that, in 1806, no fewer than 8,500 milch cows were kept for the supply of London and its environs with milk and cream ; and he estimates the average quantity of milk obtained from each cow at nine quarts a day, or 3,285 quarts a year, leaving, every deduction being taken into account, 3,200 quarts of marketable produce. If Mr. Middleton be well founded in these estimates, we may reasonably calculate the number of cows that are at present kept in London and its environs at 9,000, and their annual produce at 28,800,000 quarts of milk. Now, as milk is sold by the retailers at 4ii St John !>• 1 Rey 20 10 II - 6 2.SW English Mining Company 25 12 10 — 28 2 April, Oct. 6,155 in Company 100 48 — 12 MINIUM, on RED OXIDE OF LEAD, a tasteless powder of an intense red colour, often inclining to orange, and very heavy ; its specific gravity being 8-94. It is extensively used in the arts. MOCHA, the principal port in the Red Sea frequented by Europeans, in that part of Arabia called Yemen, about 40 miles to the north of the Strait of Bab-el-mandeb, lat. 13° 19' 30" N., Ion. 43° 20' E. Population variously estimated ; but may, perhaps, amount to from 5,000 to 7,000. It is encircled with walls, and indifferently fortified. Its appearance from (he sea is imposing. Mocha is situated on the margin of a dry sandy plain. It is built close to the shore, be- tween 2 points of land which project and form a bay. Vessels drawing from 10 to 12 feet water may anchor within this bay at about a mile from the town ; but large ships anchor without the bay in the roads, in 5 or 7 fathoms water — the grand mosque bearing E.S.E., and the fort to the south of the town S. by E., distant about two miles from the shore. The great article of export from Mocha is coffee, which is universally admitted to be of the finest quality. It is not possible to form any very accurate estimate of the quantity exported ; but we believe it may be taken at 10,000 tons, or perhaps more. The greater portion is sent to Djidda and Suez ; but there is a pretty large export to Bombay, and other parts of India, whence some is sent to Europe ; occasionally, however, the exports from Mocha and Ho- deida, direct for Europe, are very considerable. Besides coffee, the principal articles of export are, dates, adjoue, or paste made of dates, myrrh, gum Arabic, olibanum, senna (cassia senna'), sharks' fins, tragacanth, horns and hides of the rhinoceros, balm of Gilead, ivory, gold dust, civet, aloes, sagapenum, &c. The principal articles of import are, rice, piece goods, iron and hardware, &c. The ivory, gold dust, and civet, met with at Mocha, are brought from the opposite coast of Abyssinia ; whence are also brought slaves, ghee, &c. Tin- greater part of the foreign trade of Mocha is transacted by the Banians ; and it is much safer to deal with them than with either Turks or Arabs. Europeans pay a duty of 3 per cent, ad valorem on all goods imported by them from Europe, India, or China ; the duty being levied on the amount of the sales. The buyer pays brokerage, cooley and boat hire. All kinds of foreign goods are sold on credit, and the payment is made in 3 instalments, or at a certain day, according as may have been agreed on. Coffee is always paid for in ready money. On the sale of other goods, the produce of the country, a credit is given ; or if ready money be paid, a discount is allowed at the rate of 9 per cent. When goods are discharging, the master must furnish the Custom-house officer with a manifest, or account of the marks, numbers, and contents of each package. He then opens two or three bales, taken ;it random ; and if they correspond with the account delivered, no further examination is made ; but if they do not correspond, the whole bales are opened, and double duty is charged upon the excess. The quantities being thus ascertained, their value is learned from the account of sales rendered by the Beller, and the duty charged accordingly. In this respect there is nothing to object to at Mocha ; but a good deal of extortion is practised in the exaction of port charges, presents, &c, which may, however, ht" defeated by proper firmness. The port charges on ships, or three-mast vessels, may amount to about 400 Mocha dollars, and those on brigs to about half as much. Provisions are plentiful and cheap ; but water is dear : that in the vicinity being brackish and unwholesome, whatever is used for drinking, by all hut the poorest persons, is brought from Mosa, about 20 miles off. Fish are abundant and cheap, but not very good. Mine;/. — The current coins of the country are carats and conimassees : 7 carats = 1 commassee ; 60 commassees = 1 Spanish dollar ; 100 Spanish dollars = 12i Mocha dollars. Weights and Measures. — The commercial weights are — 15 Vakias = 1 Rottolo = 1 lb. 2 oz. avoird. 10 Maunds = 1 Frazel = 30 lbs. avoird. 40 Vakias = 1 Maund = 3 lbs. avoird. | 15 Frazels = 1 Bahar = 450 lbs. avoird. There is also a small maund of only 30 vakias : 1 Mocha bahar = 16.J- Bombay maunds ; 1 Mocha 192 MOGADORE— MOLASSES. baliar = IS Surat maunds ■— 15123 seers. Grain is measured by the kellali, 40 of which = 1 tomand, about 170 ll)s. avoirdupois. The liquid measures are 1G vakias = 1 nusseah ; 8 nussealis = 1 cuda, about 2 English wine gallons. The long measures are the guz = 25 English inches ; the hand covid = 18 inches, and the long iron covid = 27 inches. In compiling this article, we made use of Milburn's Oriental Commerce, and Elmore's Directory. Niebuhr has given a plan of the port of Mocha in his Voyage en Arabie, tome i. p. 348. ed. Anisl. 1776. He has also eiven some details as to its trade in his Description tie I'Arabie, p. 191. But the best ac- count we have seen of Mocha is in Hamilton's Account of the East Indies (vol. i. pp. 40—52), an accurate and valuable work. Burckliardt did not visit Mocha ; which is much to be regretted. MOGADORE, a sea-port town on the west coast of Morocco, lat. 31° 50' N., Ion. 9° 20' W. Population about 10,000. It is indifferently fortified; the country in the immediate vicinity is low, flat, sandy, and unproductive. Water is scarce and rather dear ; being either rain water collected and preserved in cisterns, or brought from a river about 1-^ mile distant. The port is formed by a small island lying to the southward of the town ; but as there is not more than 10 or 12 feet water in it at ebb tide, large ships anchor without, the long battery bearing E. distant H mile. The city of Morocco derives its most considerable supplies of European articles from Mogadore, from which it is distant about 4 days' journey (caravan travelling). The principal imports are, English woollen and cotton stuffs and hardware, German linens, tin, copper, earthenware, mirrors, glass, sugar, pepper, paper, and a variety of other articles. The exports principally consist of sweet and bitter almonds, gum Arabic, and other gums, bees' wax, cow and calf skins, ivory, ostrich feathers, gold dust, olive oil, dates, &c. Money. — Accounts are kept in nutkeels of 10 ounces ; the ounce being divided into 4 blankeels, and the blankeel into 24 lluce. From their proportion to the Spanish dollar, the blankeel may be valued at Id., the ounce at 4d., and the nutkeel or ducat at 3*. id. Wcirlits and Measures. — The commercial pound is generally regulated by the weight of 20 Spanish dollars ; and, therefore, 100 lbs. Mogadore weight, or the quintal, = 119 lbs. avoirdupois. The market pound for provisions is 50 per cent, heavier, or 1 lb. 12J oz. avoirdupois. The corn measures are for the most part similar to those of Spain, but there are considerable dis- crepancies. The cuhit, or canna, = 21 English inches, is the principal long measure. The most ample details with respect to the trade of Mogadore, and the trade and productions of Morocco in general, may be found in Jackson's Account of Morocco, c. 6, 7. and 13. ; see also Kelly's Cambist. MOHAIR (Ger. Mohr ,• Fr. Moire ,■ It. Moerro ; Sp. Mue, Muer), the hair of a variety of the common goat, famous for being soft and fine a's silk, and of a silvery whiteness. It is not produced any where but in the vicinity of Angora, in Asia Minor. The exportation of this valuable and beautiful article, unless in the shape of yarn, was formerly prohibited ; but it may now be exported unspun. The production, preparation, and sale of mohair have long engrossed the principal attention of the inhabitants of Angora; and it used to form an important article of Venetian commerce. — It is manufactured into camlets and other expen- sive stuffs. Hitherto but little has been imported into England. — (See, for further particu- lars. Tournefort, Voyage, du Levant, tome ii. p. 463., where there is a figure of the goat; and Urquhari on Turkey and its Resources, p. 1 84.) MOLASSES, or MEL ASSES (Fr. Strop de Sucre, Melasses; Ger. Syrup,- It. Mie- lazzo di zucchero ; Sp. Miel de azucar, Chancaca ,■ Port. Melasso, Assuror liquido ; Rus. Putoka sachar?wja), the uncrystallisable part of the juice of the sugar cane, separated from the sugar during its manufacture. It is of a brown or black colour, thick, and viscid ; has a peculiar odour, and a sweet empyreumatic taste. Molasses imported from the West India colonies and the Mauritius is charged, on being entered for home consumption, with a duty of 9s. a cwt. It is not, however, used in its original state, but is purchased by the sugar- bakers, who, when it is of an ordinary degree of strength, extract from it a coarse, soft species of sugar called bastards, and treacle. But it is obvious, inasmuch as the duty on molasses is fixed, that the duty on the sugar extracted from it will vary indirectly according to the quantity of saccharine matter which it contains ; and we understand that, in conse- quence, molasses is frequently imported so rich as to yield excellent crystallised sugar. We do not know whether the practice has been carried to such an extent as materially to injure the revenue ; but it seems pretty clear that the duty ought to be made to depend, in part at least, on the quality of the molasses, or on the quantity of saccharine matter which it con- tains, as well as on the weight. It is difficult, — unless advantage has been taken of the way in which the duty is assessed, to elude the sugar duties, — to account for the increased importation of molasses. About 8 gallons of proof spirit may, it is said, be obtained from a cwt. of molasses, such as has recently been imported ; but this depends, of course, wholly on the richness of the molasses. Part of the refuse that remains after refining muscovado sugar, is a sweet syrup, which, as Well is the syrup that remains after boiling molasses to obtain bastards, is called treacle. But the treacle obtained from the former is always preferred to that obtained from the latter, und fetches 2s. per cwt. more. Molasses is sometimes used in preparing the coarser sort of preserves ; and on the Conti- nent it is extensively used in the manufacture of tobacco. MONEY. 193 Account of the Quantities of Molasses imported, exported, and entered for Home Consumption since 1H-20, with the Kates of Duty thereon, and the Produce of the Duty. — (.Papers published by Board of Trade.) Years. Quantity Quantity Quantity cleared Duty on, from Duly on, from Nett Revenue. imported. exported. for Consumption. Foreign 1'artt*. British Possessions. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Per Cwt. L. J. d. 1 3 9 Ptr Cwt. L. 1820 39,991 39,991 6,314 10 13,908 1891 1.796 57,111 28,549 U82 76.298 749 78,367 — — 39,279 IKJ1 868 161,243 — — 80,622 l*'l assjoss 1,750 239,540 119,740 1825 35 i, iS2 883 3 12, 154 — — 166.255 18!6 290^04 5,488 279,749 — — 139,959 IS-27 3;u.t4i 928 4l2,t>65 — — 206,332 1829 510,71)8 441 381,761 190,852 |v ■■, 394,432 2,312 886,142 193.072 1830 250,648 4,824 337,588 — 9 159,683 1831 332.876 656 318,626 — — 156,883 565,685 1,121 566,689 — — 254,651 In 1S33, the consumption was, we understand, considerably larger. The imports of foreign mo- lasses are quite inconsiderable. MONEY. When the division of labour was first introduced, commodities were directly bartered for each other. Those, for example, who had a surplus of corn and were in want of wine, endeavoured to find out those who were in the opposite circumstances, or who had a surplus of wine and wanted corn, and then exchanged the one for the other. It is obvious, however, that the power of changing, and, consequently, of dividing employments, must have been subjected to perpetual interruptions, so long as it was restricted to mere barter. A. carries produce to market, and B. is desirous to purchase it; but the produce belonging to B. is not suitable for A. C, again, would like to buy B.'s produce, but B. is already fully supplied with the equivalent C. has to offer. In such cases — and they must be of constant occurrence wherever money is not introduced — no direct exchange could take place between the parties ; and it might be very difficult to bring it about indirectly.* The extreme inconvenience attending such situations must early have forced themselves on the attention of every one. Efforts would, in consequence, be made to avoid them ; and it y would speedily appear that the best or rather the only way in which this could be effected, was to exchange either the whole or a part of one's surplus produce for some commodity of known value, and in general demand ; and which, consequently, few persons would be inclined to refuse to accept as an equivalent for whatever they had to dispose of. After this commodity had begun to be employed as a means of exchanging other commodities, indivi- duals would become willing to purchase a greater quantity of it than might be required to pay for the products they were desirous of immediately obtaining ; knowing that should they, at any future period, want a further supply either of these or other articles, they would be able readily to procure them in exchange for this universally desired commodity. Though at first circulating slowly and with difficulty, it would, as the advantages arising from its use were better appreciated, begin to pass freely from hand to hand. Its value, as compared with other things, would thus come to be universally known ; and it would at last be used, not only as the com- mon medium of exchange, but as a standard by which to measure the value of other things. Now this commodity, whatever it may be, is money. An infinite variety of commodities have been used as money in different countries and pe- riods. But none can be advantageously used as such, unless it possesses several very peculiar qualities. The slightest reflection on the purposes to which it is applied, must, indeed, be sufficient to convince every one that it is indispensable, or, at least, exceedingly desirable, that the commodity selected to serve as money should, (1) be divisible into the smallest portions; (2) that it should admit of being kept for an indefinite period without deteriorating; (3) that it should, by possessing great value in small bulk, be capable of being easily trans- ported from place to place; (4) that one piece of money, of a certain denomination, should always be equal, in magnitude and quality, to every other piece of money of the same deno- mination ; and (5) that its value should be comparatively steady, or as little subject to vari- ation as possible. Without the first of these qualities, or the capacity of being divided into portions of every different magnitude and value, money, it is evident, would be of almost no use, and could only be exchanged for the few commodities that might happen to be of the same value as its indivisible portions, or as whole multiples of them: without the second, or the capacity of being kept or hoarded without deteriorating, no one would choose to exchange commodities for money, except only when he expected to be able speedily to re-exchange that money for something else : without the third, or facility of transportation, money could not be conveniently used in transactions between places at any considerable distance: without the fourth, or perfect sameness, it would be extremely difficult to appre- ciate the value of different pieces of money : and without the fifth quality, or comparative steadiness of value, money could not serve as a standard by which to measure the value * The difficulties that would arise on such occasions, and the devices that would be adopted to over- come them, hive been very well illustrated by Colonel Torrens, in his work on the "Production of Wealth,'* p. 291. Vol. II.— R 25 194 MONEY. of other commodities ; and no one would be disposed to exchange the produce of his indus- try for an article that might shortly decline considerably in its power of purchasing. The union of the different qualities of comparative steadiness of value, divisibility, dura- bility, facility of transportation, and perfect sameness, in the precious metals, doubtless, formed the irresistible reason that has induced every civilised community to employ them as money. The value of gold and silver is certainly not invariable, but, generally speaking, it changes only by slow degrees; they are divisible into any number of parts, and have the singular property of being easily reunited, by means of fusion, without loss ; they do not deteriorate by being kept ; and, from their firm and compact texture, they are very difficult to wear. Their cost of production, especially that of gold, is so considerable, that they possess great value in small bulk, and can, of course, be transported with comparative facility ; and an ounce of pure gold or silver, taken from the mines in any quarter of the world, is precisely equal, in point of quality, to an ounce of pure gold or silver dug from the mines in any other quarter. No wonder, therefore, when all the qualities necessary to constitute money are possessed in so eminent a degree by the precious metals, that they have been used as such, in civilised societies, from a very remote era. " They became universal mo- is M. Turgot has observed, "not in consequence of any arbitrary agreement among men, or of the intervention of any law, but by the nature and force of things." When first used as money, the precious metals were in an unfashioned state, in bars or ingots. The parties having agreed about the quantity of metal to be given for a commodity, that quantity was then weighed off. But this, it is plain, must have been a tedious and troublesome process. Undoubtedly, however, the greatest obstacle that would be experienced in early ages to the use of gold and silver as money, would be found to consist in the diffi- culty of determining the degree of their purity with sufficient precision ; and the discovery of some means by which their weight and fineness might be readily and correctly ascer- tained, would be felt to be indispensable to their extensive use as money. Fortunately, these means were not long in being discovered. The fabrication of coins, or the practice of impressing pieces of the precious metals with a stamp indicating their weight and purity, belongs to the remotest antiquity. — (Goguet Be VOrigine des Loix, A-c. tome i. p. 269.) And it may safely be affirmed, that there have been very few inventions of greater utility, or that have done more to accelerate the progress of improvement. It is material, however, to observe, that the introduction and use of coined money make no change whatever in the principle on which exchanges were previously conducted. The coinage saves the trouble of weighing and assaying gold and silver, but it does nothing more. It declares the weight and purity of the metal in a coin ; but the value of that metal or coin is in all cases determined by precisely the same principles which determine the value of other commodities, and would be as little affected by being recoined with a new denomination, as the burden of a ship by a change of her name. Inaccurate notions with respect to the influence of coinage seem to have given rise to the opinion, so long entertained, that coins were merely the signs of values ! But it is clear they have no more claim to this designation than bars of iron or copper, sacks of wheat, or any other commodity. They exchange for other things, because they are desirable articles, and are possessed of real intrinsic value. A draft, check, or bill, may not improperly, per- haps, be regarded as the sign of the money to be given for it. But that money is nothing but a commodity ; it is not a sign — it is the thing signified. Money, however, is not merely the universal equivalent, or marchandise banale, used by society : it is also the standard used to compare the values of all sorts of products ; and the stipulations in the great bulk of contracts and deeds, as to the delivery and disposal of property, have all reference to, and are commonly expressed in, quantities of money. It is plainly, therefore, of the utmost importance that its value should be preserved as invariable a-; possible. Owing, however, to improvements in the arts, the exhaustion of old mines and the discovery of new ones, the value of the precious metals is necessarily inconstant : though, if we except the effects produced in the 16th century by the discovery of the Ame- rican mines, it does not appear to have varied so much at other times as might have been anticipated. Great mischief has, however, been repeatedly occasioned by the changes that have been made in most countries in the weight, and sometimes also in the purity, of coins ; and since the impolicy of these changes has been recognised, similar, and perhaps still more extensive, disorders have sprung from the improper use of substitutes for coins. It is, in- deed, quite obvious, that no change can take place in the value of money, without propor- tionally affecting the pecuniary conditions in all contracts and agreements. Much, how- I the influence of a change depends on its direction. An increase in the value of is uniformly more prejudicial in a public point of view than its diminution : the latter, though injurious to individuals, may sometimes be productive of national advantage ; but such can never be the case with the former. — (See my Principles of Political Economy, 2d ed. pp. 500—504.) No certain estimate can ever be formed of the quantity of money required to conduct the business of any country; this quantity being, in all cases, determined by the value of mo- MONOPOLY, MONTEVIDEO. 195 ney itself, the services it has to perform, and the devices used for economising its employ- ment. Generally, however, it is very considerable ; and when it consists wholly of gold and silver, it occasions a very heavy expense. There can, indeed, be no doubt that the wish to lessen this expense has been one of the chief causes that have led all civilized and commer- cial nations to fabricate a portion of their money of some less valuable material. Of the various substitutes resorted to for this purpose, paper is, in all respects, the most eligible. Its employment seems to have grown naturally out of the circumstances incident to an ad- vancing society. When government becomes sufficiently powerful and intelligent to enforce the observance of contracts, individuals possessed of written promises from others, that they will pay certain sums at certain specified periods, begin to assign them to those to whom they are indebted ; and when the subscribers are persons of fortune, and of whose solvency BO doubt can be entertained, their obligations are readily accepted in payment of debts. But when the circulation of promises, or bills, in this way, has continued for a while, individuals begin to perceive that they may derive a profit by issuing them in such a form as to fit them for being readily used as a substitute for money in the ordinary transactions of life. Hence the origin of bank notes. An individual in whose wealth and discretion the public have confidence, being applied to for a loan, say of 5,000/., grants the applicant his bill or note, payable on demand, for that sum. Now, as this note passes, in consequence of the confi- denoe placed in the issuer, currently from hand to hand as cash, it is quite as useful to the borrower as if it had been gold ; and supposing that the rate of interest is 5 per cent., it will yield, so long as it continues to circulate, a revenue of 250/. a year to the issuer. A banker who issues notes, coins, as it were, his credit. He derives the same revenue from the loan of his written promise to pay a certain sum, that he could derive from the loan of the sum itself, or of an equivalent amount of produce ! And while he thus increases his own income, he, at the same time, contributes to increase the wealth of the public. The cheapest species of currency being substituted in the place of that which is most expensive, the su- perfluous coins are either used in the arts, or are exported in exchange for raw materials or manufactured goods, by the use of which both wealth and enjoyments are increased. Ever since the introduction of bills, almost all great commercial transactions have been carried on by means of paper only. Notes are also used to a very great extent in the ordinary busi- ness of society ; and while they are readily exchangeable at the pleasure of the holder for coins, or for the precise quantities of gold or silver they profess to represent, their value is maintained on a par with the value of these metals ; and all injurious fluctuations in the value of money are as effectually avoided as if it consisted wholly of the precious metals. In common mercantile language, the party who exchanges money for a commodity is said to buy ; the party who exchanges a commodity for money being said to sell. Price, unless where the contrary is distinctly mentioned, always means the value of a commodity esti- mated or rated in money. — (For a further account of metallic money, see the article Coin ; and for an account of paper money, see the article Banks.) MONOPOLY. By this term is usually meant a grant from the Crown, or other com- petent authority, conveying to some one individual, or number of individuals, the sole right of buying, selling, making, importing, exporting, &c. some one commodity, or set of com- modities. Such grants were very common previously to the accession of the House of Stuart, and were carried to a very oppressive and injurious extent during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The grievance became at length so insupportable, that notwithstanding the op- position of government, which looked upon the power of granting monopolies as a very valuable part of the prerogative, they were abolished by the famous act of 1624, the 21 Jac. I. c. 3. This act declares that all monopolies, grants, letters patent for the sole buying, selling, and making of goods and manufactures, shall be null and void. It excepts patents for fourteen years for the sole working or making of any new manufactures within the realm, to the true and first inventors of such manufactures, provided they be not contrary to law, nor mischievous to the state. It also excepts grants by act of parliament to any corpo- ration, company, or society, for the enlargement of trade, and letters patent concerning the making of gunpowder, &c. This act effectually secured the freedom of industry in Great Britain ; and has done more, perhaps, to excite the spirit of invention and industry, and to accelerate the progress of wealth, than any other in the statute book. MONTEVIDEO, a sea-port, and the capital of the republic of Uruguay, on the north bank of the Rio de la Plata, lat. 34° 54' 11" S., long. 56° l& 18" W. Population vari- ously estimated; but may probably be about 12,000. The town is built in the form of an amphitheatre, on a regular plan, and is well fortified. It has suffered much from the various revolutions to which it has been subject during the last 30 years. Montevideo is situated 2° 3' 33" W. of Cape St. Mary, the northern limit of the embouchure of the La Plata. Vessels from the north hound to Montevideo generally make this cape, entering the river between it and the small island of Lobos, in from 14 to 17 fathoms. The course is thence nearly W. to the Isle of Flores, on which is a lighthouse 112 feet above the level of the sea, with a revolving light. From Flores to Montevideo Is 16 miles in a direct line, and the course W. by S. by compass. A light-house, 475 feet above the level of the sea, has been erected on the summit of the Montevideo, "whence the town has its name. The latter is built on a projecting tongue of land, the port being on its S. side. This, which is the best on the La Flata, is a large circular basin open to the S. W. ; ge- 196 MONTEVIDEO. nerally the water is shallow, not exceeding from 14 to 19 feet, but the bottom being soft mud, vessels are seldom damaged by grounding. It should, however, be observed that the depth of water in the harbour, as well as throughout the whole of the Rio de la Plata, depends) very much on the direction and strength of the winds. The S. W. wind, called pamperos, blows right into the bay of Montevideo with much force, not unfrequently causing a rise of a fathom or more in the depth of water ! But it rarely occasions much damage to vessels properly moored with anchors to the S. W., S. E., and one to the N. — (Blunl's American Pilot, pp. 542—555. ; Coulter sur les Phares, &.C) Montevideo has a considerable commerce. The great articles of export consist of animal products, or of hides, pork and beef, tallow, bones, grease, wool, &c. The imports principally consist of Bri- tish cottons, woollens, and hardware, Hour, wine and spirits, linens, sugar, tobacco, boots and shoes, salt, &.C. The following tables give a view of the trade and navigation of Montevideo in 1834 and 1835. Imports. — The entire value of the different articles imported into Montevideo, in 1835, were esti- mated at 3,095,409 dollars. The quantities and value of some of the principal articles were aa follow : — Su^ar • Brandy Cam • Matte* Sail - Totacco Baize - Boots and Shoes Clogs English erjods wreck of the Silk stuffs Grey domestics Gioshams Stockings Shirtings Handkerchiefs. Cloth - Prints - Til.-i - Iron • Hardware Timber Furniture 19,691 barrels ..... 28,490 arrobas ..... 65.933 _..... 91,674 —..... 654i pipes, 7 barrels, 206 boxes 1,516 — 177 — 239 baskets 5,050? pipes, 1.629 boxes 765 — 288 — 75 baskets, 72 dozen barrels 42,767 arrobas ..... Cadiz and Cape Verd 28,157, other places - Brazil 14,001 arrobas. Paraguay 1,456, North American 178,864 yards and 151 pieces pellon Dollar 8. 180,520 41,243 7,559 dozen Fanegas value 7,868 2,420 7,874 varas, 8,230 yards, 25 pieces 20,t3l pieces, 5,860 varas - 156,032 yards ..... 12,685 dozen cotton, 1,397 dozen silk, 650 dozen woollen 12,452 pieces ..... 79,030 yards 32,026 pieces 391,500 - 4,139 quintals 59,029 Brazil, 29,339 North America, 11,824 other places 12,788 France, 27,003 — 15,518 — Value. Dollars, 198,440 31,348 29,000 167,365 66,796 83,219 221,763 99,t67 54,678 13I,0S4 112,130 78.009 56,303 73,136 57,136 50,931 2J.989 44,170 34,096 lb7,025 170.J75 7,030 1 10,369 13,730 12,S33 99,192 55,309 * Paragua tea. Account of the Quantities of the principal Articles exported from Montevideo in 1835. Ox and Cow Hides. Horse Hides. Horns. Hair. Wool. Tallow. Beef. Grease. Sheep Skins. Nutria Skins. Arrobas. Arrobas. Arrobas. Qtls. Arrobas. Dozen. Dozen. January ... 38,712 5,120 56,070 1,644 4,280 6,6 1 5 21,990 1,768 100 February 4,332 2,400 16,000 768 3,040 13,613 110 March .... 26,751 2,880 37,320 96 7,770 4,277 29.745 1,263 391 40 April .... 25,321 1.540 39,100 1,800 2,376 7,916 12.615 1,245 30 May .... 27,597 5,386 70.756 918 1,890 200 18,804 30 45 June .... 42,370 800 18,588 1,080 1,I(jO 600 20,199 1,830 2,400 July .... 64,688 7,502 64.401 2,156 3,070 4,923 19,872 1,550 607 41,910 1 1,541 36,028 2,0>8 2,71:0 2.0J-3 3,735 2.45S 78 September ... 51,180 4,074 79,088 960 2,710 1,47S 6,800 1,860 2,600 October .... 52,141 7,125 39,280 1,166 20 360 13,060 460 901 November - 19,641 1,001 45,075 1,322 ISO 458 13,450 750 193 December 26,157 10,050 47,882 2,872 7,800 760 24,b91 400 2,650 3,173 420,900 59,422 549.588 17,070 33,896 32,710 198,774 6,741 14,957 5,137 A Statement of the Number of Vessels, with their Tonnage and Crews, and the Total Invoice Value of their Cargoes, distinguishing the Countries to which they belonged, which arrived at and de- parted from the port of Montevideo in 1834. Countries. Arrived. Dep. rted. Vessels. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Vessels. Invoice Value of Cargoes. No. Tons. Crews. No. Tons. Crews. Great Britain - France Unite 1 States - Brazil Alt other nations 65 31 49 33 No re 12.339 7,135 I2..59 4,<*42 um of Shippi 664 433 611 423 1 L. f 538,962 64 29 67 39 11,916 1 6. '(0 11,077 4,886 645 394 533 482 1 <" C 515,925 DUTIES ON IMPORTS. In National or Foreign VzsteU^ at Montevideo. 1. Machinery, agricultural implements, instruments used in the arts and sciences, books, prints, and aps free. Silk, raw and wrought, laces, Monde, gold and silver embroi !ery, watches, jewellery, taltpetre, plaster of Paris, coal, timber, cotton fringe, and wooden hoops - - . . - - 5 per cent Powder, pitch, tar, rosin, and naval stores - - 13 — All raw materials, and manufactured articles, not in flu preceding enumeration - - 15 — - Sugar. Paraguay and China 'ea% cocoa, cassia lignpa, anl cinnamon, spices, drugs, and provisions inge- Deral 20 - Furnitijr-', pictures, looklng-glassee, musical in- s'ruiiieii'v all virts of carriages, carts, &c , and faarnnt, saddlea, horse's furniture (excepting horse cloths of the manufacture of the adjacent pro- DUTIES ON EXPORTS. In National or Foreign I'tsscls. Ox and cow hides, 2 reals, 2"> centisimoc, for reconnidor valuations of 1 dollar, and I per ceftt. consulado. Horse bides, I real for reconnidnr, on valuations of 5 reals for re- connidnr each, and 1 per cent, consulado. All other produce of the country pays 4 per cent, on the market value, and I percent, consul* in. Jerked aud salt beef, pork, &c. ; also all foreign goods that have paid the import duty, free. Gold and silver, coined or iu bullion, 1 per cent. VesscU. Foreign. National. Port Charges— Tonnage from beyond sea, 3 reals. 2 reals. Darin; loading and unloading both classes pa* I dollar per day. Pratique, with pilot - • . 8 dollars. 4 dollars. goal - - - - -2 - 2 - Without pilot - - • . 4 — 2 — MOROCCO, MOULMEIN. 197 DUTIES ON IMPORTS— continual. In National or Foreign Vessels, at Montevideo. vinces, which pay 15 per cent), ready made clothes, boots and shoes, liqueurs, brandy, wine, vinegar, ale and porter, cider, tobacco, and soap 25 per cent. Silt, 2 rials the f.mega, aiy lid par 2!k5 lbs, Hides Ot all classes, bur. horns, tallow, silver, and gold, in bullion or com - 1W6. A small charge is ma i.- far warehousing ami porterage on passing tioods may be bonded fur .m indefinite lieb time they are subject to a moderate warehouse relit. -i ilour pan as follows :— 8 dollars per barrel, when wheat is worth 2 to 3 dollars per fanega, alhiul in Dm, i barrel, when wheat is worth 3 to 5 dollars per fanega. 4 I II us,, when wheat is worth 5 to 7 dollars. 2 dollars, when wheat is worth 7 to 9 dollars. 1 dollar, win ii wheat exceeds 9 dollars. it:— 3 dollars per fanega. when wheat is worth 2 to 3 dollars per fanega. 2 dollars, when wheal is worth 3 to 6* dollars. 1 dollar, when wheat is worth 6 to 10 dollars. Nothing when wheal is worth above 10 dollars per fanega. Goods transhipped, or shipped out of bond, pay 2 per cent. Forego eon-Is. shipped in vessels of less than 150 tons burden, for rtaof the l ru. ... BuOalo hida, mu in Dumber • oetb, l,i.3s lo«. Malay camphor, til His. . ..'". in number il, 24 piculs 1 :l .1.. - • 9 1 do. 1 ,,,, Wdo ..... it i e goods .... ll.lnl.virr.UKl porcelain J. ». 1. !>■ • Neth 1 1. in. Is broad clotbs i picull .... ■■ cotton toods ... Medicine aud sundries rota] value orexport cargoes ■ F. Or, ai 12 F. per L. • ■ ■ L. ftor»i«. 3,247 3,224 18,926 10l,«68 18,936 20,S96 2,250 1.100 3,748 75,209 2,7S3 61,332 Camphor, 720 piculs .... Copper*, I0,74ido. .... Crape, 426 pieced .... Cotton cloth ..... Medicine ..... Provisions ..... Sakkie and soy .... Wheat, 207 bags .... Silks ..... Sundries ..... Total value of import cargoes - F. Or, at 12 F. per L. ■ - L. Florin*. t>'J,l20 617,662 17,748 13,978 2,270 3,327 14,332 2,158 31, MM 96,089 373,Si3 31,154 8 4 861,482 72,373 10 We may take this opportunity of stating that the last authentic account we have of any British ves- sel attempting to carry on an intercourse with Japan, was that of a ship commanded by Captain Gor- don, which touched at the entrance of the hay of Jed do, in 1818, in a voyage from Calcutta to Ochotsk. Captain Gordon remained at anchor 8 days, waiting the receipt of instructions from the capital, Jeddo, at the head of the bay, distant about tUU miles. lie requested leave to return next year for the pur- pose of carrying Oil trade, Which in civil but peremptory terms was refused. During the ship's stay, she was closely watched by ari immense police force, but liberal offers were made of supplies. The officers would permit no species of trade to be carried on, for which, however, the people evinced the greatest possible desire, admiring the broad cloths, calicoes, and other European articles which were shown them. The ship was visited by some thousand natives, chiefly from curiosity. Captain Gor- don thinks that a contraband trade, similar to that conducted by the European nations off the mouth of the < lan ton river, may be successfully carried on with Japan. — (Kampfer'a History of Japan, vol. i. p. 310—356; Krusen. stent's Voyage round the World, vol. i. p. 261. English translation; Cratofurd's Indian Archipelago, vol. iii. p. 297. ; Eoidenre of John Deans, Esq., First Report of the Select Committee on the Jlffairs of the East, India Company. 1830, p. 242. ; Personal communications from Copt. P. Gordon.) r, without form or fash ie size, shape, Dor valut and the latter roundisi though seldom, flat. Money.— Accounts are kept in taels, mace, and candarines ; 10 CKuUrii.es make 1 mace, and 10 once I tael. The Uutch reckon the Nangasacki iael at 3 1 2 florins, equal to about &?. 2d. The gold coins, current are the new and old itjib and cobangs, or copangs ; the silver cins are, the naudiogin, ilaganne, and koilama. They are in general very simple, s ruck plain, and unadorned, the greater part Of ilniii without any rim round Ihe margin, and most of them with- out any determined value. Fur this reason they are always weighed i v the merchants, who put their chop or stamp upon tbem, to signify thai the coin is stand ird weight and unadulterated. The new CObangs in oblong, rounded at the ends, and flat, about 2 inches broad, scarcely thicker than an English farthing, of a pale yellow colour ; the die nn nne side consists of several cross lines stamped ; aud at both ends there is a rectangular figure, with raised letters on it, and besides, a ninonlike figure, with a flower on it in relief. On the other side is a circular stamp with raised letters on i' ; nil within the margin, towards one end, two smaller sunk Stamps with raised letters, which are different on each cobang ; they al W mace. There are old cobaugs occasionally met Ch are of fine gold, somewhat broader than the new. The old Cobangs weigh 371 Dutch asen, or 275 English grains, and the gold is said to be 21 carats fine, which would give 44*. 74. fnr the Ihe old cobang. Hut (he Japanese coins are reckoned at ly 87 touch, which is 2022-25 carats; Ihis reduces the old eobanf to 4 V. iOd. The new cobangs weigh 180 grains; the gold is tra's tine, and the vake is 21a*. 3J. The ohan is thrice the cobang< The itjib is called by the Du'ch golden bean, and is made of pale gold, of a paraUelogramical figure and flat, rather thicker than a far- thing, with many raised letters on one side, and two figures or M-lief on the other; the value of this is 1-4 of a cobang. Thi re are old itjibs also to be met with ; these are thicker than the and in value 21 mace 5 candarines. in is a parallelogran leal flat silver coin, of twice the thick- 'llpenny, I inch Ion?, and 1-2 inch broad, and formed of fine silver. The edge is stamped with stars, and within the edges are raised dots. One side is marked all over with raised letters; and the olher, on its lower and larger moiety, is filled with raised letters, and at I e same time exhibits a double moonlike figure. Its value is 7 mace 5 candarines. Ilaganne aud kodama are denominat ion are known, which are neither of :. The former of I hese, however, are i, for the most part thick, but some- These pass in trade, but are always ighed in payment from one individual to another, and have a dull lea 'ten appearance. Seni is a denomination applied to piece* of copper, brass, and iron coin, which bear a near resemblance to our old farthings. They differ in size, value, and external appearance, hut are always cast, and have a square hole in the middle, by means of which they may be strung together; and likewise have always broad edges. Of these are current sjumen seni, of the value of 4 common seni, made of brass, and almost as broad as a halfpenny, hut thin. The common seni are the size of a farthing, and made of red copper ; 60 of them = I mace Doosa seni is a cast iron coin, in appearai.ee like the last, of the same size and value, but is so brittle, ihat it is easily broken by the hand, or breaks in pieces when let fall uu the ground. The seni are strung I0O at a time, or, as is most commonly the case, iJ6 on a rush. The coins in one of these parcels are seldom all of one sort, but generally consist of 2, 3, or more different kinds ; in this case, the larger ones are strung on first, and then follow the smaller; the number diminishing in proportion to the number of large pieces in the parcel, which are of greater value than the smaller. Ihe schuit is a silver piece, of 4 oz. 19 dwts. 16 grs. Troy, and is 11 oz tine, which gives its value 12, 5s. 3d. The Dame is Dutch, re- ferrinar, probably, to its shape, like a boat. Weights. — These are the candarine, mace, tael, catty, and picul, thus divided : 10 candar 10 mace 16 taels 100 cattic: s-\ s-\ mace. f _ \ 1 tael. (-) I catty. ) (. 1 picul. Thepicul = 125 Dutch pounds, or 133 1-3 lbs. avoirdupois. It is. however, said to weigh only 130 lbs. Measures.— The revenues of Japan are estimated by two mea- ' 10,000 kolfs, sures of rice, the man and kolf; the former contain each 3,000 hales or bags of rice. The long measure is the inc, which is about 4 Chinese cubits, or 6 1-2 feet English nearly ; and 2 1-2 Japanese leagues are computed by which various lumps to be about 1 Dutch league. —(MilLurn's Orient. Com.) NANKEEN, on. NANKIN (Ger. Nanking,- Du. Nanking* linnen ,■ Fr. Toile de Nankin ,■ It. Nanquino ,- Sp. Nanquina), a species of cotton cloth in extensive use in this country. It takes its name from Nanking, in China, a European corruption of Kyang-ning, the capital of the extensive province of Kyang-nan, where it is principally produced, and which also furnishes the greater part of the green teas. In the East, the manufacture is wholly confined to China.f The cloth is usually of a yellowish, though occasionally it is of a lilue colour, and of different degrees of fineness; the broad pieces, called "the Com- pany's nankeens," are generally of a better quality than the narrow ones, and are most esteemed. We produce imitation nankeens at Manchester and other places, but it must be * The imports of copper, in 1828, amounted to 11,631 piculs, worth 988,635 florins. t It was staled in lite former edition of this work, on authority that should not have heen trusted to, that the manufacture of nankeen was carried to great perfection in the East Indies : but, in point of fact, the manufacture is wholly unknown every where in the East except China. 26 202 NANTES, NAPLES. admitted that they are inferior to the Chinese ; neither lasting so long, nor holding their colour so well. The colour, whether yellow or blue, is given to the cloth by dyeing ; for, though yellow cotton wool be raised in the East, the cloth made from it is too glaring. The nankeens brought to England come under the genera! denomination of piece goods. They are mostly made into trowsers and waistcoats for gentlemen's wear during summer, ladies' pelisses, &c. In some of the more southern parts of Europe, the warmer parts of Asia and America, and the British settlements in Africa, nankeen is worn by both sexes all the year round, and constitutes the principal article of attire. It is worthy of remark, that while the Indian cotton fabrics have ceased to be imported, the imports of nankeen have gone on increasing. The quantities imported into Great Britain in the undermentioned years have been — Yean, Pieces. Years, Pieces. Years. Pieces. 173 — Do. on all o'hergoods - - . -2 — Do. on goods purchased - - • - 2 — Do. on receiving and forwarding Do. on attempting sales - - - - I Do. on re-sale of goods for the same account on which a purchasing commission has been charged 1 Do. on chartering vessels, or procuring charters - 3 Do. on collecting freights on chartered ships • 2 Do. on ships both inwardsand outwards - - 4 Do. on advances on letters of credit - .1 Do. on effecting insurances Do. On negotiating bills Do. on receiving and paying or remitting Del oredere on sales - - - -2 Do. on purchase of oil, not exceeding 3 months • I Do. do. do. not exceeding 6 do. - 2 Do. per underwriters Tares usually allowed by the Custom-bouse at Naples on the lead ing articles of importation :— Sugar, in hogsheads Do. in boxes or barrels - Do. in Brazil chests Do. in bags Loaves, in casks Do. extra for paper and strings Indigo Tin, in barrels, each Alum, in casks Wax, real tare and extra - Cod, and stockfish Coffee, in casks - Do. m bags, each Pepper — — 1-2 — • 12 percent. - 14 — • 18 to 20 — - 6 rottoli • real tare • 5 per cent. • real tare - 12 rottoli • 10 per cent. • 2 to 3 per cent. - I per cent. - ret! tare • 3 rottoli Pimento, in bags, each Cocoa — — Cocoa, in casks Cinnamon, in single bale • Do. in double bale • Cassia lignea, cochineal, and bark • 3 rottoli • 3 do. 2 ad. per cent. • for dust, real tare - 18 lbs. of Naples - 25 lbs. real tare. Insurance. — There are 4 or 5 companies fur the insurance of shins an! 1 tor lives. Their terms are generally higher than those of simi- lar establishments in London. Houses are never insured at Naples, their construction rendering fires very rare. The companies are es- tablished by royal authority, the shareholders being only liable for the amount of their shares. Banking.— The principal merchants of Naples are all, more or less, bankers, inasmuch as they advance money on letters of credit, and deal in foreign exchanges, and other financial operations. But the only banking establishment at present in exis'ence, is the Bank of the two Sic lies, founded by government, and guaranteed by the possession of landed property. It is not a bank for the issue of notes on credit, like the Bank of England, but for Iheir issue on deposits, somewhat on the principle ol the Bank of Hamburgh. Govero- rnent makes all its payments by means of notes or orde-s on the bank ; and they are issued to individuals for whatever sums they de- sire, on their payiog an equivalent sum of money to the bmk. i or orders form a considerable part of the circulating medium of Naples ; they are paid in c.ish on demand. Government has also established a discount otlice, where bills in- dorsed by 2 persons of good credit, and not at moie than 3 months' date, are discounted at 4 per cent. Prices of Provisions.— Naples is a favourable place for obtaining supplies of fresh, but not of salt provisions. 1 be prices of the prin- cipal articles of consumption in 1S31 were as follows: — Articles. Price per lb. Avoirdupois. In Neapolitan Grains. In English pence. Bread ... Flour Beef Mutton • Pork Cheese ... Butter Vegetables - Coffee Sugar ... 5 5 10 7 8 12 40 5 35 18 2 2 4 2. j 3 5 16 2 14 7 Warehousing System.— The whole policy, if we may so term it, of the Neapolitan government, with respect" to commerce, is such as would disgrace a nation of Hottentots. We believe that it is entitled to the not very enviable distinction of being Ihe only government that has suppressed, after having established, the warehousing. scala franca. This was done in IS24. At present, all goods im- ported into Naples, may be deposited, on paying rent, in warehouses under the joint locks of the king and the importer, for 2 years. At the end of the 1st year, half the import duty must be paid, and at the end of the 2d year, the other half. Whether sold or not, the goods must then be "removed from the warehouses j and in paying the duties no deduction is made on account of dan. age in the unless certain forms be compliel with, the observance of which is invariably reckoned more burdensome than the payment of the du- ties. No drawback of the import duty i$ allowed n1 class ; | and a u" monttn ere Ijl is given al the Cuatom-hoase for d ■ extent of 60,000, 40.000, 30,000, 20.SP0, and tS.000 duca vi duals according to the class in which they happen to be enrolled. But this is of li'tle importance. Unless 'he transactions of a mer- chant be very limited indeed, the duties he baa to pay amount to much more than the credit he is allowed. Tariff. — The duties on exports ami imports are such as might be expected from a government that haa suppressed the warehousing system, and allowed no drawbacks. The duties on most sorts of imported articles are extremely oppressive, being seldom under 100. and often above 150 per cent, ad valorem f On coffee, the duty is no less than L6*. 64. per cwt. ; on supar it varies from 41s. \0d. to 62s. 9d. per do.; on tea it is 30s. per ib>. ; on cotton wool it varies from 19*. hd. to 37s. id. p"r do. The duty on cotton and woollen manufactures is imposed by the piere, and is, in common with all the other duties, most exorbitant. Even the indispensable article, iron, is charged With 8s. 4d. per cwt. ! These duties have been imposed partly for ihe sake of revenue, and partly in the view of encouraging domestic manufactures ; bin they have not accomplished either- ob* Ject. The inordinate extent to which they have been carried has made them advantageous onlj to the smuggler, and ruinous to every one e!st . Bow, Indeed, could it be otherwise 1 The coast of Na- lusive of Sicily, stretches from 600 to 1,000 miles ; in many places it is uninhabited, while, in ft great number of others, the people are not more than half civilised. The facilities fbr smuggling are, therefore, incalculably great ; and, combined with the inadequate remuneration of the customs officers, and the ease with which they are corrupted, our only wonder is, not that smuggling is in a NAPLES. 205 thriving itate, but that there should be any legitimate traffic. The latter, indeed, is principally con- finedto Naples, where a stricter police la established j for it is uncommon to And the same art) cles, in country towns at no great distance from the capital, selling for | or | of 1 1«<- ir cost in it, in a country subjected to such a ci ncrcial code as Naples, the smuggler is a great public benefactor. He i-, in fact, the natural enemy of oppressive duties and prohibitions. These bring bim into the field, and make linn put forth all his 'enterprise and energy I and it is fortunate for the best interests of so- ciety that he is uniformly victorious over penalties, confiscations, racks, and gibbets; and cannot be defeated otbera iae thanbj the adoption of enlarged and liberal principles of commercial policy. The following are the duties charged on the principal articles of export from Naples:— Tariff of the principal Articles of Export in force at Naples in 1833. Cocoons (prohibited) Cotton --------- Horse hair -------- Wool -------- J oil in native vessels ------ in foreign vessels ------ Pitch, white --.___. black -------- Liquorice root ---____ Soda seed (prohibited) Sponges -------- Rags, white ------- coloured ------- Cork Argol --------- Saffron -------- Wheat, and all other sorts of grain, when export- ed In native vessels, pay no duty. exported in foreign vessels - Neapolitan. per cantaro per salma per cantaro per cantaro per lb. per cantaro Money. D. gr. 50 3 38 3 50 8 3 50 3 65 30 English. Weights. per cwt. per tun. per lb. per cwt. Money. £ >■ d. 1 10 9 8 11 3 4 10 4 6 3 4 2 3 6 8 15 2 5 8 11 5 8 2j 6] Of these duties, that on oil is by far the most objectionable. Even though Naples enjoyed a mono- poly of this valuable product, the imposition of such a duty would be wholly indefensible on any sound principle. But when, instead of having a monopoly of the oil trade, the Neapolitans are exposed to the keen competition of the Tuscans, Genoese, Spaniards, &c, the imposition of a heavy export duty is in the last degree destructive. It depresses that branch of industry which is more suitable for the country, and gives a corresponding encouragement to its extension amongst foreigners. The increaset duty of 30s. a tun on oil exported in foreign ships, is, of course, intended to force the employment of native ships : but it has not had, and could not rationally be expected to have, any such consequence ; its only effect being to tempt foreigners to make a corresponding addition to the duties on oil, when im- ported in Neapolitan ships. Such regulations are never, in fact, productive of any thing except injury to those by whom they are enacted. Of the direct taxes, the most productive is the fondiaria, or tax on rent, producing about 1,240,000Z. a year. It was imposed during the French occupation, when it was fixed at 25 per cent, of the sum re- ceived by the landlord. It has not been altered since ; and as agricultural produce has materially de- clined in price, while the rents of houses in towns, and particularly in the capital, have very much increased, its unequal pressure is much complained of. The perverse policy we have thus endeavoured to develope, cannot surely be permitted to exist much longer. The reasonings of Filangieri, and other able native economists, might have forewarned the government of the real nature of that system of prohibition and restriction which it lias laboured, ever since its restoration, to protect and defend. But facts have now taken the place of theory; and the results of the system are too obvious and too mischievous not to arrest the attention of every one, and to impress the necessity of some radical alterations. Considering the great natural fertility, varied productions, and advantageous situation of Naples and Sicily, it is plain that nothing more than freedom and security are required to render them among the richest, most industrious, and flou- rishing countries of Europe. But instead of this, the fetters laid upon commerce, by depriving the inhabitants of a market for their productions, and, consequently, of the most powerful stimulus to industry and invention, have paralysed all their energies, and immersed them in poverty, sloth and barbarism. It is surely high time that a different line of policy were adopted. At Naples, a reform may be undertaken without (which is not always the case elsewhere) endangering any thing either useful or valuable. Its political economy is such that no change, be it what it may, can make matters materially worse than they are at this moment. But it would be the easiest thing in the world to lay the foundations of a great and rapid improvement. To effect this, government has only to abolish all duties and restrictions on exportation, to establish the warehousing system, and to reduce the duties on importation to j or i part of their present amount. If it do this, it will add prodigiously to its own revenue ; at the same time that it will do 10 times more to rouse the dormant energies, and to aug- ment the wealth of its subjects, than it is possible to do by any other means. (A Statement of the Number and Tonnage of British Vessels which entered and cleared from the Port of Naples; distinguishing the Nature of their Cargoes, and the Trade with each Country, in the Year 1835.— (Consular Return.) Countries. Entered. Cleared. Vessels. Tonnage. Nature of Cargoes. Vessels. Tonnage. Nature of Cargoes. England Scotland Newfoundland Malta Sicily Leghorn Spain Gallipoli - Gibraltar - France Totals - 83 4 16 3 2 2 2 10,281 635 2,419 532 159 319 620 17 with nsh, 14 iron, 3 coals, 49 general Coals. Codfish. 1 in ballast, 1 coals, 1 wool and leather I sulphur, 1 general - 1 coals, 1 herrings Codfish 9 2 71 1 4 8 2 1 900 418 9,545 128 711 910 274 167 General. Grain. 37 in ballast, 29 part of general cargoes, 3 coals, 1 fish. In ballast. Ditto. 4 ditto, 4 part of cargoes. 1 ditto, 1 Indian corn. General and ballast 112 14.S65 98 13,053 Vol. II.— S 200 NAVIGATION LAWS. A Statement of the Number, Tonnage, and Crews of British and Foreign Vessels, distinguishing the Countries to which they belonged, which entered and cleared from the Port of Naples in the Year 1835. Flags. Naples. Entered. Cleared. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Vessels. Tons. Crews. 112 14,865 8S7 98 13,0.53 770 53 6.990 477 63 6,990 28 3,660 224 28 3,660 224 Spain 6 347 30 6 347 6 713 48 6 718 48 17 5 22 68 17 6J2 3 378 27 3 378 S3 S 1 American - 1 210 16 I 210 227 27,773 1,782 213 25,961 1,665 Sup.) In compiling this ar'ide, we have been much indebted to Ihe care- I them communicate any information from which any just idea can be fully drawn up, and generally judicious .instoen of the British con- formed of the state of industry and commerce, the financial system ml, (Mr. Good" in) to the Circular Querus, to MMmet,Ciiupd'CEil of the country, &c. The statistical works of the Neapolitans are tur It Rimanmt dt Naples, and to some valuable private communi- j equally defective. They are overlaid with insignificant details, while eati ,,j ' We have also loikeJ into the works of a good many Eng- i they neglect altogether, or pass slightly over, the more important I1.O1 an! fun- rn travellers, but seldom with much advantage. They departments. This may arise from (he jealousy of government; •refilled wii'h accounts, a thousand times repeated, of antiquities, but the English travellers can make no such apology for their Vesuvius, tin- churches, theatres, lazzaroni, &c; but few among defects. NAVIGATION LAWS. These laws form an important branch of Maritime Law. In this country they are understood to comprise the various acts that have been passed, defining British ships, the way in which such ships are to be manned, the peculiar privileges enjoyed by them, and the conditions under which foreign ships shall be allowed to engage in the trade of the country, either as importers or exporters of commodities, or as carriers of com- modities from one part of the country to another. Sketch of the History and Principles of the Navigation Laws. — The origin of the Navi- gation Laws of England may be traced to the reign of Richard II., or perhaps to a still more remote period. But, as no intelligible account of the varying and contradictory enactments framed at so distant an epoch could be compressed within any reasonable space, it is sufficient to observe, that, in the reign of Henry VII., two of the leading principles of the late naviga- tion law were distinctly recognised, in the prohibition of the importation of certain commo- dities, unless imported in ships belonging to English owners, and manned by English sea- men. In the early part of the reign of Elizabeth (5 Eliz. c. 5.), foreign ships were excluded from our fisheries and coasting trade. The republican parliament gave a great extension to the navigation laws, by the act of 1650, which prohibited all ships, of all foreign nations whatever, from trading with the plantations in America, without having previously obtained a licence. These acts were, however, rather intended to regulate the trade between the different ports and dependencies of the empire, than to regulate our intercourse with foreigners. But in the following year (9th of October, 1651) the republican parliament passed the famous Act of Navigation. This act had a double object It was intended not onlv to promote our own navigation, but also to strike a decisive blow at the naval power of the Dutch, who then engrossed almost the whole carrying trade of the world, and against whom various circumstances had conspired to incense the English. The act in question declared, that no goods or commodities whatever, of the growth, production or manufacture of Asia, Africa, or America, should be imported either into England or Ireland, or any of the plantations, except in ships belonging to English subjects, and of which the master and the greater number of the crew were also English. Having thus secured the import trade of Asia, Africa, and America, to the English ship owners, the act went on to secure to them, as far as that was possible, the import trade of Europe. For this purpose, it further enacted, that no goods of the growth, production, or manufacture of any country in Europe, should be imported into Great Britain, except in British ships, or in such ships as ivere the real property of the people of the country or place in ivhich the goods were produced, or from which they could only be, or most usually were, exported. The latter part of the clause was entirely levelled against the Dutch, who had but little native produce to export, and whose ships were principally employed in carrying the produce of other countries to foreign markets. Such were the leading provisions of (his famous act. They were adopted by the regal government which succeeded Cromwell, and form the basis of the act of the 12th Car. 2. c. 18., which continued, to a very recent period, to be the rule by which our naval inter- course with other countries was mainly regulated ; and has been pompously designated the Charla Maritima of England ! In the statute 12 Car. 2. c. 18., the clause against importing foreign commodities, except in British ships, or in ships belonging to the country or place where the goods were pro- duced, or from which they were exported, was so far modified, that the prohibition was made to apply only to the goods of Russia and Turkey, and to certain articles, since well known in commerce by the name of enumerated articles, leave being at the same time given to im- port all other articles in ships of any description. But this modification was of very little importance ; inasmuch as the enumerated articles comprised all those that were of most im- portance in commerce, as timber, grain, tar, hemp and flax, potashes, wines, spirits, sugar, NAVIGATION LAWS. 207 &c. Parliament seems, however, to have very speedily come round to the opinion that too much had been done in the way of relaxation ; and in the 14th of Charles II. a supplemental statute was passed, avowedly with the intention of obviating some evasions of the statute of the preceding year, which, it was affirmed, had been practised by the Hollanders and Ger- mans. This, however, seems to have been a mere pretence, to excuse the desire to follow up the blow aimed, by the former statute, at the carrying trade of Holland. And such was our jealousy of the naval and commercial greatness of the Dutch, that, in order to cripple it, we did not hesitate totally to proscribe all trade with them; and, to prevent the possibility of fraud, or of clandestine or indirect intercourse with Holland, we went so far as to include the commerce with the Netherlands and Germany in the same proscription. The statute of the i 1th Car. 2. prohibited all importation from these countries of a long list of enumerated commodities, under any circumstances, or in any vessels, whether British or foreign, under the penalty of seizure and confiscation of the ships and goods. So far as it depended on us, Holland, the Netherlands, and Germany were virtually placed without the pale of the com- mercial world ! And though the extreme rigour of this statute was subsequently modified, its principal provisions remained in full force until the late alterations. The policy, if not the motives which dictated these statutes, has met with very general eulogy. It has been said, and by no less an authority than Dr. Smith, that national ani- mosity did, in this instance, that which the most deliberate wisdom would have recommended. " When the act of navigation was made," says he, " though England and Holland were not actually at war, the most violent animosity subsisted between the two nations. It had begun during the government of the long parliament, which first framed this act, and it broke out soon after in the Dutch wars during that of the Protector and of Charles II. It is not im- possible, therefore, that some of the regulations of this famous act may have proceeded from national animosity. They are as wise, however, as if they had all been dictated by the most deliberate wisdom. National animosity at that particular time aimed at the very same object which the most deliberate wisdom would have recommended, — the diminution of the naval power of Holland, the only naval power which could endanger the security of England. The act of navigation is not favourable to foreign commerce, or to the growth of that opulence which can arise from it. The interest of a nation in its commercial relations to foreign nations is, like that of a merchant with regard to the different people with whom he deals, to buy as cheap and to sell as dear as possible. But the act of navigation, by diminishing the number of sellers, must necessarily diminish that of buyers; and we are thus likely not only to buy foreign goods dearer, but to sell our own cheaper, than if there was a more perfect freedom of trade. As defence, however, is of much more importance than opulence, the act of navigation is, perhaps, the wisest of all the commercial regulations of England." — (Smith's Wealth of Natiofis, vol. ii. p. 293.) It may, however, be very fairly doubted, whether, in point of fact, the navigation law had the effects here ascribed to it, of weakening the naval power of the Dutch, and of increasing that of this kingdom. The Dutch were very powerful at sea for a long period after the passing of this act ; and it seems natural to conclude, that the decline of their maritime pre- ponderance was owing rather to the gradual increase of commerce and navigation in other countries, and to the disasters and burdens occasioned by the ruinous contests the Republic had to sustain with Cromwell, Charles II. and Louis XIV., than to the mere exclusion of their merchant vessels from the ports of England. It is not meant to say, that this exclusion was altogether without effect. The efforts of the Dutch to procure a repeal of the English navigation law show that, in their apprehension, it operated injuriously on their commerce.* It is certain, however, that its influence in this respect has been greatly over-rated in this country. Excessive taxation, and not our navigation law, was the principal cause of the fall of profits, and of the decline of manufactures, commerce, and navigation, in Holland. " Les guerres," says the well-informed author of the Commerce de la Hollande, " terminees par les traites de Nimegue, de Ryswick, d'Utrecht, et enfin la derniere par le traite d'Aix-la- Chapelle, ont successivement oblige la Republique dc faire usage d'un grand credit, et de faire des emprunts enormes pour en soutenir les fraix. Les dettes ont surcharge I'etat d'une somme immense d'interets, qui ne pouvoient etre payes que par une augmentation exces- sive d'impdts, dont il a fallu faire porter la plus forte partie par les consommations dans tin pays qui n'a qu'un territoire extremement borne, et par consequent par l'industrie. II a done fallu faire encherir infiniment la main-d'oeuvre. Cette cherte de la main-d'oeuvre a non seulement restreint presque toute sorte de fahrique et d'industrie a la consommation inte- rieure, mais die a encore porte un coup bien sensible au commerce de fret, partie accessoire et la plus precieuse du commerce d'economie : car cette cherte a rendu la construction plus chere, et augmente le prix de tous les ouvrages qui tiennent a la navigation, meme de tous les ouvrages des ports et des magasins. II n'ctoit pas possible que ['augmentation du prix de la main-d'oeuvre ne donndt, malgre tous les efforts de l'economie Hollandoise, un avantage * In the treaty of Breda, agreed upon in 16G7, between the States General and Charles II., the hitter undertook to procure the repeal of the navigation law. But the subject was never agitated in either bouse of parliament. 208 NAVIGATION LAWS. sensible aux autres nations qui voudroient se livrer au commerce d'economie et a celui de fret." — (Tome ii. p. 211.) This extract, which might, were it necessary, be corroborated by others to the same effect from all the best Dutch writers, show that it is not to our navigation law, nor to the restric- tive regulations of other foreign powers, but to the abuse of the funding system, and the excess of taxation, that the decline of the commercial greatness and maritime power of Hol- land was really owing. Neither does it appear that the opinion maintained by Dr. Smith and others, that the navigation law had a powerful influence in augmenting the naval power of this country, rests on any better foundation. The taste of the nation for naval enterprise had been awakened, the navy had become exceedingly formidable, and Blake had achieved his victories, before the enactment of this famous law. So far, indeed, is it from being certain that the navigation act had, in this respect, the effect commonly ascribed to it, that there are good grounds for thinking it had a precisely opposite effect, and that it operated rather to dimi- nish than to increase our mercantile navy. It is stated in Roger Coke's Treatise on Trade, published in 1671 (p. 30.), that this act, by lessening the resort of strangers to our ports, had a most injurious effect on our commerce ; and he further states that we had lost, within 2 years of the passing of the act of 1650, the greater part of the Baltic and Greenland trades. — (p. 48.) Sir Josiah Child, whose treatise was published in 1691, corroborates Coke's state- ment : for while he decidedly approves of the navigation law, he admits that the English shipping employed in the Eastland and Baltic trades had decreased at least two thirds since its enactment, and that the foreign shipping employed in these trades had proportionally increased. — (Treatise on Trade, p. 89. Glasg. edit.) Exclusive of these contemporary authorities, it may be worth while to mention, that Sir Matthew Decker, an extensive and extremely well-informed merchant, condemns the whole principle of the navigation act ; and contends that, instead of increasing our shipping and seamen, it had diminished them both ; and that, by rendering the freight of ships higher than it would otherwise have been, it had entailed a heavy burden on the public, and been one of the main causes that had prevented our carrying on the fishery so successfully as the Dutch. — (Essays on the Causes of the Decline of Foreign Trade, p. 60. ed. 1756.) There does not seem to be any very good grounds on which to question these statements ; and they are at all events sufficient to show, that the assertions of those who contend that the navigation laws had a prodigious effect in increasing the number of our ships and sailors, must be received with very great modification. But, suppose that all that has been said by the apologists of these laws were true to the letter; suppose it were conceded, that, when first framed, the Act of Navigation was extremely politic and proper ; — that would afford but a very slender presumption in favour of the policy of supporting it in the present day. Human institutions are not made for immortality : they must be accommodated to the vary- ing circumstances and exigencies of society. But the situation of Great Britain and the other countries of Europe has totally changed since 1650. The envied wealth and commercial greatness of Holland have passed away : we have no longer any thing to fear from her hos- tility : and, " he must be, indeed, strangely influenced by antiquated prejudices and by-gone apprehensions, who can entertain any of that jealousy from which the severity of this law principally originated." London has become, what Amsterdam formerly was, the grand emporium of the commercial world — universi orbis terrarum emporium : and the real question which now presents itself for our consideration is, not what are the best means by which we may rise to naval greatness ? but — what are the best means of preserving that undisputed pre-eminence in maritime affairs to which we have attained ? Now, it does not really seem that there can be much difficulty in deciding this question. Navigation and naval power are the children, not the parents — the effect, not the cause — of commerce. If the latter be increased, the increase of the former will follow as a matter of course. More ships and more sailors become necessary, according as the commerce between different and distant countries is extended. A country, circumstanced like Great Britain in the reign of Charles II., when her shipping was comparatively limited, might perhaps be warranted in endeavouring to increase its amount, by excluding foreign ships from her har- bours. But it is almost superfluous to add, that it is not by any such regulations, but solely by the aid of a flourishing and widely extended commerce, that the immense mercantile navy we have now accumulated can be supported. But it is extremely easy to show, that to have continued to enforce the provisions of the old navigation law, in the present state of the world, would have been among the most effi- cient means that could have been devised for the destruction of our commerce. The wealth and power to which Britain has attained, has inspired other nations with the same envious feelings that the wealth of Holland formerly generated in our minds. Instead of ascribing our commercial and manufacturing superiority to its true causes, — to the comparative free- dom ol our constitution, the absence of all oppressive feudal privileges, the security of pro- perty, and the fairness of our system of taxation, — our foreign rivals contend that it has been entirely owing to our exclusive system ; and appeal to our example to stimulate their respec- tive governments to adopt retaliatory measures, and to protect them against British competi NAVIGATION LAWS. 209 tion. Thrsc representations have had the most injurious operation. In 1787, the American legislature passed an act, copied to the very letter from our navigation law, with the avowed intention of its operating as a retaliatory measure against this country. The Northern powers threatened to act on the same principle; and would have carried their threats into effect, but for timely concessions on our part. The same engines by which we laboured to destroy the trade of Holland were thus about to be brought, by what we could not have called an unjost retribution, to operate against ourselves. Nor can there be a doubt that, had we continued to maintain our illiberal and exclusive system, and refused to set a better example to others, and to teach them the advantage of recurring to sounder principles, we should have run a very great risk of falling a victim to the vindictive spirit which such short- sighted and selfish policy would have generated. For these reasons, it seems difficult to question the policy of the changes that have recently been effected in the navigation laws, partly by the bills introduced by Mr. (now Lord) Wal- lace in 1821, and Mr. Huskisson in 1825, and partly by the adoption of what has been called the Reciprocity System. Under the existing law (G Geo. 4. c. 109., see post.) the intercourse with all European countries in amity with Great Britain is placed on the same footing. The memorials of our former animosity, and of our jealousy of the prosperity of certain of our neighbours, have thus been abolished ; and the same law is henceforth to regu- late our commerce with the Continent. This uniformity, besides giving greater scope to mercantile operations, and extending our traffic with some of our most opulent neighbours, removes a great source of embarrassment and litigation ; at the same time that it detracts considerably from that selfish character which had been believed on the Continent, and not without considerable reason, to be the animating principle of our commercial system. The distinction between enumerated and non-enumerated goods is still kept up under the new regulations; but, instead of confining the importation of the former into the United Kingdom, either to British ships, or ships belonging to the country or place where the goods were produced, or from which they originally were exported, the new regulations permit that they may be imported either in British ships, in ships of the country of which the goods are the produce, or in ships of the country or place from which they are imported into England. This is a very important alteration. Under the old law, when a number of articles, the pro- ducts of different countries, but all of them suitable for importation into England, were found in a foreign port, they could not be imported except in a British ship, or separately in ships belonging to the different countries whose produce they were. This was obviously a very great hardship on the foreigner, without being of any real advantage to our own shipowners. When the foreign merchant had vessels of his own, it was not very probable he would permit them to remain unoccupied, and freight a British vessel ; and there were very few ports of any importance in which foreign bottoms might not be found, in which the article could be legally imported. The real effect of the old law was not, therefore, to cause the employment of British ships, but to oblige foreigners to assort their cargoes less advantageously than they might otherwise have done, and thus to lessen their intercourse with our markets. The new law obviates this inconvenience; while, by restricting the importation of European goods to ships of the built of the country of which the goods are the growth, or to those of the built cfthe country or port from which the goods are shipped, and which are wholly ownedby the inhabitants of such country or port, it is rendered very difficult for the people of a particular country to become the carriers of the produce of other countries to our markets. Another new regulation is of such obvious and unquestionable utility, that it is surprising it was not long ago adopted. By the old law, all articles, the produce of Asia, Africa, or America, could only be imported directly in a British ship from the place of their production. This law had already been repealed in so far as respected the United States, whose ships were allowed to import their produce directly into this country ; but it was maintained with respect to Asia, Africa, and South America. And hence, although a British ship happened to find, in South American, African, or Asiatic ports, articles, the produce of one or more of the other quarters of the globe, suitable for our markets, and with which it might have been extremely advantageous for her to complete her cargo, she was prohibited from taking them on board, under penalty of forfeiture and confiscation, not only of the goods, but also of the ship. The regulation has been repealed ; and it is now lawful for British ships to take on board all articles, the importation of which is not prohibited, on meeting with them in any Asiatic, African or American port. Lord Wallace originally intended to extend this prin- ciple to European ports, or to make it lawful for British ships to import all non-prohibited articles from wherever they might find them. But it was supposed by some, that foreign ships might be more cheaply navigated than ours; and that foreigners, taking advantage of this circumstance, would import the Asiatic, African, and American products required for our consumption into the contiguous continental ports, and would consequently restrict the employment of British ships to their carriage thence. We believe that these apprehensions were, in a great measure, visionary. But the law is so contrived as to avoid even the possi- bility of danger on this head ; such of the products of Asia, Africa, and America, as are required for home consumption, being, with a few trifling exceptions, inadmissible from Eu» s2 27 210 NAVIGATION LAWS. rope ; and only admissible when they are imported in British ships, or in ships of the country or place of which the goods are the produce, and from which they are brought. The only exceptions to this rule are articles from Asiatic and African Turkey imported from the Levant, and bullion. Besides the restrictive regulations already alluded to, it had been, a part of our policy to encourage the employment of our shipping, by imposing higher duties on. commodities im- ported into our harbours in foreign vessels, than were imposed on them when imported in British vessels ; and it had also been customary to charge foreign vessels with higher port and light-house duties, &c. This system was always loudly complained of by foreigners ; but we had little difficulty in maintaining it, so long as the state of our manufactures en- abled us to disregard the retaliatory measures of other powers. But the extraordinary increase that took place, since the commencement of the late war, in our manufactures for foreign consumption, and the necessity under which we were, in consequence, placed, of conciliating our customers abroad, led to the adoption of the reciprocity system. This system was first introduced into the trade with the United States. After the North American colonies had succeeded in establishing their independence, they set about framing a code of navigation laws on the model of those of this country. Among other regulations of a restrictive char- acter, it was enacted, that all foreign vessels trading to the United States should pay ^ a dollar, which was afterwards raised to a dollar, per ton duty, beyond what was paid by American ships ; and further, that goods imported in foreign vessels should pay a duty of 10 per cent, over and above what was payable on the same description of goods imported in American vessels. This law was avowedly directed against the navigation of Great Britain; though, as it was bottomed on the very same principles as our navigation laws, we could not openly com- plain of its operation. Under these circumstances, it would have been sound policy to have at once proposed an accommodation ; and instead of attempting to meet retaliation by retalia- tion, to have offered to modify our navigation law, in so far as American shipping was con- cerned, on condition of the Americans making reciprocal modifications in our favour. A different course was, however, followed. Various devices were fallen upon to counteract the navigation system of the Americans, without in any degree relaxing our own: but they all failed of their object ; and at length became obvious to every one that we had engaged in an unequal struggle, and that the real effect of our policy was to give a bounty on the impor- tation of the manufactured goods of other countries into the United States, and thus gra- dually to exclude both our manufactures and ships from the ports of the Republic. In consequence, the conviction of the necessity of making concessions gained ground progres- sively ; and it was ultimately fixed, by the commercial treaty agreed upon between Great Britain and the United States in 1815, that in future equal charges should be imposed on the ships of either country in the ports of the other, and that equal duties should be laid upon all articles, the produce of the one country, imported into the other, whether such im- portation were effected in the ships of the one or the other. The new States of South America were naturally anxious to establish a commercial ma- rine; and, to forward their views in this respect, they contemplated enacting navigation laws. But this intention was frustrated by the interference of the British government, who, without stipulating for any peculiar advantage, wisely offered to admit their ships into our ports on a fair footing of reciprocity, or on their paying the same charges as our own ships, on condition that they admitted British ships into their ports on a similar footing. Com- mercial treaties framed on this sound and liberal principle have since been entered into with most of these States. The principle of the reciprocity system having been thus conceded in the case of the intercourse with the United States, whose commercial marine is second only to that of Great Britain, it was not possible to refuse acting on the same principle in the case of such Euro- pean countries as might choose to admit our ships into their ports on a footing of equality.* The first demand of this sort was made on the part of the Prussian government, by whom an order in council was issued on the 20th of June, 1822, which made large additions to the port dues charged on all ships belonging to those nations which did not admit Prussian ships on a footing of reciprocity. The real object of this order was to injure the navigation of this country ; and it was speedily found that it had the desired effect, and that its opera- tion on British shipping was most pernicious. Under these circumstances, the British merchants and ship owners applied to our govern ment for relief. " We were assailed," said Mr. Huskisson, " with representations from all quarters connected with the shipping and trade of the country, against the heavy charges imposed upon British ships in the ports of Prussia. In such circumstances, what course did his Majesty's government take ? We felt it to be our duty, in the first instance, to com- * By the fourth section of the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 1. it is enacted, that his Majesty may, by an order in council, admit the ships of foreign states into our ports, on payment of the like duties that are charged on Itntisli vessels, provided that British ships are admitted into the ports of such foreign states, on payment of the like duties that are charged on their vessels. NAVIGATION LAWS. 211 municate with the Prussian minister in this country ; and our minister at Berlin was, I believe, also directed to confer with the Prussian government on the subject. I myself had a conference with the Prussian minister at this court, and I well recollect the substance of his reply to me : — ' You have,' he said, ' set us the example, by your port and light charges, and your discriminating duties on Prussian ships; and we have not gone beyond the limits of thai example. Hitherto, we have confined the increase of our port and tonnage charges to ships only ; but it is the intention of my government next year,' (and of this he showed me the written proof) 'to imitate you still more closely, by imposing discriminating duties on the goods imported in your ships. Our object is a just protection of our own naviga- tion • and so long as the measure of our protection does not exceed that which is afforded in vow ports to British ships, we cannot see with what reason you can complain.' " Against such a reply what remonstrance could we in fairness make to the Prussian go- vernment 1 We might have addressed ourselves, it may be said by some, to the friendly feelings of that government; we might have pleaded long usage in support of our discrimi- nating duties: we might have urged the advantages which Prussia derived from her trade with England. Appeals like these were not forgotten in the discussion ; but they were of little avail against the fact stated by the consul at Dantzic, — that ' the Prussian ship owners were all going to ruin.' " By others it may be said, ' Your duty was to retaliate, by increasing your own port charges, and discriminating duties on Prussian shipping.' I have already stated generally niv reasons against the policy of this latter course. We were not prepared to begin a sys- tem of commercial hostility, which, if followed up on both sides to its legitimate conse- quences, could only tend to reciprocal prohibition. In this state of things, more prudently, as I contend, we entered upon an amicable negotiation with the Prussian government, upon the principle of our treaty with the United States, — that of abolishing, on both sides, all discriminating duties on the ships and goods of the respective countries in the ports of the other. " Having concluded an arrangement with Prussia upon this basis, we soon found it ne- cessary to do the same with some other of the Northern states. Similar conventions were accordingly entered into with Denmark and Sweden. Reciprocity is the foundation of all those conventions : but it is only fair to add, that they contain other stipulations for giving facility to trade, and from which the commerce of this country, I am confident, will, in the result, derive considerable advantage." — (Mr. Huskissons Speech, 12th of May, 1826, on the State of the Shipping Interest.) This statement shows conclusively, that the establishment of the reciprocity system, with respect to which so violent a clamour was raised, was not a measure of choice, but of neces- sity. In the state in which our manufactures are now placed, we could not afford to hazard their exclusion from a country into which they are annually imported to a very large extent. So long as the Prussians, Swedes, Danes, &c. chose to submit to our system of discriminat- ing duties on foreign ships, and on the goods imported in them, without retaliating, it was no business of ours to tell them that that system was illiberal and oppressive. But when they found this out without our telling them ; and when they declared, that unless we mo- dified our restrictions, they would retaliate on our commerce, and either entirely exclude our commodities from their markets, or load those that were imported in British ships with pro- hibitory duties; should we have been justified, had we refused to come to an accommoda- tion with them ] Were we to sacrifice the substance to the shadow ? — to turn away some of our very best customers, because they chose to stipulate that the intercourse between them and us should be conducted either in their ships or in ours, as the merchants might think best ? Our government had only a choice of difficulties ; and they wisely preferred adopting a system which has preserved free access for the English manufacturer to the markets of Prussia, and to the English ship owners an equal chance with those of Prussia of being employed in the traffic between the two countries, to a system that would eventually, and at no distant period, have put an end to all intercourse between the two countries, and which had already subjected it to great difficulties. It was said by the ship owners, and others opposed to the late alterations, that the Prus- sians can build, man, and victual ships at a cheaper rate than we can do ; and that the ultimate effect of the reciprocity system would, consequently, be to give them a decided superiority in the trade. But, admitting this statement to be true, still, for the reasons alrealy given, it is pretty evident that the policy we have pursued was, under the circum- stances of the case, the best. Had we refused to establish the reciprocity system, we must have submitted to be entirely excluded from the markets of the United States, Prussia, &c. In grasping at what was beyond our reach, we should thus have lost what we were already in possession of. We should not only have injured our ship owners, by getting them for- cibly excluded from the ports of many great commercial states, but we should have done an irreparable injury to our manufacturers, — a class which, without undervaluing the ship owners, is of incomparably more importance than they. Although, therefore, no doubt could be entertained with respect to the statements of the ship owners as to the comparative 212 NAVIGATION LAWS. cheapness of foreign shipping, that would be no good objection to the measures that have been adopted. But these statements, though probably in some respects true, were certainly much exaggerated. In comparing the cost of British and foreign shipping, it is usual to estimate it by the tonnage: but this is a very false criterion; for, while foreign ships are accurately measured, our ships are measured so that a vessel of 150 tons register generally carries 220 tons of a mixed cargo, and a vessel registered at 400 tons seldom carries less than 600. If this difference be taken into account, it will be found that the Prussians, and other Northern nations, from whom the greatest danger was apprehended, have no considera- ble advantage in the cheapness of their ships ; and it is generally admitted that ships built in the ports on the Baltic will not last the time, nor bear the wear and tear, that ships built in this country or France will do. The wages of American seamen are higher than ours ; and it is stated by those engaged in the shipping trade, that the wages paid by the Northern ship owners are about as high as in England, and that their crews are larger in proportion to the burden of the ship. The difference in the cost of victualling must be immaterial, for, in all distant voyages, our ships procure provisions and stores of all sorts at the same rate as the foreigner.* On the whole, therefore, it would appear that the alarm with respect to the apprehended decay of our shipping was in a great degree, if not entirely, imaginary. And while the late modifications in the navigation laws were imperiously required by a just regard to our manufacturing and commercial interests, there are no good grounds for think- ing that they will be injurious to our shipping. Abstract of an Act entitled for the Encouragement of British Shipping and Navigation. 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 54. This act shall come into and be and continue in full force and operation, from and after the 1st day of September, 1S33. — } 1. Ships in which only enumerated Goods of Europe maybe imported— T\\e several sorts of goods herein- after enumerated, being the produce of Europe, viz. masts, timber, boards, tar, tallow, hemp, flax, currants, raisins, figs, prunes, olive oil, corn or grain, wine, brandy, tobacco, wool, shumac, madders, madder roots, barilla, brimstone, bark of oak, cork, oranges, lemons, linseed, rape seed, and clover seed, shall not be imported into the United Kingdom to be used therein, except in British ships, or in ships of the country of which the goods are the produce, or in ships of the country from which the goods are imported. — J 2. Plans from which only Goods of Asia, Africa, or America may be imported. — Goods, the produce of Asia, Africa, or America, shall not be imported from Europe into the United Kingdom, to be used therein, except the goods herein-after mentioned ; (that is to say,) Goods, Ihe produce of places within the limits of the East India Com. pany's charter, which fhaving been imported from those places into Gibraltar or Malta in British ships) may he imported Gibraltar or Malta Goods taken by way of reprisal by British ships : Bullion, diamonds, pearls, rubies, emeralds, and other jewels or pre- cious stones.— Sect. 3. Goods, the produce of the dominions of the Emperor of Moroco which may be imported from places in Europe withir rt Straits of Gibraltar: Goods, the produce of Asia or Africa, which (having been brought into places in Europe wilhin the Straits of Gibraltar, from or lliruiEh places in Asia or Africa within those Straits, and not I ■)■ way of the Atlantic Ocean) may be imported from places in Europe within the Straits of Gibraltar : Ships in which only Goods of Jlsia, Africa, or America may be imported. — Goods, the produce of Asia, Africa, or America, shall not be imported into the United Kingdom, to be used therein, in foreign ships, unless they be the ships of the country in Asia, Africa, or America, of which the goods are the pro- duce, and froui which they are imported, except the goods herein-after mentioned ; (that is to say,) Goods, the produce of the dominions of the Grand Seignior, in Asia I ported from the dominions of the Grand Seignior iu the Levant or Africa, which may be imported from his dominions in seas, in ships of his dominions : Europe, in ships of his dominions: Bullion.— Sect. 4. Raw silk and mohair yarn, the produce of Asia, which may be im- I Manufacture deemed Produce.— AN manufactured goods shall be deemed to be the produce of the country of which they are the manufacture. — y a crew, whereof :i litis at least are British seamen: and if such ship be employed in a coasting voyage from one part of the United Kingdom to another, or in a voyage between the United Kingdom and the islands of Guernsey, Jer- sey Alderney, Bark, or Man. or from one of the s iid inlands to another of them, or from one pari of either of them to another oftne same, or be employed in fishing on the coasts of the United Kingdom or of any of the Baid islands, then the whole of the crew shall be British Beamen.— } 12. favour of Vessels under IS Tons Burden, ire.— All British-built boats or vessels under 15 tons burden, wholly owned and navigated by British subjects, although not registered as British ships, B ha|| be admitted to be British vessels, in all navigation in the rivers and upon the coasts of the United Kingdom, or of the British possessions abroad, and not proceeding over sea, except within the limns of the respective colonial governments within which the managing owners of such vessels re- spectively reside ; and all Bi itish-built bouts or vessels wholly owned and navigated by llritish suh- it exceeding the burden of 30 tons, and not having a whole or a fixed deck, and being employed solely iii tisliinj; on the banks ami shores of Newfoundland and of the parts adjacent, or on the batiks and shores of the provinces of Canada. i\ova Scotia, or New Brunswick, adjacent to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, or on the north of Cape. Canso or of the islands within the same, or in trading coastwise Within l he said limits, shall be admitted to be British boats or vessels, although not registered, so long boats or vessels shall he solely so employed. — $ 13. Honduras Ships to be as British, in Trade with United Kingdom and Colonies in JJvierka.— All ships l.ii ill in the British settlements at Honduras, and owned and navigated as British ships, shall be en- UUed to the pri\ Ueges of British registered ships in all direct trade between the United Kingdom or the British possessions in America and the said settlements ; provided the master shall produce a certifi- , ate under the hand of the superintendent of those settlements, that satisfactory proof has been made before him that such ship (describing the same) was built in the said settlements, and is wholly owned by British subjects J provided also, that the time of the clearance of such ship from the said settle- meuts for every voyage shall be endorsed upon such certificate by such superintendent.— J 14. any Foreign Country to be of the Built of , or Prize to such Country ; or British-built, and owned and navigated In/ Subjects of' the Country.— No 'ship shall he admitted to be a ship of any particular country, unless Bhe be of the built of such country ; or have been made prize of war to such country; or have been forfeited to such country under any law of the same, made for the prevention of the slave ii condemned as such prize or forfeiture by a competent court of such country ; or be British- built vii.it having been a prize of war from British subjects to any other foreign country) ; nor unless she be navigated by a master who is a subject of such foreign country, and by a crew of whom :'-4ths ai lea si are subjects of such country ; nor unless she be wholly owned by subjects of such country usually residing therein, or under the dominion thereof: provided always, that the country of every ship shall be deemed to include all places which are under the same dominion as the place to which. such ship belongs. — $ 15. Master and Seamen not British, unless natural-born, or naturalised, Sec.— No person shall be qualified to be a master of a British ship, or to be a British seaman within the meaning of Ihis act, except the natural-bom subjects of his Majesty, or persons naturalised by any act of parliament, or made deni- zens by letters of denization ; or except persons who have become British subjects by virtue of con- quest or cession of some newly acquired country, and who shall have taken the oath of allegiance to his Majesty, or the oath of fidelity required by the treaty or capitulation by which such newly ac- quired country came into his Majesty's possession; or persons who shall have served on board any of bis Majesty's ships of war in time of war for the space of 3 years; provided always, that the natives of places within the limits of the East India Company's charter, although under British dominion, shall not, upon the ground of being such natives, be deemed to be British seamen: pro- vided always, thai every ship (except ships required to be wholly navigated by British seamen) which shall be navigated by 1 British seaman, if a British ship, or 1 seaman of the country of such ship, if a t M ign ship, for every 20 tons of the burden of such ship, shall be deemed to be duly navigated, although the number of other seamen shall exceed l-4lh of the whole crew : provided always, that nothing herein contained shall extend to repeal or alter the provisions of an act passed in the 4th year of the reign of his late Majesty King George IV. for consolidating, and amending the laws then in force with respect to trade from and to places within the limits of the East India Company's — } 1(5. Foreigners having served 1 years onboard H. M. Ships during War. — It shall be lawful for his Ma- jesty, by his royal proclamation during war, to declare that foreigners, having served 2 years on board any of ins Majesty's ships of war, in lime of such war, shall be British seamen within the meaning of this act.—} 17. British Ship not to depart British Port unless duly navigated, $c. — No British registered ship shall be suffered to depart any port in the United Kingdom, or any British possession in any part of the world i w nether with a cargo or in ballast), unless duly navigated : provided always, that any British ships trading betw (fen places in America may be navigated by British negroes ; and that ships trading east- ward of the Cape of Good Hope, within the limits of the East India Company's charter, may be navi- gated by Lascars, or other natives of countries within those limits. — .'■ :i 47,972 3 1,55 1 339 38 6,190 59,93 5 10,001 315,970 17,456 10,828 143,132 3,134 2,761 3,084 1,632 227,845 172,613 217 46 26 45,756 6,26S 285,705 9,20j 35.056 35,967 1,12." 3,61 131 9 3,310 256,036 3.274 1,024 25 17,950 3,794 1,098 13,568 78,816 87 5,416,976 756 140 1,398 4,338 65 1,361 580,000 I,tl20,(i0ii 6,887 49,031 1,065 33,193 2,864 1,090 1833. 11,131 5,046 615,321 23,263 1,123 8,072 28,750 5,455 180 59,160 1,835 307,421 6,063 9,223 135,542 1,616 5,321 9V'5I 62,9 3,720 320,005 41,439 38,934 3,121 4,229 216 1,821 15 665,218 29,391 20,718 13,918 1 8,919 160 5,350 204 83,910 1,937 292.74S 1,533 11,974 93,303 2,963 91,693 66,693 145 1,819 898 24,120 262,739 2,724 65 907,380 23.950 22,973 2,83 S 13 6,014 4,550 3 172,410 1,992 19«,620 17,663 7,354 114,934 1,187 9,499 540 1,996 71,017 7,112 329 127 789 50.000 4,500 6,427 1,207 2, 305 1,252,35 1 26,636 43,560 500 10,696 80 40,600 2,554 242,427 367 10,338 17I.GI6 I,' 2,021 335 2,313 42,194 290,75 1 120 103 22,352 28,645 1,634 1,274 3,820 2 ,1.10,1 429 15,516 1,260 8,433 93,381 124 7,160,934 49 637 1.410 2,610 91 2,477 1,41 368,600 1,000,000 37 1,270 440 35,787 1,393 9461 3,204 513 78 4,906l 136 36,440j 7, 80S 10,039 1 126,276 856 210,887; 360,580 12,929 30,267 1,155 1,241 151,420 283 7,045 91,985 298 2,603,860 1,723 500 2,089 5,093 174 2,064 20 1,588 55,000 2,1 , 32,437 3,496 Ifil 1S0.062 2,904 244,000 10,415 892 483 13.12S 69,378 1,776 5,223 311 1,223 72 1,867 702,000 850,000 27 1,110 1,936 21,361 2,841 1,800 2,822 238 42 33.931 3,170 8,76. 322 176 309,017 12.306 20228! 2,989 1 5,S4( 3,061 174,194 6.093 9,302 168.S06 1,52 3,521 21,100 133,70U 122,933 353 245,600 2,169 654 57 7,842 67,672 4,114,091 1,516 1,196 720 1,587 30,015 11,468 1,447 2,272 126 11 37,012 1,195 22,716 32,686 217 1,358 131,111 605 151,251 2,022 1,852 809 l.o.,., 2,722 62,152 684 3,805 990,000 32.70S 1,87 5 1,028 30,579, 2,115 15,823 29,192 1,025 328 70,276 254.805 2,034 4,110 1,32, 1,840 631 87 4,528 1 1,340 1,337 33,781 1,663 4,135 1829. 1,779 69 3,629 752 2,902 1 , 1 57 291,(01 13,472 16,054 1,920 1 4,140 5,400 6,405 133 2,100 15,210 150.570 6,350 8,753 1,332 2,90 7 157,323 18 439 17,327 110,206 12,000 146.203 792 409,641 5,210 548 2,940 254 166 6,883 49,110 4,4 331,000 650,000 22 3,900 29,432 4,571 2,137 445 139 29,152 79 26,449 4,14' 1,190 1,423 456 229,756 5,972 17(,,I8 4,047 6.481 6,622 33 17,272 19,987 191,176 3,484 8,017 92,648 89,876 260 152,593 12.934 23,298 1,082 115,645 74,073 312 1,763 357 2,637 1,852 35,817 1,127 213 6,906 827,000 11 612 30,345 4,978 2,821 183 234 6,670 1,725 44,407 459 216 NEW ORLEANS. II. Exports of Cotton and Tobacco from New Orleans during each of the Nine Years ending the 30th of September, 1836. Whither exported. Bales of Cotton. 1835-36. 1834-35. 1S33-34. 1S32-33. 1831-32. 1830-31. 1829-30. IS2S-29. 1827-28. 1826-27. Great Britain - France - North of Europe South of Europe Coastwise Total • Great Britain ■ France North of Europe South of Europe Coastwise Total - 236,526 133,881 17.9S9 12,074 92,535 259,123 141,872 4.36S 6,918 122,484 289,169 101,253 9,742 1,384 60,705 225.667 82.302 3,338 1,690 94,223 203,365 78,138 4,423 5,752 64,728 223,374 60,913 2,911 2,400 135,086 196,892 93,446 4,213 1,223 56,116 130.514 78,370 12,953 5,095 41,017 142,546 66,425 8,215 1.379 86,283 193,539 60,101 9,279 66,763 493 Ckr. 534,765 462,253 407,220 356,406 421,684 351,890 267.949 304.84S 329,682 Hogsheads of Tobacco. 15,492 1,198 5,942 1,980 19,329 6,339 1,460 4,262 1,962 20,343 8,112 306 4,610 1,455 10,44S 4,875 35 4,320 424 14,047 8,448 576 7,157 1,401 15,392 6,131 258 4,8)5 2.521 21,210 1,792 451 5,161 6,644 13,980 4,567 230 3.732 8,288 8,674 5,400 3S2 6,526 4,294 18,509 2,832 770 4,183 2,763 16.022 43,941 34,365 24,931 23,701 32,974 34,968 J-."> 25,491 15,111 26,570 III. Arrivals of Ships, Brigs, Schoolers, Sloops, and Steamboats, for Four Years, ending the 30th of September, 1836. Months. 1835-36. 1834-35. 1833-34. 1S32-33. S. Sj J [i 3 |js 1 B S L a Ba a & B t -p; II 4 Si e s, •3 11 w B A \m H Zn to n H -1 £ 35 k f. m i 7 £ j ■- ; tt pq a ■7. H 55 m October 46 38 25 1 2 111 94 43 38 41 i 123 74 25 23 .'< n 71 62 21 26 S3 n 80 fifi November 66 1 40 37 143 113 73 47 37 i 158 101 58 IS 3> i 12? 109 31 24 m n 85 73 December 59 69 66 1 195 144 79 63 65 l 198 141 52 82 «n i 195 118 65 521 37 154 140 January 32 62 70 1 155 156 40 55 57 i 153 135 42 79 63 184 97 39 46 45 i 131 173 February 57 4(1 63 1 161 120 41 40 65 146 115 19 49 m, l 135 112 62 59 72 163 142 March - 39 ■12 64 2 147 160 70 65 82 2!7 119 67 54 68 3 182 118, 32 45 fil 138 125 April - 52 66 60 1 169 144 34 65 82 1 183 104 57 -IS 57 n 162 107 46 48 5.! 1 147 104 May - 56 41 51 1 149 i a 56 35 63 u 144 108 41 46 .'14 ?. 126 1001 46 45 46 137 84 June - 18 34 28 2 82 114 15 25 49 1 91 105 11 SH 3) 99 69 1 29 27 sn 86 68 July - IS 18 25 1 62 68 15 1 20 SU 1 66 53 5 SB SB i 50 51 20 28 18 n 66 35 August - 20; 23 29 1 73 56 17 22 24 1 64 48 4 19 23 \ 47 43 7 IS 25 47 31 September 35 19 19 73 76 24, 15 18 1 58 69 16 12 15 43 19| 17 1) 20 50 40 Totals 498 472 537 13 1,520 1,372 507 490 593 11 1,601 1,172 41- 507 487 in 1,422 1,005 405, 428 1 469 i 1,304 1,081 We are indebted for the above valuable information to the Circular Statement of IVilliam Mderson, Esq., New Orleans, the 1st of October, 1836. [For the information which follows concerning the commerce of New Orleans, we are indebted to Hazard's Commercial and Statistical Register. Imports from the Interior at New Orlea ns, for Three Years, en Jing with the 30th September, 1839. Articles, 1 1S39. 1833. 1837. Articles- 1E39. 1S33. 1837. Apples • bbls. 6,395 24,908 20,625 Horns - 27,450 7.050 16,376 Bacon, assorted hhds. & casks 13,631 11,328 7,781 Hay bundles 9,915 12,963 20,943 boxes 2S5 174 358 Iron, pig tons 411 1,812 437 Bacon hams hhds. 6,118 6,275 6,303 wrought — 17 boxes 160 145 265 Lard - - hhds. 313 30 in bulk - lbs. 1,501,900 984,490 1,493,2S7 bbls. 8,635 3,745 3.636 Bagging, Kentucky pieces 49,539 42;331 34,763 kegs 218.673 219,080 211,975 Bale rope coils 63,107 52.S97 28.166 lbs. 2,300 10,000 Beans - bbls. 417 3,973 6,501 Leather - bundles 615 495 824 Butter - hhds. 5 51 1 sides 200| kegs and firkins 8,475 11,279 8,055 Lime, western - - bbls. 900 500 590i bbls. 431 279 197 Lead, pig - pigs 295,097 310.102 244,090 Beeswax bbls. 144 121 212 bar ke gs and boxes 821 1,526 431 boxes 21 1 4 Oats - bbls. 39,110 25.269 33,198 lbs. 4.250 7,900 563 Onions - 681 1,398 4,021 Beef bbls. 10,754 6,131 9,870 Oil, linseed — 180 363 249 hhds. 72 36 17 1 9 2 dried lbs. 3S,090 44,00 130,642 castor — 348 566 828 Buffalo robes packs 3,562 3,029 5,053 Peach brandy - 51 157 193 Cotton, Louisiana anc Pecans - 121 Mississippi - bales 477,949 561,225 442,257 Pickles - 207 31 420 Lake • — 12,082 22,900 7 655 kegs 415 154 459 North Alabama am Potatoes • - bbls. 7,534 12,956 28,416 Tennessee - — 71,457 13,892 11,643 Pork — 166,113 138,583 115,958 Arkansas 7,003 124,495 132,124 hhds. 1,160 1,523 531 Mobile — 16,768 11,969 7.101 in bulk - lbs. 7,192,156 3,474.076 8,939,135 Florida 1,080 5,437 1,053 Porter and ale - - bbls. 336 86 1,190 Texas - — 2,942 3,300 2,645 Rum puncheons 478 464 639 Corn meal bbls. 3,204 3,004 3.004 bbls. 454 421 4,364 in ears — i 1 - 269,354 194,301 Skins, deer - packs 3,183 2,925 4,014 shelled sacks 353,104 169,295 361,975 bear — 74 13 9 Cheese - casks 315 432 2 S3 Shot - kegs 270 2,017 1,623 Candles - boxes 34 800 23 ba»s 106 111 Cider - bbls. 188 1,621 737 Soap • boxes 300 587 33 Coal, western • — 94,362 99,220 61,118 Shingles - 66,000 140,000 88,000 Dried peaches - — 34 37 239 Staves 1,700,000 610,000 1,000,000 apples 35 792 Segars - - bbls. 2 35 40 Feathers - bags 457 141 1 52 M,,ss, Spanish - - bales 1,368 l,f29 3,921 Flaxseed bbls. 316 541 1,220 Tallow - - bbls. 798 110 108 Flour - — 436,237 307,610 264,356 Tobacco, leaf - - hhds. 28,S10 37,706 28,196 Furs hhds. 114 28 26 chewing legs & boxes 1,769 3,974 1,604 boxes 12 6 1 carrots 386 jnndlee 301 5S9 602 bales 1,386 144 1,473 Gin bbls. 46 179 Twine - bundles 988 591 298 Ginseng • bags as d cases 38 2 70 boxes 16 - 26 lbs. 3,865 3,000 9,500 Venison hams - 1,910 1,470 550 Hemp - bundles 4,044 450 Vinegar - - bbls. 1,674 435 123 Hempen yam - reels 94 40 Whiskey 29,949 50,011 43.632 Packing yarn - 1,040 471 138 Window glass - - boxes 2.819 2.S59 1 2,059 Hides - 19,613 12,235 22,241 Wheat - bb s. and sacks 17,956 2,027 ! 6.422 {New Orlauu Price Current.) NEW ORLEANS. 217 Arrivals of Ships, Brisrs, Schooners, Sloops, und Steamboats, for Three Years, ending 30tn Sept., 1839 Months. \>:i*-:-:t. i n is. 1836-37 t IS (0 e | 3 -n X o. JQ a H ii 8. '2 <1> 6 1 i H t 51 31 .: 107 6.' 27 19 1, 1 ei 74 39 20 23 i 63 117 v 56 197 11 89 35 33 II 157 103 38 28 41 107 163 1) T • 63 5 201 163 75 45 48 168 204 75 67 51 193 2(Jl January February 103 247 I6i 63 54 61 2 173 193 36 57 91 184 146 78 44 56 84 98 2 2 208 231 I7J 195 42 52 41 58 59 75 1 3 143 183 165 186 67 33 58 44 63 68 1 188 146 148 186 April - May - June July • August - Seplember 37 79 6 190 186 60 37 72 4 173 150 66 43 52 151 155 39 62 •/. 169 187 63 50 55 168 144 84 45 49 2 180 III 2 72 144 67 65 73 4 99 156 19 22 33 74 101 19 47 a 94 76 18 27 29 74 79 10 16 25 1 52 92 10 34 3 64 63 21 2) 23 64 35 17 21 23 61 60 18 17 18 1 54 62 2b 13 18 y 56 57 25 9 21 1 59 64 Total 670 "iir 716 JS 1825 1573 5S2 464 554 IS 162'. 1531 499 430 543 i. 1473 1549 (New Orleans Price Current.) Exports of Cotton, from the port of New Orleans, for the last Three Years, commencing 1st October, and ending 30th September. Whither exported. Bales of Cotton. Whither exported. Bales of Cotton. 1838-39. 1837-38. 1836-37. 1838-39. 1837-38. 1836-37. Liverpool London ... Glasgow and Greenock Cowes, Falmouth, &c. Cork, Belfast, 4c. - Havre Bordeaux - Marseilles Nantz Cette and Rouen, . Amsterdam Bremen - Antwerp, &c Hamburg - Gottenburg Spain and Gibraltar Weal Indies Genoa. Trieste, &c Oilier foreign ports 297,774 6 7,390 2,4.9 2,139 112,779 1,318 6,255 2,070 49 27 310 947 1,225 4,259 3,556 113 465,133 123 16,147 43 110,609 4,407 7,286 5,527 932 656 1,598 3,149 343 4,713 2,611 7,174 902 333,832 41 17,077 2,966 1,180 112,410 6,100 9,110 5,263 753 202 123 2,782 2,533 553 4,300 2,030 7,875 233 New York Boston Providence, R. I. Philadelphia Baltimore Portsmouth Other coastwise ports Total - 62,691 49,242 4,038 6,150 3,450 5,369 7,171 39,332 40,271 1,607 8,526 6,148 4,819 5,026 24,734 38,609 1,177 6,0.'2 2,978 8,044 3,731 580 817 737,186 591,538 RECAPITULATION. Great Britain North of Europe - South of Europe - Coastwise Total - 309,768 122,452 1,446 9,040 138,111 580,817 481,501 127,828 7,530 14,528 105,749 737,186 353,096 131.141 6,431 14,225 85,145 594,538 Comparative Arrivals, Exports and Stocks of Cotton of New Orleans, for Ten Years, commencing 1st October. Arrivals. Exports. Stocks. Arrivals. Exports. Stocks. Years. Bales. Bales. Bales. Years. Bales. Bales. Bales. 1838-39 589,281 580,S17 16,307 1833-34 465,103 462.253 8,756 1837-38 743,218 737,186 8,843 1832-33 418,853 407,220 7,406 1836-37 601,475 596,068 15,302 1831-32 349,797 356,406 7,088 183.5-36 498,895 493,005 8,702 1830-31 428,876 424,684 13,697 1834-35 531,366 534,765 4,842 1829-30 363,611 351,890 9,505 (New Orleans Price Current.) Exports of Sugar and Molasses (up the River excepted) for Three Years, ending 30th September, 1839. Whither exported. 1838-39. 1837-33. 1836-37. Sugar. Molasses. Sugar. Molasses. Sugar. Molasses. Hhds. Bbls. Hhds. Bbls. Hhds. Bbls. Hhds. Bbls. Hhds. Bbls. Hhds. ' Bbls. 5,176 8,816 337 403 246 3,3 iS - ! 2,8-.7 52 155 ■ I 727 281 3,431 • - 1 579 8 1,670 - 1 3,087 3 1.304 223 1,542 New York • Philadelphia Charleston, S. C. - Savannah • Providence and Bristol, R. I. Boston Baltimore - Norfolk Richmond k Petersburg, Va. Alexandria, D. C. - Mobile Apalachicola and Pensacola Other Ports • Total 9,913 4,714 1,535 670 3 1,612 6,914 659 1,215 137 1,S36 460 475 229 126 97 30 3 131 396 5 19 140 661 1,174 7,584 173 863 182 273 456 1,734 231 232 1,387 3,^81 692 2,844 1,174 696 328 3,552 391 765 399 2,609 1,553 1,528 10,966 5,425 1,573 404 29 345 4,418 188 844 69 1,229 386 232 75 81 110 15 234 1,219 1,928 4,S27 782 591 383 227 1,216 236 237 15 1,610 3,012 11,626 7S6, 5,25 7 3,596' 1,774 1,322 450 162 - 1,826 825 3,553 4,883 770 639 1.600 876 2,018 1,047 906 229 2,474 70 53 19 171 36 120 157 1,034 679 29,143 3,011 13,115 20,415 26,093 3,662 10,144 27,133 27,581 2,269 6,326 28.'<24 „ _ _ . . (New Orleans Price Current.) Exports of Tobacco, from the port of New Orleans, for the last Three Years, commencing 1st Octo- ber, and ending 30th September. Whither exported. Liverpool J/>n Inn Glasgow and Greenock Cowes, Falmouth, &c. Amsterdam Antwerp, &c. - Gnltenbur' Spain m t Gibraltar West Indies Genoa, Trieste. Ac. Olher foreign ports Vol. II— T" Hogsheads of Tobacci 224 1,251 939 3,0 »4 1837-38. 1836-37. 2,757 3,579 2,035 2,003 1,609 5,492 2,386 320 1,254 3,320 713 674 312 1,282 1,327 Whither exported. New York Boston - Philadelphia Baltimore Other coastwise ports Total - Hogsheads of Tobacco. 7.846 2,8 i 6 1,335 10.072 2.599 1,652 4,207 3.510 1,316 RECAPITULATION. Norlli of Europe South of Europe - Coastwise 8,570 1.555 2,539 4.448 12,518 10,031 1 5,143 2.9-3 3 366 15,563 29,630 37,076 1 9,104 3,-17 6,344 3,180 10,31-0 32,725 28 218 NEW ORLEANS. Comparative Arrivals, Exports, and Stocks of Tobacco nf New Orleans, for Ten Years, commencing 1st October. Arrivals. Export*. SI ckt. Arrivals. Exports. Slocks. Years. Hhds. Hhdj. lit, Is. Years. Hhds. Hl>is. Hh.lj. 1838-39 28,310 29,630 945 1833-34 24,963 24,931 216 1837-38 37,706 37.076 2,301 1832-33 21.361 23.701 717 1836-37 28,196 32,7^5 1,511 1831-32 30,015 32,974 3,257 1835-36 49,934 43,941 7.277 1830-31 32,708 34,968 6,416 1834-35 35,890 34,365 1,284 1829-30 33,781 28,028 9,492 Comparative Num ber of Vessels, in the Port of New Orleans. September 30, 1S39. 183?. 1837. 1836. 1835. 1834. 1833, Ships, 17 20 - 26 42 . 25 11 16 Barks, 1 3 - 4 2 . 2 6 Brigs, 17 15 . 8 17 _ 24 11 15 Schooners, 21 38 - 18 24 - 25 13 20 100 — 125 125 — 150 150 — 200 200 — 250 250 — 300 300 — 350 350 — 400 400 — 450 450 — 500 550 — 600 600 — 650 650 — 700 700 — 750 750 - - Total, 56 76 56 85 76 45 57 (JVe?o Orleans Price Current.) Jin Ordinance Concerning the Levee Duties in and for the Port of New Orleans. — The General Coun- cil of the Municipalities of New Orleans, in conformity with the 20th section of the Act of Incorpora- tion, approved 8th March, 1836, ordain as follows: Article I. The levee or wharfage duties on ships and other decked vessels, and on steam vessels arriving from sea, shall be fixed as follows : On each sea vessel under 75 tons, - - - $12 of 75 and under 100 tons, - - 15 2B 25 30 40 50 55 60 65 75 85 95 110 120 130 Art. 2. The payment of these duties shall be exacted and collected by the municipality within whose limits such vessels may have moored, after their arrival from sea in port ; and an extra duty of one third of these rates shall be paid by all vessels which may remain in port over two months, the same to be recovered at the commencement of the third month ; and if they remain in port four months, then they shall pay a further additional wharfage of one third of said rates, at the commencement of the fifth month, and be privileged to remain until the expiration of six months from date of original arrival and mooring, without a further charge being imposed on them. Art. 3. When any vessel shall be removed from that division of the port in which it shall have ori- ginally paid duty, to another division of said port, under the jurisdiction of another municipality, said latter municipality shall be entitled to receive from the municipality to which said duty has been first paid in the following ratio, viz.: One half of the duty actually paid or due, if said vessel have not remained longer than fifteen daya in that part of the port in which it was first moored; one third, if said vessel have remained longer than fifteen days, but not more than twenty-five days ; but if beyond twenty-five days, not any part of said duty shall be recovered. Nevertheless, the municipality in whose limits said vessel shall afterwards "be moored, shall have the right to levy and collect the extra duty of one third of the rates mentioned in Article 1, on the conditions mentioned in Article 2; provided, that no further charge or extra duty shall be exacted from any vessel which may have removed from one part of the port to another, for the mere purpose of forthwith proceeding to sea. Art. 4. All vessels or steamboats coming from sea, which, after their arrival in port shall proceed to, and return from any plantation, or other place, with a cargo, or part of a cargo, of any kind of pro- duce whatever, and shall again enter the port for the purpose of discharging the same, shall pay, on returning from any such trip, a levee duty of eight dollars over and above the duties fixed by the 1st article of this ordinance, the same to be collected by the municipality within whose limits said ves- sels may discharge said produce. Art. 5. The levee duties on steam vessels navigating on the river, and which shall moor and land in any part of the incorporated limits of the port, shall be fixed as follows : On each steamer under 75 tons, - - $ 8 — of 75 and under 100 tons, - - 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Art. 6. All steam vessels employed as packets, and plying regularly between this port and ports in the Gulf of Mexico, including Havana, shall pay no other or higher rate of wharfage than is imposed by tins ordinance On Steamboats navigating the Mississippi. Art. 7. The duties specified in the preceding article, shall he paid on the mooring and landing of said steamers in port, by their captains or other agents, to the officer entrusted with their collection by the municipality within whose limits said vessels shall have moored and landed. Art . k. Alter the payment of these duties, said steamers shall be entitled to remain thirty days in Hint pari of the port which may have been designated by the municipality to which it belongs; and any steamer remaining over thirty consecutive days, shall pay an additional duty of two dollars per day, until its final departure from port, the same to be collected daily ; and if any steamer leaves its 100 — 150 150 — 200 200 — 250 258 — 300 300 — 350 350 — 400 400 — 450 450 — 500 500 — 550 over 550 - - NEW ORLEANS. 219 first landing plare, to take a berth and be moored in another municipality, it shall pay paid additional duty of two dollars per day, to the collector of the municipality into whose limits it shall have been removed, whether said term of thirty days shall have expired or not at the lime nf such removal. Art. 9. Steamers employed as tow boats, and which shall have received on board any produce, the whole or any pari of the cargo nf a vessel, and shall discharge the sat n the levee, shall pay the same duty as is specified In Article 5, according 10 their tonnage ; said duly to be collected by the pro- per officer of the municipality within whose limits such discharge shall be effected. Art. 10. Tow boats slnill pay, lor each time they may moor to lake in wood or other fuel, eight dol- lars to the municipality Within Whose limits they may moor and take in said fuel. Art. II. The following levee dues shall be exacted on all Hat boats, barges, keel boats, pirogues, and other raft, crafts, &e. : On each flat boat, either fully or in part laden with produce, materials, or merchandise of anv kind. .^. -------------- $10 On each barge, measuring 70 feet or more in length, -------- 10 On all barges, keel boats, or boats measuring less than 70 feet, and not exceeding 15 tons burthen, 6 On all boats not described in the present ordinance, -------- 4 On each coasting pirogue, ------------- 1 The owners or keepers of boats used as places of depot for any article whatever, shall pay a duty Of $1 per day. Tlie following duties shall .also be levied : On their being broken up, if in the incorporated limits of the port, each flat boat, - - - $i On each steamer, or other vessels than flat boats, being broken up within said limits, 10 On rafts of timber not containing more than 25 logs each raft, - ------ 5 On each raft of timber containing more than 25 logs, then in the ratio of that increase. On each craft measuring 40 tons or under, employed to carry sugar, molasses, wood, or any other description of merchandise, there shall be levied, on each trip, a duty of ----- 4 On all craft exceeding 40 tons each, employed as above, shall also be levied, on each trip a duty (> f. ----------- 6 Art. 12. All boats or other vessels arriving within the limits of the port, with fish, meat, vegetables, eggsj or any and every other kind of provisions, expressly for the purpose of supplying the several markets, shall l»e entirely exempt from paying any levee dues ; but the same, and all other description of craft, otherwise employed, whether particularly mentioned in this ordinance or not, shall pay duty according to the tariff above ordained. Art. 13. The time allowed for all pirogues, flat boats, barges, boats and keel boats to land their car- goes in port, f hall be fixed at twelve days from their original arrival, after which said craft shall pay daily an additional duty on each barge, boat, or keel boat over 70 feet in length, - - - #1 00 And less than 70 feet long ------------- 75 And in the event of any of said vessels removing from one municipality to another, from their first place of landing, they shall pay daily said additional duty to the latter municipality, whether said term of twelve days shall have expired or not. The time allowed for discharging of boats or other craft not otherwise described in this ordinance, is fixed at twelve days from their arrival in port, after which said boats and craft, and all rafts and floats, shall be taken out of the incorporated limits of the port, under penalty of being fined $25 for each day they may be found in violation of the law, said fine to be paid by all owners, masters, keep- ers or consignees of said flat boats, rafts or floats, for each and every day they may refuse to comply with the dispositions of the present ordinance; said fine to be recovered before any competent tribu- nal, on the evidence of the proper officer whose duty it is to see the levee or port ordinances carried into effect. Provided, however, that this clause in the present ordinance shall not deprive any of the municipalities of the right of granting a specific privilege for said flat boats, rafts or floats, to be broken up and used within any one of their respective limits. Art. 14. It is hereby expressly forbidden to all owners, masters, consignees, or other persons, to sell, or cause to be sold, on board of any of the aforesaid craft, under any pretence whatever, wine, beer, cider, and spirituous liquors in quantities less than a barrel, under a penalty of fifty dollars for each contra vent ion ; said fine to be paid by them in the like manner, and on the like evidence as are described in Article 13. It is also expressly forbidden to smoke, or allow to be smoked, meat of any kind on board of said craft, under the penalty in the manner levied, and on the evidence above mentioned. Art. 15. All barges, fiat boats, keel boats, or other craft, in which shall be exposed for sale in the part of the port assigned for their accommodation during the said term of twelve days, any produce, goods or merchandise brought on board from a distance less than 100 miles above the cities of New Or- leans, excepting sugar, molasses, apd cotton, the staples of Louisiana, shall be fined in a sum of not less than $50 nor exceeding $100, the same to be recovered in the manner set forth in Article 13. Art. 16. In case any person should furnish any false reports relative to the cargoes, owners, or con- signees, or the date of such crafts entering the port, or in any manner interfere with, or impede the officers of the several municipalities in the free exercise of the duties devolving on them, said person or persons so contravening shall, on conviction, pay a fine of not less than $20, nor exceeding $100 for each contravention. Art 17. It shall be obligatory on the part of captains of vessels and steamers, and also on masters, owners, and keepers of all crafls, flat boats, rafts and floats, to pay the aforesaid duties on board of their respective vessels, a receipt for which shall be delivered to them by the proper officer of each municipality, in order to prove payment thereof, in case any of said vessels, craft, &c. he removed from one division of the port to another. Art. IS. All the fines imposed by this ordinance shall he for the benefit of the municipality within which any contravention thereof may have been committed ; the same to be levied on the evidence of the wharfinger, and if voluntarily paid, the receipt for same shall be given by the treasurer ; but if they be resisted, then their recovery shall he effected by and before an authority or court of compe- tent jurisdiction. Art. 19. It shall be a special duty of the wharfinger for each municipality to make a weekly report to the comptroller thereof, of all and every description of vessels, their tonnage, &c. which may each day enter and moor within the limits of the port under his superintendence; which weekly report ehall he carefully filed in the office of said comptroller, for further reference and examination, and in regular rotation of dates. Art 20. Beit further ordained, that, from and after ten days' promulgation of this ordinance, the wharfage collectors of the three municipalities shall cause to he kept, by the enrolling clerk at the custom-house, a record book, in which daily entries shall be marie of every vessel which may arrive from sea, specifying their names, their masters, consignees, where from, and their tonnage, having three marginal spaces on the right hand, headed Municipality Nob. 1, 2, 3, respectively, which space shall he from time to time filled up with the signatures of the three several wharfage collectors, indi- cating that they have received the wharfage due to their respective municipalities, by each of whom the expense of procuring and maintaining said book of record, if any, shall be borne and paid in thre<» equal proportions. Cent*. On each bor of tin p'ates- - - • - -2 On each bale, box, case, truss, or other package of less weight and dimensions than a bale of blankets, including soap, fish, candles, Arc. • • • - - - -4 On ss. 1&33. 1 Title of Newspaper. ud Cheltenham Gazette .rd Bobbin Chronicle Berwick Advertiser Birmingham Gazette (Aris's) Journal Blackburn Alfred - Gazette Bolton Chronicle ■ Boston Gnzette Brighton Herald - Gazette • Guardian • Briltol Gazette Journal Mirror Me ury Bucks Gazette Herald Bury Post ■ and Suffolk Press and Suffolk Herald Cambrian - Cambridge Chronicle Carlisle Journal Patriot Carmarthen Journal Carnarvon Herald - •Chelmsford Chronicle, and Essex Herald - Cheltenham Chronicle Journal Chester Chronicle - Courant Chesterfield Gazette Colchester Gazette Cornubian (Falmouth) Cornwall Gazette - West Briton Coventry Herald and Observer Men ,ry • County Press. Hertford Cumberland Packet Derby Mercury Reporter Devizes Gazette Devonport Telegraph luiependent • Devonshire Chronicle, North Devon Journal, and Exeter News Lancaster Gazette - Dorchester Journal ■ Dorset County Chronicle - Durham Advertiser Chronicle Essex Standard In lependeot • Exeter Flying Post - and Plymouth Gazette Falmouth Packet • Gloucester Journal - Halifax Express • Guardian • Hampshire Advertiser, or Southamp ton Herald Telegraph Chronicle Hereford Journal • Times • Herts Mercury Hull Packet Advertiser Rockingham - Huntingdon Gazette Ipswich Journal Kentish Chronicle • Gazette Observer • Kent Herald Lancaster Herald - Gazette - Leamington Spa Courier *Leeds Intelligencer, and Newcastl Journ.'l • Stamps. ML900 47,000 65,000 68,000 13,000 30,050 27,000 121,000 118,000 7,340 4,000 40,000 10,000 26,000 41,000 44,000 25,000 86,000 107,150 45,397 7,500 29,448 15,500 73,600 9,000 19,000 60,100 55,050 66,000 30,000 25,900 19,000 98,000 36.500 13,0u0 61,000 45,000 2S.00J 18,000 i;,ooo 24/;oo 50,900 32,6 > 3 18,000 26,100 25,000 48,000 40.200 32.100 38,2 50 5,000 21,950 76,000 60,100 47,750 30,000 27,000 35,900 26,375 4S,500 75,225 2G.821 102,300 21,500 8,500 50,000 166,000 67,250 72,425 39,2 iO 22,650 29,000 56,825 35,000 95,000 100,000 12,000 78.000 27,000 66,000 22,464 22,000 29,000 168,750 Advertisement Duty. 130 16 238 14 233 16 1,891 II 178 13 6 482 9 6 461 16 392 17 6 445 18 792 11 6 804 9 6 281 1 481 15 173 12 340 18 285 1 6 193 18 244 13 5J9 17 6 506 12 6 801 10 485 12 6 571 18 120 11 6 218 18 6 276 13 6 544 12 284 18 647 10 642 8 6 196 627 6 31 17 438 7 6 120 11 6 194 12 303 9 1,027 19 Title of Newspaper. Leeds Times - - * Mercury - Patriot Leicester Chronicle Herald - Journal - Lincoln Herald Lincolnshire Chronicle Litchfield Mercury Liverpool Courier Albion - Mercantile Adverlisi General Advertiser Me ury Saturday Advertiser Chronicle Journal Standard Times - Macclesfield Courier • Maidstone Gazette . Journal Manchester Times Chronicle Guardian and Satford Advertiser • Courier, and Manches ter Herald Merthyr Guardian Monmouthshire Merlin Newcastle Chronicle Newcastle upon-Tyne Mercury Newcas'le Courant Norfolk Chronicle Herald and East Anglian Norwich Mercury Northampton Mercury Free Press - Herald Northumberland Advertiser North Devon Advertiser Wales Chronicle Nottingham Journal Review Journal - Plymouth Herald - and Devonport Journal Portsmouth Herald Preston Chronicle Pilot Reading Mercury ■ Rochester Gazette - Salisbury Journal - Silopian Journal - Sheffield Independent Courant - Mercury Sherborne Mercury Shrewsbury Chronicle Staffordshire Mercury Advertiser Stamford News Me OCT Stockport Advert Suffolk Chronicle - Sunderland Herald Sussex Advertiser - Taunton Courier - Wakefield and Halifax Journal Warwick General Advertiser Welshman, The - Western Luminarv (Exeter) Times (Exeter) - Westmoreland Advertiser - Gazette Whitehaven Herald Wiltshire Standard Windsor Express - Wolverhampton Chronicle Worcester Journal Herald - York Chronicle - * Herald and York Courant Yorkshire Gazette - Racing Calendar 2,000 311,000 9,0i0 43,400 4,075 89,500 11,625 20,000 6,750 65,500 85,000 27,-50 49,500 172, ,00 10, ,00 2 1,000 77.000 37,000 42,000 87,000 42,500 52,aoO 185,51.0 47,250 182,000 159,933 132.360 10.500 34,900 I2IJ 00 lijO 1 9,475 96,0U) i!&.500 86,000 84,. 00 25.500 36.000 13,500 11,500 17,500 45,000 70,e00 44,000 46,000 117,500 26,500 18.500 55,5i ;0 29,000 21,000 114,700 3,(JOO 150,000 56,000 35,300 23,500 37,2,0 25,' 00 47.0 93,700 15,500 135,000 52,500 272,500 34,736 81.080 19,000 58,800 22,000 26,300 50,000 29,900 31,500 46,000 12,000 13,000 22,000 2,400 34,500 41,100 60,000 73,000 16,000 120,000 72,500 5,150 Advertisement Duty. 1,463 17 6 177 12 6 264 15 6 1,261 4 6 1,730 16 1,276 9 3-2 IS 561 II 6 353 13 6 515 6 235 15 430 13 6 438 14 6 358 II 6 634 7 6 1,671 1 6 503 II 868 7 622 6 5,5 12 1,217 13 9 i9 16 6 291 14 6 912 16 818 16 6 201 15 6 274 II 6 364 17 6 877 16 2'2 2 210 17 6 336 225 11 6 176 18 6 867 5 6 57 18 6 1,070 16 6 619 3 257 8 6 211 15 334 1 6 291 '8 371 14 682 3 154 10 6 719 12 IS3 I 1,509 7 6 197 13 663 1 6 336 7 577 6 6 267 4 6 165 11 409 13 6 128 2 220 3 287 7 103 5 19 5 Note.— This return is founded upon periodical accounts rendered bv stationers, who procure the stamps at this office for newspapers. The papers marked thus » being the property of 1 person, in whose name the stamps are taken out, the number used for each paper can- not be distinguished. » # » We extract the following important paragraph from a note by Mr. Wood, the intelligent chairman of the Roard of Stamps, sub- joined to the Pari. Pnptr, No. 758. Sess. 1833. It shows that the return given above, of the circulation of country newspapers, can- not be much depended upon. Of course, there are no such inaccura- cies in the accounts of advertisements : — " Supposing, however, that the returns had been correct transcripts of the books in this office, it is worthy of remark that thev would not have afforded accurate information as to the circulation of news- papers. The circumstances hereinafter detailed will show that such returns must be atwavs incomplete and fallacious. " In the instance of the London newspapers, the account may ap- proach to tolerable correctness, as the stamps are usually obtained by the parties directly from this office; but it may be observed that these papers borrow from each other, and we have also reason to be- lieve that agents of country papers have been induced by London printers to take out stamps io the name of the latter which were in- tended for country use ; so that, even with regard to the London pa- pers, perfect accuracy cannot be attained. " But in the case of country papers, still less reliance can be placed on these accounts. The supply of stamps to country papers is effect- ed through I.ondon stationers aod paper-makers, and sometimes also through country stationers. These peivms take out large quantities of stamps, and furnish them, from time to time, to the respective newspapers as required. It is only from the returns made by those stationers that the number of stamps obtained by each country paper are known at this office. The stationers are bound to make these returns, but in general they furnish them with much reluctance anu irregularity, and frequently omit them altogether. It is well knows 224 NEWSPAPERS. is of detecting or punishing any mis- believed that, even when furnished, 1>at the Board have no m statement, and it is thereft little regard it paid to accur , " The (rouble occasioned at this office ought not to he a considera- tion, if the returns were really a Biurceof useful and authentic in- formation. But the preceding observations show that no useful re- sults arise ; on the contrary, such returns occasion eDdless complaints from persons whose circulation is under-rated, and on whom positive uiiurv is thus inflicted. " It is, therefore, worthy of consideration whether similar returns should in future be allowed. " J. W." IV. A Return of the Number of Stamps issued by the Stamp Office, for the following London News- papers, in the Years 1833, 1834, and 1835. If. B. The foregoing are all 4 d. stamps, with the exception of the General Advertiser for Town and Country, and Bent's Monthly Lite- rary Advertiser, which are 2 d. Where 2 or more papers appear together, they were publ ished by one and the same party, in whose names the stamps were taken out. The number furnished for each paper could not, therefore, be distinguished. V. An Account of the Sums paid by the Publishers of the following London Newspapers, for the Duty on Advertisements in the Years 1833, 1834, and 1835. Title of Paper. 1833. 1 1834. 1835. Title of Paper. 1833. 1834. 1835. /. L. s. I L. t. d. L. ». d L. i. d. 584 3-19 7 o 337 16 Morning Chronicle 2,3S9 6 1,527 16 s 3,100 6 6 400 11 230 15 h 425 3 ti Neivs - 660 9 ° Atlas 390 5 249 1 <: 243 4 6 Herald - 6,916 14 4,470 3 li 4,704 185 9 6 109 10 150 16 ti Post - 4,218 16 6 2,562 4 6 3,075 15 British Liberator - 39 9 6 1 2 t Naval k Military Gazette 96 3 183 12 214 11 6 Travel ler- 204 18 6 News - 171 18 6 108 IS 96 9 ani American In- New Court Journal 41 2 6 36 13 6 12 1 i Farmers' Journal 8 8 6 3 16 6 17 6 6 Weekly Dispatch - 182 12 6 20 8 Christian Advocate 124 3 6 59 12 6 66 15 (i Weekly Messenger- 168 15 6 118 11 6 139 7 Cobbett's Register 25 10 6 16 19 (1 9 18 ii Observer - 501 1 293 12 6 338 2 Commercial Gazette 7 4 6 9 12 (l 6 12 li Old England 86 3 6 70 6 6 59 9 6 14 14 6 9 9 7 4 n Patriot - 201 6 130 1 158 6 470 6 244 1 245 6 i, 1,507 4 Herald . 188 9 114 II 122 15 U Racing Calendar - 102 4 6 66 9 6 56 12 6 1,862 6 1,156 8 6 1,248 19 i. Record - 613 2 402 19 434 6 339 1 223 5 A 224 11 ii Snlinst - 238 8 6 178 10 u 244 14 6 Course of the Exchange - 1 1 1 16 16 i. Saint James's Chronicle - 600 17 6 400 19 i) 362 12 6 26 12 6 7 14 6 Spectator - 311 9 1*3 4 6 237 10 6 English Chronicle 24 17 6 24 12 39 13 i Standard - 1,103 12 823 11 6 1,133 9 6 71 11 n 26 6 6 Mail . 82 17 6 62 6 « 74 3 i. Stock List 1 17 6 16 6 18 315 7 205 14 6 216 18 ii Sun 706 10 444 7 t 660 19 6 348 1 6 748 11 <> Sunday Herald ■ 18 11 345 19 b 20 Globe and Traveller 1,648 1 6 1,096 16 1,076 9 b Times 649 19 356 17 358 6 6 Guardian & Public Ledger 2,573 17 6 763 19 C Times 12,555 1 6 8,620 17 ti 7,946 2 Herts and Essex Mercury 252 8 149 6 C 126 Town - 106 9 94 6 u John Bull- 690 13 382 7 I 419 18 >, and Country Ad. Law Chronicle - 1 6 19 h 12 1) verliser 118 16 76 II 6 85 13 True Sun - 840 9 6 278 11 93 16 6 Gazette 323 18 6 219 f 218 5 ii United Kingdom • 257 6 203 14 649 8 C 367 17 6 371 14 Service Gazette - 61 15 6 74 11 40 16 Journal 26 11 6 14 12 ( 15 12 Universal Corn Reporter 17 2 12 6 2 9 6 Mercantile Journal 5 11 6 6 18 ( Weekly True Sun 113 9 6 125 14 41 13 6 Packet 16 3 6 10 13 ( 5 11 Dispatch 651 17 6 399 18 363 7 6 Mark Une Express 61 19 6 33 12 ( 90 10 6 Messenger 447 2 ( 307 19 U 278 3 6 M.-rle's Weekly Register 75 8 ( Ti mes - 202 16 ( 20 5 World - 30 9 ( Morning Advertiser 4,564 6 2,795 3 C 1 2,964 12 110 12 6 NEWSPAPERS. 225 VI.— An Account of the the 5th of January Number <>f Stamps leaned to eacli Newspaper in Ireland, respectively, from , IS35, to the 5th i'f January, 1836.— {Pari. Papeti No. 146. Bees. 1838 | Title of Newspaper. Dublin Newspapers, i Shrietian Journal 1> it lit ■ it Evening Mail Evening I'ost Qazette - Mercantile Advertiser Evening Packet Evening Freeman Daily Freeman - - - Horning Register Mooney's Circular - Observer - - - - Pilot Racing Calendar Record - Satirist .... Saunders's News Letter - Stewart's Dispatch - 1 rtited Service Journal - Warder ... - Weekly Freeman Country Newspapers. Antrim : Belfast Commercial Chronicle News Letter - Northern Whig ... Guardian - Northern Herald ... Athlone and Westmeath: Athlone Independent - Sentinel - Westmeath Guardian - Cork : Cork Constitution Evening Herald - Southern Reporter People's Press - Mercantile Chronicle - Donegal : Ballyshannon Herald - Down : Newry Telegraph Examiner Drogheda : Drogheda Journal Argus - Fermanagh and Cavan : . Enniskillen Chronicle - Impartial Reporter Enniskilliner Qalway : Connaught Journal Galway Weekly Advertiser No. of Slam mi issued. 12,590 424,621 164,000 11,000 17,500 222,500 53,500 165,500 217,000 3,500 100,697 152,000 1,210 28,340 69,708 411,00(1 40, 2 II 20,835 109,489 101,000 2,392,204 120,000 114,1 88,550 69,525 51,825 8.825 9,100 5,367 150,675 58,350 189,700 12,628 30,001 7,185 62,650 59,311 25,218 4,345 9,650 10,050 6,900 3,300 20,685 Title of Newspaper. Country Newspapers — continued. Galway : Patriot- - Irishman - Kerry : Kerry Evening Post - Western Herald - - - - Tralee Mercury — Kilkenny and Carlow : Kilkenny Journal - Moderator - Carlow Morning Post - - - Sentinel - - - - King's and Queen's Counties: Leinster Express - - - - Independent - Limerick and Clare j Limerick Chronicle - Star and Evening Post- Evening Herald - Times - - - - Clare Journal - • - Londonderry : Londonderry Sentinel - Journal - Mayo : Ballina Impartial - - Mayo Constitution - Telegraph - Western Star - Longford and Roscommon : Roscommon Gazette - Journal - Sligo : Sligo Journal - ' - Tipperary : Clommell Advertiser - Herald - Tipperary Free Press - Constitution Tyrone : Strabane Morning Post Waterford : Waterford Chronicle - Mirror - • - Mail - - - - Wexford : Wexford Freeman - Independent - Conservative Dublin Newspapers, brought forward Total - No. of Manips 14,725 1,100 9,025 5,900 12,400 18,850 22,450 1,525 15,650 22,050 17,825 174,100 40,000 9,458 1^,975 1 1 ,484 54,700 26,490 6,420 19,755 24,025 725 6,875 6,349 7,975 16,950 7,850 29,750 6,000 4,324 42,050 21,000 32,575 16,500 33,000 21,625 4,292,579 VII. An Account of the Gross Produce of the Duties on Newspapers and Advertisements during each of the undermentioned Years, in England, Scotland, and Ireland. Years end- ing ->ih of January. Newspapers. Advertisements. England. Scotland. Ireland. England. Scotland. Ireland. /. ». ri L. i. d. L. J. d. /.. j d. L. >. d. L. s. d. 1811 398,413 lu 11 21,288 7 8 fin those years*] 113,546 19 1 15,041 8 15 723 11 7 1812 335.095 6 21,054 13 9 114,195 11 5 14,397 9 20,479 5 3 1813 345,902 1 8 22.948 6 8 1 separate ac- 115,875 18 3 14,448 6 20.915 5 10 1814 352 241 4 4 21,921 19 7 I cjunt kept of !■ 114,111 12 10 14 623 7 21,253 3 11 14 1815 333.5011 20.158 7 7 •tamps issued ] for newspapers | Lin Ireland. J 106,575 9 8 13,410 3 19.759 17 6 1816 363,414 3 ; 20,281 12 10* 110,941 6 6 14 017 7 28 475 16 1 12 1817 33U 8i)3 15 s 16.612 2 4 118,202 3 4 15,353 8 6 18.498 7 5 IMS 349,104 4 n 14.180 5 4 18,885 1 21-2 116,352 4 11 16.666 13 l*.19l 12 7 1819 351). '2.57 3 n 17 431 13 4 20,210 16 6 119,738 19 4 17.240 6 18.535 12 6 1- S 3S5.MXII 11 i 19 060 5 21.187 1 11 34 122,227 3 3 16 911 9 6 16.721 1 8 1-4 1821 419.618 15 8 20,609 6 8 22,693 10 10 123,772 15 6 16 416 15 15.491 taa 391,995 17 4 19.373 18 22.346 9 7 1*5 965 17 5 16.095 2 15.102 5 o 1-2 1 123 373 41> 19 8 20,337 8 23,556 1 014 131,288 12 17,030 16 6 13,708 7 3 14 1824 390,375 8 R 20,795 13 25.148 2 5 125.475 5 7 16,020 11 14,524 3 8 1-4 1825 409 2S| o n 22. 337 9 4 25.633 13 612 134.633 19 3i 17 825 17 16,426 10 9 1826 425,154 in 8 24.419 17 26,659 9 3 12 144,751 2 61 18,708 18 16,907 15 1927 429,662 15 2 22,013 6 4 25 187 11 9 14 135 687 7 2 17 779 13 15.720 1828 128.629 a 8 29.929 10 4 25.561 3 1114 133,978 16 11 18,400 14 6 14 379 17 6 1829 439.798 8 33,555 2 8 27.330 16 8 136,388 n to 17,939 12 5 15,532 15 1830 433.667 10 8 42,301 6 28,578 16 714 136,052 18 lu 17,592 5 7 14,985 6 1831 415.972 10 fi 49.466 10 29.360 18 3 3-4 137 915 19 4 19 5S6 8 16 831 14 1832 502.697 19 4 52,090 15 2 31.846 16 3 137,839 12 3 19,060 15,672 10 2 1833 490,451 6 8 51.465 14 8 32,513 9 4 12 137 122 10 18,278 6 15,248 17 4 1834 461,457 3 48,100 14 31,591 13 5 114,5'iS 2 2 16,191 4 4 12,240 2 4 1835 453.033 16 5 49.339 19 8 29,782 7 9 1-2 73,3118 1 6 10.114 16 2 8,130 14 8 183S 473,910 12 G 47.999 4 8 31,287 6 11 77,853 2 9 10,537 17 8.4S8 12 8 1 29 226 NEWSPAPERS. VIII. An A.i- mii i , | ihe Nil ber of Stamps issued lo each of t lie Newspapers and Advertising Papers D "«illand, in the ifeir 1835 j also, an Account of tlie Amount of Advertisement Duty p;iid in the Year Liy eai li Paper. in .Sc same Number of S^mps Advertisement Number of Stamps Advertisement Names of Papers. is»uf J In each Duly i Names of Papers. issued to each Du*}' paid by Pa, er. each Paper. Paper. each Paper. i. ». d. L. s. d. Edinburgh:— Glasgow:— Couianl 231 .000 823 2 6 Courier 96,5C0 537 7 Mercury 92,500 303 6 Uournal • 110 6 An. Record - 121 2 6 Liberal 1,000 9 1 6 * Aikmaii's Advertiser - 4 10 Constitutional 10,500 63 4 6 Aberdeen : — Greenock :- JcMirml 95,000 505 8 6 Intelligencer - 19,750 187 19 ••Herald 163 13 Advertiser - 28,500 140 Obsener 21,000 145 7 Inverness: — Advertser • 15,000 59 15 6 Journal . ■ 24,500 137 18 6 Ayr,- Courier 31,000 143 11 6 Advertt-er - 42.000 120 7 6 Kelso :— Observer 33,250 94 1 Mail - 42,600 179 13 6 Dumfries: Chronicle 25,200 64 It 6 Times 21,000 62 10 6 Kilmarnock :— Courier 72, 00 1S7 7 Journal 15,250 87 19 6 Herald and Adver- > 20,525 34 7 Momrose:— 54,100 65 3 6 Review 30,000 159 6 Dundee: — raisley:— Adverijser - 228 Advertiser - 20,000 85 1 Chronicle - 21,500 96 16 6 Perth :— CoUrirr 10,000 133 11 6 Courier 21,500 123 19 6 Guardian 8,000 36 1 6 Advertiser - 38,500 127 17 Elgin:— Constitutional 17,000 78 12 Couraiit 13,000 83 6 Slicing:- Fife:- Journal and Adver- H.rald 29,000 91 7 tiser 28,000 99 1 6 Journal 19,000 71 15 6 2,67%620 10,397 7 6 * Not subject to stamp duly. ** Stamps suppose! lo have been purchased in London. Papers marked thus t belong to the same proprietors, and the stamps used by each cannot be distinguished. Stamps used by papers marked tt cannot be ascertained. The increase of newspapers in Great Britain, though it is shown by these documents to have been pretty considerable, has been materially repressed by the mode in which the stamp duty has been assessed. The circulation of the Parisian daily papers much exceeds that of the London journals ; a result which can only be ascribed to their greater cheapness. American Newspapers. — The increase of newspapers in the United States has also been a good deal more rapid than in England ; a consequence, partly, no doubt, of the greater increase of population in the Union, but more, probably, of their freedom from taxation, and of the violence of party contests. The total number of newspapers annually issued in the Union has been estimated at from 55,000,000 to 60,000,000, while the total number issued in Great Britain and Ireland, in 1833 (see No. I.) was only 34,515,221 ; so that, making allowance for the difference of population, every individual in America has, at an average, more than twice the supply of newspapers enjoyed by individuals in England. " From this exuberant supply of daily and weekly papers, and the low price charged as compared with the English and French newspapers, they are liberally patronised by all classes, and are found in almost every dwelling and counting house, and in all hotels, taverns, and shops ; and attract a large share of the public attention. As the paths of honour and promotion are alike open to every one, it follows that public discussion forms the principal staple of the newspapers. There is no country where the press has a more powerful influence over pub- lic opinion." — (Picture of New York, p. 391.) We are not, however, to estimate the influence of newspaper literature by its quantity only, but must have regard also to its quality. The latter is, indeed, the principal thing to be attended to; and in whatever degree the Americans may exceed us in the number, they certainly are immeasurably below us in the quality, of their newspapers. Speaking gene- rally, we do not hesitate to say that the newspaper press is a disgrace to the Union. The journals indulge, with few exceptions, in the most offensive personalities. Instead of ex- amining th<^ principles of the measures brought forward, they assail the character and mis- represent the motives of those by whom they are introduced. It is impossible, we believe, to name an individual, who has attained to any high office in the United States, or to con- sideration in Congress, who has not been libelled, traduced, and calumniated by a large portion of the press, to a degree that can hardly be imagined. The magnitude of the evil will, probably, lead to its cure. An intelligent and well instructed people cannot, siinlv, continue to patronise a press whose principal features are misrepresentation, exagge- ration, and abuse NEWSPAPERS. 227 The following Table contains a Statement of the Number of Newspapers published in the United Btatei ;ii the Commencement of the Revolutionary War, and the Number of Newspapers and other Periodical \V..rks published in the Bame in 1810 and 1S28. States. Maine - hilsetts: New Hampshire Vermont Rhode Island - ( mnecticut - New York v \ Jersey - Pennsylvania ire Maryland District of Colombia Virginia - North Carolina Small Carolina Stales. Ceorgia - Florida - Alabama » - Mississippi «- Louisiana* Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Indiana - Michigan Illinois - Missouri Arkansas Cherokee nation 37 358 802 (An important alteration was made in 1836, in the duties on, and in the regulations relating to, newspapers. The act 6 and 7 Will. 4 cap. 76. has repealed the former duty on newspaper stamps (see ante, p. 221.), and has imposed in its stead the duties specified in the following schedule: — For every sheet or other piece of paper whereon any newspii 1 - - - - ( Anil where stich sheet or piece of piper shall contain on -mi- ^ de thereof, a superficies, exclusive of the ling I, WO inches, ai: 1 not exceeding 2,29.', inches, the additional dutv of An I where the same shall contain on onesidp thereof a superficies, exclusive of the margin of the letter- press, exceeding 2,29 inches, the additional duty of 1 in parts n pnhlicatir the s " shee'g lumbers at intervals not exceeding 26 days between the of any 2 such papers, parts, the dimensions hereinafter specified (exclusive of any 3tank leaf, or any other leaf upon which any advertise- ment or o'her notice shall be printed), or shall he published for sale for a less sum than 6d. (see ante, p. 220.), being now reduced to Id., the price of the great majority of the London newspapers has been reduced from 7d. to 5d. Provincial papers, which are got up at comparatively little expense, are now sold generally at i^d. or id. ; and this, also, is the case with one or two of the metropolitan journals. The news- man's profit on selling a quire, or 27 papers, at Id., used to be 2s. 9<7., it is now on the 5d. papers, 2s. 3d. The reduction of the price has occasioned a considerable increase in the demand for the old or established papers ; and a considerable number of new weekly papers have also started into existence since the reduction of the duty in the metropolis and throughout the country. * For some curious details with respect to newspapers in Louisiana, see Mr. Stuart's Three Tears in America, vol. ii. p. 210. — the most instructive and trustworthy of all the recent works on the United States. 228 NEW YORK. Hitherto, however, no new daily paper has been established. The preceding Tables exhibit the circulation of each of the principal papers, and the total consumption of stamps, in each of the three years ending with 1835 ; and will, consequently, serve as standards by which to measure the precise influence of the late change on the demand for each paper. The general influence of the new system is seen in the subjoined table. If it were proper to reduce the duty, and to preserve it at a uniform level, the new arrange- ments are, perhaps, as unexceptionable as any that could be devised. But we are not sure that the better way would not have been to have assessed the duty on an ad valorem prin- ciple, making it, in all cases, a certain aliquot part of the price. A Return of the Number of Newspapers to which Stamps were issued, and of the Number of Stamps issued to Newspapers, in the Years ending 15th September, 1836 (when the former System termi- nated) and 1S37, and the Half Year ending 15th March, 1838; distinguishing the Number issued to London Newspapers, to English Provincial Newspapers, and to Irish and Scotch Newspapers re- spectively, and snowing the Total Number and Amount each Year; also, the Amount of Newspaper Stamp Duty received in each of the above Periods. — (.Pari. Paper, No. 307. Sess. 1838.) London Newspapers • English Provincial do. Scotch do. Irish do. Total ' - Tear ending 15th September, 1S36. Year ending 15th September, IS37. Half Tear ending 15th March, 1838. berof News- papers. Number of Stamps issued. Amount of Duty. Num- ber of News- papers. Number of Stamps issued. Amount of Duty. Num- ber of News- papei-s. Number of Stamps issued. Amount of Duty. 71 194 54 78 1 L. B. d. 19,241,640 256.556 8.535,396 113,804 16 2,654,43-1 1 35,392 10 2 5.144,5-2 37,525 2 85 237 65 71 29,172,797 14,996,113 4,123,330 5,203,967 L. s. d. 121,553 6 5 62,4-3 16 1 17,1-0 10 10 16,263 3 11 86 223 66 62 14,43«,556 7,366,842 2,216,400 2,620,'Sl L. ,. d. 60.160 13 30,695 3 6 9,235 8,!97 8 6 397 35,576,0 56 '4 13,273 8 2 458 53,496,207 217,480 17 3 437 26,641,979 108,288 4 11 [The number of newspapers, magazines, and other periodicals published in the United States, as appears from returns made to the Post Office Department in 1839, is as follows : Maine, --------41 New Hampshire, ------ 2fi Vermont, -------31 Massachusetts, (at Boston 65) - 124 Rhode Island, ------ 14 Connecticut, ------ 31 New York, (at New York city 71) - - 274 New Jersey, ------ 39 Maryland, '(at Baltimore 20) - - - 48 Pennsylvania, (at Philadelphia 71) - - 253 Delaware, -------3 District of Columbia, (at Washington 11) Virginia, (at Richmond 10) North Carolina, - South Carolina, - Georgia, - Florida Territory, ----- 9 Alabama, -------34 Mississippi, -------- 36 Louisiana, (at New Orleans 10) - - - 26 Arkansas, -------4 Tennessee, -------50 Kentucky, ------- 31 Ohio, (at Cincinnati 27; - - - -164 - 31 - 5 - 3 - 69 - 33 - 25 Michigan, Wisconsin Territory, Iowa Territory, - Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, 1,555 Of the above, 116 are published daily, 14 tri-weekly, 30 semi-weekly, and 991 once a week. The remainder are issued semi-monthly, monthly, and quarterly, principally magazines and reviews. Many of the daily papers also issue tri-weeklies, semi-weeklies, and weeklies. Thirty-eight are in the German language, four in the French, and one in the Spanish. Several of the New Orleans pa- pers are printed in French and Spanish. — Am. Ed.] NEW YORK, the capital of the state of that name, and the commercial metropolis of the United States, in lat. 40° 42' N., Ion. 74° 8' W. It is situated on the southern extre- mity of Manhattan Island, at the point of confluence of the Hudson river, which separates Manhattan from New Jersey, with East River, which separates it from Long Island. New York bay, or inner harbour, is one of the most capacious and finest in the world ; it is com- pletely land-locked, and affords the best anchorage. The entrance to the bay through the Narrows is extremely beautiful. On each side, the shore, though wooded down to the water's edge, is thickly studded with farms, villages, and country seats. At the upper end are seen the spires of the city ; and in the distance the bold precipitous banks of the Hudson. From New York to the bar between Sandy Hook Point and Schryer's Island (the division between the outer bay or harbour and the Atlantic) is about 17 miles, fortifications have been erected at the Narrows, Governor's Island, and other places, for the defence of the city and shipping. The wood-cut on the opposite page represents the city and bay of New York, and the surrounding country. The Hudson river was first explored in 1609, by the famous English navigator whose /lame it bears, then in the service of the West India Company of Holland. In 1612, New Amsterdam, now New York, was founded by the Dutch, as a convenient station for the fur trade. In 1664, it was taken by the English. The Dutch again recovered possession of it in 1673; but it was retaken by the English in the following year, and continued in their occupation till the termination of the revolutionary war. Nev York has increased faster than any other city in the United States. In 1699, it con- tained 6,00ll inhabitants. In 1774, previously to the commencement of the war of inde- pendence, the population amounted to 22,750. During the war, the population continued stationary ; but since 1783, its increase has been quite extraordinary. In 1790, the popula- NEW YORK. 229 tion amounted to 33,131 ; in 1800, to 60,489 * in 1810, to 96,373; in 1820, to 123,706; and in 1830, to above 213,000 ! Originally the houses were mostly of wood, and the streets narrow and confined. In these particulars, however, a great improvement has taken place during the last half century ; most of the old houses having been pulled down, and rebuilt with brick. The new streets, which are broad, and intersect each other at right angles, are well paved and lighted. Broadway, the principal street, is one of the largest and finest in the world. Many of the public buildings are commodious and elegant. The pools, that were formerly abundant in the city and its vicinity, have been completely filled up; a mea- sure that has done much to improve the health of the population. In resp.-ct of cleanliness, however, New York is not to be compared with an English town. There is hardly such a thing as a sink or common sewer in the whole city : the night-soil and filth are collected in pits, of which there is one in every house, and, being conveyed to the nearest quay, are thrown into the water; but as these quays are made of timber, with many projections, a great deal of filth is retained about them, producing, in hot weather, an abominable stench. The yellow fever, by which New York is sometimes visited, uniformly breaks out in the lower and dirtiest part of the town ; and seldom, indeed, extends to the new and more ele- vated streets. It is now much less prevalent than formerly ; and the general opinion seems to be, that if stones were substituted for timber in the quays, sewers constructed, and proper regulations enforced as to cleanliness, the scourge would entirely disappear. Kntrance to Harbour, Light-houses, c$-e. — The course in entering the harbour nf New York is nearly due W from the outermost white baoy on the har, till the buoy on the S.W. point of the cast hank be pass,- I, and then nearly due N. The navigation is extremely easy. Pilots generally board while without the har ; for, otherwise, they an- only entitled to half fees. 'Were it not for fear of violating insurances, their services would seld be required— Sec Rates of Pilotage, post.) The light-house Dear the extremity of the lone, low, narrow tongue of land, projecting from the New ,Ierse\ shore, called Sandy Hook, is in hxt. 40° 2S' N., Ion. 74° H' W. It is fitted up with a very powerful fixed light. Vol. II. — U 230 NEW YORK. which, in clear weather, may be seen by vessels coming from the westward 10 leagues off. But, from its position, it is not rpadily discovered by ships coming from the S. till too near. To obviate this in- convenience, a floating light was moored about 7 miles E. from Sandy Hook Point. In 1828, however, 2 light-houses were erected on Neversink hills, nearly 4 miles S. by E. from Sandy Hook. They are 300 feet apart ; the most northerly being furnished with a fixed, and the other with a revolving light, both of great power. The lights are elevated 250 feet above the level of the sea ; and may he seen, in clear weather, in all directions, from 40 to 50 miles. Since they were fitted up, the floating light has been discontinued. Vessels load and unload at the wharfs on both sides the city. New York is indebted, for her wonderful increase, to her admirable situation, which has rendered her the greatest emporium in the New World. The rise of the tide is about 6 feet ; and even at ebb, there is 21 feet water on the bar; and the water in the outer and inner bays, and in the river, is so deep, that ships of the largest burden lie close to the quays, and may proceed to a great distance up the river. The navigation of the bay is but rarely impeded by ice. The great strength of the tide, and the vicinity of the ocean, keep it gene- rally open, even when the Chesapeake and Delaware bays are frozen over. The influence of the tides is felt in the Hudson as far as Troy, 160 miles above New York, affording very peculiar facilities for its navigation. These natural advantages have been vastly extended by a system of canalisation, which has already connected the Hudson with Lake Ontario and Lake Erie; and which, when completed, will connect it with the Ohio river, and conse- quently with the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico! So prodigious a command of inter- nal navigation is not enjoyed by any other city, with the exception of New Orleans ; but the readier access to the port of New York, the greater salubrity of the climate, and her situation in the most industrious part of the Union, where slavery is abolished, give her ad- vantages over her southern rival, which, it is most probable, will secure her continued pre- ponderance. Trade, 4 - c — The commerce of New York is very extensive. The value of the mer- chandise annually loaded and unloaded in the port is estimated at from 100,000,000 to 120,000,000 dollars. The number of vessels in the port in the busy season varies from 500 to 750, exclusive of about 50 steam packets. The number of arrivals from foreign porta amounted in 1832 to 1,808; and the coasting arrivals are between 4,000 and 5,000. The total value of the imports into the United States in the year ending the 30th of September, 1832, was 101,029,266 dollars; of which no less than 53,214,402, or more than the half, were imported into New York ! The customs revenue on the goods paying duties, imported into this city, amounts to about 13,000,000 dollars, while the total customs revenue of the United States seldom exceeds 22,000,000 dollars. The imports comprise an infinite variety of articles. The principal are cottons, woollens, linens, hardware, cutlery ; earthenware, brass and copper manufactures, &c. from Great Britain ; silk, wine, brandy, &c. from France and Spain ; sugar and coffee from the Havannah and Brazil ; with tea, spices, cochineal, in- digo, dye woods, &c. The value of the exports from New York in the year ending the 30th of September, 1832, amounted to 26,000,945 dollars, being between ^ and \ part of the total exports from the United States. The exports principally consist of wheat flour, corn, rice, and cotton ; beef, pork, butter, dried fish, and all sorts of provisions; furs, tobacco, coarse manufactured goods, lumber, &c. The great excess of the imports into New York over the exports is accounted for by the fact, that, while mostly all articles of export from the West- ern States are shipped at New Orleans, the greater part of the more valuable articles brought from abroad, and destined for the consumption of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and, in some de- gree, even Kentucky, are principally imported into New York. The tonnage of New York is greater than that of Liverpool, or any other city, with the single exception of London. The registered tonnage belonging to the port on the last day of December, 1831, amounted to 122,458 tons, and the enrolled and licensed tonnage to 163,980 tons; making a grand total of 286,438 tons, being between \ and \ of the whole tonnage of the United States. Account of the Quantities of some of the principal Articles of Native American Produce exported from New York during each of the Three Years ending with the 1st of January, 1833. Ashes, pot pearl - Beef Pork Lard Butter - Cotton - Cotton goods - Flour (wheat) Corn Rice Tar Turpentine Hides - Whale oil Soap Tobacco - kegs bales - packages barrels bushels tierces barrels number gallons boxes hogsheads 1830. 19,613 4,152 15,022 13,085 14,130 6,7fil 101,910 5,306 304,352 174,182 13,372 19,397 102,441 1831. 19,393 5,694 17,913 20.147 24,885 12,282 118,502 3,o:w 437,104 245,368 15,205 18,879 121,762 7,815 IS32. 18,241 2.356 17,223 29,418 11,101 9,286 108,741 7,545 195,614 93,716 16,678 18,537 144,878 169,493 1,392,600 76,981 7,783 NEW YORK. 231 Skipping.— Arrivals from, and Departure for, Foreign Porta, in 1831. Flags. British United States - Pra nee Spain Netherlands Germany - Holland - Hanse Towns - Sweden - Arrived. Departed. Flags. Arrived. Departed. No. of Vessels. Tonnage. No. of Vessels. Tonmge. No. of Vessels. Tonnage. No. of Vessels. Tonnage. 278 1,294 25 8 1 10 2 1 14 41,758 306,529 6,710 1,762 260 2,708 315 260 3,339 273 1,275 22 7 1 7 2 1 12 31,716 265,205 3,228 1,076 170 2,042 315 260 2,473 Hayti Brazil Genoa Russia Mexico Denmark - Total - 2 2 1 1 1 18 330 134 260 260 260 3,709 2 2 still 1 1 16 330 134 n port. 260 260 2,003 1,658 368,684 1 1,622 316,472 1 The arrivals in 1834. from foreign ports, were, ships, 496 ; barques, 119; brigs, 886 ; schooners, 425 ; sloops 6 ; being, in all, 1,932. Of these there were, American, 1,486 ; British, 303; French, 27 ; Dutch, Hamburgh, and Bremen, 33; Swedish, 28; Spanish, 18; Danish, 11. &c. By far the greater part of the British ships are from our colonies in North America and the West Indies. ReguUltions as to Passengers arriving at JVeio York.— On the arrival of passengers, an entry must be made at the Custom-house of their names, clothes, implements of trade or profession (all of which are exempt from duty), and an oalh taken respecting them ; the form of which, and the entry, may he had at the office [.Talis. Cabin passengers make this entry themselves, and pay 20 cents each for a permit; on exhibiting which to the officer on board, they are allowed to move their baggage after it has been Inspected. Only 1 entry and permit is necessary for a family, and only 20 cents demanded, whatever may be the number of the family. Remains of sea stores, such as tea, sugar, foreign spirits and wines, are liable to pay duties ; but unless these are of great bulk or quantity, they are generally allowed to pass free. An entry is usually made by the master of the vessel of steerage passengers and their baggage : they pay each 20 cents for a permit. When entry is made by any person not the owner, he gives bond for payment of duties, if any ; and if, after entry is made at the Custom-house, and the oath taken, any article is found belonging to a passenger, liable to pay duty, not specified in the entry, it is forfeited, and the person in whose baggage the article is found subjected in treble the value. Besides making entry at the Custom-house, it is provided by a law of the State, that every master of a vessel arriving from a foreign country, or from any other port of the United States, " shall within 21 hours after entering his vessel at the Custom-house, make a report in writing, on oalh, to the mayor, and in case of his sickness or absence to the recorder of the said city, of the name, age, and occupa- tion of every person who shall have been brought as passenger in such ship or vessel on her last voyage, upon pain of forfeiting, for every neglect or omission to make such report, the sum of 75 dol- lars for every alien, and the sum of 50 dollars for every other person neglected to be so reported as aforesaid." Masters of ships bringing passengers to New York must also pay a dollar on account of each pas- senger to the corporation, as commutation money, or give bond that none of them shall become charge- able on the city poor rates for the space of 2 years. They almost uniformly prefer paying the commu- tation. The number of immigrants arriving at New York from the British Islands, and from all places, in the undermentioned years, was as follows : — Years. From England. From Ireland. From Scotland. Total British Isles. From all Parts. 1828 6,631 6,197 2,717 15,547 1829 8,110 2,443 948 11,501 16,064 1830 16,352 3,497 1,584 21,433 30,224 1831 13,808 6,721 2,078 22,607 31,739 1832 18,947 6,050 3,266 28,283 48,589 1833 1 c 16,100 41,752 1834 5- Part lculars not specified. < 26,540 48,110 1835 ) I 16,749 Lines of Packets.— The establishment of regular lines of packets from New York to foreign ports, and also to every principal port in the United States, has produced a new era in the commerce of the city, and redounded equally to the benefit of the enterprising individuals by whom they were pro- jected, and the public. The principal intercourse is carried on with Liverpool ; there being about 20 packet ships, distributed in 4 lines, employed at present (1836) in maintaining a regular communication with that port. A dozen packet ships are also employed in the trade between New York and London; and 15 in the trade between New York and Havre. These ships vary in size from 450 tons, the burden of the smallest, to 800 tons. Their tonnage has latterly been increasing ; and, at an average, it may now be estimated at about 600 tons. These ships are all American property, and built chiefly in New York. They are probably the finest and fastest sailing merchant vessels in the world ; being beauti- fully modelled, of the best workmanship, and fitted up with every convenience for passengers, and in the most expensive style. The safety, regularity, and expedition with which they perform their voyages is quite astonishing. The average length of a voyage from Liverpool and Portsmouth to New York, may he estimated at about 31 days, and, from the latter to the former, at about 20 days. The Independence, of 730 tons, Captain Nye, made the voyage from New York to Liverpool, in the course of the present year, in 14 days; and the Toronto of 650 tons, Captain Griswold, made the voyage from New York to Portsmouth in the same time. And it is material to observe, that these voyages are not reckoned from land to land, but from port to port. The packet ships from New York sail from London on the 7th, 17th. and 27th ; and from Portsmouth, or rather Cowes, at which place they touch, on the 1st, 10th, and 20th of each month. Those bound for New York from Liverpool, sail on the 1st, 8th, 16th, and 24th of each month ; those bound for New York from Havre 6ail on the same days as those from Liverpool. Cabin passage to New York from London and Liverpool 35 guineas ; from New York to London and Liverpool 140 dollars ; a cabin passage to New York from Havre 1 40 dollars, from New York to Havre, the same. This includes provisions, wines, beds, &c, so that the passengers have no occasion to provide any thing except personal apparel. Each ship has a separate cabin for ladies ; each state-room, in the respective cabins, will accommo- date two passengers ; but a whole state room may be secured for 1 individual by paying at the rate of 1| passage, that is, 52i guineas to New York. Packets for Philadelphia sail from Liverpool on the 8th and 20th of every month throughout the year ; and 4 of these ships sail from Philadelphia for Liverpool on the 20th of each month ; the others do not 232 NEW YORK. always return direct for Liverpool, but sometimes go to Charleston, Savannah, Sec, to bring cargoes of produce to Liverpool. Cabin passage same as that to and from New York. These ships, 8 in number, are all American built and owned, and average about 500 tons burden; some of them are as splendid as the New York packets, and are all fitted up with every regard to comfort. Three American packet ships are employed in the trade between New York and the Clyde ; and an American packet ship sails from Liverpool for Huston twice every month. The rate of steerage passage varies, in the course of the year, considerably ; depending on the num- ber of ships and the number of passengers going at the time. By the packet ships it fluctuates from 3 to 6 guineas for each full-grown person; and children under 11 years are taken at half-price. By other ships the rate of steerage passage varies, at Liverpool, from 11. 10s. to 5/. ; being sometimes reduced, by competition, so low as 30s. ; but the average rate may be taken at 4/. For these rales, the ship provides nothing but berths, fire, and water ; the passengers provide their own provisions, bed- ding, &c. The expense of provisions for a poor person, who might wish to be as economical as possible, for the voyage out to the United Stales, would not be more than from 40s. to 50s. The cabin passage by the common traders (and many of them are quite equal to the packets in equip- ment anil safety) varies from 15/. to 25/. ; no wines being provided by the ships at these rates, but pro- visions, bedding, malt liquor, and spirits. The rates of freight to New York, are- Fine goods per ton measurement of 40 cubic feet Hardware -.--... Coarse low-priced goods ..... Iron, per ton of 20 cwt. ..... Coals, do. do. ..... Crates of earthenware, per ton of 40 cubic feet ... Sail, per ton of 40 buslie s ..... Steam packets. — It has been proposed to establish steam packets between New York and Valentia harbour, on the west coast of Ireland ; but as yet little progress has been made in the undertaking. It may be doubted, indeed, seeing how well the intercourse is maintained by the sailing packets, whether the introduction of steam packets would he of material service. [See art. Steam Vessels.] Banks, Insurance Companies, etc. — We borrow from a detailed and authentic statement by Tho- mas H. Goddard, Esq., published in the New York Daily Advertiser for the "29th of January, 1831, the following particulars in relation to the banks, insurance companies, &c. of New York, in 1830, with a view of their progress from 1819 to 1830. By Packets. By other Ships L. 3. d. L. s. ft L. i. d. L. s. rf. 2 lo _ 1 5 to 1 10 1 10 0-0 D _ 17 6 - 1 2 8 1 0-1 5 - 12 6 - 17 6 10 - 12 6 9 - 12 t; 1 0-1 5 n . 12 6 - 15 10 - 12 « 8 - 12 6 17 6-1 5 - 12 6 - 15 li Banks. When Length of No. of Amount Amount of Time and Rate Amount of chartered. Charter. Shares. of Share. Capital. of Dividend. Div d nl. Dollars. Dollars. DoUan Dollars. United States Branch - . *• 25,000 ioo 2,500,1 00 Jan. 3 1-2 — July 3 1-2 175.000 America 1822 20 years 20,000 100 2 ono.OOO Jan. 2 1-2 — July 2 1-2 lO'.eOO Mechanics' 1810 22 do. 80,000 25 2,0 10,000 Jan. 3 1 2 — July 3 1-2 140,000 Manhattan Company - 1790 perpetual 41,000 50 2,050,000 Jan. 3 12 — July 3 1-2 113,500 Delaware and Hudson Canal Company 1825 do. 15,000 100 1,500,000 June — Dec. Merchants' 1805 27 years 28,000 50 1,400.000 June 3 — Dec. 3 84,000 City - 1812 20 do 25,000 50 1,250.000 May 3 — Nov.3 75.000 New York 18— 1,900 500 9311,000 May 4 - Nov.4 76,000 Phceni-t 1812 20 do. 20,0 '0 25 500,000 Jan. 3 1-2 — July 31-2 35,000 North River - 1821 21 do. 10.' 00 50 500 000 Jan. 4 — July 4 40,000 Tradesmen's 1822 10 do. 12.000 40 480,1 00 Jan. 3 — July 3 1-2 31.000 Chemical 1824 21 do. 20,0n0 25 600,000 Jan. 3 1-2 — July 22.500 Union ... 1S11 20 do. 20,000 50 6,000.000 May 3 — Nov.3 60,000 Ful'on • 1S24 20 do. 20,000 30 600,000 May 31-2 — Nov.3 1-2 42,100 Dry Dock perpetual 14.000 50 700,000 Jan. 2 — July 14,000 Greenwich 1830 new 8,000 25 200,000 not determined 359.900 18,130,000 1,037,700 Recapitulation.— There were, in 1830, 16 banks in this city, whose aggregate c pital was - - . And these made dividends for - Of these, the Hu-lson and Delaware made no dividend, in consequence of appropriating their means to the great work of completing the canal between the 2 rivers, which promises a great advantage to the city. The Greenwich had just commenced ; so tint the di- vidend accrued upon a capitil of 17,930,000 dollars- making an interest of 5*7875 per cent., as the paper discounted would average 60 days' notes, and 6 per cent, discount deducted, there must have been dis- counted during the year paper to the amount of Marine Insurance — During 1830, there were in this city 8 marine insurance companies, with an aggre- gate capital of ■ And these made dividends for • But 2 companies, whose capital amounted to 450.000 dollars, divided nothing, bo that the dividend really aroee [All of a capital of 2,600.000 dollars, making ail interest of 15-572 per cent. The American Company 103,769,952 commenced in 1815, and its dividends to 1830 inclu- sive were 312 per cent., amounting to • * The Ocean, with a capital of 350.000, has, from 1823 to 1830 inclusive, made dividends for 126 per cent. F,re Insurance.— During 1830, there were in this city 20 fire companies, whose aggregate capital was And these made dividends for - But 2 companies, whose capital amounted to 750,000 dollars, divided nothing, so that the dividend really arose out of a capital of 7,050.000 dollars, making an interest of 6*805 per cent. The Washington com- menced 1814. and has made a uniform semi-annual dividend of 4 1-2 per cent, making in all 144 per cent., amounting to - From 1923 to the year ls-30 inclusive— The dividends of the Eagle were 69 1-2 per cent. - Globe .52 — Franklin - 44 1-2 — North River 64 — New York 76 — 7,800.000 479,750 720,000 347,500 520,000 133.000 221,000 380,000 Progress of Stocks in the City of New York, from 1S19 to 1830, both inclusive. Yeare. Banks in New York City. Marine nsurance Companies. Fire Insurance Companies. Amount of Ami. of Div. Ra'e Amount of Pa- Amount of Amount of Rate Amount of Amt. of Div. Rate Capital. declared. perCent per discounted Capital. Div.declar. per Cent. Capital. declared. per Cent. Dollars. Dollars. Dollar,. nmlart. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. 1819 15.900,000 782.000 4-918 78,199,992 3,850,000 ■112.250 10-707 4,50 ,000 237,-00 6277 >-! 1 15,900.000 921,500 5-795 92,1 19.980 3.850,000 250,1 .0 6 -.11 4.500.000 36i.000 8-111 1821 15,900 000 920,500 5-799 92,649,984 3 B50, 2.0.6V0 6---10 4,500 000 364.500 8-100 1'22 16.000,000 921,200 5-757 92.119.976 3,8 i0.000 320,150 8-310 4,500.000 365,501 8- 122 18 3 15.500.000 992,500 6-403 99,250,0 3,1 0,000 276.500 8-777 7.400,000 485.000 6-554 1- '1 15,600.000 617.050 3-947 61,70 .020 4.6.0.000 317.000 6 817 7,-10 1 000 552 500 7-466 1-J-, 17.450.000 936,500 5 366 93,619,972 -,,:m .,ii(io 321.0 10 4169 1.190.000 767,500 6-4 9 1826 17.500.000 1.031,500 5-894 103.149.856 5.300,000 260,000 4905 12,1 ; 0.000 717 750 5-825 I--27 17 890.000 1,025.400 5-751 102 530,996 4,t 0.000 228,000 5-211 12.450 000 602,Oi 4-835 1828 18.330.000 1,030 21 '0 5 669 101.910,072 ! 4.I0O.000 301.500 7-353 10.100 000 467.000 ■I -t 1K29 17.830,000 977,000 5479 97.699,992 i 3,"00.000 442.000 1 1 "It 7,<-O0.000 461,500 6-955 1830 18,130,000 12 yean - 1,037,700 11,202,050 5-723 103,769 952 3,050,000 403.000 3,6*2,800 13-213 7,800,000 479,750 5,868,500 6- 150 1,120,201,752 NEW YORK. 233 In the previous estimates, the rate per cent, on the actually productive capital was given. Here the interest is determined hy comparing the whole capital with ilic whole dividend. Remarks on Banking at New York.— The reader will find in the article Hanks, Foreign (vol. i. p. 125.), some details as to the banking system of the United si.ucs. ii seems to be quite as defective in New York as in any other part of the Union. Several banks in that Stale have failed, and some of those that still exist obtained their charters hy resorting to the most disgraceful practices. In the summer of 1826, the grand jury of the city entered upon an investigation of certain circumstances connected null the formation of some of these establishments, which ended in the conviction, as conspirators to defraud the public, of not ■ few citizens, and even of some members of the legislature, who had pre- viously been deemed highly respectable! The Court of Errors afterwards decided, by a small majo- rity, thai these Convictions were illegal ; but the fact of the most scandalous abuses having prevailed was established beyond all question. We may mention, by way of example, that the United States Lombard Association, incorporated in 1*25, was sworn to as having a paid upcapital of 300,000 dollars ; bin the association having failed in 1826, it was ascertained that not more than 3(1,000 dollars had ever been paid up! There were, we are sorry to say, several other cases quite as bad, or, if possible, even Worse lb in Ibis. — (Report and Observation* on the Hunks, .f-r. of the State of New York, p. 10.) With the exception of the branch of the United States Bank, all the other New York hanks issue notes of so low a value as 1 dollar. They all discount bills : generally at 6 per cent. In order to protect the public from the mischief resulting from the failure of banks, the legislature of the St:iie of New York enacted a law, in 1829, compelling all hanks chartered in future, or getting their charters renewed, to pay from 3 to 1 per cent, of their capital stock to the treasurer of the State, by whom it is invested and accumulated as a guarantee fund. When a bank fails, its debts, under certain restrictions, are to be paid from this fund. Commissioners have also been appointed, having authority to examine upon oath, and to inquire into any particulars as to the management of the different banks subjected to this regulation. This system has not been established for a sufficient length of time to enable a conclusive opinion to be formed as to its practical operation. We believe, however, that it will he found quite inadequate to eradicate the evils complained of. Even were it otherwise successful, what can be more unjust than to tax the capital of solid and well-managed concerns, to create a fund to pay the debts of those set on foot for the purpose of swindling? The interference of the commissioners, by lessening the responsibility of the directors, must be a good deal worse than useless ; and can have no effect other than the multiplication of abuses. We have not, indeed, the least doubt, that it will he found in Ame- rica, as in England, that banking can acquire no real solidity till a stop be put to the issue of all notes for payment of which security has not previously been given. Nothing short of this can be of any material service. It is mere error and delusion to suppose that it is possible to prevent fraud or mismanagement by any system of official superintendence. Forgery is extremely prevalent in the State of New York, and, indeed, throughout the Union ; a consequence of the low value at which notes are issued, and of their employment even in the smallest transactions. It is not, in truth, easy to imagine that the paper currency of any country can be in a less satisfactory condition than that of the United States. And it wilt not, certainly, be improved, but much deteriorated, should the president succeed in his efforts to destroy the Bank of the United Slates. Sales by Auction.— The practice of selling goods, particularly those imported from abroad, by auction, is of long standing in New York, and is carried to a very great extent. Auctioneers are appointed by the senate, on the nomination of the governor. Statement of Sales at Auction in the State of New York, from 1810 to 1830 inclusive, from Returns made by the Auctioneers to the Comptroller. Yean. Amount of Duties. Amount of Sales dutiable. Amount of Sales not dutiable. Total. Dollars. cents. Dollars. cents. Dollars. cents. Dollars. cents. lS'.O 126,404 62 5,602,662 59 510,760 28 6,113,422 87 1811 110,220 76 4,393,987 51 342,155 24 4,736,142 75 1812 121,236 92 5,203,566 67 425,451 30 5,629,017 97 1813 156,481 05 6,001,162 40 1,051,646 40 7,052,803 80 ♦ 1814 86,067 76 3,527,155 88 387,631 12 3,914,787 00 1S.15 182,936 57 12,124,054 76 1,037,695 01 13,161,749 77 1SI6 171,907 40 11,349,826 07 765,889 76 12,115,715 83 1817 199,123 38 12,472,446 92 726,165 73 13,198,612 65 1818 176,032 21 11.873,658 42 1,614,418 83 13,488,077 25 1819 141,570 96 9,538,202 51 1,727,356 31 11,265,558 82 1820 153,999 86 10,182,967 00 1,833,229 75 12,016,196 75 1821 154,543 92 10,525,791 05 1,819,434 72 12,345,275 77 1822 180,761 68 12,340,127 54 1.798.8S0 88 14,139,008 42 1823 208,254 01 13,754,821 57 3,117,128 86 16,871,950 43 1824 226,218 13 15,716,432 88 3,587.586 48 19,304,019 36 1825 285,037 62 19,713,686 67 4,530,600 69 24,244,287 36 1826 242,810 06 16,328,198 52 4,722,154 73 21,050,353 25 1827 247,808 24 16,401,643 68 3,063,576 64 19,465,220 32 1828 257,180 40 17,449,544 64 8,590,116 29 26,039,600 93 tl829 242,552 54 16.536,906 60 8,685,802 29 25,222,708 89 1830 218,513 66 15,465,405 99 10,300,705 79 25,766,111 78 307,140,686 97 3,892,661 78 216,502,249 87 60,638,437 10 Abstract of the principal Provisions of the Law concerning Auc- tions. The dutifs are — 1. On wine- an t ardent spirits, foreign or domestic, 2 per cent. 2. On goods imported fiom beyond the Cape of Good Hope, and sold In packless, hales, &c , as imported. 1 percent. 3. On all other articles, subject to duties, ! 1-2 per cent The following articles are not subject to duties : — 1. Ships and vessels. 2. L tenuis of husbandry, horses, neat cattle, hogs, and sheep. 3. Articles grown, produced, or manufactured in this state, except distilled spirits. 4. All fabrics of cotton, wool, hemp, and flax, manufactured within the jurisdiction of the United Stales. Goods are exempted from auction duties, — 1. When they belong to the United States or this State. 2. When sold by the authority of a court, orwhen sei2ei by a public officer on accouut of any forfeituie or penalty, or under a distress 3. The efiVcts of a deceased person sold by executors, or administra- tors, or hy a person authorised by a surrogate. 4. The effects of a bankrupt or insotvent sold by his assignees, ap- pointed pursuant to law, or by a general assignment for the benefit of all his creditors. 5. Goods damaged at sea and sold within 20 days after being landed, for the ownen ♦ The returns of sales for 1814, having been mislaid at the comptroller's office, the amounts are stated by estimating the average of the 4 preceding years in proportion to the duties paid, which are exactly correct as staled. fThe amount of real estate sold in 1829 (included in the above not dutiable) was #2,131,390 62 cents. u 2 30 234 NEW YORK. Any cit'rzen of (his State may sell at auction (except in the city of New York) all such goods as are not subject to duties. But in ihe city of New York, or where Ihe goods pay duties, the sale moat be by an authorised auctioneer, his partner, or clerk. And any person selling contrary to Ihe said provisions is guilty of a misdemeanour. When an auctioneer cannot attend an auction by ftdbnetf, by duty as a fireman, by military orders, or necessary attendance in a court of justice, or when he is temporarily absent from Ihe place for which he is appointed, he may employ a partner to altend in his behalf. He must give bond to the people of this State, wilh 2 freehold sure- ties, conditioned in the penally of r-,000 dollars, for the payment of the duties imposed by law and accruing on the sales. The penalty of selling without the bond is 125 dollars for each article offered for sale. No auctioneer in any city shrill at the same time have more than I house or store for holding his auctions, nnd shall, before entering on his office, designate in writing, to be filed with the clerk of ihe city, such house or store, and his partner or parlners. But goods sold in the packages in which they were imported, furniture, and such bulky articles as have usually been sold in warehouses, in the s'reets. or on the wharfs, need not be sold in tlie house or store designated in such writing, if such sale be advertised at least 2 days previously in I or more newspapers. Auctioneers are to receive 2 1-2 percent, on Ihe amount of all sales, unless by previous agreement in writing ; and for demanding or receiving an unlawful commission, shall forfeit 250 dollars, and refund the monies so received. No auctioneer, on the same day and at the same place where his public auction shall be held, nor any other person at Ihe same lime and place, shall sell at private sale any goods liable to auction duties, under penally of forfeiting their price. Every auciioneer shall make out in writing a quarterly account, da'ed on the 1st days of April, July, October, and January in the year for which he is appointed, statins minutely — 1. The sum for which any goods shall have been sold at every auc- tion held by or for himj from the time of his giving bond, or from the date of" his last quarterly account. 2. The davs on which sales were so made, and the amount of each day's sale, designating the sales made by himself, or in his pre- sence, and those made in his absence by his partner or clerk, and the cause of his absence. 3. The amount of all private sales made by himself or his partners, and the limes thereof. 4. The amount of duties chargeable on all sales made. Every such account shall, within 20 days af er its date, be exhibit, ed, by auctioneers for a city, to the mayor or recorder ; and if by an auctioneer for a county, to a county judge, and be verified by oath. Every partner of an auctioneer, and every clerk who has made any sales, shall also swear to his belief in the truth and justice of every particular of such account. The Slate duties (together with the addition of 2 1-2 per cent, on the whole amount of them) are to be paid within 10 days after exhi- biting such account. Any deceit or fraud in violating any provision of the law respect- ing auctioneers, is made a misdemeanour, and subjects the offending party to the payment of (rcWe damages to the party injured. Coins. A Table of various Foreign Coins, 8fc. with their lvalue in Fede- ral Money. Dots. cts. m. Sixteenth of a dollar • • - - - 6 2A Haifa pistareen . - - - -090 Real plate of Spain - - - - 10 An English sixpence - - « - II 1 Eighth of a dollar - - - - - 12 5 I.ivre Tournois of France - - - - 18 5 Franc of France - - • - - 18 7s A pistareen - - - - - • 18 5 An English shilling - • - - - 22 2 Quarter of a dollar - - - - - 25 Marc banco of Hamburgh - - - - 23 The florin or guilder of the United Netherlands - 40 Half dollar - • • - • - 50 Rupee of Bengal - - - . - 50 Rix dollar of Denmark • - - - 1 Rix-dollar of Sweden • - - - I Spanish dollar - • • - - 1 Rouble of Russia - - - . - 1 Crown of England and France - - -19 Milree of Portugal - . - • - 1 24 Tale of China - • - - - 1 48 Pagoda of India - - - - - 1 84 French pistole . - - - - 3 66 7 Spanish pistole - • - • • 3 77 3 Pound of Ireland • - - • • 4 10 Pound sterling of Great Britain - - - 4 44 French guinea - - - - • 4 60 English guinea . - - - - 4 65 7 A moidore - - - • - -608 Half Johannas - . - • -800 A doubloon - - - - - - 14' 93 4 A Johannas- - - - - - 16 Real vellnn of Spain - - • -060 Real of Gibraltar - - - • -086 Rix dollar of Bremen • • - - 75 Pezza of Leghorn - - - - • 90 Ducat of Naples • - - • - 80 Ounce of Sicily • - - • . 2 50 Coin* of the United Statu. Gold Coins. L. >. d. Eagle, Talue 10 dol., wt. 270 grs. stand, gold. = 2 3 8 sterl. Half eagle, 5 do. 135, do. — = 1 1 10 — Quarter 2£ do. 67fc do. — = 10 11 — Standard gold is 11 parts pure and 1 alloy. Silver Coins. s. d. Dollar, val. 10 dimes, wt. 416 grs. stand, silver = 4 3-75 sterl. Half dollar 6 do. 203 do. — = 2 4-87 — Quarter, 2j do. 104 do. — =1 0-93 — Dime, 10 cents, 41 3-5ths — = 5-46 — Half dime. 5 do. 20 4-5ths — Standard silver is 1,485 parts pure, and 179 alloy. A pound of pure gold is valued at 15 lbs. of pure silver. Coins of the United States decimally divided.— 10 mills make t cent, 10 cents 1 dime, 10 dimes 1 dollar, 10 dollars 1 eagle. To reduce the currencies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Virginia, into those of New York and North Carolina,— to Ihe riven sum add I -3d part thereof. Of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland,— to the given sum add l-4th thereof. Of South Carolina and Georgia,— fiom Ihe given sum suhtracl 2-9* hs thereof. To reduce New York and North Carolina into New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Virginia,- from the given 6um deduct t-lth thereof. Into Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Marvland,— from the given sum deduct l-b'th thereof. Into South Carolina, —to the sum given add l-16lh, then lake 1-2 of Ihe whole. To reduce Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maiyland, into New Htnipshir'e, Massachusetts. Rhode Ishnd, Connecticut, and Virginia.— from the sum given deduct l-5lh thereof. Into New York and North Carolina,— to the sum given add both thereof. Into South Carolina and Georgia,— multiply by 3 and l-9th, and divide the product by 5 ; or multiply by 28, and divide by 45 To reduce South Carolina and Georgia into New Hampshire, Mas- sachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Virginia,— to the given sum add 2-7ths thereof. Into Pennsylvania. New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland,— multiply the given sum by 45 and divide by 28. Into New' York and North Carolina,— froni the given sum subtract l-7th, and double Ihe remainder. Custom-house Regulations.— Vessels must be reported to the col- lector by the master 24 hours after arrival; must come to a full entry 4S hours after arrival, at w hich time the commander swears to a detailed account of his cargo, stores, and passengers, and that he has deposited all letters in the post office, except such as are for his ship's husband, at which time he must also deposit the ship's regis- ter, clearance, and cockets, in the Customhouse. Warehousing.— There is no warehousing sysiem, but goods are re- ceived into the public stores, where they are allowed to remain 9 months at ihe risk and expense (for fees of cartage, labour ige, and storage, as fixed by the Chamber of Commerce, see post) of ihe owner, without any duties being demandable. Woollens are the only excep- tions to this rule : since IS33. interest is charged upon the amount of duty payable on their account from the time of their importation. Port Charges.— Tor American vessels, or those of States having re- ciprocity treaties : — Doll. cts. L. i. d. . 5 70 or 1 6 7 3-4 - 2 70 — 12 13-4 Fees on entering - Fees on clearing - Customhouse Fees.— I. Fees payable to Collector.— Entry of a ves- sel of 100 tons or upwards, 2 dollars and 60 cents; clearance of a ves- sel of 100 Ions or upwards, 2 dollars and 60 cents ; entry of a vessel under 100 tons, 1 dollar and 50 cents ; clearance of a vessel under 100 tons, I dollar and 50 cents ; every post entry, 2 dollars ; permit to land goods, 20 cents ; every bond taken officially, 40 cents ; permit to load goods, for the exportation, for drawback, 30 cents; debenture or other official certificate, 20 cents ; official document, (register ex- cepted), required by any person, ^0 cents. 2. Fees payable to the Surveyor —Admeasuring and certifying the same, of every ship or vessel of 100 tons and under, per ton, 1 per cent. ; admeasurement of every ship or vessel above 100 tons, and not exceeding -'CO Ions, 1 dollar and 50 cents ; above 200 'ons, 2 dollars; for all other services on board any ship or vessel of 100 tons and up- wards, having on board goods, wares, or merchandise subject to duty, 3 dollars; for like services on board any ship or vessel of less than 100 tons, 1 dollar and 50 cents ; on all vessels not having on board goods, wares, or merchandise subject to duty, 66 2-3d cents. Certificate of registry of vessels. 2 dollars. Endorsement on registry or record, 1 dollar. Every bond required by this act, 25 cents; every bond for a Mediterranean passport, 40 cents ; every seaman's protection, 25 cents. Under the Coasting Act.— Admeasuring every vessel iu order to the registering, enrolment, licensing, or recording the same, of 5 tons or upwards, and less than 20, SO cents ; 20 and not exceeding 70, 75 cents: 70, 1 dollar; above 100, 160 cents. For every certificate of enrolment, £0 cents; every endorsement of dilto, 20 cents; every licence, including the bond, not exceeding 20 tons, 25 cents ; above 20 tons, and not more than 100, 50 cents ; more than 100, 1 dollar. Recording certificate, manifest, and granting permits of less than 20 tons. 25 cents ; above 50 tons, 50 cents. Foi certifying a manifest and granting permit for registered vessels, 150 cents. For receiving certified manifest and granting permit for registered vessels, 150 cents. Granting permit for a vessel not belonging to a citizen, on ar- rival, to proceed from district to district, and receiving a manifest, 2 dollars; receiving manifest and granting permit to unload, as above, 2 dollars. Granting permit for a vessel to carry on fishery in a fo- reign port, 25 cents. For report and entry of any foreign goods im. ported iu such last mentioned vessel, 25 cents. DoUs. L. s.d. Erpense of loading a vessel of 300 tons, in the port of New York, wilh the usual cargo exported from thence ... 160 36 Ditto of discharging - - - 80 18 For discharging — Cents. Coals, per chaldron - • • - 25 1 1 For loading— ... Tobacco, per hhd. - • - . 25 1 1 Cotton, per bale - - - . 25 1 Flour, per bl. • • • . 3 1-2 1 M Flaxseed, do. - • • - 7 33-4 Rates of Wharfage.— Vessels under 60 tons, 50 cents per day = 2s. 3d.; and for every 50 tons more, 12J cents additional =7d. N.B. — Wharfs are all private property. Rates of Commission,— recommended for general Adoption, and allowed by the New Turk Chamber of Commerce, when no Agree- ment subsists to the contrary. On Foreign Business.— On the sale of merchandise, 5 per cent.— sale or purchase of stocks, I per cent.— Specie, 1-2 per cent.— Pur- chase and shipment of merchandise, with fund in hand, on the aggre- gate amount of costs and charges, 21-2 per cent— Drawing or indorsing bills, in all cases, 2 1-2 per cent.— Vessels, selling or pur- chasing, 2 1-2 per cent.— Procuring freight, 5 per cent.— CollectinJ freight on general average, 2 1-2 per cent.— Outfits or disbursements, with funds in hand, 2 1-2 per cent.— Effecting marine insurance, in NEW YORK. 235 all cases, when the premium does not exceed 10 per cent., on the amount ninuni, 1-2 J>er cent.— When the premium exceeds 10 per cent., on the amount of premmm, 5 per cent.— Collecting dividends on stock, 1-2 per cent.— Collecting delayed or litigated iCCOUntt, 6 percent.— Adjusting and collecting insurance losses, 2 1-2 percent — uid paying monies, from which no other commission is derived, i peron''.— Remittances in bills, in all ewes, I B per cent— binding .in I reshaping goods from vessels in distress, on the ua/ur, 2 1-2 per cent. — Receiving and forwarding goods entered at the Cus- tom-house, on the value, \ per cent.— and 2 1-2 per ceut on respon* ; . urred. On Inland /tits inert.— On the sale of merchandise, 2 1-2 per cent. —Purchase and shipment of merchandise, or accepting for purchase, without runds or property in hand, 2 1-2 per ce nt -Sale or purchase ofatO In, l per cent.— Sale or purchase of specie, 1-2 per cent.— Sale ■ vi-liangr with indorsement, i 2 per cent— Sale of hank notes or drafts not current, I -2 per cent.— Selling or indorsing hills .-, 2 1-8 per cent.— Selling or purchasing vessels, 2 1-2 per seal —Chartering to proceed to other ports to load, 212 per cent.— Procuring or collecting freight 2 1-2 per cent— Outfi's or disburse- ments 2 1 2 per cent— Collecting general average, 2 1-2 per cent— Effecting marine insurances, in all cases when the premium does not exceed 10 per cent., on the amount insured, 1-2 per cent. — When in exceeds 10 per cent., on the amount of premium, 5 per tent —Adjusting and collecting insurance losses, 2 1-2 per cent — Collecting dividends on stocks, 1-2 per cent.— Collecting bills, and i i the amount, or receiving and paying monies from which no other commission is derived, 1 per cent.— Receiving and forward- ing goods, on the value, 1-2 per cent.— The same when entered fur duty or debenture, 1 per cent.— Remittances in bills, in all cases, 1-2 per cent The above commissions to be exclusive of the guarantee of debts for sales on credit, storage, brokerage, and every other charge acta ally incurred.— The risk of loss by fire, unless insurance be ordered, u i ol robbery, theft and other una voidable occurrences, if the usual care l>e taken to secure the property, is in all cases to be borne by the propr.etor of the goods. When bills are remitted for collection, and are returned under protest for non-aoceptance or non-payment. ■ iimijission to be charged as though they were duly i hi consignment! of merchandise withdrawn or resbipped. M charged to the extent of aJvances or responsi- bilities incurred, and half commission on the residue of the value. Rates of Storage,— chargeable per month, as established by the New York Chamber of Commerce. Cents Almonds, in frails or packages, cwt - - - '6 Alum, in casks or bags, per ton - • - * 40 Ashes pot and peart bbl. - - - - * 8 Beef. bbl. 6 Bottles, quart, in mats, cr. or hmp. gT. - - * 8 Bark, quercitron, in casks, ton - - - * 60 Bagging, co'ton, loose or in bales, pc. • • - - 3 Butter, in firkins of 60 lbs., per fir. - - . -2 Brandy. See Liquors. Candles, in boxes of 50 or 60 lbs., box - - - -2 Chocolate, in boxes of 50 lbs., box - • - - 2 Cocoa, in bags, per cwt. - - . - - 2 1-2 in casks, ditto • • • • - - 3 Coffee, in casks, ditto - - - - - -212 in bags, ditto - - - • • -2 Copperas, in casks, per ton - - • - - 40 Copper, in pies, ditto - - . - - - 20 in shpets or bolts, ton - * - - - 30 brazieis' bottoms, ton - - - • * 75 Cordage, per ton - - - . - - 60 Cassia, in mats or boxes, per cwt. • - - .10 Cotton, American, in square bales, 300 lbs. - 121-2 ditto, in round bales, ditto - - - .16 West Indian, in proportion to round. East Indian, in bales, per 300 lbs. - - -9 Cheese, casks, boxes, or loose, cwt - • • - 3 Duck, heavy, per bolt - - - • - .11-2 Ravens or Russia sheeting, piece • - - 03-4 Dry goods, in boxes or bales, 40 cubic feet - • -40 Fish, pickled, per bbl. ...... 6 dry, in casks or boxes, cwt - « • - 4 in bulk, per cwt. - - - . - 21-2 Figs, in frails, boxes, or drums, cwt • • • .21-2 Flax, pf r ton - - - . . - 60 Flax seed, or other dry articles, in tierces of 7 bushels per tierce 10 Flour, or other dry articles, in bbls. - - - - 4 Earthenware, in crates of 25 to 30 feet - - - .15 in hhds. of 40 to 50 feet - - - - 30 Grain, in bulk, per bushel > - - • .1 Ginger, in bags, j>er cwt. * - - - -2 Glass, window, iu boxes of 50 feet - • - -11-2 Gin. See Liquors. Hemp, per ton - - - - - - -75 Hides, dried or salted, per hide - - - -11-2 Hardware, in cisks of 40 cubic feet - - - -40 Indigo, in serons or boxes, per cwL - - - - 4 Iron, in bars or bolts, per ton - - - - - 20 in hoop*, sheets, or nailrods, ton - - • - 30 Liquors, in puncheons of 120 gallons, per puncheon - - 30 in 1-4 casks - - . - - -61-4 in pipes or casks, 120 gallons - - - -30 bottled, in casks or boxes, doz. bottles - - 1 1-2 Leather, per side - . - - . . j Lard, iu brkins of 60 lbs. . . - -2 Lead, pig or sheet, per ton . . . .20 dry or gr in oil, ditto - - , . -20 Molasses, per hhd. of 110 gallons (other casks in proportion) - 30 mils, in casks, per cwt. - . . . - 2 Oil, in hhds. or casks, 110 gallons - - - -30 in chests of 30 flasks, per chest . . - .4 bottled, in boxes or baskets, doz. . - - -11-2 Paints, in casks or kegs, per ton - - - -40 Pork, per bbl. - ... .6 Porter. See Liquors. Pepper, in bags, per cwt - . - . .21-2 Pimento, in ca--ks or bags, cwt. - . . . .21-2 Rice, in tierces, per tierce - - . . -12 in 1-2 ditto, per 1-2 ditto 8 Rags, in bales, per cwt. - - . . . .6 Raisins, Malaga, in casks • • • • .3 Cents. Raisins, Malaga, in bores in other packages, per cwt. Rum. Sa Liquors. Saltpetre, m ban, per cwt. in ca-ks, ditto Sal', in hags or bulk, per bushel Shot, in casks, per ton - - - . - -37 Soap, in boxes of 50 to 60 lbs. . Steel, in bars or bundles, per ton in boxes or tubs, ditto Sugar, raw, in bags or boxes, per cwt. ditto, in casks, ditto ..... 21-2 refined, in casks or packages Tallow, in ca-ks or serons, cwt Tea, bohea, in whole chests ditto, iti 1-2 chests gnen or black, in 1-4 chests - . - - 4 1-2 in boxes, in proportion to 1-4 chests. Tin, block, per ton - - - . . -20 in boxes of usual size, per box - - . - I 1-2 Tobacco, in hhds., per hhd. - . . . - 371-2 in bales or serous, per cwt. manufactured, in kegs of 100 lbs Wines. See Liquors. Woods, for dyeing, under cover, per ton di to, in yards Whiting, in hhds., per ton - - - • 371-2 On articles on which the rate is fixed by weight, it is understood to be on the gro*s weight j and on liquors, oil, &c. on which the rate refers to gallons, it is understood to be on the whole capacity of the casks, whether full or not. The proprietors of goods lo be at the expense of putting them in store, stowing away, and turning out of store.— All goods taken on storage to be subject to 1 month's storage ; if taken out within 15 days after the expiration of the month - , to pay 1-2 a mouth's storage ; if after 15 days, a whole mouth's storage. Rates of Carta Ale or beer, per hhd. hhd. from 60 to 90 gallons Alum or copperas, from 12 to 15 cwt, per hi. f-om 15 to 20 cwt - over 1 ton Bar iron, per load • Roards and plank, per load - Brandy, pipe over 100 gallons Bread, 4 tierces Bricks, per load handled and piled - Building or paving stones, load Calves, sheep and lambs Cider, cheese, and cocoa Clay and sand, 12 bushels - Coal, half cbaldron, per load Cocoa, per load Coffee, in bags or bbls. above 10 cwt., per hhd. Cordage, small, per load Cotton, per load of 3 bales • Cut stone, per load • • Dried fish, loose, load Dye wood, per load Earthenware, loose, per load European goods, per load - Flax, in hales and bundles, load Flaxseed, 3 tierces Fire wood, per load Flour, in bags, 12 per load - 7 bbls. per load Gammon, or hams, per load Gin, pipe over 100 gallons - Hay, in trusses, bundles, bales, per load Heading or staves, per load - Hides, 50 per load - Hemp, in bales or bundles, per load loose, not over 12 cwt. Hoops, in bundles - Hoop-poles, per load Hollow ware, per load Household furniture Molasses, from 60 to 90 gallons from 90 to 140 gallons Oil, per load of 3 bbls. Oysters, ditto shells, &c. load Potashes, per load of 3 bbls. Paints, common, load per hhd., from 12 to 15 cwt. from 15 to 20 cwt - above 20 cwt Pantiles, per load • Plaster of Paris, ton Pork, beef, tar, pitch, and turpentine, Rum, per hhd. Salt, 20 bushels Shingles, long cedar, pine, in bundles Cyprus, 2,000 (22 inch) Stone, paving or building - Sugar, Havannah, 3 boxes from 9 to 15 cwt. from 15 to 20 cwt - above 20 cwt. Scantling, or timber, per load Tea, per load Tiles or slate, per load Tobacco, in hhds. from 9 to 15 cwt per hhd, from 15 to 20 cwt above 20 cwt. Wheat, or other grain, per load Wine, pipe, over 100 gallons in 4 quarter-casks • Whiting, common load per hhd., 12 to 15 cwt from 15 to 20 cwt. above 20 cwt. s.d. 2 3 6 2 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 236 NEW YORK. Cables. For everv cable, whole shot of 5 inches in circumference to s. d. 7 inches - - - - - * 5 Do. half shot of like dimensions • - • - 2 6 Do. whole shot of 7 to 10 inches - - • - 12 Do. half shot of like dimension*. - - • -60 Do. whole shot of 10, and not exceeding 12 inches in circum- ference - - - - - - - 14 Do. whole shot of 12, and not exceeding 14 inches in circum- ference 20 Do. half shot of the dimensions of the two last mentioned - 10 Do. whole shot of 14 and not exceeding 15 inches - • 24 Do. half shot of like dimensions - - - -12 Do. whole shot of (5 inches - - - - 32 Do. half shot of like dimensions - - - - 16 * # * Goods, lOimt, TTierchaJidisC) or other articles not herein enumerated, pa load - - - - -20 In all cases b here the distance exceeds 1-2 a mile, and not 2 miles, 1-2 in addition to he allowed. Rates of PoUerage.— For am' distance not exceeding 1-2 a mile, 12 1 2 cents; over 1-4 a mile, and not exceeding a mile, 25 cents, and in that proportion for any greater distance. For carrying a load upon a hand-barrow, for any distance not exceeding 1-2 a mile, 25 ceDts; over 1-2 a mile, and not exceeding a mile, 44 cents; and in that proportion tor any greater distance. Harid-fartirnu — For'any distance not exceeding 1-2 a mile, 18 2-4 cents; over 1-2 a mile, and not exceeding a mile, 31 1-4 cents; and in that proportion for any greater distance. Harbour Master. The office of harbour master was created in 1S0S, by legislative enactment, with power to regulate and station all vessels' in the har- bour, or at the w harfs, to accommodate vessels wishing to discharge their cargoes, and to decide promptly all disputes connected with the foregoing subjects. Re^istin? his authority subjects to a fine of 50 dollars and costs, for the benefit ot the New York hospital. Fees. — On vessels unloading, 1 1-2 cent per ton. Vessels paying foreign duties and tonnage, double. ; which must be paid within 48 hours after arrival. Schooneis and sloops in the coasting trade, 2 dollars. For adjusting any difference respecting situation, 2 dollars. Pilots must register their vessels, names, and places of abode, in his office ; and are obliged to put to sea whenever ordered by him. The penalty for refusing is 5 dollars and loss of licence. Pilotage. There are9 branch and ft deputy pilots, and as many registered boats. Rates of PUotage—Eveiy pilot who shall take charge of any vessel to the eastward or southward of the White Buoy on the eastern ridge near the bar, and conducts and moors sifely such vessel to a proper wharf, or from the city to the southward o> eastward of said buoy, is entitled by law to the following rates, to wit: — For vessels of the United Stales, and those who are entitled by treaty to enter upon the same terms as American vesse's, the sums which follow :— Every vessel drawing less than 14 feet, 1 dol. 50 c's. per foot; do. drawing 14 feet, and less than 18. 1 dol. 75 cts. per foot; do. drawing 18 feet or upwards, 2 dols. 25 cts. per foot. The same ra^es of pilot- age to be allowed for any vessel that may be piloted any where within the Hook, whose master or owner does not wish the same to be brought to the city wharfs. Half pilotage only to be allowed to any pilot who shall take charge of a vessel to the westward of the White Buoy. No pilotage whatsoever to be given to any pilot, unless he shall take charge of a vessel to the southward of the upper Middle Ground, nor unless such vessel shall be of 70 tons burden, provided the usual signal be not given, in which case half pilotage is to be allowed. Between the 1st of November and the 1st of April, inclusive, 4 dols. additional to be allowed for vessels of 10 feet water and upwards; if less than 10 feet, 2 dols. One fourth additional to be given to the pilots who shall take chirge of vts-els out of sight of the light-house. For every day any pilot shall be required to remain on board, 3 dols. per day. Foreign vessels not entitled by treaty to enter on the same terms as tho«e of the United States, to pay l-4th additional to the pilots, and also 5 dols. over and above the foregoing rales of pilotage. Wardens of the Port. Vessels and goods arriving in a damaged state, and required to be sold by auction for the benefit of underwriters out of the city of New York, must be under the inspection of the wardens, who may be required to certify the cause of the damage, and amount cf sale and charges. Fas. — I 1 2 percent, on gross amount of sales ; and for each survey on board of any vessel, at any store, or along the docks or wharfs, 3 dols. on damaged goods; facta survey on hull, spars, rigging, &c, 5 dols.; each certificate, 1 dol. 25 cts.; ditto of distress of said vessel, 2 dols. 50 cts.; same services for vessels paying foreign duties and tonnage, double. Quantity of Goods to compose a Ton. Extract from the By-Laws of the New York Chamber of Commerce. Resolved,— That when vessels are freighted by the ton, and no spe- cial agreement is made between the owner of the vessel and freighter of the goods, respecting the proportion of tonnage which each parti- cular article thai I be computed at, the following regulation shall be the standard of computation: — That the articles, the bulk of which shall compose a ton, to equal a ton of heavy material-*, shall be in weight as follows :— 1,568 lbs. of coffee in casks 1,830 dido in bag;; 1,120 lbs. of cocoa in casks, 1,307 ditto in bags. 952 lbs. of pimento in casks, 1,110 ditto in bags. 8 barrels of flour, of 196 lbs. each. 6 barrels of beef, pork, tallow, pickled fish, pilch, tar, and turpentine. 20 cwt. of pig and bar iron, potashes, sugar, logwood, fustic, Nica- ragua wood, and all heavy dye woods, rice, honey, copper ore, and all otber heavy goods. 16 cwt. of eoSee, cocoa, and dried codfish, in bulk, and 12 cwt. of dried codfish in casks of any size. 6 cwt. of ship bread in casks, 7 cwt. in bags, and 8 cwt. in bulk. 200 gallons (wine measure) reckoning "he full contents of the casks of oil, wine, brandy, or any kind of liquors. 22 bushels of grain, peas, or beans in casks. 36 bushels of ditto in bulk. 36 bushels of European salt. 31 bushels of salt from the West Indies. 29 bushels of sea coal. 40 feet (cubic measure) of mahogany, square timber, oak plank, pine and other boards, beaver, furs, peltry, bees' wax, cotton, wool, and bale goods of all kinds. 1 hogshead of tobacco, and 10 cwt. of dry hides. 8 cwt. of China raw silk, 10 cwt. ne;t bohea, and 8 cwt. green tea. Tares allowed by Custom. bags caiks ; in case in bale double bales Alum, i Copperas, in casks - Cassia, in boxes in mats Cinnamon, in boxes * in bales - Cloves, in casks in bags Currants, in casks • in boxes - Figs, in boxes in mats or frails in drums in casks Glu casks i boxes in bales Hemp, Indigo, in cases Lead (white, in oil) do. if the kegs are packed in allowed for the hogshead is (white, dry) in casks (red, dry) do. - (red, in oil) do. id casks Nails, in bags Nutmegs, in casks • in bags - Ochre (in oil) in casks (dry), do. Powder, gun, in 1-4 casks in 1-2 do. in whole do. Plums, in boxes Prunes, in do. Paris white, in casks Raisins, in jars in boxes in casks in frails in drums - boxes ndy, in tubs Steel, per bundle Shumac, no tare : sometimes i, in casks - ases and casks casks bags i bales Snuff, Sugar. Sugar Sheet i Steel, i Spikes Tallow, i -j.isks 1 lb. per hogsheads, ertra bag is allowed in serons in 'ubs Twine, in boxes in casks in bales Tobacco, in boxes Wire, in casks Whiting, in do. Actual tare is allowed on fruit, if required. Tares allowed by law. On candles, in boxes Cheese, in hampers or baskets in boxes Chocolate, in boxes Coffee, in bags in bales in casks Cocoa, in bags in casks Cotton, in bales in serons Indigo, in do. Nails, in casks Pimento, in bags Pepper, in do. Sugar, other than loaf sugar, in boxes in mats or bags Salts, Glauber 5 lbs. 10 per cent. 8 — 8 lbs. 16 - 4 per cent 15 — 8 — 10 — actual. 6 per cent, actual. 6 per cent 12 — 4 — 100 lbs. 6 per cent 12 — 10 — 5 lbs. 9 - 23 — 8 per cent 8 — 10 — 18 lbs. 15 percent 1 5 per cent Sugar ( Soap. " Shot. indv i boxes boxes casks vhole chest of bohea tea Every che5t of hyson or other green .mis Every box of other tea betwt do. do. if 80 lbs. do. do- from 80 lbs, The above to include ropes, tea of 70 lbs. or 70 lbs. 36 — 20 — 20 — 18 — 20 — and upwards canvass, and olher coverings. On ah boxes of teas, according to the invoices or actual weight thereof. We have derived these statements from the New York Annual Register, for 1831 ; The Picture of New York ; the Consul's Answers to the Circular Queries, and private communications. NEW YORK. 237 Prices at JVeic York.— The following statements articles of exportation al New York, are taken fro i.t miIki, 183(3. of the wholesale prices of some in the JV'eu; York Price Current lor Cotton- Import duty, 3 ceuts per lb. New OrlcAOtj per lb. • Alabama,do> United, do. , do. - n - 9 75 8 SO — 9 75 — 10 import duty, 3 1-2 cents per square yard. Hemp, per yard - - - 18 Ha, da American, do. • Flour ami meal— Import duty, 50 cents per 112 lbs. New York, superfine, i>er barrel I toy, da Wi ilern Canal, do. . i Ipbia, .1.). Baltimore, Howard Street, do. • Richmond Country mills, do. - do. Alexandria, da Freder.cksburgh, do. I , i ibui a, no. ScnicheJ and line, do. - Mi ' Hi tigs, fine, do. Ryi flour, da - Indian meal] da per h<>£she*d Furs— Import duly,— dressed, 12 1-2 percent, advaloren ed. free. Beaver, parchment, per lb. 11 to 21 13 1-2 — 22 12 1-2 — 20 — 15 8 50 —00 22 50 South, do. West, da Otter, per ikin - Raccoon, S. and W. i tetrolt, kc. Muskrat, S. and N., do, Marten, Canada, do. N. W , do. Rrd f0Jt, I N'.da Nutria -.kins, do. Hare >kn*i, Russia, do. Grain— Import duty, Wheat 25 cents per Wheat, Virginia, per bushel I uolina, do. Rye, Northern, do. Coin, yellow, Northern, do. w hie, Loin? Island & Jersey, do, Southern, do. Barley, North River, do. Oats, Northern and Southern, do. 2 50 4 50 25 - 35 1 1 1 1-3 _ 1 SO 85 — 1 37 1-2 n iM) 40 90 30 12 1-2 IS bushl., other sorts fiee. 1 5(1 1 75 1 87 1-2 2 1 12 1-2 1 15 1.' 1-2 1 18 1 12 1-2 — 1 18 1 — 1 12 48 — Beans, per tierce of 7 bushels - peas, while, dry, da Lumber— Ynni snhn$ priCU. Boards, North River, per mille feet h.lMti ii pllie, ill). Albany do , per piece - Hank, Georgian do., p r milk feet Heading, W. <>., per milk • Staves, W. 0., pipe, 'I". hogibead| do. - barrel, do. R. 0., hogshead, do. - Hoops, do. Scantling, pine, do. oak, do. Timber, oak, per square foot - Qi < tin yellow pine, do. Shingles, cypress, per mille Nav.il Mores— '1 ar, per barrel - Pitch, da Rosin, do. Turpentine, Wilmington, soft, do. North. Co., do. do. Spirits of turpentine, per gallon Provisions- of the principal the 17lh of .Sep- . ell. Dh. C(f. to 12 — — 18 — 19 IS — 19 — 35 — — 62 — 46 - 32 — 33 — 40 — It) - 25 2(1 — 25 28 — 30 — 10 2 12 1-2 — 2 25 2 75 — 3 38 — 42 Ucef, iiii-ss, per barrel - - 10 _ 10 25 - 6 6 50 car"o - 4 50 — Pork, men, do. - - 24 50 — 25 prime - 16 50 — 17 50 cargo, do. - 14 — Hog's lard, per lb. - 17 17 1-2 butter, Goshen dairy, do. - 18 23 West, do. do. - - 18 20 shipping, do. - - 12 — 17 Philadelphia - - 10 15 Cheese, American do. - - 8 — 10 Hams, smoked, do. - 15 16 Tobacco — Import duty. Leaf. 1 5 per cent, ud valorem. Richmond and letersburgh per lb. - 5 — 9 North Carolina, do. ■ 5 7 Kentucky do. - - 7 — 10 Cuba {in parcels), do. - - 15 23 St. Domingo, do. - 14 20 Manufactured. No. 1., do. - 15 — 17 No. 2., do. - 13 12 14 1-2 No. 3., do. - 12 1-2 — 13 Ladies' twist, do. ■ 19 — 22 Cavendish, do. - - 14 — 40 [The Tables omitted in this article are comprehended in those which have been added to the articles Imports and Exports, and Ships. — Am. Ed.] Bills of Exchange.— By a revised law of Ihe State of New York, e following damages on bills drawn or negotiated in this State, and A'eto York Canals, 1833.— In addition to Ihe information laid be fore the reader in vol. i. p. 289, we have now to state, that the total amount of tolls collected on all the canals of the State, for the year ending the 30th of September, 1833, was as follows, viz.— Dolls. ctt. Erie and Champlain Canals • - 1,324,421 63 Osuego Canal 20.950 23 Cayuga and Seneca Canals ... 14,783 59 25,800 The expenses of collection are deducted from the tolls received by the collectors, which add, say ..... To'al amount of tolls - - D. 1,385,955 45 The nett revenue of the Erie and Champlain Canal fund, after paying all expenses, amounts to 1,135,161 33 The debt standing against the State, on the 30th of September, 1833, for the several canals, was as follows, to wit :— Dolls, cts. Erie and Champlain Canal debt - - • 6,522,659 29 lo. - - - - • 427,347 Cayuga and Seneca do. .... 237,000 Chemung da 316,000 Like do. .... 120,000 Chenango do. ..... 60,000 Total - the protested for non-payment, are allowed, viz. — Bills drawn on the Slaes of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Peni sylvania, Ohio, Delaware, Maiylainl,\ irgmia.ordistrictol Columbia. 3 per cent. North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, or Tennessee, 5 per ceut. Any other State or territory of the United States, or any other place 1,360,155 45 on or adjacent to this continent, and north of the equator, or any British or oiher foreign possessions in the West Indies, or elsewhere on the Western Atlantic Ocean, or any port or place in Europe, 10 per cent. Such damages shall be in lieu of interest, charges of protest, and all other charges incurred previous to and atthetime of giving notice of non-payment, but the holder of such bill shall be entit ed to demand ami recover lawful interest upon the aggregate amount of the firincipal sum specified in such bill, and of the damages thereon, rom the time at which notice of protest for non-payment shall have been given, and payment of such principal sum shall have been de- manded.— S.ct. 19. If the contents of such bill be expressed in the money of account of the United Stales, the amount due thereon and of the damages herein allowed for the non-payment thereof, shall he ascertained and determined without any relerence to Ihe rate of exchange existing between this State and the place on which such bill shall have been drawn, at the time of the demand of payment or of notice of non- payment. — Seel. 20 If the contents of such bill be expressed in the monev of account or currency of any foreign country, then the amouni due, exclusive D. 6,673,006 29 of the damages payable ihereof. shall be ascertained and determined by the rale of exchange oi the va'uc of such foreign currency, at the time of the demai.d of payment. — Sect. 21. Tariff of the United States. — Notwithstanding the unprecedented progress of the United States in wealth and population, their foreign trade was nearly stationary for the 10 years ending with 1830 ! And yet, considering the spirit of commercial enterprise by which the people, particularly in the New England States and New York, are animated, and their skill in navigation, it might have been fairly presumed that the growth of their foreign trade would, at least, have kept pace with the development of the internal resources of the coun- try. That it did not do so is wholly owing to the policy of government. Not satisfied with the extraordinary advances their constituents had made in numbers and wealth, Con- gress seems to have believed that their enreer might be accelerated by means of Custom- house regulations! — by giving an artificial direction to a portion of the public capital and industry, and turning it into channels into which it would not naturally flow ! No one who hasthe slightest acquaintance with the condition of America — who knows 238 NEW YORK. that she is possessed of boundless tracts of fertile and unappropriated land — that her popu- lation is comparatively thin, and wages high — can doubt for a moment that agriculture must, for a long series of years, be the most profitable species of employment in which her citizens can engage. There can be no question, indeed, (hat such branches of manufacture as are naturally adapted to her peculiar situation, will gradually grow up and flourish in America, without any artificial encouragement, according as her population becomes denser, and as the advantage which now exists on the side of agriculture becomes less decided. But to force, by means of duties and prohibitions, the premature growth of manufactures, is plainly to force a portion of the industry and capital of the country into businesses in which it will be least productive. Such, however, has been, for a lengthened period, the policy of the American legislature. The exploded sophisms of the mercantile system, though renounced by every statesman in Europe, acquired a noxious influence in congress, and were put forth with as much confi- dence, as if their soundness neither had been, nor could be, questioned ! From 1816 down to 1832, the object of the American legislature was to bolster up a manufacturing interest, by imposing oppressive duties on most manufactured articles imported from abroad. Now, it is obvious even had the articles produced in America through the agency of this plan been as cheap as those they superseded, that nothing would have been gained by it; for, to what- ever extent the importation of foreign articles may be diminished, there must be a corres- ponding diminution in the exportation of native American products; so that the only result would have been the raising up of one species of industry at the expense of some other species, entitled to an equality of protection. But the "American system" was not so inno- cuous. Instead of the goods manufactured in the States being as cheap as similar ones manufactured in Europe, they were admitted to be, at an average, from 30 to 100 per cent, dearer! The extent of the pecuniary sacrifice that was thus imposed on the Union has been variously estimated by American writers; but we have been assured by those who have the best means of knowing, that it may be moderately estimated at from 50,000,000 to 60,000,000 dollars, or from about 11,000,000/. to 13,000,000/.! And this immense burden — a burden nearly three times as great as the whole public expenditure of the republic — was incurred for no purpose of public utility, and was productive of nothing but mischief. The whole etfect of the scheme was to divert a certain amount of the national capital from the production of cotton, wheat, rice, tobacco, &c, the equivalents sent to foreigners in payment of manufactured goods, to the direct production of these goods themselves ! And as the latter species of industry is nowise suitable for America, a tax of 13,000,000/. a year was imposed on the Union, that the manufacturers might be enabled to continue a losing busi- ness. We leave it to others to determine whether the absurdity of the system, or its costli- ness, be its more prominent feature. That its influence was not more injurious, is solely owing to the smuggling it occasioned. With a frontier like that of America, and with a half or more of the population hostile to the tariff, it would have been worse than absurd to suppose that it could be carried into full effect. But it had enough of influence to render it in the last degree prejudicial — to occasion a great rise in the price of many important arti- cles — to cripple the trade and navigation of the country — and to throw a considerable part of it into the hands of foreigners, who carried it on in defiance of the law. It is difficult, however, to say how long this perverse system might have been maintained, but for its political effects. It was principally patronised by the Northern States. We believe, indeed, that it is quite impossible to show that they either did or could derive any benefit from it; but, at all events, it is quite certain that it was highly injurious to the Southern States. Their staple products are cotton, tobacco, and rice, of which by far the largest portion is exported to foreign countries: and the planters speedily found that every restriction on importation from abroad occasioned a corresponding difficulty of exportation. This led to a disunion of interests, and to strong remonstrances against the tariff' by the Southern States. These, however, were disregarded. Provoked by this treatment, South Carolina took the decisive step of refusing to enforce the customs acts; and threatened, if coercion were attempted, to repel force by force, and to recede from the Union ! This was a death-blow to the tariff. Congress now saw, what all sensible men had seen long before, that it was necessary to recede ; that, in fact, either the tariff must be modified, or the inte- grity of the Union be brought into jeopardy. A law was accordingly passed on the 14th of July, 1832, which directed a considerable deduction to be made from the duties on various articles after the. 3d of March, 1833 ; and a subsequent act, commonly called "Mr. Clay's New Tariff' Bill," was passed on the 2d of March, 1833, providing for the future gradual reduction of the duties. These judicious acts restored tranquillity ; and, there can be no doubt, will be, in every point of view, highly beneficial to the republic. Wt subjoin the act of the 22d of March, 1833, and the explanatory letter of Mr. M'Lane, Secretary to the Treasury. Mr. Clay's New Tariff Bill, To modify the Art of the \4th of July, 1832, and all other Acts imposing Duties on Imports. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in con- gress assembled/that, from and after the 31st of December, 1B33, in all cases where duties are imposed NEW YORK. 239 on foreign imports by the art of -Inly 14, 1832, entitled " An Art to alter and amend the several Acta imposing Duties on imports," or by any other act, shall exceed 20 per cent, on the value thereof, one tenth pan of such excess shall be deducted ; from and after the 3ist of December, l *:;"', another tenth pan thereof shall be deducted ; from end after the .'Ust of December, 1837, another tenth part thereof ■hall be deducted ; from ami after the 31st of December, 1839, another tenth p art thereof shall be de- ducted; and from and after the Sletof December, 1841, one half of the residue of such excess shall be deducted ; and from and after the 30th of June, 1812, the other half thereof shall be deducted. S,i i II. And he it fnrt her enacted, that so much of the second section of the act of the 14th of July aforesaid, as fixes the rate of duty on till milled and fulled cloth, known by the name of plains, kerseys, or Kendal cottons, of which wool is the only material, the value whereof does not exceed 35 Cents a square yard, at 5 percent, ad valorem, shall be and the same is hereby repealed. And the said articles shall be BUbject to the same duty of 50 per cent, as is provided by the said 'id section for other manufactures of wool, which duty shall be liable to the same reductions as are prescribed by the 1st section of this act. Beet. Ill— And be it further enacted, that until the 30th of September, 1842, the duties imposed by existing laws, as modified by this act, shall remain and continue to be collected. And from and after the day last aforesaid, all duties on imports shall be collected in ready money, and all credits now allowed by law, to the payment of duties, shall be and are hereby abolished, and such duties shall be laid for the purpose of raising such revenues as may be necessary to an economical administration of the government ; anil from and after the day last aforesaid, the duties required to be paid by law on poods, wares, and merchandise, shall be assessed upon the value thereof at the port where the same shall be entered, under such regulations as may he prescribed by law. Beet IV.— And be it further enacted, that, in addition to the articles now exempted by the act of the 1 Ith of July, 1832, and the existing laws, from the payment of duties, the following articles imported from and after the 31st id* December, 1833, and until the 30th of June, 1812, shall also he admitted to entry free from duly : to wit, bleached and unbleached linens, table linens, linen napkins, and linen cambrics, and worsted stutl' goods, shawls, and other manufactures of silk and worsted, manufactures of silk, or of which silk shall be the component material of chief value, coming from this side of the Cape of Good Hope, except sewing silk. Sect. V.— And be it further enacted, that from and after the said 30th of June, 1842, the following arti- cles shall be admitted to entry free from duty ; to wit, indigo, quicksilver, sulphur, crude saltpetre, grind- stones, refined borax, emery, opium, tin in plates or sheets, gum Arabic, gum Senegal, lac dye, mad- der, madder root, nuts and berries used in dyeing, saffron, turmeric, woad or pastel, aloes, ambergris, Burgundy pitch, cochineal, camomile flowers, coriander seed, catsup, chalk, cocciilus Indicus, horn plates for lanterns, ox horns, other horns and tips, India rubber, unmanufactured ivory, juniper berries, musk, nuts of all kinds, oil of juniper, unmanufactured rattans and reeds, tortoiseshell, tin foil, shel- lac, all vegetables used principally in dyeing and composing dyes, weld, and all articles employed chiefly for dyeing, except alum, copperas, bichromate of potash, prussiate of potash, eliminate of potash, ami nitrate of lead, aquafortis and tartaric acid. And all imports on which the 1st. section of this act may operate, and all articles now admitted to entry, free from duty or paying a less rate of duty than 20 per cent, ad valorem before the said 30th of June, 1842, from and after that day may he admitted to entry, subject to such duty, not exceeding 20 per cent, ad valorem, as shall be provided for by law. Sect. VI. — And be it further enacted, that so much of the act of July 14, 1832, or of any other act, as is inconsistent with this act, shall be and the same is hereby repealed : provided that nothing herein contained shall be so construed as to prevent the passage, prior or subsequent to the said 30th of June, 1842, of any act or acts from time to time, that may be necessary to delect, prevent, or pu- nish evasion of the duties on imports imposed by law ; nor to prevent the passage of any act prior to the 30th of June, 1812, in contingency either of excess or deficiency of revenue, altering the rate of duties on articles which, by the aforesaid act of the 14th of July, 1832, are subject to a less rate of duty than 20 per cent, ad valorem, in such manner, as not to exceed that rate, and so as to adjust the revenue to either of the said contingencies. Circular to Officers of the Customs. Treasury Department, April 20, 1833. The 7th section of the act of the 14th of July, 1832, entitled " An Act to alter and amend the several Acts imposing the Duties on Imports," provides, that in all cases where the duty which now is or hereafter may be imposed on any goods, wares, or merchandise imported into the United States, shall, by law, be regulated, or be directed to be estimated or levied upon the value of the square yard, or any other quantity or parcel thereof, and in all cases where there is or shall be imposed any udvalcrem rate of duty on any goods, wares, or merchandise imported into the United States, it shall be the duty of the collector, within whose district the same shall be imported or entered, to cause the actual value thereof, at the time purchased, and place from which the same shall have been imported into the United States, to be appraised, estimated, and ascertained, and the number of such yards, parcels, or quantities, and such actual value of every of them as the case may require; and it shall, in every case, be the duty of the appraisers of the United States, and every of them, and every other person who shall act as such appraiser, by all the reasonable ways or means in his or their power, to ascer- tain, estimate, and appraise the true and actual value, any invoice or affidavit thereto to the contrary notwithstanding, of the said goods, wares, and merchandise, at the time purchased, and place from whence the same shall have been imported into the United States, and the number of such yards, parcels, or quantities, and such actual value of every of them as the case may require, &c. &c. The 9th section of the same act provides, "that it shall be the duty of the secretary of the treasury, tinder the direction of the President of the United States, from time to time to establish such rules and regulations, not inconsistent with the laws of the United States, as the President of the United States shall think proper, to secure a just, faithful, and impartial appraisal of all goods, wares, and merchandise as aforesaid, imported into the United States, and just and proper entries of such actual value thereof, and of the square yards, parcels, or other quantities, as the case may require, and of such actual value of every of them ; and it shall be the duty of the secretary of the treasury to report all sue') rules and regulations, with the reasons therefor, to the next session of Congress." The 1st section of the act of the 2d of March, 1833, entitled " An act to modify the Act of the 14th of July, 1832, and all other Acts imposing Duties on Imports," declares, " that from and after the 31st of December, 1833, in all cases where duties are imposed on foreign imports by the act of the 14th of July, 1832, entitled 'An Act to alter and amend the several Acts imposing Duties on Imports,' or by any other act, shall exceed 20 per cent, on the value thereof, one tenth part of such excess shall be deducted," &c. It is believed that by this provision, and as necessary to the execution of the law, all duties imposed by any act of Congress upon foreign imports are substantially regulated by, and are directed to be estimated and levied upon, the value of the square yard, where that is the form, and upon some other quantity or parcel in cases where the duty is not imposed by the square yard ; and that consequently the authority conferred by the 9th section aforesaid must necessarily be exercised, for the more effec- tual execution of the said act of the 2d of March, 1833. The following rules and regulations are therefore established, under the direction of the President 240 NEW YORK. of the United States, for the purpose of securing a just, faithful, and impartial appraisal of all goods, wares, and merchandise imported into the United States from and after the 31st of December next, and for the just and proper entries of the actual value thereof, and of the square yard, parcels or other quantities, as the case may require. In all cases of ail valorem duties under the act of the 14th of July, 1832, or any other act, the regula- tions at present authorised by law, fur ascertaining the actual value, will remain unaltered. With re- spect to those articles liable to a specific duty, or ether duty than that of ad valorem, the actual value thereof at the time purchased, and place from which the same shall have been imported into the United States or in the country wherein the same may have been originally manufactured, or pro- duced, as the case may be, will be appraised, estimated, and ascertained, and the number of yards, or square yards, tons, pounds, gallons, bushels, or other parcels or quantities, and such actual value of any of them as the case may require, and just and proper entries thereof be made, in the same man- ner and according to the same regulations, as are required by the said act of the 14th of July, 1833, and other acts now in force in regard to articles paying ad valorem duty ; and in all such cases the t 8ame verification of invoices and other proofs will be required and produced as are at present autho- rised in respect to articles liable by previous acts to an ad valorem duty. The value of all such arti- cles being tints ascertained, the proportion which the duty now paid by such articles bears to the said value will be calculated, and from the excess thereof beyond 20 per cent, there will be deducted, from and after the 31st of December next, 10 per rent. ; that is to say, where such proportion shall be equal to 50 per cent., there shall be deducted 10 per cent, upon 30 pur cent., or 3 dollars ; and from ami after the 31st of December, 1835 the like deduction shall be made from the same excess, or 10 per cent. upon 30 per cent., being 3 dollars more; and in the same manner, at the several periods specified in the said act of the 2d of March, 1833. until the 31st of December, 1841 ; from and after which, one half of the residue of such excess will be deducted, and the other half thereof from and after the 30lli of June, 1812. From the proportion of the duty thus ascertained upon the wines of France, in addition to the said 10 per cent, there will also be deducted such further per cent, as will be necessary to preserve the discrimination in favour of such wines, stipulated in the convention between the United States and his Majesty the King of the French, concluded at Paris on tUe 4th of July, 1831, and authorised by law. It may be proper to observe, that all manufactures of cotton, or of which cotton shall be a compo- nent part, will be appraised, estimated, and ascertained, and the number of yards, square yards, or otherwise, parcel or quantities, and of such actual value thereof as the case may require, will be as- certained, and just and proper entries thereof made, according to the foregoing regulations. It is believed that the value of foreign imports referred to in the act of the 2d of March, 1833, is not the assumed value on which the duty upon all manufactures of cotton, or of which cotton shall be a component part, is directed to be estimated under the act of the 14th of July, 1632; viz. of thirty cents, if not dyed, coloured, painted, or stained, though valued at less than 30 cents ; and of thirty-Jive cents, if dyed, coloured, painted, or stained, though valued at less than 35 cents the square yard. This value is merely artificial, and assumed by previous laws as a means of augmenting the ad valorem rate of duty, imposed for the purpose of protection, upon such articles; and the amount of the duty, although ascertained by the adoption of the minimum principle, is the proportion which the sum col- lected by the government bears to the actual value of the article ; and, therefore, a quantity of such cottons, costing in fact 80 dollars, but valued for the purpose of the act of the 14th of July, 1832, at 240 dollars, really pays a duty of 75 per cent, upon the true value thereof. The act of the 2d of March, 1833, however, proceeds upon a different principle, and aims at a differ- ent purpose. It obviously intends to make an equal deduction from the duty on all foreign imports, and ultimately to reduce it to a rate not exceeding 20 per cent, upon the real, and not an assumed, value of the articles imported. This last purpose is explicitly stated in the last clause of the 5th sec- tion, which provides "that all imports on which the 1st section of this act may operate, and all arti- cles now admitted to entry free of duty, or paying a less rale of duty than 20 per cent, ud valorem, before the said 30th of June, 1842, from and after that day may be admitted to entry, subject to such duty, not exceeding 20 per cent, ad valorem, as shall be provided for bylaw." And the 1st section, which has been already referred to, expressly provides for the deduction, after the 30th of June, 1842, of all excess of foreign imports above 20 per cent, on the value thereof, which shall have been imposed by previous laws, and to which they may then be subject. The object of thus establishing a general ad valorem duty on foreign imports, and of equalising the rate, can only be attained by calculating the duty on the real instead of the assumed value. This purpose is more particularly manifest from the last clause of the 3d section, which provides, that from and after the 30th of June, 1842, "the duties required to be paid by law on goods, wares, and mer- chandise, shall be assessed upon the value thereof at the port where the same shall be entered, under such regulations as may be prescribed by law." Each of these clauses relates to the actual value of the foreign import, and they differ only in estimating that value ; previously to the 30th of June, 1842, the value in the foreign port being taken, and after that time, the value at the port of entry. The Object of neither can be accomplished at any period, by adhering either to the nominal value assumed by previous acts, or to the rate of ad valorem founded upon such assumption. In all importations of manufactures of cotton, therefore, or of which cotton shall be a component part, after the 31st of December, 1832, the value thereof will be ascertained in the manner aforesaid ; and from the amount which the rate of duty under the act of the 14th of July. 1632, or any other act, shall exceed 20 per cent, on such value, the deduction required by the act of the 2d of March, 1833, Will be made according to the foregoing rules. Though these rules and regulations will not go into effect until the 1st of January next, they have been thus early adopted and made public, for the purpose of giving timely notice to the manufacturers and merchants, and all others concerned ; and especially as to the verification, by the consuls abroad of the invoices of importations to be made after that time. Louis M'Lane, Secretary of the Treasury. Draivbark.— All articles subject to duly imported into the United Btati . not liaving been tan-ted more than 3 years, are allowed a v.porla'ion of die same (except foreign U, aud other salt provisions, and chain cables). Crtditi. — When the duty on an article of which wool is not a - part does not exceed 200 dollars, it must be j without discount ; when it exceeds 200 dollars, a credit of 3 months Is allowed for the 1 2, and of 6 months for the other I e of n. e vessel's entry. Duties on wool, and all manu wool, to be paiti in cash without discount. ' -When Itie duties on any article, except wool and wool. len iiiiinii icl eed! iollarsand they are paid in cash at the nporier is entitled to a discount of 4 j>er cent. Leakage and Breakage— On spirits, 2 per cent.; ale, bier, and 10 per cent. ; all other liquors, in bottles, 6 i roods to be imported in vess. Is less than 30 tons burden. No beer, ale, and porter, in casks of leas capacity lluiu 40 gallons, beer measure ; or, if in bottles, is packages less than 6 dozen. No distilled spirits in casks of less capacity than 90 gallons, wine measure, except brandy, winch may be imported in casks of any capacity, qoi lest than 15 gallons fnily — On American vessels, and the vessels of Den- i ral America, Netherlands, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, Prussia, Sweden, Norway, Oldenburgfa, Russia. Ausna, Brashi, Hanover, Papal Dominions, Portugal, .ml Sardinia, it m whatever port or place, and on French vessels coming from Martinique and Guadeloupe, nee. On French vessels from other porta, and on alt other foreign vessels (except as above enumerated) coining from imericans are permitted to trade, 1 dollar per ton ; and from ports where Americans are not permitted to trade, 2 dollars and 50 cents per ton. On Spanish vessels, coming direct from Spain, 5 cents per ton. ii. foil ing, among oihar articles, are admitted free of duties:— Antimony, almonds, aloes, annotio, amber, amber- gris, argols, arrowroot, arsenic, assafcelida.— balsams, barilla, bees? NEW YORK. 241 wax, bleaching powder, brimstone, borax.— Cantharides ; camphor, crude; capers, chalk, cinnamon, cloves, cocoa, cochincil, ooflbs; copper, in pigs and bars, and sheathing; ere;.m of tartar, currants.— Dye woods oF all kinds.— Fruits of all kinds, flax; furs of all km Is, not dressed —Ginger, kuhis of all kinds, gunny bags.— Hemp, Ma- nilla and Sisal, hides, horns, honey.— Ipecacuanha, juniper berries, ivory, jalap.— Lac dye, liquorice paste.— Mace, madder, manna, marble, munject. — Nuts of all kinds, nutmegs, nntgalls.— Oils— of almonds, aniseed, cassia, cinnamon, c'oves, palm, juniper, lavender, bergamoU lemons, roses, opium, olives. — Pepper, peruvian bark, pimento, plaster of Paris.— Quicksilver.— Ilaes rhub irb.— Sarsapa- rilla, sulphur, ohellac. — Teas, from China; tin, in bara, plates, or sheets ; tartar, tortoise-shell. — Verdigris.— Wood ; wool, not costing over 8 cents per lb. The following Table exhibits the progressive reductions that will take place in the duties on some of the principal articles imported into the United States, under Mr. Clay's Bill. 1842. Articles. Per Cent. ad Valorem. 1833. Dec. 31. 1-I0th per Cent. 1835. Dec. 31. 1-I0th per Cent. 1837. Dec 31. 1-I0th per Cent. 1839. Dec. 31. MOth per Cent. 1841. Dec. 31. Half of Excess per Cent. June 30. Remainder of Kxcess per Cent. ad Valorem. Wool manufactured, the value at the place of ex- portation lea than 8 cents per lb. Wool, exceeding 8 cents per lb. at the place of free free free free free free 20 exportation, 4 cents per lb. specific, and 40 per cent., equal to average .... 54 50-60 47-20 43-80 40-40 30-20 20 Woollen cloths, milled, fulled; known by the name of plains, kersey,, or Kendal cottons, of which wool is the only material, the value ex- ceeding 35 crn's a square yard, 5 per cent., raised by H. Clay's bill to . . 50 47 44 41 38 29 20 All other woollen cloths .... 50 47 44 41 38 29 20 Flannels, Docking, baizes, 16 cents the square yard, equal to average . 50 47 44 41 38 29 20 Cottons, while, costing under 30 cent, a square | yard, valued at 30 cents, and pay 25 per ceut., equal to avenge - 421-2 40-25 33 35-75 33-50 26-75 20 Cotton., coloured, valued at 35 cents a square yard, pay 25 per cent, equal to average 421-2 40-25 38 35-75 33-50 26-75 20 Nails, 5 cents per lb., equal to average 78 72-20 66-40 60-60 54-80 37-40 20 Spikes, 4 cents per lb , equal to average - Brazier's rod, spike rod, sheet, hoop, slit, or rolled 96 83-40 80-80 73-20 65-60 42-80 20 iron, 3 cenls per lb., equal to average - 113 103-70 94-40 85-10 75-80 47 90 20 Pig iron, 50 cents per cwt., equal to 43 40-70 38-40 3610 33-80 26-90 20 Bar iron, rolled, 1 do!. 50 cts. per cwt., equal to • 95 87-50 80 72-50 65 42-50 20 hammered, 90 cents per cwt., equal to • 33 31-70 30 40 2910 27-03 23-90 20 [We subjoin a statement of the arrivals at New York from foreign ports, taken from the New York Shipping and Commercial List. Arrivals in 1839. 21 - 552 - 254 - 916 5 - 411 . 2159 - 1,569 - 337 50 48 42 21 17 11 11 9 7 6 6 5 4 3 3 3 2 Steamers Ships Barques - Brigs Galliots - Schooners Total Of which there were :— American English - French - Swedish- Bremen - Hamburg Danish - Colombian Sicilian - Dutch - Spanish - Austrian Prussian Russian - Portuguese Norwegian Belgian - Haytien - Brazilian Neapolitan Tuscan - Hanoverian Sardinian Texian - It may be remarked that no fact can be adduced more illustrative of the energy of the causes in operation to advance the prosperity of the city of New York, than the compara- tively slight impression upon it which was produced by the great fire of the 16th of Decem- ber, 1835. The value of the merchandise destroyed, was estimated by a committee appointed for the purpose, at $13,1 15,692; the buildings destroyed, in number 529, at $4,000,000. Contrary to general expectation abroad, few or no failures ensued as an immediate conse- quence of these losses. Losses from fire are indeed so frequent, and often so extensive, in New York, as to consti- tute a material drawback on the rate of its advancement in wealth. We find it officially stated, in the present summer (1840), that there occurred in this city, during the period of one year, 192 fires, being an average of more than one for every 48 hours ! Vol. II.— X 31 Number of Arrivals. In 1830 - . - 1510 In 1831 - . - 1634 In 1832 - . - 1808 In 1833 - - - 1926 In 1834 - . - 1932 In 1835 - . - 2043 In 1836 - - - 2292 In 1837 - _ - 2071 In 1838 - . - 1790 In 1839 - - - 2159 Arrivals of British vessels includec in the above In 1830 - . 92 In 1831 - _ - 278 In 1832 - . - 369 In 1833 - _ - 371 In 1834 - _ - 303 In 1835 - . - 287 In 1836 - . - 367 In 1837 - „ - 241 In 1838 - _ - 230 In 1839 - - - 337 Number of Passengers. In 1830 - - - 30,224 In 1831 - - -31,779 In 1832 - - -48,589 In 1833 - - -41,752 In 1834 - - -48,110 In 1835 - - - 35,303 In 1836 - - - 60,541 In 1837 - - -51,975 In 1838 - - - 25,581 In 1839 - - -48,152 242 NICARAGUA— NUTMEG. Of these, 96 originated in brick and fireproof buildings. The property destroyed by the said fires, amounted in all to - $3,225,409 On which there were insurance foi ---------- 2,983,310 The collective amounts paid by the Insurance Companies, was ... - 2,001,991 Leaving a balance of actual loss to the persons insured, of- ----- 981.319 The value of property destroyed, on which there was no insurance, amounts to - 242,099 See Imports and Expo jits, Ships, and Tariff. — Am. Ed.] NICARAGUA, or PEACH WOOD (Ger. Nicaragaholz, Blutholtz ,- Du. Bloedkaut ; Fr. Bois de sang, Bois de Nicarague ,• It. Legno sanguigno ,• Sp. Palo de sangre,- Port. Pao sanguinho), a tree of the same genus (Cxmlpinid) as the Brazil and sapan wood; but the species has not been exactly ascertained. It grows principally in the vicinity of the lake of Nicaragua, whence its name. It is said by Dr. Bancroft to be almost as red and heavy as the true Brazil wood, but it does not commonly afford more than a third part, in quantity, of the colour of the latter ; and even this is rather less durable and less beautiful, though dyed with the same mordants. Nicaragua or peach woods differ greatly in their quality as well as price; one sort being so deficient in colouring matter, that 6 pounds of it will only dye as much wool or cloth as 1 pound of Brazil wood ; while another variety of it will produce nearly half the effect of an equal quantity of Brazil wood, and will sell pro- portionally dear. — {Bancroft on Colours, vol. ii. p. 332.) The London dealers distinguish Nicaragua wood into 3 sorts, viz. large, middling, and small ; the price of the 1st sort (duty included) being from 14/. to 20/. per ton ; of the 2d, from 8/. to 10/. per do. ; and of the 3d, from 7/. to 8/. per do. The entries of Nicaragua wood for home consumption amounted, in 1831, to 1,485 tons: in 1832, they amounted to 1,880 tons; an increase that was, no doubt, in part at least, occasioned by the duty having been reduced in 1S31 from 15s. to 5s. a ton. NICKEL, a scarce metal, which occurs always in combination with other metals, from which it is exceedingly difficult to separate it. When pure, it is of a fine white colour resembling silver. It is rather softer than iron : its specific gravity, when cast, is 8*279; when hammered, 8"932. It is malleable, and may without difficulty be hammered into plates not exceeding T ^„th part of an inch in thickness. It is attracted by the magnet ; and is not altered by exposure to the air, nor by being kept under water. It is employed in pot- teries, and in the manufacture of porcelain. — (Thomson's Chemistry.) NITRE. See Saltpetre. [NORFOLK, a seaport situated on Elizabeth river in Virginia, and 8 miles from Hampton Roads, in lat. 37° 12' North, and longitude 76° 42' West. Its harbour is capacious and deep, of easy access, and safe in all weathers. The Roads are formed by an enlargement of James river, at its mouth in the Chesapeake Bay ; and they afford an anchorage for ves- sels, unsurpassed anywhere else in the world. These circumstances, together with the advantages of transportation furnished by the Dismal Swamp canal and the Portsmouth and Roanoke railroad, have rendered Norfolk a place of considerable trade. In this respect it takes precedence of any other place in the state of Virginia. We annex a plan of the Chesapeake Bay. See opposite page. — Am. Ed.] NOTE, PROMISSORY. See Banking, and Banks. NUT, or HAZEL NUT (Ger. Haselniisse ,- Fr. Noisettes, Avelines ■ It. Naccinole, Avelane ; Sp. Arellanas ,■ Port. Avelldas ; Lat. Avellanse), the fruit of different species of Coryli, or hazels. The kernels have a mild, farinaceous, oily taste, agreeable to most palates. A kind of chocolate has been prepared from them ; and they have sometimes been made into bread. The expressed oil of hazel nuts is little inferior to that of almonds. Be- sides those raised at home, we import nuts from different parts of France, Portugal, and Spain, but principally from the latter. The Spanish nuts in the highest estimation, though sold under the name of Barcelona nuts, are not really shipped at that city, but at Tarragona, a little more to the south. Mr. Ingliss says that the annual average export of nuts from Tarragona is from 25,000 to 30,000 bags, of 4 to the ton. They cost, free on board, in autumn, 1830, 17*. 6d. per bag. — (Spain in 1830, vol. ii. p. 362.) The entries of nuts for home consumption amount to from 100,000 to 125,000 bushels a year; the duty of 2s. a bushel producing from 10,000/. to 12,500/. nett. NUTMEG (Ger. Musical ennilsse ,• Du. Muska&t ; Fr. Museades, Noix muscades ; It. A r oce muscada,- Sp. Moscada ,■ Arab. Jowzalteib ; Sans. Jdtiphala ,■ Malay, Buah-pala), the fruit of the genuine nutmeg tree (Myristica Moschata), a native of the Moluccas, but which has been transplanted to Sumatra, Penang, &c. An inferior and long-shaped nutmeg ia common in Borneo ; but the fruit nowhere attains to the same perfection as in the Moluc- cas. Of the several varieties of the tree, that denominated the Queen Nutmeg, which bears a small round fruit, is the best. The kernel, or proper nutmeg, is of a roundish oval form, marked on the outside with many vermicular furrows, within of a fleshy farinaceous sub- stance, variegated whitish and bay. Nutmegs are frequently punctured and boiled, in order to obtain the essential oil ; the orifice being afterwards closed ; but the fraud is easily detected by the lightness of the nutmeg. — (Thomson's Dispensatory,- Ainslie's Materia Indica.) NORFOLK. 243 244 NUTRIA. Nutmegs should be chosen large, round, heavy, and firm, of a lightish grey colour on the outside, and the inside beautifully marbled, of a strong fragrant smell, warm aromatic taste, and a fat oily body. They are very subject to be worm-eaten. The best manner of packing them is in dry chunam. The oblong kind, and the smaller ones, should be rejected. 15 cwt. are allowed to a ton.— (Mdburn's Orient. Com.) . , „ The dried produce of a nutmeg tree consists of nutmeg, mace (which see), and shell. Supposing the whole produce to be divided into 100 parts, there are 13$ of mace, 33 j of shell, and 53| of nutmeg. In the ancient commerce, and down to the establishment of the Dutch monopoly, nutmegs were al- ways sold and exported in the shell. The natives, whenever the commerce is left to their manage- ment, continue the practice, which is strongly recommended by Mr. Crawfurd.— (East Indian Archipe- lago, vol. iii. p. 396.) The jealous and miserable policy of the Dutch has reduced the trade in nutmegs to a mere trifle, compared to what it would otherwise have been. They have, in so far at least as it was possible, exerted themselves to exterminate the nutmeg plants every where except in Banda. They bribe the native princes of the surrounding islands to root out the trees ; and annually send a fleet to see that the work of destruction has been effected, and that the bribes have not been bestowed in vain. To engage in an illicit trade in spices is death to an inferior person, and banishment to a noble; and yet, notwithstanding these tremendous penalties, it is supposed that about 60,000 lbs. of nutmegs, and 15,000 lbs. of mace, are clandestinely exported each year ! In Banda, the aboriginal inhabitants have been expatriated, and the island parcelled among settlers from Holland, under the name of park keepers. These persons, who may be turned out of their farms on the most trifling pretext, have about 2,000 slaves, who cultivate and prepare the nutmegs. The prices paid to the cultivator are all fixed by go- vernment ; and it deserves to be mentioned, as affording one of the most striking illustrations of the ruinous effects of monopoly, that the fixed price which the government is now obliged to pay for nut- megs is FIVE times greater than the price at which they bought them when the trade was free I Such is a rough outline of that monstrous system, which has reduced what used to be one of the most important branches of Eastern commerce so low, that it is unable to afford employment for the capital of a single wealthy merchant. We cannot conceive how so enlightened and liberal a government as that of Holland should continue to tolerate such scandalous abuses— abuses destructive alike of the rights of those subjected to its authority in the East, and the commerce and weallh of its subjects at home — (Modern Universal History, vol. x. p. 457—467. 8vo ed. ; and Crawfurd's Eastern Archipelago, vol. iii. p. 391—413.) Mr. Crawfurd estimates the produce of the Banda Islands at about 600,000 lbs. of nutmegs, and 150,000 lbs. of mace. During the period that the English had possession of the Spice islands, nutriieg plants were carried to Penang, Bencoolen, and some of the West India islands. In the latter they have altogether failed, at least as far as respects any useful purpose ; but very good nutmegs, and in considerable quantities, are now raised at Penang and Bencoolen. Mr. Crawfurd, however, alleges that the cost of bringing them to market is there so high, that the restoration of a free culture in the native country of the nut- meg would instantly destroy this unstable and factitious branch of industry. — (Eastern Archipelago, vol. iii. p. 409.) The duty on nutmegs was reduced, in 1819, from 5s. 5d. to 2s. 6d. per lb. ; and the quantities entered for home consumption have since rapidly increased. We subjoin An Account of the Quantities of Nutmegs retained for Home Consumption in the United Kingdom, in each Year since 1810, the Nett Amount of Duty received thereon, and the Rates of Duty. Tears. Quantities retained for Home Nett Amount of Uu{ \ Rates of Duty charged thereon. received v Iheieoo. Years. Quantities retained for Home Nett Amount of Duty received Rates of Duty charged Ihereon. Consump- tion. Consump- tion. thereon. 1810 39,127 L. 3. d. 11,166 11 1 J 4i. 8d. per lb. and 21. 13». id. 1 per cent, ad valorem. 1820 1821 90,771 1-4 94,589 1-4 L. s. d. 11,212 8 9 11,721 2 5 2s. 6d. per lb. ditto 1811 60.860 14,462 14 4 ditto 1822 112,096 | 14,000 10 6 ditto 1812 47,186 11,205 2 9 ditto 1S23 117.7673-4 14,723 7 9 ditto ( (From IS April) 5j. 6 1 2d. per 1824 129.7C2 1 16,176 19 7 ditto 1813 Records des troyed. } lb. and 3f. 3s. id. per cent. 1825 99,214 12 12,406 13 2 ditto f ad valorem. 1826 101,1171-4' 12,623 13 10 ditto 1814 43,160 14,710 8 3 (From 10 April) 5j. bd. per lb. 1827 125,529 ' 15,707 2 8 ditto 1SI5 59,839 16,2,i9 11 1 ditto 1828 140,0021-2 17,5:4 6 4 ditto 1816 54,677 I4.H38 2 8 ditto 1829 113,2731-2 14,114 6 2 ditto 1817 65,7171 2 17,808 1 8 ditto 1830 121,260 ; 16,158 ditto 1818 66,25, 1-2 17.944 8 6 ditto 1S31 152,369 19,025 ditto 1819 107,575 17,805 18 5 (From 5 July) 2s 6rf. per lb. 1832 117,405 | 14,678 ditto [See Imports and Exports. — Am. Ed.] NUTRIA, ou NEUTRIA, the commercial name for the skins of Myopotamus Bonari- crisis (Commerson), the Coypou of Molina, and the Quoiya of D'Azara. In France, the skins were, and perhaps still are, sold under the name of racoonda ,■ but in England they are imported as nutria skins — deriving their appellation, most probably, from some supposed similarity of the animal which produces them, in appearance and habits, to the otter, the Spanish name for which is nutria. Indeed, Molina speaks of the coypou as a species of water rat, of the size and colour of the otter. Nulria fur is largely used in the hat manufacture ; and has become, within the last 15 or 20 years, an article of very considerable commercial importance. The imports fluctuate considerably. In 1823, they amounted to 1,570,141 skins ; but they have DOl in any other year been much more than half that number. In 1826, they were only 60,871. In 1831 and 1832, the imports were, at an average, 358,280 skins a year. Those entered for home consumption pay a duty of Hd. a skin. They are principally brought from the Rio de la Plata. Nutria skins are very extensively used on the Continent. Ceof- froy mentions*, that in certain years, a single French furrier (M. Bechem), has received from 15,000 to 20,000 skins.— (See Fun Trade.) The coypou or quoiya is a native of South America, very common in the provinces of Chili, Buenos Ayns, and Tuctiiuan, but more rare in Paraguay. In size it is less than the beaver, which it resem- bles in many points. The head is large and depressed, the ears small and rounded, the neck stout and short, the muzzle sharper than that of the beaver, and the whiskers very long and stiff. There are, as in the beaver, 2 incisor teeth, and 8 molar, above and below— 20 teeth in all. The limbs are * Annalee dtl Museum, vol. vi. p. 82. The figure given is, generally speaking, good: but the tail is too hairy, and contradicts the description. NUX VOMICA, OAK. 245 short. The fore feet have each 5 fingers not webbed, the. thumb being very email : the hind feet have Ike same number of toes ; the great toe ami 3 next loes being joined by a web which extends to their ends, ami the little toe being free, but edged with a membrane on its inner side. The nails a i long, crooked, and sbar|>. The tail, unlike that of the beaver, is long, round, and hairy ; hut lb.' hairs are not numerous, and permit the scaly texture of the skiii in iliis part to be seen. The back la of a brownish red, which becomes redder on the flanks: the belly is of a dirty red. The edges of the hps and extremity of Hie muzzle are white. Like the heaver, the coypou is furnished with 2 kinds of fur ; viz. the lone; ruddy hair which gives the torn' id' colour, and the brownish ash-coloured fur at its base, which, like Hie down of tin; beaver, is of much importance in hat making, and the cause of the animal's commercial value. The habits of the coypou are much like those of most of the other aquatic rodent animals. Its prin- cipal food, in a slate of nature, is vegetable. It affects the neighbourhood of water, and swims per- fectly well, and burrows in the ground. The female brings forth from 5 to 7 at a lime ; and the young always accompany her. The coypou is easily domesticated, and its manners in captivity are very mild. *** We are indebted for this account of nutria — the first, we believe, that appeared in any English work, to \V. .1. Broderip, Esq., F. R. S., &c. NUX VOMICA (Fr. Noix Vomique ; Hind. Kaachla), the fruit of a species of Strych- nos, growing in various places in the East Indies. The fruit is about the size of an orange, covered with a smooth crustaceous yellow bark, and filled with a fleshy pulp, in which are imbed- ded several orbicular flatted seeds, about ■} of an inch in diameter. Nux vomica is inodorous, and has a very bitter, acrid taste, which remains long on the palate. It is known as a very virulent poison. A suspicion has, however, been entertained, that it has been used in por- ter breweries ; but its introduction into them is prohibited under heavy penalties. — (Thom- son's Dispensatory, <$-c.) o. OAK (Ger. Eiche,- Du. Eik ,- Da. Eeg; Sw. Ek ,- Ft.Chene,- It. Querela ,■ Sp. Roble, Carballo ; Port. Roble, Carbalho ,• Rus. Dub ; Pol. Dab,- Lat. Quercus,- Arab. Baalut). There are several varieties of this valuable tree ; but the common English oak (Quercus robur) claims precedence of every other. The oak timber imported from America is very inferior to that of this country: the oak from the central parts of Europe is also inferior, especially in compactness and resistance of cleavage. The knotty oak of England, the " unwedgeable and gnarled oak," as Shakspeare called it, when cut down at a proper age (from 50 to 70 years), is the best timber known. Some timber is harder, some more difficult to rend, and some less capable of being broken across; but none contains all the three qualities in so great and equal proportions ; and thus, for at once supporting a weight, resisting a strain, and not splintering by a cannon shot, the timber of the oak is superior to every other. A fine oak is one of the most picturesque of trees : it conveys to the mind associations of strength and duration, which are very impressive. The oak stands up against the blast, and does not take, like other trees, a twisted form from the action of the winds. Except the cedar of Lebanon, no tree is so remarkable for the stoutness of its limbs ; they do not ex- actly spring from the trunk, but divide from it ; and thus it is sometimes difficult to know which is stem and which is branch. The twisted branches of the oak, too, add greatly to its beauty ; and the horizontal direction of its boughs, spreading over a large surface, com- pletes the idea of its sovereignty over all the trees of the forest. Even a decayed oak, ■ dry and dead, Still clad with reliques of its trophies old, Lifting to heaven its aged, hoary head, Whose foot on earth has got but feeble hold," — even such a tree as Spencer has thus described, is. strikingly beautiful ; decay in this case looks pleasing. To such an oak Lucan compared Pompey in his decline : — " Qualis frugifero quercus sublimis in agro Exuvias veteres populi, sacrataque gestans Dona ducum ; nee jam validis radicibus hrerens, Pondere fixa stto est ; nudosque per aera ramos Eflfundens, trunco, non frondibus, efiVit umbram. At quamvis primo nutet casura sub Euro, Tot circum silva> firmo se robore tollant, Sola tamen colitur." — (Lib. i. lin. 136.) The oak is raised from acorns, sown either where the oak is to stand, or in a nursery whence the young trees are transplanted. The colour of oak wood is a fine brown, and is familiar to every one: it is of different shades ; that inclined to red is the most inferior kind of wood. The larger transverse septa are in general very distinct, producing beautiful flowers when cut obliquely. Where the septa are small, and not very distinct, the wood is much the strongest. The texture is alter- nately compact and porous ; the compact part of the annual ring being of the darkest colour, and in irregular dots, surrounded by open pores, producing beautiful dark veins in some kinds, particularly pollard oaks. Oak timber has a particular smell, and the taste is slightly astringent. It contains gallic acid, and is blackened by contact with iron when it is damp. x2 246 OAK. The young wood of English oak is very tough, and often cross-grained, and difficult to work. Foreign wood, and that of old trees, is more brittle and workable. Oak warps and twists much in drying; and, in seasoning, shrinks about ^d of its width. Oak of a good quality is more durable than any other wood that attains a like size. Vi- truvius says it is of eternal duration when driven into the earth : it is extremely durable in water; and in a dry state it has been known to last nearly 1,000 years. The more compact it is, and the smaller the pores are, the longer it will last ; but the open, porous, and foxy coloured oak, which grows in Lincolnshire and some other places, is not near so durable. Besides the common British oak (Quercus robin-), the sessile-fruited bay oak (Quercus sessili flora) is pretty abundant in several parts of England, particularly in the north. The wood of this species is said by Tredgold to be darker, heavier, harder, and more elastic than the common oak ; tough, and difficult to work ; and very subject to warp and split in sea- soning. Mr. Tredgold seems disposed to regard this species as superior to the common oak for ship building. But other, and also very high authorities, are opposed to him on this point; and, on the whole, we should think that it is sufficiently well established, that for all the great practical purposes to which oak timber is applied, and especially for ship building, the wood of the common oak deserves to be preferred to every other species. A well- informed writer in the Quarterly Review has the following remarks on the point in ques- tion : — " We may here notice a fact long known to botanists, but of which our planters and purveyors of timber appear to have had no suspicion,— that there are two distinct species of oak in England,— the Quercus rubur, and the Quercus sessiliflora ; the furnier of which affords a close-grained, firm, solid timber, rarely subject to rot; the other more loose and sappy, very liable to rot, and not half so dura- ble. This difference was noted so early as the time of Ray ; and Martyn in his Flora Rustica, and Sir James Smith in his Flora Britannica, have added their testimonies to the fact. The second species TU supposed to have been introduced some 2 or 3 ages ago, from the Continent, where the oaks are chiefly of this latter species, especially in the German forests, the timber of which is known to be very worthless. But what is of more importance to us is, that de facto the imposture abounds, and is pro- pagated vigorously, in the New Forest and other parts of Hampshire; in Norfolk, and the northern counties, and about London ; and there is but too much reason to believe that the numerous complaints that were heard about our ships being infected with what was called, improperly enough, dry rot, were owing to the introduction of this species of oak into the naval dock-yards, where, we under- stand, the distinction was not even suspected. It may thus be discriminated from the true old English oak:— The acorn stalks of the robar are long, and its leaves short; whereas the sessiliflora has the acorn stalks short, and the leaves long; the acorns of the former grow singly, or seldom two on the same footstalk ; those of the latter, in clusters of 2 or 3 close to the stem of the branch. We believe the Russian ships of the Baltic, that are not of larch or fir, are built of this species of oak ; but if this were not the case, their exposure on the stocks, without cover, to the heat of summer, which, though short, is excessive, and the rifts and chinks which fill up with ice and snow in the long winter, are enough to destroy the stoutest oak, and quite sufficient to account for their short-lived duration." A great deal of inquiry and discussion has taken place at different periods as to the supply and consumption of oak limber; but the results have not been very satisfactory. In a Report of the Com- missioners of Land Revenue, printed in 1812, it is stated that, taking the tonnage of the navy in 1606 at 776,037 tons, it would require, at 1? load to a ton, 1,164,085 loads to build such a navy ; and supposing the average duration of a ship to be 14 years, the annual quantity of timber required would be 83,149 loads, exclusive of repairs, which they calculate would be about 27,000 loads; making the whole about li0,000 loads: of which, however, the commissioners reckon may be furnished 21,341 loads as the annual average of the prizes; and of the remaining 88,659 loads, they think it not unreasonable to calculate on 28,659 from other sources than British oak. "This," they observe, "leaves 60,000 loads of such oak, as the quantity which would be sufficient annually to support, at its present unex- ampled magnitude, the whole British navy, including ships of war of all sorts ; but which may be taken as equivalent together to 20 74-gun ships, each of which, one with another, contains about 2,000 tons, or would require, at the rate of H load to the ton, 3,000 loads ; making just 60,000 loads for 20 such ships." Now, it has been supposed that not more than 40 oak trees can stand on an acre of ground, so as to grow to a full size fit for ships of the line, or to contain each H load of timber : 50 acres, therefore, would be required to produce a sufficient quantity of timber to build a 74-gun ship, and 1,000 acres for 20 such ships ; and as the oak requires at least 100 years to arrive at maturity, 100,000 acres would be required to keep up a successive supply, for maintaining a navy of 700,000 or 800,000 tons. The com- missioners further observe, that as ihejre are 20,000,000 acres of waste lands in the kingdom, a 200th part set aside for planting would at once furnish the whole quantity wanted for the use of the navy. According to Mr. Barrow, this calculation is over-rated by about a half. "In the first place," says he, " it is supposed a state of perpetual war, during which the tonnage of the whole navy is considered as more than double of what it now actually is : and, in the second place, it reckons the average du- ration of the navy at 14 years only ; which, from the improvements that have taken place in the con- struction and preservation of ships of war, with the resources of teak ships built in India, we should not hesitate in assuming at an average of twice that number of years ; and if so, the quantity of oak required for the navy will be nothing like that which the commissioners have stated. "The fact, however, is certain, that long before the conclusion of the late war, a scarcity began to be felt, especially of the larger kind of timber fit for ships of the line ; and so great was this scarcity, that if Sir Robert Seppings had not contrived the means of substituting straight timber for that of dif- ferent forms and dimensions, before considered to be indispensable, the building of new ships must entirely have ceased. " If, however, the growth of oak for ship timber was greatly diminished during the war, so as to threaten an alarming scarcity, there is little doubt that, from the increased attention paid by individu- als to their young plantations, and their great extension, as well as from the measure of allotting off portions of the royal forests to those who had claims on them, and inclosing the remainder for the use of the public, this country will, in future times, be fully adequate to the production of oak limber equal to the demand for the naval and mercantile marine."— (Sltra. Ency. Brit. art. Navy.) The bark of the oak tree is very valuable. It is preferred to all other substances for the purpose of tanning, and brings a high price. — (See Bark.) The foreign oak timber imported into Great Britain is principally derived from Canada and Prussia. The latter is the most valuable— its price being to the former in the proportion of about 9 to 6 ; that is, OATS, ODESSA. 247 if a load of Prussian oak timber brought 91., a load of Canada ditto would not bring mnn> than about 6/ The nuantitv imported varies ; but may, at an average, amount I" about MUiuo loads, Oi 50 cubic feel each • the greater part from Quebec. Oak plank is almost wholly Imported from Prussia. The quantities imported during the 6 years ending the 5t!i of January, 1833, were— Yean. Loads. Years. Loads. Years. Loads. 1827 1828 5,470 2,449 1829 is:m l.l.-il 1 ,5 12 1831 1832 2,525 1,78!) For further details with respect to the importation of oak, its price, duty on, &c, see Wood,— See also, TradgoU'l Principles of Carpentry; art. Navy, Supplement to F.ncy. Brit.; the very inte- resting work on Timber, Trees and Fruits, in the Library of Entertaining Knowledge ; Kees's Cyclo- paedia, S(c. OATS (Gcr. Hafer ,- Du. Havre ,• Da. Havre ,• Sw. Hafre ; Fr. Avoine ,- It. Vena, Avena,- Sp. Avena,- Port. A vea ,- Russ. Owes,- Pol. Owies),a species of grain, the Avena saliva of botanists. There are innumerable varieties of this grain, some of which are said to be indigenous to Britain. It is the hardiest of all the cereal grasses, growing luxuriantly in cold northern climates, and in coarse mountainous districts, where neither wheat nor bar- ley can be advantageously cultivated. It thrives best, and is, indeed, chiefly raised, in lati- tudes north of Paris ; being but little known in the south of France, Spain, or Portugal. It is, however, cultivated in Bengal, so low as the 25th degree of latitude, and, it is said, with considerable success. In Scotland, where it has long formed a principal part of the food of the people, it is far more generally cultivated than any other species of grain. It is also very extensively cultivated in Ireland. In England it is grown principally in the northern counties, and in the fens of Lincoln, Huntingdon, Cambridge, and Norfolk; but the oats of Northumberland and Scotland are reckoned superior to those raised farther south. There are 4 leading varieties of this grain, cultivated in England, viz. white, black, grey, and brown or red oats. The sub-varieties of the white are numerous. That denominated the potato oat is at present almost the only one raised on land in a good state of cultivation in the north of England and the south of Scotland, and usually brings a higher price in the London market than any other variety. It was accidentally discovered growing in a field of potatoes in Cumberland in 1788; and from the produce of that single stalk has been produced the stock now in general cultivation. Black and grey oats are little cultivated, except in some places in the north of Scotland. The red oat is chiefly confined to Che- shire, Derbyshire, and Staffordshire. A species of naked oats, provincially called pillar, is raised in Cornwall. — {Loudon's Encyc. of Agriculture ,- Brown's Rural Economy, vol. ii. pp. 47—52.) In 17G5, Mr. Charles Smith estimated the number of consumers of oats in England and Wales at 623,000.— (Tracts on the Corn Trade, 2d edit. p. 140.) ; but at present we be- lieve they are very considerably fewer. The feeding of horses has at all times occasioned the greatest consumption of oats in this part of the kingdom ; and as the number of horses kept for business and pleasure has been vastly increased within the last 30 or 40 years, the culture of oats has been considerably extended, notwithstanding the increasing imports from Ireland. Perhaps the produce of no species of grain varies more than that of oats. Where the ground is foul and exhausted, not more than 20 bushels an acre are obtained ; but on rich soils, well managed, 64, 72, and sometimes 80 bushels and upwards have been reaped. Oats yield, at an average, 8 lbs. meal for 14 lbs. corn. For information as to the laws regulating the importation and exportation of oats, their prices, the quantities imported and exported, &c, see Cohn Laws and Cohit Tkasi. ODESSA, a flourishing sea-port of Southern Russia, on the north-west coast of the Black Sea, between the rivers Dniester and Bug, in lat. 46° 28' 54" N., Ion. 30° 43' 22" E. Po- pulation said to amount to 40,000. The foundations of Odessa were laid so lately as 1792, by order of the Empress Catharine, after the peace of .lassy. It was intended to serve as an entrepot for the commerce of the Russian dominions on the Black Sea and the sea of Azoff, and has in a great measure answered the expectations of its founders. By an Impe- rial ukase, dated the 7th of February, 1817, it was declared a free port, and the inhabitants exempted from taxation for 30 years ; since which period its increase has been extremely rapid. The bay or roadstead of Odessa is extensive, the water deep, and the anchorage good, the bottom being fine sand and gravel ; it is, however, exposed to the south-easterly wind, which renders it less safe in winter. The port, which is artificial, being formed by 2 moles, one of which projects to a considerable distance into the sea, is calculated to contain about 300 ships. It has also the advantage of deep water. There is a convenient lazaretto, on the model of that of Marseilles. The want of fresh water used to be the greatest disadvantage under which the inhabitants laboured ; but this has been obviated by the construction of a canal which conveys an abundant supply of water into the town. There are no trees in the vicinity, which has, in consequence, a bleak and arid appearance. 248 ODESSA. Litrht-hoiises. — A light-house has been erected on Cape Fontan, about 6£ nautical miles S. of Odessa. The light, which formerly revolved, is now fixed, and is about 203 1 (Russian) feet above the level of the Bea. At the distance of 11 leagues E.S.E. £ S.from Odessa, on the north end of the long, narrow, low island of Tendra, a light-bouse has been erected, of great use to ships approaching Odessa from the S. or W. The lantern, elevated 92j (Russian) feet above the level of the sea, was lighted, for the first time, on the 15th of September, 1827. It consists of 3 reflecting lights, suspended in the form of a tri- angle, revolving in the space of 4 minutes, so that each lamp arrives at its maximum of brilliancy after an interval of 1 min. 20 sec. Being also of a red colour, this light is readily distinguished from Fontan light, and the other lights in the Black Sea. In foggy weather, a bell is kept ringing. — {Coulier sur lea Phares, 2d ed. ; Nome's Sailing Directions for the Mediterranean and Black Seas, ofc.) For several years after Odessa was founded, wheat formed almost the only, as it still forms the principal, article of export. — (For details which respect to the corn trade of Odessa, see vol. i. p. 513.) But tallow is now of almost equal importance, and considerable quantities of wool, iron, hides, copper, wax, caviare, potash, salt beef, furs, cordage, sail-cloth, tar, butter, isinglass, &c. are also exported. The tallow of Odessa is of a bright yellow straw colour, and is said to be superior to that of Petersburgh. The following account of the quantity (since 1S24) and value of the tallow exported from Odessa from 1817, sets the rapid increase in the trade in this article, and its importance in a very striking point of view : — .. Vaheol Tallow Yl ^ rs - ! «pofted. Years, i Va ' ue °^ Tallow 1 exported. Quantity. Years. Value of Tallow exported. Quantity. 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 Rubles. 90,318 185,110 368,792 1,137,461 1,591, -.40 991.323 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 Rub'es. 2,184,762 1,674,566 2,687,331 2,800,000 1,661,112 166,701 Poods. 209,118 316,157 331,873 195,425 13,686 1829 1830 1831 1832 1S33 1834 Rubles. 1,122,311 2,190,802 2,963,125 3,160,000 5,299,327 9,000,000 i Poods. 100,024 245,038 287,210 291,172 400,146 7S8.851 This Table serves to give some idea of the vast means which the south of Russia possesses for carry- ing on commerce. The exports of tallow have increased twenty-fold in 10 years ; materially aug- menting the value of the herds, and enriching vast countries, which must have remained compara- tively poor, had not this outlet been found for their produce. The increase in the exportation of wool is also very considerable. Within the last 20 years, the Me- rino breed of sheep has been extensively introduced into the governments of Taurida, Cherson, and Ekaterinoslov ; so that there has been not only a great increase in the quantity, but also a very decided improvement in the quality, of the wool exported. The iron shipped at Odessa is principally brought from Siberia, partly by the Wolga, and partly by the Don to Taganrog, whence it is conveyed to Odessa. A good deal of it is in a manufactured state, from the founderies at Tula ; but the demand for it both in Europe and Asia has been perceptibly di- minishing for some years past, and the exports are now comparatively small. Timber for ship-build- ing, and pitch, and tar, are also brought from Taganrog. In fact, from its not being at the mouth of any great river, nor having any considerable manufactures, Odessa is not a port for the exportation of what may be termed articles of native growth : but in consequence of its convenient situation, and the privileges which it enjoys, it is, as already remarked, the emporium where most of the produce of Southern Russia, destined for foreign countries, is collected previously to its being exported, and where most of the foreign articles required for home consumption are primarily imported. The shallowness of the water at Taganrog, and the short period during which the Sea of Azoff is navigable, hinder foreign vessels of considerable burden from visiting her port, and occasion the shipment of a consider- able part of the produce brought down the Wolga and the Don in lighters to Caffa and Odessa, par- ticularly the latter. A good deal is, however, exported direct from Taganrog to the Mediterranean. All the products brought down the Dniester, the Bug, and the Dnieper, are exported from Odessa ; but. owing to the difficult navigation of the first and last mentioned rivers, most part of the corn brought to Odessa from Podolia, the Ukraine, &c. is conveyed in waggons drawn by oxen. — (See vol. i. p. 513.) Corn Trade. — The principal trade of Odessa is with Constantinople, Smyrna, and other towns in the Levant, Naples, Leghorn, Genoa, Marseilles, &c. "It is generally stated," says Mr. Jacob (Memoir on the 'Trade of the Black Sea, in the Mppendix to the 8vo edition of Tracts on the Corn Trade), " that the 6upply of Constantinople requires annually 100.000 quarters of Black Sea wheat. The Greek islands scarcely, on the average of years, produce sufficient wheat for their own consumption, and, in some years, require a large supply, which is furnished partly from the neighbouring continent, and partly from the Black Sea. "The Asiatic coasts of the Turkish empire, especially in Anatolia, are nearly in the same predica- ment. At times the market of Smyrna is very favourable for the sale of the corn of Southern Russia. The islands of Malta and Gozo produce only about half as much corn as the 120,000 inhabitants require. " Sicily, though it has greatly declined from its ancient productiveness, has still a quantity of grain to span' for the less fruitful parts of Italy, in most years; and its wheat enters into competition with that of the Black Sea, in the purls of Naples, Genoa, and Leghorn. " There are few years in which Tuscany grows a sufficiency of wheat ; and its chief port, Leghorn, being one of those in which ships can unload their cargoes of corn, without being detained to perform quarantine, has been at all times a place of deposit for the wheat of the Black Sea. A market at tome price may always be found there, as the capitalists are disposed to purchase; relying on the uncertain productiveness of some adjacent country, in which they may realise a profit at no great distance. "Genoa, like Leghorn, is a port where wheat can be unloaded within the bounds of the lazaretto. The country around it yields but little wheat ; and, at some periods, it enjoys a trade in that article even as far as Sunderland. This internal demand, and the chance of advantageous re-exportation, induces much trade in corn. There is said to be seldom less than 100.000 quarters in store at the two ports of Genoa and Leghorn ; and at some periods, a far greater quantity. " Nice, though not having the same advantageous quarantine regulations, and, consequently, not being a depot for corn beyond its own demand, from the sterile soil that surrounds it, requires every year a large importation of wheat. That of Sicily and Odessa create a competition in its port ; and the government draws a revenue, by imposing a heavy duty on both. "Though the corn laws of France have kept the ports closed against the introduction of foreign corn for domestic use, yet it is allowed to be bonded for re-exportation. From the frequent local and partial ODESSA. 249 scarcities which occur on the eastern coast of Spain, at which periods wheat is allowed to be lawfully Imported, and, It is said, from the facility of Its introduction by contraband, when not legally allowed, Marseilles has been a great uV/>df for the wheat of tbe Black Sea. " From ih snce as also from Gibraltar, where there is generally some in store, it can easily be trans- ported to Spain, to Sardinia, to Corsica, to Tunis, to Tripoli, or wherever scarcity has created a bene- '" " The'coasts of Barbary, though often having a surplus of wheat, much of which occasionally assists to feed Portugal, in some seasons have been affected with most deficient harvests. This was recently the case in a remarkable degree. Tripoli and Tunis experienced, in the year 1820, a harvest most miserably short, and were supplied from other countries." Charges „ n Shipping Cum.— In 1816, the expense of delivering a chetwert of wheat free on board, including commission, warehouse rent, and shipping charges, amounted to upwards of o roubles; but at present (1836) it does not exceed 2 roubles. The duties per chetwert are as follow :— Export duty Quarantine • Town and harbour duties Lyceum duty Wheal. 21 3-5ths. cop. 1.4 _ 7 1 4 — The warehouse rent of corn at Odessa is from 8 to 10 copecks per chetwert per month. M. De Hage- meister supposes that Turkey, and the different ports of the Mediterranean require, at an average, an annual supply of 1,400,000 chetwerts, or about 1,050,000 quarters, of which 1,000,000 chetwerts, or 750,000 quarters, are furnished by Southern Russia, and principally shipped from Odessa. Wallachia and Moldavia arc both very fertile in corn ; and were tranquillity and good order introduced into them, ami the free navigation of the Danube secured, Galacz and Brailoff would be two of the principal Eu- ropean grain shipping ports. (See the excellent report of Hagemeister on the Trade of the Black Sea, 114. Eng. Trans.) Tallow exported from Odessa pays an export duty of 8 roubles per 10 poods. Ezi lusive of corn, the other articles mentioned as being exported from Odessa, find their way to the different markets in tbe Mediterranean. Those shipped for Turkey are iron, tallow, sail-cloth, cordage, anchors lor ships of war, butter, &c. The exports to Italy and other European countries are similar. The importation of all foreign articles into the Russian dominions on the Black Sea and the Sea of Asoff is confined l» Odessa, Theodosia or Kaffa, and Taganrog. The import trade is, however, of in- ferior importance when compared with the export trade. The principal articles are sugar and coffee, (he wooda, wine and brandy, cotton stuffs and yarn, woollen and silk manufactures, spices, cutlery ; oranges, lemons, figs, and other fruit ; lemon juice oil, tin and tin plates, dried fruits, paper, silk, specie, &c. Principal Articles imported into Odessa in the following Years :— Articles. 1824. 1825. 1826. 1827. 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. Coffee - poods 2,682 2,615 2,747 8,024 6,664 8,642 8,005 5,014 Sugar, raw — 2,183 2,746 653 6,744 4,262 6,753 8,362 10,357 refined 12,253 12,280 11,234 22,125 21,183 Olive oil — 27,017 27,649 25,797 18,227 7,0 10 18 308 60,9*7 68,636 Cotlou, raw - — 6,410 3,801 6,478 3,436 1,110 1,4^3 6,289 6,184 twist - 11,916 8,832 6,6i0 8,005 2,3S0 340 3,575 3,121 Silk ■ — 747 543 2,953 3,765 1,039 107 2,146 1,658 345 522 606 t20 600 Pepper 4,650 2,267 7,643 5,971 Tin plates 1,131 1,973 1,160 2,682 Incense 8,306 6,027 7,750 1 1,1 Mi Olives - 12,879 4,544 18,779 16.502 Tobacco 13.901 5,801 13,022 12,826 Wine - >xhofU 2,485 2,498 2,195 13,424 12,524 8,034 21,823 13,861 untiles 6,341 8,136 11,995 31,055 12 691 24,040 53.448 27,3a3 Fruit, for Rou. 1,175,015 1,217,024 1,138,905 946,102 570,143 1,067,152 1,180,354 1,865,558 ( o'tun manu- factures — 66,160 118,614 359,446 611,419 399,877 432,321 744,384 Wool leu do. ■ 42,647 134,936 132,093 326,973 286,719 246,468 354,476 cloth ■ — - • 326,061 152,617 307,070 311,799 1,516,306 Silk manuiac lures - — 267,9)4 337,267 258,741 494,428 324,202 248,953 256,830 Dve woods ant colours — 473,620 164.7C6 65,847 102,858 8,867 58,641 125,123 181,561 Principal Articles exported from Odessa in the following Years :- Articles. 1827. 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1834. r 68,217 1 In 1833 Wheat - chetwerts 1,200.826 28,860 317,683 1,215,189 487,382 807,903 465,559 1 there was S ye . • - 39,940 2,050 3,276 14,249 17 155 2,045 I an almost Barley - — 6,852 377 2,507 62,543 15,029 5,277 2.291 <, total fail. Oats . — S 707 3,030 29,244 33,600 33,182 12,363 1 ure of the Wheat flour — 10,262 22,155 15,358 40 17 355 harvest in i Southern (Russia 16,565 Linseed - — 931 6.327 18,356 33,765 68,823 Tallow . poods 195,425 13,686 160,024 245,038 287,240 291,172 400,146 7;8,S5l Hides, raw — 30,996 3,932 15,246 23,705 42,050 26,079 80,906 ) t?nned — youfts — 56,430 6,045 39,944 3,462 | 4,675 9,984 v No returns. Potashes - — 3,118 3,0-9 3.317 3,900 14,652 16,912 Cordage - — 71,320 11,317 I2.S26 63,901 94,390 77,116 49,6' 2 29,989 1,488 7 1.3,2 16,9<2 8,709 4,r>2 49 598 4,379 8,751 12,468 8,376 1,397 Hemp . — 13,040 751 14,805 522 6,426 19.H0S 20,598 Copper - — 2£S5 194 19,000 12.920 5,568 5,533 Iron — 73,513 3,452 2,524 17,364 14,417 32,5' 9 19,954 Salt butter — Caviare — 1.200 2,800 1,304 2,089 10,257 4,942 5,911 3,393 5,037 1,629 4,515 3,204 5,655 2,420 ( No returns. Wool — Total value 30,000 5,115 3,402 21,361 35,058 41,558 66,457 66,901 of exports by sea - Rou. 18,479,652 1,248,543 7,240,325 27,03 1,900 20,063,953 29,108,259 24,552,205 17,855,896 ports - — 10,185,357 5,735,225 7,810,806 15,357,461 12,322,056 11,983,929 14,387,806 14,425,536 32 250 ODESSA. Movement of Shipping at the Port of Odessa in the following Years. Vessels. 1326. 1827. 1823. 1829. 1330. 1831. Arrived. Sailed. Arrived. Sailel. Arrive 1. Sailed. Arrived. Sailed. Arrived.! Sailed. Arrived. Sailed. "•4 Ill 167 122 50 38 24 30 172 194 155 136 189 186 292 278 58 41 81 80 2l9 2,7 114 107 IS 116 236 23 S 14 II 46 33 224 231 46 48 Eusli»h» 104 105 155 143 4 8 65 43 147 169 SI 83 1 1 1 4 2 9 1 2 2 2 2 8 8 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 16 5 14 2 5 2 5 Turkish - 8 10 9 7 1 1 1 11 11 2 4 2 54 54 27 24 Total ■ 3 3 587 529 S'2 7*8 130 99 224 ! 192 872 960 435 411 The previous statements, for which we are indebted partly to the Report of M. De Hage- meister, and partly to official and private sources, show the effect of the war between Russia and Turkey on the trade of Odessa ; but it has again resumed its former activity ; and will, doubtless, continue progressively to increase with the improvement of the vast countries of which it is the principal entrepot. Several American merchantmen appeared, for the first time, in the Black Sea, in 1830. A tribunal of commerce was established at Odessa in 1824, the jurisdiction of which extends over all disputes connected with irade. There is no appeal from its decision, except to the senate. Its insti- tution is said to have been productive of considerable; advantage. There are 12 sworn brokers, approved and licensed by the Tribunal of Commerce, who have depu- ties appointed by themselves. They receive i per cent, from each party as commission. They are bound to register the various transactions in which they are employed. A discount or loan bank was established at Odessa in 1828, which discounts bills, not having more than 4 months to run, at the rate of 6 per cent, interest; and makes advances upon the security of goods. Two institutions for marine insurance, and one for fire insurance, have been established within the last 4 or 5 vears. Most articles of provision are very cheap. Beef may be bought for \d. or Id. per lb. ; a quarter of Iamb for 5,7si 1,900 71,875 Roubles. 20.695 196,800 455.6S5 20>30 328.125 154,235 30,1)00 65,261 Roubles. 40,700 100,000 355,775 32,435 132,500 110,000 44,000 103,537 Roubles. 11,590 28,500 1,434,560 60.435 138,-: 00 290,545 7.1 10 29,660 Roubles. ^0.675 129,610 711,945 lO'.ro 633,980 337,100 43,100 103,185 Roubles. 2,600 7l,0h0 21, (-0 4,725 1.015 1,600 19,'iS3 397,525 1 1,262,231 918,947 2,001,390 1,988,865 121,683 For some further details as to the trade of the Black Sea, see the article Sinope. Epochs in the Trade of the Black Sea. Depth of Water. Difficulty of Navigation, <5rc. — The trade of the Black or Euxitie Sea was of great importance in antiquity. The shores of the Crimea, or Taurica Chersonesus, were settled by Milesian adventurers, who founded Panticapxum and Theodosia. The exports thence to Athens were nearly the same as those which are now sent from Odessa and Taganrog to Constantinople, Leghorn, &c. ; viz. com, timber, and naval stores, leather, wax, honey, salt fish, caviare, &c, with grpat number of slaves, the best and most serviceable that were anywhere to be met with. The Athenians set a very high value upon this trade, which supplied them annually with about 400,000 medimni of corn ; and to preserve it, they carefully cultivated the alliance of the Thracian princes, and kept a garrison at Sestus, on the Hellespont. — (See the authorities in Anachar- sits's Travels, c. 55. ; and in Clarke's Connexion of the Saxon and English Coins, pp. 54: — 64.) During the middle ages, the Genoese acquired an ascendancy on this sea, and laboured * Maltese and Ionians included OIL. 251 with pretty considerable success to monopolise its trade. Their principal establishment was at Carta, which was the centre of a considerable commerce. But the. conquest of Constant linople liv the Turks, in 1453, was soon after followed by the conquest of Calfa, and the total exclusion of European vessels from the Black Sea, which became in a great measure un- known. This exclusion was maintained for about 800 years, or till it was opened to the ■hips of Russia I y the treaty of Kainardgi in 1774. The Austrians obtained a similar equa- lity of privileges in 1784 ; and British, French, &c. ships were admitted by the treaty of Amicus. There were, however, some restraints still kept up ; hut these have been abolished by the late treaty between the Turks and Russians in 1829 ; and, for commercial purposes at least, the Blacfc . s <-a is now as free as the Mediterranean. Notwithstanding the number of English and other European ships that have visited this sea within the last 20 years, its geography is still very imperfectly known. A notion seems to have ' water is for the most part remarkably deep ; with a bottom, where soundings have been obtained, of gravel, sand, and shells. A strong current sets from the Black Sea, through the Bosphorus, or Canal of Constantinople, into the Sea of .Marmara, and from the latter through the Dardanelles, which it requires a fresh breeze to stem. This current is said to be sensibly felt in the Black Sea, 10 or 12 miles from the Bosphorus ; and it may probably carry off some of the mud brought down by the rivers. — (See Tourneforfa Voyage du Levant, Lett. 15, 16.; Art. 9. in No. I. of the Journal of the Geographical Society ,■ MacgiWs Travels in Turkey, vol. i. p. 245., &c.) The navigation of the Black Sea has been represented, by most modern and all ancient writers, as exceedingly dangerous. We believe, however, that there is a good deal of exag- geration in the greater number of the statements on this subject. It is said to be particularly subject to dense fogs, and to currents ; but the former are prevalent only at particular seasons, and the influence of the latter is not greater than in many other seas which are not reputed dangerous. Tournefort, one of the best and most accurate of travellers, considers the navi- gation of the Black Sea as safe as that of the Mediterranean: — "Iln'a rien de noir, pour ttinsi dire, one le nom : les vents n'y sotifflent pas avec plus defurie, et les orages ne sont. gueres plus freiptens (pie sur les autres mers. — (Tome ii. p. 164. 4to ed.) Dr. Clarke U, vol. ii. p. 387. 8vo ed.) affects to doubt this ; but he assigns no grounds for his opinion; and who would think of putting his authority in competition with that of Tourne- fort? The truth is, that any sea would be dangerous to the Greek and Turkish pilots, by whom the Black Sea is principally navigated. If the progress of navigation were to be esti- mated by its state amongst them, we should have to conclude that it had been stationary from the era of the Argonauts. They seldom venture to get out of sight of the coasts ; they have neither charts nor quadrants ; and hardly even know that one of the points of the needle turns towards the North ! — (Tournefort, in loc. cit.) There is not, certainly, much room for wonder at shipwrecks being frequent among vessels so navigated. On leaving the Black Sea, the greatest difficulty is in making the Bosphorus. " The mountains," says Mr. Mac- gill, " are all so much alike, that it is difficult to determine which of them is at the entrance, until you arc within a very few miles of the coast: then, with a fair wind, you are on a lee shore with a lee current; and if you make a mistake, destruction is almost inevitable. The Turks have two light-houses at the entrance ; but unless you see them before sunset, they are of little use : in the forests, on its borders, great quantities of charcoal are made, and the lights from it bewilder, and often mislead, the unhappy mariner.'' — (Vol. i. p. 245.) From the vast quantity of fresh water po„red into the Black Sea, the saline particles are so much diluted, that, with a slight frost, the surface becomes covered with ice ; hence, during a great part of the year, hardly any navigation is attempted. The vessels that resort to Odessa seldom arrive at that port before the latter end of May ; and those whose cargoes are not completed before the end of October, more frequently wait the return of spring, than ad- venture to encounter the dangers of an autumnal or winter voyage. At Taganrog the frost commences earlier, and continues longer, than at Odessa ; so that there are scarcely more than 4 or 5 months in the year, during which the Sea of AzolTcan be safely navigated. OIL'(Fr. Huile,- Ger. Oel ,■ It. Olie ,■ Lat. Oleum,- Rus. Mash; Sp. Aceite.) The term oil is applied to designate a number of unctuous liquors, which, when dropped upon paper, sink into it and make it semi-transparent, or give it what is called a greasy stain. These bodies are very numerous, and have been in common use from time immemorial. Chemists have divided them into two classes ; namely, volatile and fixed oils. We borrow from Dr. Thomas Thomson the following statement with respect to these bodies : — I. Volatile Oils, called also essential oils, are distinguished hy the following properties : — 1. Liquid, often almost as liquid as water, sometimes viscid ; 2. Very combustible ; 3. An acrid taste and a strong 252 OIL. fragrant odour ; 4. Volatilised at a temperature not higher than 212° ; 5. Soluble in alcohol, and im- perfectly in water ; 6. Evaporate without leaving any stain on paper. By this last test it is easy to discover whether they have been adulterated with any of the fixed oils. Let a drop of the volatile oil fall upon a sheet of writing paper, and then apply a gentle heat to it ; if it evaporates without leaving any stain upon the paper, the oil is pure; but if it leaves a stain upon the paper, it has been contaminated with some fixed oil or other. Volatile oils are almost all obtained from vegetables, and they exist in every part of plants, — the toot, the bark, the wood, the leaves, the flower, and even the fruit ; though they are never found in .he substance of the cotyledons; whereas the fixed oils, on the contrary, are almost always contained '.n these bodies. When the volatile oils are contained in great abundance in plants, they are sometimes obtained by simple expression. This is the case with oil of oranges, of lemons, and bergamotte ; but in general they can only be obtained by distillation. The part of the plant containing the oil is put into a still with a quantity of water, which is distilled off" by the application of a moderate heat. The oil comes over along with the water, and swims upon its surface in the receiver. By this process are obtained the oil of peppermint, thyme, lavender, and a great many others, which are prepared and employed by the perfumer: others are procured by the distillation of resinous bodies. This is the casein particular with oil of turpentine, which is obtained by distilling a kind of resinous juice, called turpentine, that exudes from the juniper. Volatile oils are exceedingly numerous. They have been long known ; but as their use in chemistry is but limited, they have not, hitherto, been subjected to an accurate chemical investigation. They differ greatly in their properties from each other; but it is impossible at present to give a detailed account of each. 1. The greater number of volatile oils are liquid ; many, indeed, are as limpid as water, and have none of that appearance which we usually consider oily. This is the case with the following ; namely, oil of turpentine, oranges, lemons, bergamotte, roses. — Others have the oily viscidity. It varies in them in all degrees. This is the case with the oils of mace, cardamon, sassafras, cloves, cinnamon. — Others have the property of becoming solid. This is the case with the oils of parsley, fennel, aniseed, balm. — Others crystallise by slow evaporation. This is the case with oil of thyme, peppermint, marjoram. — The oil of nutmegs has usually the consistence of butter. This is the case also with the oils of hops and of pepper. 2. The colour of the volatile oils is as various as their other properties. A great number are limpid and colourless ; as oil of turpentine, lavender, rosemary, savine, aniseed : some are yellow ; as spike, bergamotte : some are brown ; as thyme, savory, wormwood : others blue ; as camomile, motherwort : others green ; as milfoil, pepper, hops, parsley, wormwood, cajeput, juniper, sage, valerian : others, though at first colourless, become yellow or brown by age; as cloves, cinnamon, sassafras. 3. The odours are so various as to defy all description. It is sufficient to say, that all the fragrance of the vegetable kingdom resides in volatile oils. Their taste is acrid, hot, and exceedingly unpleasant. 4. Their specific gravity varies very considerably, not only in different oils, but even in the same oil in different circumstances. The following are the specific gravities of several of the volatile oils, as ascertained by Dr. Lewis : — Oil of Sassafras - - - 1-094 Cinnamon • - - 1-035 Cloves - . - 1034 Fennel - - - -997 Dill ... - -994 Pennyroyal • - - -978 •975 Oil of Tansy - - - -946 Caraway seeds • . -940 Origanum - • - -940 Spike Rosemary Juniper berries Oranges Mint - • - -975 Turpentine - Nutmegs - - - -948 When the volatile oils are heated in the open air, they evaporate readily, and without alteration diffuse their peculiar odours all around; but there is a considerable difference between the different oils in this respect. When distilled in close vessels they do not so readily assume the form of vapour. Hence they lose ttreir odour, become darker in colour, and are partly decomposed. Oils do not seem very susceptible of assuming the gaseous form, unless some other substance, as water, be present. II. Fixed Oils are distinguished by the following characters : — 1. Liquid, or easily become so when exposed to a gentle heat ; 2. An unctuous feel ; 3. Very combustible ; 4. A mild taste ; 5. Boiling point not under 600°; 6. Insoluble in water, and nearly so in alcohol ; 7. Leave a greasy stain upon paper. These oils, which are called fat or expressed oils, are numerous, and are obtained partly from ani- mals and partly from vegetables, by simple expression. As instances, may be mentioned whale oil or train oil, obtained from the blubber of the whale and from cod; olive oil, obtained from the fruit of the olive ; linseed oil and almond oil, obtained from linseed and almond kernels. Fixed oils may also be extracted from poppy seeds, hemp seeds, beech mast, and many other vegetable substances. All these oils differ from each other in several particulars, but have also many particulars in common. 1. Fixed oil is usually a liquid with a certain degree of viscidity, adhering to the sides of the glass vessels in which it is contained, and forming streaks. It is never perfectly transparent ; has always a certain degree of colour, most usually yellowish or greenish; its taste is sweet, or nearly insipid. When fresh, it has little or no smell. There exist also in the vegetable kingdom a considerable number of bodies which, at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, are solid, and have hitherto been considered as fixed oils. Palm oil may be mentioned as an example. The various substances used in India and Africa as substitutes for butter, and as unguents, may likewise be mentioned. 2. All the fixed oils hitherto examined are lighter than water: but they differ greatly from one an- other in specific gravity. The same difference is observable in different samples of the same oil. The following Table contains the specific gravity of such oils as have been examined : — Oil of Beech nuts • - • -923 Ben - - - - -917 Olives - - - -913 Rape-seed - - - -913 Cacao ... -892 Fixed oil, when in the state of vapour, takes fire on the approach of an ignited body, and burns with a yellowish white flame. It is upon this principle that candles and lamps burn. The tallow or oil is first converted into a state of vapour in the wick ; it then takes fire, and supplies a sufficient quantity of heat to convert more oil into vapour ; and this process goes on while any oil remains. The wick is necessary, to present a sufficiently small quantity of oil at once for the heat to act upon. If the heat wen- great enough to keep the whole oil at the temperature of 000°, no wick would be necessary, as is obvious from oil catching fire spontaneously when it has been raised to that temperature. When oil is used in this manner, either in the open air or in contact with oxygen gas, the only new products obtained arc; water and carbonic acid. The drying oils are used as the vehicle of paints and varnishes. Linseed, nut, poppy, and hemp- teed oils, belong to this class. These oils in their natural stale possess the property of drying oils, but Oil of Palm •968 Hazel nuts • •941 Poppies •939 Linseed •932 islmnnds •932 Walnuts •923 to -947 OLIBANUM— OLIVE OIL 253 imperfectly. To prepare them for the use of the painter and varnish-maker, they are boiled for some time in an iron pot, ami sometimes burnt till they become viscid. When they hum for some time, their unctuous quality is much more completely destroyed than by any method that baa been practised. Hence it is followed frequently in preparing the drying oils for varnishes, and always for printers' ink, which requires to be as free as possible from all unctuoeity. Nut oil lias i n found preferable to all other oils for printers' ink ; though the dart colour which it acquires during boiling renders it not so proper lor red ink as for black. Linseed oil is considered as next after nut oil in this respect, oilier oils cannot be employed, because they cannot be sufficiently om their unctuosity. Ink made with them would be apt to come off and smear the paper while in the hands of the bookbinder, or even to spread beyond the mark of the types and stain the paper yellow. For the regulations with respect to the importation anil exportation of train oil, see p. 134. OLIBANUM (Fr. Enccns ,- Ger. Weiranch ,■ It. Olibano ; Arab. Looban), a gum- resin, the produce of a large tree (Libanus thurifcra) growing in Arabia and India. It is imported in chests, containing each about 1 cwt. from the Levant and India; the best comes from the former, and is the produce of Arabia. Good olibanum is in semi-transparent tears, of a pink colour, brittle, and adhesive when warm ; when burnt, the odour is very agreeable ; its taste is bitterish, and somewhat pungent and aromatic ; it flames for a long time with a steady clear light, which is not easily extinguished, leaving behind a black (not, as has been said, a whitish) ash. Olibanum is the frankincense {thus) of the ancients ; and was exten- sively used by them in sacrifices. — (Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xii. c. 14.) It has also been used in the ceremonies of the Greek and Roman churches. — (Ainslie's Mat. Indica ,- Thomson's Chemistry ; Kippingii Antiq. Rom. lib. i. c. 11.) OLIVE, OLIVES (Ger. Oliven ,- Fr. Olives,- It. Ulive, Olive,- Sp. Aceitunas,- Port. Azcitonas; Lat. Olivx), a fruit yielding a large quantity of oil, the produce of the Olea, or olive tree. The wild olive is indigenous to Syria, Greece, and Africa, on the lower slopes of Mount Atlas. The cultivated species grows spontaneously in Syria, and is easily reared in Spain, Italy, and the south of France. It has even been raised in the open air in England, but its fruit is said not to have ripened. The fruit is a smooth oval plum, about $ of an inch in length, and ^ an inch in diameter, of a deep violet colour when ripe, whitish and fleshy within, bitter and nauseous, but replete with a bland oil ; covering an oblong, pointed, rough nut. Olives intended for preservation are gathered before they are ripe. In pickling, the object is to remove their bitterness, and to preserve them green, by impregnating them with a brine of aromatised sea salt ; for this purpose various methods are employed. The wood of the olive tree is beautifully veined, and has an agreeable smell. It is in great esteem with cabinet-makers, on account of the fine polish of which it is susceptible. OLIVE OIL (Ger. Baumol ,- Fr. Huile d'olives ,- It. Olio oVuliva,- Sp. Aceite de aceitunas ,- Lat. Oleum olivarum). The olive tree is principally cultivated for the sake of its oil. This is an insipid, inodorous, pale greenish yellow coloured, viscid fluid, unctuous to the feel, inflammable, incapable of combining with water, and nearly insoluble in alcohol. It is the lightest of all the fixed oils ; and is largely used, particularly in Greece, Italy, Spain, and France, as an article of food, and in medicine, and the arts. It is also very extensively used in this country, particularly in the woollen manufacture. The ripe fruit is gathered in November, and immediately bruised in a mill, the stones of which are set so wide as not to crush the kernel. The pulp is then subjected to the press in bags made of rushes; and by means of gentle pressure, the best, or virgin oil, flows first; a second, and afterwards a third, quality of oil is obtained by moistening the residuum, break- ing the kernel, &c, and increasing the pressure. When the fruit is not sufficiently ripe, the recent oil has a bitterish taste; and when too ripe, it is fatty. After the oil has been drawn, it deposits a white, fibrous, and albuminous matter ; but when this deposition has taken place, if it be put into clean glass flasks, it undergoes no further alteration ; the common oil cannot, however, be preserved in casks above 1 £ or 2 years. It is sometimes adulterated by the ad- mixture of poppy oil. — (Thomson's Dispensatory.) The best olive oil is said to he made in the vicinity of Aix, in France. That which is brought from Leghorn, in chests containing 30 bottles, or 4 English gallons, is also very superior ; it is known in our markets by the name of Florence oil, and is used mostly for culinary purposes. Olive oil is the prin- cipal article of export from the kingdom of Naples. — (See Naples.) Apulia and Calabria are the pro- vinces most celebrated for its production. The Apulian is the best, and is preferred by the woollen manufacturers, by whom it is extensively used. By far the largest portion of the olive oil brought to England is imported from Italy ; principally from Gallipoli, on the east coast of the Gulf of Taranto, in lat. 40° 3' N., Ion. 18° 25' 55" E., whence it is commonly known by the name of Gallipoli oil. But, be- sides Italy, Spain sends us a large quantity; and we derive smaller supplies from Malta, Turkey, the Ionian Islands, &x. Thus, of 2,791,057 gallons of olive oil imported in 1830,2,034,237 were from Italy ; 639,468 do. from Spain ; 52,004 do. from Malta, partly at second hand; 21,467 from Turkey ; 11,300 do from the Ionian Islands; about 30,000 do., at second hand, from the Netherlands and Germany. The price of olive oil, duty paid, in London, in January, 1834, was as follows : — L. s. I., t. | L. ». L, i. Gallipoli ... t un (252 gals.) 69 to 60 Rarbary ... tun (252 gals.) 63 to 64 Spanish Calabria . . . _ 55 — Lucca, in jara - - - - - 6 15 — Calcia, Genoa, and Provence, 1st - — 75 0—80 I Florence - - - 1-2 chest • 11—00 The duty of 8/. 8s. a tun (252 wine gallons) amounts to about 20 per cent., or l-5th of the price. But as olive oil is an article much used in the household economy, and of essential importance in the arts, particularly the woollen manufacture, such a duty seems to be quite oppressive. Were it reduced to 21. 2s. a tun, we believe it would be very little, if at all, less productive than at present, while the fall of price consequent upon such a reduction would have many beneficial consequences. Nothing can Vol. II.— Y 254 OLIVE OIL. be more absurd than to elevate duties till they become less productive than they would be were they lower ; but when the articles so overtaxed are of great utility, the niischievousness of the practice ex- ceeds its irrationality. Olive oil is necessary to the preparation of the best species of soap ; but the high duty prevents it from being so employed in this country, and, consequently, obliges us to make use of an inferior article. An Account of the Quantity of Olive Oil entered for Home Consumption in each Year since 1820; distinguishing the Rate of Duty, and stating the amount of Duty received in each Year. Quantities Qualities entered for entered for i Home Con Amount of A Home Con- Amormt of sumption Duty received Rates of Duty charged. '?. sumption Duty received Rates of Duty charged. & in the Di rled thereon. in the United Kingdom. thereon. Per Imp. Tun. ' Per Imp. Tun. Imp. Tuns. L. t. d. L. t. d. Tfflp. Tuns. L. s. d. L. s. d. 1821 2,373 44,706 17 7 5 18 15 7 in British ships. 1 19 19 7 in for. ships. 1823 6,959 53,580 5 1 (9 9 in ships of Naples * .mil Sicily. 1822 3,162 59,164 10 5 ( 8 8 in other ships. IS23 2,699 50,862 12 10 — (10 10 in ships of Naples 1~J4 3.32J 66,295 2 II — 1S29 3,299 45,250 12 ■ and Sicily. 1625 3,996 44,288 4 9 5 8 8 in anv ship, from I 5th July 1S30 8,524 71,878 11 9 (8 8 in other ships. 1826 3,376 2S.366 9 6 — 1831 7,575 64,2J3 — 1827 35,877 18 10 8 80 — 1832 5 005 43,350 — Olive oil, the produce of Europe, may not be imported into the United Kingdom for home consump- tion, except in British ships, or in ships of the country of which it is the produce, or front which it is imported, on forfeiture of the same and 100/. by the master of the ship. — (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 54 J # 2. 22.) It is rdered by a Customs Minute of the 23d of July, 1828, that when the actual tare is not taken, l-3d for tare on each jar, and l-7th for foot, may be allowed. Oil Trade of Naples.- — The oils of the kingdom of Naples are produced in Apulia, from Bari to its southern extremity, the Capo di Leuca ; a district comprising the territories which export from Galli- poli and Taranto ; and in Calabria, from Rossano, on the gulf of Taranto, across to Gioja. The whole coast from Gioja as far as Gaeta is covered with olive trees. They are also abundant in the Abruzzi and the Terra di La voro ; but Apulia and Calabria furnish by far the greatest quantity of oil. The principal magazines, or caricatori, for oil, are at Galipoli and Gioja. Gallipoli supplies England, Holland, the north of Europe, and, in short, all those countries that re- quire the most perfectly purified oil. It is clarified to the highest degree, by merely keeping it in cis- terns hollowed out of the rock on which the town is built. The voyages it has to perform being long, it is put into casks so well constructed, that it frequently arrives at Petersburg!], in the heat of sum- mer, without the least waste or leakage, — an advantage attributed to the seasoning of the staves, which, before they are put together, are well soaked in sea water. We borrow the following details with respect to the preparation of oil at Gallipoli, from a very in- teresting paper, communicated by an English gentleman who had resided in the town, in the volume entitled Vegetable Substances Materials of Manufactures, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. "The rock on which the town is built is easily excavated ; and in caverns thus constructed oil cla- rifies sooner, and keeps without rancidity much longer, than in any other place. Hence numerous oil- houses are established at Gallipoli, and a very considerable portion of the rock is cut into cisterns. A Gallipnlitan oil warehouse generally occupies the ground floor of a dwelling-house, and has a low arched roof. Some are more extensive, but on an-average they are about 30 feet square. In the stone floor you see 4, 6, or more holes, which are circular, about 2 feet in diameter, and like the mouths of wells. Each of these holes gives access to a separate cistern beneath your feet; and when the oil is poured into them, care is taken not to mix different qualities, or oils at different stages, in the same reservoir. One cistern is set apart for oglio vwsto, or oil that is not clarified, another for pure oil of the season, another for old oil, &c. I have seen oil that had thus been preserved for seven years in a per- fect state, or, as the Gallipoli merchants have it, ckiaro, giallo, e lampante,— words which, during some months, I have heard at least 100 times a day. I also many times verified the fact : the mosto, or oil in its turbid state, which arrived almost as black and thick as pitch, soon became bright and yellow in these excellent reservoirs, without any help from man. "All the oil, whatever may be its quality, is brought to the magazine in sheep or goat skins, which are generally carried on mules — there being but few strade rotabile, or roads fit for wheeled carriages, in these parts. In a good year, and at the proper season, I have counted, in the course of an after- 11 "s ride, as many as 100 mules returning from Gallipoli, where they had been to deposit their unc- tuous burdens, to different towns and villages in the Terra d'Otranto, or the more distant province of Bari. Tli" quantity of nil required may be conceived, when I state, that at one time (in the year 1816) I saw 9 English, 3 American, 2 French, and 6 Genoese vessels, (not to mention some small craft from the Adriatic,) all waiting in the port of Gallipoli for entire or partial cargoes of it. When the oil is to be shipped, it is drawn off the cistern, into uteri, or skins, and so carrietl on men's shoulders down to a small house on the sea shore. In that house there is a large open basin, capable of containing a given quantity, and of measuring the oil ; and into that the porters empty their skins as they arrive. A tube 1 ommunicates from the basin to a large cock at the outside of the house. When the basin is full, well- made casks, of various sizes for the convenience of stowage, are placed under the cock, which is then turned, and the casks are filled. As the casks are closed up by the cooper, the porters roll them down to the brink of the sea, where the sailors secure several of them together with a rope, and taking the end of the cord into the boat, they row off to the vessel, towing the oil casks through the water after them. " I first became acquainted with the Gallipolitnns shortly after the fall of Napoleon, whose system, whatever good parts of it may have done in the rest of Italy, was certainly most ruinous tothe pro- vinces of Lecce and Bari. Unable to export, or find any market for their produce, the proprietors in many parts of those provinces let the olives lie and rot upon the ground. For some years, indeed, the price of oil scarcely paid the cost of its preparation, to say nothing of transport and other necessary expenses. During the Continental system, the best chiaro, giallo, e lampanU oil was sold at Gallipoli for 8 Neapolitan ducats the salma ; in 1816 and 1817, it found a ready market at from 60 to 70 ducatsr per salma ! " Those who, during the evil time, had penetration enough to foresee better days, and that a system opposed to the general commercial prosperity of Europe could not last ; and who had, at the same time, money enough for such Objects ; by annually making their oil as usual, and buying up the oil of others at the low current prices of the day, realised enormous profits when peace threw open the port of Gal- lipoli, and ships of all nations flocked thither as before. " The olives of which the Gallipoli oil is made, are never gathered, but allowed to drop in their ma- OMNIUM— ONYX. 255 turity from ihe tree on the ground, wberc they are pi< ked up chiefly by women and children, and carried to tin- null. machinery employed in expressing the oil is of the rudest kind, and, n<> doubt, numerous im- provements might be introduced, not only into tins branch, but into thai d cultivating the olive tree. The peasantry, however, and, In the kingdom of .Naples, those u ho stand higher in the scale of for- tune and rank, are too often but hours in intellect, are obstinate in their attachment to old practices, and are apt, when any of these are reprehended, to stop discussion by saying Faccio come faceva la .una di mio padre, e civ banla. (1 do as my lather of blessed memory did before me, and that's enough > "The poor people of the country make culinary uses of the sa dl that is exported, and which in England is only used in manufactures or burnt in lamps j but in the houses of the gentry 1 have often tasted oil prepared with more care, which was truly delicious, being equal to that of .Sorrento, Vico, and Massa, or even to the best oils of Tuscan] or Provence."— (Pp. 200—201.) The caricatori of Hari and Monopoli furnish oils for the consumption of Upper Italy and Germany, through the medium of Venice and Trieste. They also draw supplies from Brindisi and Otranto. ieatori of Taranto, of Eastern Calabria or Retromarina, and of Western < lalabria, the prin- cipal of w inch is Gioja, furnish supplies for Marseilles, &c. lint the caricatori now mentioned, having no conveniences for clarification, produce only the thick oils Used for soap-making. Tin- .,ils of Sicily, like i hose of Tunis, are too thin to be used singly ill the making of soap ; and being used only for mixing, are less valuable than most others. The oil traih' in the provinces is in the hands of respectable houses, Which purchase by retail of the several planters. The oil thus collected is sold in Naples at a profit equal to the difference between the size of the measures by which it is bought and those by which it is sold. To facilitate transac- tions, orders or eedales are circulated, representing quantities of oil deposited in the provincial r,in- catori. These ordi rs are negotiable, like bills of exchange, and are endorsed by the intermediate holder, who receives theil value in cash, without, however, becoming liable for their due satisfaction. The only responsible parties are the drawer and drawee. The latter is obliged to deliver the oil at sight of the order, or to hold it, at the bearer's disposal, till the 10th of November for the caricatori of Apufia, and till the iilst of December for those of Calabria. If the contract be for time, that is, from one year to another, the oil is usually placed at the purchaser's command on the 1st of March. Purchases for tune are effected by ins of a contract, wherein the vendor undertakes to deliver the oil by the end of January, on receiving payment of the money ; hut the oil, as observed above, is not really at the purchaser's disposal before the beginning of March. Hence, in time bargains, the payment of the mo- ney precedes the delivery of the Oil more than a month : scarce an instance is on record of an engage- ment of this sort having been broken, and the order is as readily negotiable as any other security. In purchases of oil at command, payment likewise precedes the delivery of the article ; but in this case tie' advance is confined to the 5 days necessary to transmit the order to the caricatore where the oil is kept for delivery. The oil remains in the caricatore under the care and responsibility of the vendor, to be delivered on demand to tine bearer of the order, free of all costs and charges whatever for the first year ; but for every successive year from 25 to 30 grains per salnia are charged for keeping, and for renewal of war- ranty. — (We are indebted for these details to a brochure of M. Millenet, entitled Coup d'CEil sur le Hoyaume de Naples. Naples, 1832.) (In consequence of petitions and representations from the woollen manufacturers, setting forth the serious injury they sustained from the oppressive duty of 8/. 8s. a tun laid on olive oil (p. 253.), it has been reduced 50 per cent., or to 41. 4s. a tun. — (4 & 5 Will. 4. c. 89. § 15.) The reduction does not, however, extend to oil brought from Naples or Sicily ; but her Majesty is empowered, if she see cause, to reduce the duty on such oil to 4/. 4s. a tun, by an order in council. This exception is understood to have been made in the view of facilitating the negotiation now in progress with the King of Naples for a reduction of the exorbitant duties laid on pilchards and other British articles imported into his dominions. It is to be hoped that these negotiations may be speedily brought to a satisfactory conclusion; for the largest portion by far of the olive oil made use of here being brought from Naples (GaHipoli, see p. 254.), the continuance of the high duties on it goes far to nullify the measure. Those who take into view the importance of olive oil in the arts, particularly in the woollen manufacture, and are aware that the revenue derived from it has not exceeded 50,000/. a year, will probably join with us in opinion, that the duty should either be repealed, or reduced to, at most, 2/. 2s. a tun. — Sup.) OMNIUM, a term used at the Stock Exchange to express the aggregate value of the different stocks in which a loan is now usually funded. Thus, in the loan of 36,000,000/. contracted for in June, 1815, the omnium consisted of 130/. 3 per cent, reduced annuities, 14/. 3 per cent, consols, and 10/. 4 per cent, annuities, for each 100/. subscribed. The loan was contracted for on the 14th of June, when the prices of the above stocks were — 3 per cent, reduced. 54 ; 3 per cent, consols, 55 ; 4 per cents., 70 : hence the parcels of stock given for 100/. advanced, were worth — £ s. d. 1301. reduced, at 54 - - - - - 70 4 441 consols, at 55 - - - - - 24 4 10/. 4 per cents., at 70- - - - -700 Together, ... £101 8 which would be the value of the omnium, or 11. 8s. per cent, premium, independently of any discount for prompt payment. ONION (Ger. Zwiebel ,■ Fr. Oignon ,- It. Cipolla ,- Sp. Cebolla ,■ Rus. Luk), a well known bulbous plant {Allium Cepu Lin.) cultivated all over Europe for culinary purposes. The Strasburgh, Spanish, and Portuguese varieties are the most esteemed. ONYX- (Ger. Onyx,- Fr. Onix, Onice ,■ Sp. Onique ,- Eat. Onyx). " Any stone ex- hibiting layers of 2 or more colours strongly contrasted is called an unyx; as banded jasper, chalcedony, &c, but more particularly the latter, when it is marked with white, and stratified with opaque and translucent lines. But the Oriental onyx is considered a substance consist- ing of 2 or more layers or bands of distinct and different colours. A sard, or sardoine, hav 256 OPAL, OPIUM. ing a layer of white upon it, would be called an onyx ; and according to the number of layers it would be distinguished as an onyx with 3 or more bands. Some of the antique engravings are upon onyxes of 4 bands." — (Mawe's Treatise on Diamonds, <$-<•.) OPAL (Ger. Opal,- Fr. Opale ,- It.Opalo ; Sp. Opalo, Piedra iris,- Port. Opala ; Lat. Opalus), a stone, of which there are several varieties, found in different parts of Europe, particularly in Hungary, and in the East Indies, &c. When first dug out of the earth it is soft, but it hardens and diminishes in bulk by exposure to the air. The opal is always amorphous; fracture conchoid al ; commonly somewhat transparent. Hardness varies con- siderably. Specific gravity from 1-958 to 2-54. The lowness of its specific gravity in some cases is to be ascribed to accidental cavities which the stone contains. These are sometimes filled with drops of water. Some specimens of opal have the property of emitting various coloured rays, with a particular eifulgency, when placed between the eye and the light. The opals which possess this property are distinguished by lapidaries by the epithet Oriental ; and often, by mineralogists, by the epithet nobilis. This property rendered the stone much esteemed by the ancients. — (Thomson's Chemistry ,- see also I'lin. Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvii. c. 6., where there are some very curious details as to this stone.) Mr. Mawe gives the following statement with respect to the precious opal, or opal robilis : — "The colour of the opal is white or pearl grey, and when held between the eye and the light is pale red, or wine yellow, with a milky Iranslucency. By reflected light it exhibits, as ils position is varied ele- gant and most beautiful iridescent colours, particularly emerald green, golden yellow, flame and fire red, violet, purple, and celestial blue, so beautifully blended, and so fascinating, as to captivate the admirer. When the colour is arranged in small spangles, it takes the name of the harlequin opal. Sometimes it exhibits only 1 of the above colours, and of these the most esteemed are the vivid eme- rald green and the orange yellow. When the stone possesses the latter of these colours, it is called the golden opal. "The precious opal is not quite so hard as rock crystal : it is frequently full of flaws ; which greatly contribute to its beauty, as the vivid iridescent colours which it displays are occasioned by the reflec- tion and refraction of light, which is decomposed at these fissures. It is nevercut in facets, but always hemispherical. It is generally small, rarely so large as an almond or haz^l nut, though 1 have seen some specimens the size of a small walnut, tor which several hundred pounds were demanded. At pre- sent, a pretty opal may be bought alfrom 1 to 3 or 5 guineas, sufficiently large for a pin or ring stone. It requires great care and judgment in the cutting, as it is fragile and easily spoiled. "The opal, in all ages, has been highly esteemed: the history of the Roman senator, who pre- ferred death rather than give up his opal ring to the Emperor Nero, is familiar to every one. Among the Eastern nations, the opal ranks higher than in Europe. "A spurious substance is sometimes sold for black and green opal, and often set in jewellery: it occurs of the size of a small almond, but more commonly not larger than a lentil or pea. This pre- cious gem is nothing more than the cartilage of the hinge of a large shell. Class, and even scoria, having an iridescent appearance, have also often been sold for opal." — (.Treatise on Diamonds, Sfc. 2d ed. pp. 123—125.) OPIUM (Ger. Mohnsaft ,- Fr. Opium ,- It. Oppio ,• Sp. and Port. Opio ,- Lat. Opium ,- Arab. Uft/oon,- Hind. Vfeem ,• Turk. l\Iadjoo7i), the concrete juice of the white poppy (Papaver somniferum), which is most probably a native of Asia, though now found grow- ing wild in the southern parts of Europe, and even in England. Opium is chiefly prepared in India, Turkey, and Persia ; but the white poppy is extensively cultivated in France, and other parts of Europe, on account of its capsules, and of the useful bland oil obtained from its seeds. It has also been cultivated, and opium made, in England ; but there is very little probability of its ever being raised here to any considerable extent. The poppy is an annual plant, with a stalk rising to the height of 3 or 4 feet; its leaves resemble those of the lettuce, and its flower has the appearance of a tulip. When at its full growth, an incision is made in the top of the plant, from which there issues a white milky juice, which soon hardens, and is scraped off the plants, and wrought into cakes. In India, these are covered with the petals of the plant to prevent their sticking together, and in this situation are dried, and packed in chests lined with hides and covered with gunny, each con- taining 40 cakes, and weighing 2 maunds or 149a lbs. ; they are exported in this state to the places where the opium is consumed. Turkey opium is in flat pieces, covered with leaves, and the reddish capsules of some species of rumex ; which is considered an indication of its goodness, as the inferior kinds have none of these capsules adhering to them. According to Dr. A. T. Thomson, Turkey opium has a peculiar, strong, heavy, narcotic odour, and a bitter taste, accompanied by a sensation of acrid beat, or biting, on the tongue and lips, if it be well chewed. Its colour when good is a reddish brown, or fawn colour; its texture compact and uniform. Its specific gravity is 1-336. When soft, it is tenacious; but when long exposed to the air, it becomes hard, breaks with a uniform shining fracture, is pulverulent, and affords a yellowish brown powder. East Indian opium has a strong empyreumatic smell ; but not much of the peculiar nar- cotic, heavy odour of the Turkey opium ; the taste is more bitter, and equally nauseous, but it has less acrimony. It agrees with the Turkey opium in other sensible qualities, except that its colour is blacker, and its texture less plastic, although it is as tenacious. Good Tur- key opium has been found to yield nearly 3 times the quantity of morphia, or of the peculiar principle of the drug, that is yielded by East Indian opium. Opium is regarded as bad, when it is very soft, greasy, light, friable, or of an intensely black colour, or mixed with many impurities. A weak or empyreumatic odour, a slightly OPIUM. 257 bitter or acrid, or a sweetish taste, or the power of marking a brown or black continuous streak when drawn across paper, are all symptoms of inferior. opium, — {Dispensatory.} The raising of opium La a very hazardous business; the poppy being a delicate plant, peculiarly liable to injury from insects, wind, hail, or unseasonable rain. The product seldom agrees with the true average, hut commonly runs in extremes; while one cultivator is dis- appointed, another reaps immense gain; one season does not pay the labour of the culture; another, peculiarly fortunate, enriches all the cultivators. This circumstance is well suited to allure man, ever confident of good fortune. — (Cokbrooke's Husbandry of Bengal, p. Hi).) In England, opium is little used, except as a medicine. In 1831 and 1832, the quan- tity entered for home consumption amounted, at an average, to 28,097 lbs. a year. The principal part of our supply is brought from Turkey. Opium from the latter was worth, in the London market, in December, 1833, 16,9. to 17s. per lb. The duty is 4s. Consumption and Trade of Opium in China. — Opium is pretty extensively used, both as a masticatory ami in smoking, in Turkey and India; but its great consumption is in China ami the surrounding countries, where tbe habit of smoking it lias become almost universal. The Chinese boil or seethe the crude opium ; ami by this process the impurities, resinous ami gummy matter, are separated, ami the remaining extract only is reserved for use. Thus prepared, the drug loses iis ordinary strong and Offensive aromatic odour, and has even a fragrant and agreeable perfume. A small hall of it inserted in a lame wooden pipe with some combustible matter, is lighted, and the amateur proceeds to inhale four or live wind's, when be lies down and resigns himself to his dreams, which are said to have no inconsiderable resemblance to the sensations produced by inhaling the oxide of azote; Those who do not carry the indulgence to excess, do not, it is said, experience any bad effects from it. The supplies for the Chinese market are derived from India and Turkey, but principally from the former. The government of China has issued edict upon edict, forbidding the importation and con- in of tlie druc. but without effect. Most part of the authorities openly connive at the pro- ceedings of the smugglers, while the few who might be desirous to enforce the law are wholly without the power; so that the trade is conducted with the greatest facility, and almost perfect security. It was at hist carried on at Whampoa, about 15 miles below (anion; next at Macao, whence it was driven by the exactions of the Portuguese; and now the principal entrepbt is in the bay of Linton. The opium is kept on board ships, commonly called receiving ships, of which there are often 10 or 19 lying together at anchor. The sales are mostly effected by the English and American agents in Canton, w ho <;ive orders for the delivery of the opium ; which, on producing the order, is handed over to the Chinese smuggler, who comes alongside at night to receive it. Frequently, however, the smuggler purchases the opium on his own account, paying for it on the spot in silver; it being a rule of the lever departed from, to receive the money before the drug is delivered. When it is landed, the laws are equally set at defiance in its conveyance throughout the country ; and public smoking houses are said to be every where established! The consumption of opium in China is rapidly extending. During the first 10 years of the present century, the exports from India to China were about 2,500 chests (of 1 19} lbs. each). In I821-22-, niter the introduction of Malwa opium into the markets of Calcutta and Bombay, the exports increased to 4,1 'is chests : ami, owing, no doubt, to the greatly increased supply and lower price of the article, the exports in 1831-32 exceeded 20,000 chests, worth above 13,000,000 dollars !— (See vol. i. p. 299.) The whole of this immense trade is in the hands of private individuals; the Company not choosing to in a business prohibited by the Chinese government. The imports of Turkey opium into China ed to amount at present to about 1,000 chests. Smyrna is the principal Turkish port for the export of opium. — (See Smyrna.) Cultivation of Opium in India. Monopoly. — The cultivation of opium in India is a government monopoly, and is confined to the provinces of Bahar* and Benares, and Malwa in Central India. Every one within the prescribed limits may engage in the opium cultivation; hut the drug, when pre- pared, must all be sold at a fixed price to the Company's agents. The price is very far below the price at which it is afterwards sold for exportation ; and the circumstance of its bping fixed and inadequate deprives the cultivators of most part of the favourable chances in the lottery previously alluded to by .Mr. Colebrooke. Indeed, Mr. C. distinctly tells us (Hash. Bengal, p. 118.) that, except in a few situations that are peculiarly favourable, its cultivation is unprofitable. The peasants engage in it with reluctance ; and are tempted only by the immediate advances the government agents are ■ \ to make to enable them to carry on the business. Tie monopoly has sometimes produced a net revenue of about 1,000,000£, a year. Latterly, how- ever, tin.- revenue b is been materially diminished. This has been occasioned, partly by the conquest of Malwa, and the impossibility of extending the same sort of monopoly into that province that was established in Bahar and Benares, and partly to the introduction of Turkey opium into the Chinese market by the Americans. The system umler which the Indian opium trade has been conducted, has been the theme of much eulogy, and lias been supposed to afford the only example of an unexceptionable monopoly I By con- fining i!n' cultivation of the plant to particular districts, and taking care that the whole produce raised In them shall lie exported, '.v e. prevent, it is said, the use of this deleterious drug from gaining ground in India; while the high price at which it is sold produces a large revenue to the Company's treasury. Jt is affirmed, too, that even the interests of the Chinese are consulted by the system; that they obtain the drug in a state of purity, which would otherwise be adulterated ; and that the high price they are obliged to pay for it merely acts as a wholesome restraint on their vicious pro- pensity to indulge in what is so very injurious. We doubt, however, whether there be much founda- tion for these eulogies. There can be no question that opium is a very excellent subject for taxation ; and the higher the duty can be raised on it, without encouraging smuggling,- the better. It is not, however, so clear, that, the monopolj system is the best way of accomplishing this; and, though the System bad been originally a a 1 one, it is no longer possible to enforce it. To imagine, indeed, licit the illicit cultivation of, and traffic in. opium can be prevented, now that it is raised in most parts of the extensive country of Malwa, is altogether ludicrous. As to the supposed influence of the monopoly in insuring the purity of the drug, it is sufficient to observe that .Malwa opium, which is produced under a comparatively free system, has been rapidly improving in its quality, and now very often fetches a higher price than the opium of Bahar and Benares, where the strictest surveillance is kept up. The latter, indeed, has sometimes been nearly unsaleable, from the careless way in which it has been prepared, and the extent to which it was adulterated.— (Crawfurd on the Monopoly of the East India Company, p. 55.) It is needless, however, to say more on this point, than that Turkish opium maintains, in respect of purity and careful preparation, a decidedly higher reputation than any produced in India.— [Thomson's Dispensatory.) * The opium of Bahar is known in commerce by the name of Patna opium. r2 23 258 OPIUM. We doubt, too, whether the use of opium, when taken in moderate quantities, be really so injurious as has been represented. That it may, like spirits and wine, be abused, is abundantly certain ; but it has not been shown that it is more liable to abuse than either of these articles. No one doubts that the Chinese, by whom it is principally consumed, are a highly industrious, sober, frugal people ; but though it were otherwise, we really do not see that the East India Company are warranted in sub- jecting a profitable article of cultivation in India to the fetters of monopoly, that the morals of the Chinese may be preserved! It is unnecessary, however, to dwell upon this view of the matter. The Turks and Americans have no scruples of this sort; and the only effect of the Company's attempting to force up the price of opium to an extravagant height, would be to throw a still greater proportion of the trade into the hands of their active competitors, to the great injury of the Indian cultivators. Neither must the interests of the cultivators in India be lost sight of, who are materially injured by the existing system. Even were it in other respects proper, their allowances are far too small. I poll the whole, therefore, we do not see any solid grounds for supposing that this monopoly forms an exception to the common rule ; and we agree with those who think that the better way would be to establish the same system, as to the trade in opium, that is established with respect to the >|rnit trade in this country ; that is, to allow every one to cultivate it upon taking out a license, and to lay an excise duty on the prepared article. Such a plan would put an end to some most oppressive regu- lations ; and while it would open a new source of wealth to the cultivators, the revenue derived by government would be materially augmented. Besides the works previously referred to, we have consulted, in compiling this article, Jlinslie's .Mat. Indica; Milburn's Orient. Com.; Bell's Revicic of the Commerce of Bengal; Kvidence on East Indian affair.*, before the Parliamentary Committee, in 1H30 and 1831, oj-r. i<. r li water; and it is seldom at anytime practicable for vessels drawing more than 16 feet. On the north side of the entrance is the castle of St. Joao de Foz, whence a ledge of une of which are at all times above water, extends in a south-west direction. The outermost of these rocks, named Filgueira, which is always visible, is left on the left or larboard side on enter- in::. Cabedelo Point, funning the southern extremity of the entrance, is low and sandy. The bar being liable, from the action of the tides, and of sudden swellings or freshes in the river, to perpetual alterations, it is exceedingly dangerous for any vessel to attempt crossing it without a pilot. Pilot3 are always on the alert, and ready to ofTer their services- when a vessel comes in sight, unless the weather be so bad that they cannot go off. On some few occasions of this sort, vessels have been detained for 3 weeks off the port, without having an opportunity of entering. The chapel of St. Catharine in a line with that of St. Michael leads over the bar. The ordinary rise of spring tides is from 10 to 12 fret, and of neaps from 6 to 8 feet. A light-house with a fixed light is erected on a hill about 600 yards .V N. W. of St. Joao de Foz. The swellings of the river, or freshes, as they are called, most commonly occur in spring, and are caused by heavy rams, and by the melting of the snow on the mountains. The rise of water at such times is frequently as much as 40 feet ; and the rapidity and force of the current are so very great, that no dependence can be placed on anchors in the stream. Fortunately, afresh never occurs with- out previous warning; and it is then the practice to moor with a cable made fast to trees, or stone pillars erected on the shore for that purpose.— (For further information as to the harbour of Oporto, see Mr. Purdy's valuable Sailing Directions fur the Bay of Biscay.) Trade. — Oporto is the emporium of a large portion of the kingdom of Portugal, and enjoys it pretty considerable foreign commerce. The well known red wine, denominated Port, from its being exclusively shipped at that city, forms by far the largest article of export. The exports vary in different years, from about 16,500 to above 40,000 pipes. England is much the largest consumer of port. The high discriminating duties on French wine origin- ally obtained for it a preference in the British market, to which, though an excellent wine, it had no natural claim ; and its long continued use has so confirmed the taste for it, that it is probable it will maintain its ascendancy notwithstanding the late equalisation of the du- ties. At an average of the 10 years ending with 1833, there were shipped from Oporto for England 22,121 pipes a year; but exclusive of the port shipped from Oporto, a considerable quantity of red wine is now brought from Figueira. Next to England, Brazil, Russia, and 260 ORANGES, ORCHILLA WEED. the north of Europe in general, are the principal consumers of port. The other exports are oil, Oranges, and other fruits, wool, refined sugar, cream of tartar, shumac, leather, cork, &c. The imports are corn, rice, beef, salt fish, and other articles of provision ; sugar, coffee, &c. from Brazil; cotton, and woollen goods, hardware, tin plates, &c. from England; hemp, flax, and deals, from the Baltic, &c. ( tie British manufactured goods imported into Portugal for the use of the natives, a con- siderable quantity is destined for the consumption of Spain ; being smuggled into that country through Br/igan/.a and other towns on the frontier. Monies, Weights, and Measures same as those of Lisbon ; which see. We subjoin an account, obtained from the Portuguese Custom-house, of the wine shipped from Oporto during the 10 years ending with 1N33. Account of the Quantities of Wine exported from Oporto during the Ten Years down to 1833 inclu- sive, specifying the Countries to which they were sent, and the Quantities sent to each. Countries. 1933. 1S32. 1S-3I. 1!>30. 1829. 1828. IS27. 1826. 1825. 1824. Brazil - - pipes 131 434 824 3,563 6,212 9,585 7,410 61 35 Denmark 28 100 13 68 8S 57. 53 11 13 43 1 America 418 Gibraltar and Spain 37 2 10 5 16 42 Hamburgh 218 771 1,446 375 286 1,600 1 525 12 33 72 Holland • 51 48 51 12 82 31 123 9 41 89 The Az->res 1 4 2 1 1 26 2 3 1 Great Britain 19,432 13,573 20,171 19,333 17.S32 27,932 24,207 18,310 40,277 9,968 Italy 3 1 3 4 42 13 4 5 2 P.irts in Portugal 3 306 Russia - 54 209 145 86 22 129 52 138 Newfoundland - 84 13 85 76 170 130 21 1 22 7 Sweden - 226 433 311 300 225 231 8 23 Ports iu the Baltic 6 3 11 India - 1 1 2 120 Cape Verd Islands 2 1 39 2 4 7 5 238 3 13 71 South America - 858 206 327 361 1,367 337 143 5 5,340 Guernsey and Jersey 73 99 38 24 31 Ships' stores Total S 4 2 3 5 26,117 20,495 16,530 23.439 24,165 25,371 41,227 34,237 1S,=,97 40,447 JV. B. — It was not till 1826, that the exclusive privilege possessed by the Oporto Wine Company, ot shipping wine for Brazil, was put an end, to, previously to which period the shipments for that country were not given. It is hardly possible to form any estimate of the value of the wine shipped from Oporto ; the price varying from 51. to 50?. per hogshead. The export duty on wine approved for exportation, (nvhn d'embarque), is about 00 500rs. per pipe, or, at the present (January 1834) rate of exchange, 11. 9s. a pipe. Separated wine (vinho separado) is not generally allowed to be exported ; but at present it may be shipped on paying 18@ 500rs. more, or 51. 9s. Id. a pipe. The other expenses are trilling. Freight to this country varies from 11. to 11. lis. 6d. per pipe. — (For an account of the Oporto Wine Company, see Wise.) Sometimes wine is purchased from the farmer in the wine country. In this case, the casks are sent about 60 miles up the river, in boats, to be filled. Owing to the miserable stale of the roads, the expense of carriage is very considerable ; the cartage from and to the riverside frequently costing from 11. to 2/. per pipe. The freight from the upper country down the river to Oporto is about equal to that from the latter to England. There is also an internal duty of about 1/. 2.v. per pipe on all wine brought down the river. Inasmuch, however, as these charges are perpetually varying, it is not possible to lay before the reader any pro formal account of the cost of wine bought in the Upper Douro. The Oporto Wine Company have the monopoly of the brandy as well as of the wine trade of the Douro. The consequence is, that brandy costs at this moment, at Oporto, about 261. per pipe ; while equally good brandy may be bought in Lisbon, and much better in Cognac, fur about 1W. per pipe ! The abolition of this company would certainly be one of the most desirable reforms that could be accomplished, even in Portugal. — (Private information.) ORANGES (Ger. Pomeranzen ,■ Du. Orangen ,- Fr. Oranges,- It. Melarance ; Sp. Naranjas ; Rus. Pomeranezii ,• Hind. Narunge ,• Malay, Simcib^rncmis), the fruit of the orange tree. The common, or sweet orange {Citrus sinensis, or Citrus nobilis), and the Seville, or bitter orange {Citrus aurantium), are natives of China ; and the Portuguese are entitled to the honour of having transferred the plant to other countries. Particular species of < 'ilrus seem to be indigenous to various Eastern countries ; but the birth-place of the proper orange may be distinctly traced to China. It is now to be found in our green-houses. Oranges are imported in chests and boxes, packed separately in paper. The best come from the Azores and Spain; very good ones are also brought from Portugal, Italy, Malta, and other places. The orange trade carried on by this country is of considerable value and importance. Oranges are not much more expensive than most of our superior domestic fruits, while they are, perhaps, tl refreshing and wholesome of those of warmer climates. Tl ritries for home consumption in 1831 and 1832 amounted, at an average, to 270,606 boxes a year; and assuming each box to contain Too oranges anil I en ions, t be number entered for con sumption will have been 1 NO, 121,000 ! The duty pro- duced, at an average; of the above years, 61,036/. a year. The number of persons employed in the importation and Bale of oranges must be very considerable, 'the policy of charging any duty on Oranges seems questionable. They are very apt to spoil ; and as no abatement is made from the duty on account of any damage, its influence on their price is much more considerable than might at first be suppo i 'I ORCHTLLA WEED, ORCHELLA, or ARCHIL (Ger. Orseilk; Fr. Orseille ; It. Oricello, Orcella,- Sp. Orc!iilla),& whitish lichen (Lichen orcella) found in the Isle of Portland ; but that which is used, is imported from the Canary and Cape de Verd Islands, Barbary, and the Levant. From it is obtained the archil, or orchal, of commerce, which ORGOL— OWNERS OF SHIPS. 261 yields a rich purple tincture, fugitive, indeed, but extremely beautiful. The preparation of orchilla was long a secret, known only to the Florentines and Hollanders; but it us now ex- tensively manufactured in this country. Archil is generally sold in the form of cakes, but sometimes in that of moist pulp; it is extensively used by dyers; and in times ot scarcity, the weed or lichen has sold as high as 1,000/, per ton I— (Thomsons Dispensatory.) At Dment (January, 1834), Canary orchilla fetches, in the London market, 320/. a ton, While that which is brought from Madeira fetches only 200/., and Barbary not more than from Id/, to -•")/. The total quantity imported in 1829 amounted to 1,813 cwt, or 90J ORGOL. See Ain.or.. . ORPIMENT (Ger. Operment ,■ Fr. Orpiment ; It. Qrpimento ; Sp. Oropimente ,- Lat. Auripigmentum), the name usually given to sulphuret of arsenic. When artificially prepared, it is in the form of a line yellow-coloured powder ; but it is found native in many parts of the world, particularly in Bohemia, Turkey, China, and Ava. It is exported from the last two in considerable quantities ; and is know in the East by the name of hartal. Native orpiment is composed of thin plates of a lively gold colour, intermixed with pieces of B vermilion red, of a shattery foliaceous texture, flexible, soft to the touch like talc, and sparkling when broken. Specific gravity 3-45. The inferior kinds are of a dead yellow, inclining to green, and want the bright appearance of the best specimens. Its principal use colouring drug among painters, bookbinders, &c. — (Thomson's Chemistry; Mil- burn's Orient. Com.) ORSEDEW, ORSIDUE, MANHEIM on DUTCH GOLD (Ger. FUttergold; Du. Klatergoud; Fr. Oripeau, Oliquant ,- It. Orpello ,- Sp. Oropel),an inferior sort of gold leaf, prepared of copper and zinc. It is sometimes called leaf brass. It is principally manu- factured in Manheim. OSTRICH FEATHERS. See Feathers. OWNERS OF SHIPS. Property in ships is acquired, like other personal property, by fabricating them, or by inheritance, purchase, &c. No ship is entitled to any of the privileges of a British ship until she be duly registered as such, and all the provisions in the Registry Act (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 55.) be complied with. — (See Registry.) A British ship may belong either to one individual or to several individuals. It is ordered by the act just cited, that the property of every vessel of which there are more owners than one, shall lie divided into 64th shares; and that no person shall be entitled to be registered as an owner who does not, at least, hold one 64th share. It is further provided by the same statute, that not more than thirty-two persons shall be owners of any one ship at any one time. Companies or associations holding property in ships, may choose three of their members to act as trustees for them. Neither the property of an entire ship, nor any share or shares in such ship, can be trans- ferred from one individual to another, except by bill of sale or other instrument in writing; and before the sale is valid, such bill or instrument must be produced to the collector and comptroller, who are to enter the names, residences, &c. of the seller and buyer, the number of sh ires sold, &c. in the book of registry of such vessel, and to indorse the particulars on the certificate of registry. — (See the clause in the statute, art. Registry.) But, though compliance with the directions in the statute accomplishes a complete trans- ference of the property, when the transaction is not in its nature illegal, it gives no sort of security to a transference that is otherwise bad. The purchaser should in all cases endea- vour to get possession of the ship, or of his share in her, as soon as his title to her or it is acquired, by the registration of the particulars of the bill of sale ; for though all the for- malities of sale have been completed, yet, if the sellers continue as apparent owners in pos- session of the ship, their creditors may, in the event of their becoming bankrupt, acquire a right to it, to the exclusion of the purchasers. In the case of a sale or agreement for a part only, it is enough if, the sale being completed, the seller ceases to act as a part owner. — (Lord Tenterden on the Low of Shipping, part i. c. 1.) Property in ships is sometimes acquired by capture. During war, his Majesty's ships, and private ships having letters of marque, are entitled to make prizes. But before the cap- tors acquire a legal title to such prizes, it is necessary that they should be condemned in the Admiralty or other court constituted for that purpose. When this is done, the captors are considered to be in the same situation, with respect to them, as if they had built or pur- chased them. The act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 55. has ruled, that no person having the transfer of a ship, or a share of a ship, made over to him as a security for a debt, shall be deemed an owner, or part owner, of such ship. And wdien such transfer has been duly registered according to the pro- visions of the act, the right and interest of the mortgagee are not to be affected by the bank- ruptcy of the mortgagor, though he be the reputed owner, or part owner, of such ship. — (Seo Registry.) In the article Masters of Ships is given an account of the liabilities incurred by the 262 OYSTER. owners of ships for the acts of the masters. But it has been attempted to encourage naviga- tion by limiting the responsibility of the owners, without, however, depriving the freighter of a ship of an adequate security for the faithful performance of the contract. To effect this desirable object, it has been enacted, that the owner or owners shall net be liable to make good any loss or damage happening without their fault or privity, to any goods put on board any ship or vessel belonging to such owner or owners, further than the value of such ship or vessel, with all its appurtenances, and the freight due, or growing due, during the voyage that may be in prosecution, or contracted for, at the time when the loss or damage has taken place. — (53 Geo. 3. c. 159.) This limitation was first introduced into our law by the 7 Geo. 2. c. 15. But it had pre- viously been adopted in the law of Holland, and in the justly celebrated French Ordinance of 1681. In the Ordinance of Rotterdam, issued in 1721, it is expressly declared, that "the owners shall not be answerable for any act of the master, done without their order, any further than their part of the ship amounts to." Independently, however, of this general agreement, the expediency of the limitation appears, for the reasons already stated, sufficiently obvious. It was also enacted in 1786 (26 Geo. 3. c. 60.), that neither the master nor owners of any ship or vessel shall be liable to answer for or make good any gold or silver, diamonds, watches, jewels, or precious stones, lost or embezzled during the course of the voyage, unless the ship- per thereof insert in his bill of lading, or declare in writing to the master or owners, the true nature, quality, and value of such articles. The responsibility, at common law, of a master or mariner is not affected by the first- mentioned limitation, even though such master or mariner be owner or part owner of the vessel ; neither does the limitation extend to the owner or owners of any lighter, barge, boat, &c. used solely in rivers or inland navigation, nor to any ship or vessel not duly registered according to law. When several freighters sustain losses exceeding in the whole the value of the ship and freight, they are to receive compensation thereout in proportion to their respective losses : and any one freighter, on behalf of himself and the other freighters, or any part owner, on behalf of himself and the other part owners, may file a bill in a court of equity for the dis- covery of the total amount of the losses, and of the value of the ship, and for an equal distri- bution and payment. If the bill be filed by or on behalf of the part owners, the plaintiff mast make affidavit that he does not collude with the defendants, and must offer to pay the value of the ship and freight, as the court shall direct. It is usual in most countries, where the part owners of a ship disagree as to her employ- ment, to give those possessed of the greater number of shares power to bind the whole. But in this country, while the majority of the owners in value have authority to employ the ship as they please, the interests of the minority are secured from being prejudiced by having their property engaged in an adventure of which they disapprove. For this purpose the Court of Admiralty has been in the practice of taking a stipulation from those who desire to send the ship on a voyage, in a sum equal to the value of the shares of those who object to it, either to bring back and restore to them the ship, or to pay them the value of their shares. When this is done, the dissentient part owners bear no portion of the expenses of the outfit, are not entitled to a share in the profits of the voyage ; the ship sails wholly at the charge and risk and for the profit, of the others. — {Abbott, part i. c. 3.) For the statutory enactments as to the sale and transfer of ships, see Registiit. OYSTER, OYSTERS (Ger. Austern ; Fr. Huitres ,■ It. Ostriche ,■ Sp. Ostras ,- Lat. Ostrese). This well known shell-fish is very generally diffused, and is particularly plentiful on the British coasts, which were ransacked for the supply of ancient Rome with oysters. They differ in quality according to the different nature of the soil or bed. The best British oysters arc found at b'urfleet ; the worst, near Liverpool. The nursing and feeding of oysters is almost exclusively carried on at Colchester, and other places in Essex. The oysters are brought from the coast of Hampshire, Dorset, and other maritime counties, even as far as Scotland, and laid on beds or layings in creeks along the shore, where they grow, in 2 or 3 years, to a considerable size, and have their flavour improved. There are said to be about 200 vessels, from 12 to 40 or 50 tons burden, immediately employed in dredging for oysters, having from 400 to 500 men and boys attached to them. The quantity of oysters bred and taken in Essex, and consumed mostly in London, is supposed to amount to 14,000 or 15,000 bushels a year. — {Supp. to Enctf. Brit. art. Fisheries.) The imports of oysters fluctuate very much. From 1824 to 1828, both inclusive, none were imported. But, at an average of 1831 and 1832, the imports amounted to 52,095 bushels a year. The Stealing of oysters, or oyster lirood, from any oyFter bed, laying, or fishery, is larceny, and the offender, being convicted thereof, shall be punished accordingly; and if any person shall unlawfully and wilfully use any dredge, net, &c. for the purpose of taking oysters, or oyster brood, within the limits of an oyster bed or fishery, every such person shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon being convicted thereof, snail be punished by fine or imprisoi at, or both, as the court may award; such fine not to exceed 201., and sin h imprisonment not to exceed 3 calendar months. It is provided, thai nothing in the acl shall i e construed as preventing any one from catching fli within the limits of any oyster fishery, with any net, instrument, or engine adapted to the' catching of tucli fish.— (7 U. b Geo. 4. c. 2'J. $ 30.) PACKAG I-:— PALERMO. 263 P. PACKAGE, SC.W A.GE, BAILLAGE, and PORTAGE, were duties charged in the purl of London, on the goods imported and exported by aliens, or by denizens being the sons ol" aliens. During the dark a?es, it was usual to lay higher duties upon the goods imported or cx- >, aliens, whether in British or foreign ships, than were laid on similar goods when imported or exported by natives. But according as sounder and more enlarged principles prevailed, this illiberal distinction was gradually modified, and was at length wholly abolished, ;it [east as it was of a public character, by the 24 Geo. 3. c. 16. This act, after recit- ing tli:il " the several duties anil restrictions imposed by various acts of parliament upon mer- chandise are. by the alterations of the trade now carried on between this kingdom and foreign states, in some eases become an unnecessary burden upon commerce, without producing any real advantage to the public revenue, and that it is expedient they should no longer continue," enacts, that the duty commonly called " the petty customs," imposed by the 12 Car. 2., and all other additional duties imposed by any act upon the goods of aliens above those payable by natural-born subjects, should be no longer payable. The act then goes on to provide, that nothing contained in it shall " alter the duties due and payable upon goods imported into or exported from this kingdom in imy foreign ship, nor the duties of package, and scavage, or any duties granted by charter to the city of London ;'' and then follow provisions to prevent the city being defrauded of such duties by false entries of aliens' goods in the name of a British subject. — {Chilhfs Commercial Laic, vol. i. p. 160.) The duties thus preserved to the city were not very heavy: but the principle on which they were imposed was exceedingly objectionable, and their collection was attended with a great deal of trouble and inconvenience. Not being levied in other places, they operated to the prejudice of the trade of the metropolis. For these reasons, we observed, in the former edition of this work, that "if the funds of the corporation will not admit of their following the liberal example of the legislature, by voluntarily abandoning this vexatious impost, it would be good policy to give them a compensation for relinquishing it." And we are glad to have to state this suggestion has since been carried into effect. The act 3 & 4 Will. 4, c. 66. authorised the Lords of the Treasury to purchase up the duties in question from the city. This has been done, at an expense of about 140,000/., and the duties are now abolished. There is a Table of the duties in the former edition of this work. PACKETS. See New York, Passexoehs, and Post-office. PALERMO (anciently Paxomius), a large city and sea-port, the capital of the noble island of Sicily, on the north coast of which it is situated, the light-house being in lat. 38° 8' 15" N., Ion. 13° 21' 56" E. Population, 170,000. The bay of Palermo is about 5 miles in depth, the city being situated on its south-west shore. A fine mole, fully i of a mile in length, Ikiv inix a light-house and battery at its extremity, projects in a south- erly direction from tbe arsenal into '.) or 10 fathoms water, forming a convenient port, capable of con- taining' a great number of vessels. This immense work cost about 1,000,0007. sterling in its construe - tion ; Imt tbe light -bouse, though a splendid structure, is said to be very ill lighted. There is an innej port, which is reserved for the use of the arsenal. Ships that do not mean to go within the mole may anchor about !. a mile from it, in from 10 to 23 fathoms, the mole light bearing N.W. $ W. A heavy sea sometimes rolls into the bay, but no danger need be apprehended by ships properly found in anchors and chain cables. In going into tbe bay, it is necessary to keep clear of the nets of the tunny fishery, for these are so strong and well moored, as to be capable of arresting a ship under sail. — (Smyth' Siririj. p. ?D. and jSppen. p. ■!.) -Since 1818, the coins of Sicily have been the same as those of Naples, their names onlv differing —(See Naples.) The ducat, =3*. 52d. sterling, is subdivided into 100 ftojoccAiand lOpiccioti": but ii nts are still generally kept in oncie, tari, and grani : 20 grani = 1 taro ; 30 tari = 1 oncia. The oncia = 3 ducats; and 1 carlino of Naples = 1 taro of Sicily. The Spanish dollar is current at 12 tari S grani. •.— These are the cantaro grosso, subdivided into 100 rottoli grossi of 33 onzie, or into 110 rot- toli soiiili of 30 oncie; and the cantaro sotlile, subdivided into 100 rottoli sottili of 30 oncie, or 250 lbs of 12 oncie. The roitolo of 33 ounces = 193 lbs. avoirdupois = 234 lbs. Troy = 873 hectogrammes = 1-77 lbs. of Amsterdam = 18 lbs. of Hamburgh. The rottolo of 30 ounces = 175 lbs. avoirdupois — 213 lbs Troy = 7'.H hectogrammes = 1'6 lbs. of Amsterdam = 161 lbs. of Hamburgh. 100 Sicilian pounds of 12 ounces = 70 lbs. avoirdupois = 8511 lbs. Troy = 3176 kilog. = 6423 lbs of Amsterdam = 6.V58 lbs. of Hamburgh. Mi uii -cs.— The eolma grnssa = 948 Winch, bush. : the salma generate = 7'62 Winch, bush. The principal liquid measure is the tonna, divided into 4 barili, each equivalent to UJ wine gallons. 1 barile = 2 quartare ; 1 quartara = 20 quartucci. The caftiso of oil = 4| Eng. gallons. The yard or carina = 8 palmi ; 2^ palms = 1 yard Eng.—(J\Telkcnbrecher ; Smyth, p. 62 App.) Tares.— CofTee, indigo, pepper, and dye woods, 2 per cent, and weight of package. Cinnamon, 6 rot- toli per seron, with 1 wrapper, or 8 rottoli, with 2 wrappers ; cocoa, 2 per cent., weight of package, a ml S per cent, for dust; cod-fish, 3 per cent. ; herrings, 12 per cent. ; tin, 13 rottoli per barrel ; was, f package, and 3 to 4 per cent, extra allowance ; Havannah sugars, 10 per cent. ; Brazil do., in short cases, 18 per cent., anil in long cases, 20 per cent. ; crushed sugar, weight of cask, and 5 per cent., or 13 per cent, in all, at the option of the buyer j East India do., in bags, 8 rot. to 10 rot. per bag. 1 rotolo taken as weight of bag, for coffee and cocoa in bags. Charges on Goods.— The regular charges on the sale of goods consigned to Palermo, are— commis- sion, 3 per cent. ; brokerage, i per cent. ; warehouse rent, | per cent. ; and porterage and boat hire ; with 2 per cent, del credere,— imports being almost always sold on credit. The charges may occasiot 284 PALERMO. ally vary J to 1 per cent., and imports are frequently sold duty paid ; the prices, however, so obtained, fully compensate for the trifling increase of charges. The charges on goods exported are— 3 per cent, commission ; brokerage, so much per cant aro salvia, &c, generally amounting to about $ per cent., except on fruit, on which it is equivalent to from 2 to 3 per cent. Imparls and Exports. — The great articles of export from Sicily are— grain, particularly wheat and barley ; beans, wine, brandy, oil, barilla, lemons and oranges, lemon juice, almonds, salt, shumac, salt-fish, cheese, with brimstone, argol, manna, liquorice, pumice stone, rags, skins, honey, cotton wool, nuts, linseed, saffron, &c. Wheat is largely exported. It is of a mixed quality, hard, and is generally sold from the public magazines, or caricatori (see post), by measure, without weight. But the best hard wheat, grown in the neighbourhood of Palermo, is sold by the salina of 272 rottoli = 4761bs. Eng. ; the difference between weight and measure being made good by the seller or buyer, as the case may be. Wine is principally shipped from Marsala; lemons, oranges, and lemon juice, from Messina ; salt, from Trapani ; and barilla, from the southern coast. Cut all the articles to be found on the coast may, for the most part, be had at Palermo; unless, however, the quantity required be small, it is usually best to ship them from the outports, the expense of their conveyance to Palermo being very heavy. The crops of barilla and shumac come to market in August; but brimstone, salt, oil, wine, rrigs, &.c. may generally be had all the year round. The first shipments of lemons and oranges may be made in the beginning of November. Purchases of produce are always paid for in cash, generally i on making the purchase, and the other i on delivery, when in Palermo, and on receiving order for delivery, on the coast. The imports consist of sugar, coffee, cocoa, indigo, dye woods, spices, iron, tin, hides, Newfound- land cod, cotton and woollen stuffs, timber for building, &c. We have no means of forming any esti- mate either of the quantity or the value of the principal articles of import and export. Silk is a staple produce of the island ; but its exportation in an unwrought state, except to Naples, is prohibited. — (We have gleaned these details principally from private communications. The best account of the trade of Sicily, though now a little antiquated, that we have met with in any English work, is contained in Sicinbume's Travels in the Two Sicilies, 4to ed. vol. ii. pp. 401—413. See also the article Naples in this work.) Remarks on the Trade, Src. of Sicily. — This noble island contains about 10,500 square miles, being the largest in the Mediterranean, and one of the raostfertile and best situated in the world. Its population is about 1,900,000. In ancient times, Sicily was celebrated for the number, magnitude, and opulence of its cities ; and, notwithstanding its population was then, at least, treble its present amount, it obtained, from its furnishing vast supplies of corn and other articles of provision for the use of Rome, the appropriate epithet of horreum Roman- orum. When the Roman power had been overthrown, Sicily was occupied, first by the Saracens, then by the Normans, and after them by the French. The Sicilian Vespers put a fatal period to the dominion of the latter ; and a prince of the house of Aragon having been called to the Sicilian throne, the island became, in course of time, a dependency, first of the crown of Spain, and more recently of that of Naples. It is to this dependence that we are induced to ascribe the backward state of Sicily. The multiplied abuses which grew up in Spain, under Ferdinand the Catholic, and his successors of the Austrian line, flourished with equal luxuriance in Sicily, and have proved no less de- structive of the industry and civilisation of its inhabitants than of those of Spain. The Bourbon or Neapolitan regime has been equally pernicious. "The government of this island," says a recent and most intelligent observer, " seems to unite in itself nearly all the defects, both theoretical and practical, of which political institutions are susceptible. It is a model in its way. We find here a system of laws quite barbarous, and the administration of them notoriously corrupt; high taxes, levied arbitrarily and unequally ; the land generally held on such a tenure as makes it unalienable, so that few can ever be proprietors; and farm- ing leases, for church land at least, are binding on the farmer only, and not on his landlord. For want of roads, produce cannot be exported from one part of the island to another; the consequence of which is, that a scarcity and a glut may and frequently do exist at the same time in different parts of the island, without the means of timely and effectual communica- tion." — {Simond's Italy and Sicily, p. 529.) But the grand curse of Sicilian, as well as of Sardinian, industry — (see Cagliari) — is the restriction on the exportation of corn. It is true that the difficulties in this respect are not so great now as formerly, but they are still such as to oppose an invincible obstacle to the spread of improvement, and to the develope- ment of the national resources. No exportation of corn can take place without leave of the real patrimonii!, — a tribunal that pretends to take a yearly account of the crop, and of the supply required to meet the home demand. When this body has determined that an exportation may take place, it issues (or rather, we believe, sells) its licences to export certain specific quantities, to a few favoured individuals*, who, in consequence, are able to regulate the price ; so that they, and not the corn growers, reap all the advantage ! Thus, says M. Simond, " neither scanty nor plentiful crops affording a chance of gain, farmers are dis- couraged, and corn is frequently scarce in a country once the granary of Imperial Rome, although its own population be now reduced to l-6th of what it was at that period.f Such is the system of minute and vexatious regulations, that a man cannot go in or out of town with a loaf of bread or a joint of meat without special permission. The revenue laws in England are sufficiently vexatious, but they at least answer their fiscal purpose. Here the •The late Queen is said to have been a great dealer in corn on her own account ! t We cannot help looking upon this as an exaggeration. There do not seem to be any good grounds or thinking that Sicily ever contained more than 6,000,000 inhabitants,— that is, a little more than 3 Jin s as many as at present. PALM OIL— PAPER. 205 vexation is gratuitous ; for little or nothing comes of it ultimately, drained as the little sources of revenue are, in their way to the treasury, by malpractices of all sorts." — (p. 530.) There are only certain ports from which corn can be exported. This limitation has given rise to the establishment of public magazines or caricatori, where the corn may be deposited till an opportunity occurs of shipping it oil*. Provided it he of good quality {mercantibik or rea tibile), and provided it he brought in immediately after harvest, or, at farthest, in August, it is warehoused free of expense ; what it gains in bulk after that period (about. 5 per cent.) being sufficient to defray all expenses. The receipt of the curicator, or keeper of the maga- zine, is negotiable like a bill of exchange, and is the object of speculative purchases on the exchange at Palermo, Messina, &c.-according to the expected rise or fall in the price of corn. The depositor of a quantity sells it in such portions as he pleases, the whole being faithfully accounted for. The public magazines, in some parts of the island, are either excavations into calcareous rocks, or holes in the ground shaped like a bottle, walled up, and made water- proof, containing each about 200 salrne of corn, or about 1,600 English bushels. The neck of the bottle is hermetically closed with a stone fastened with gypsum. Corn may be thus preserved for an indefinite length of time ; at least, it has been found in perfectly good order after the lapse of a century. — (Simond, p. 540. ; Swinburne, vol. ii.p. 405. For an account of the oil caricatori of Naples, see Olive Oil.) Hemp grows very well in Sicily ; and when the English were there, their ships were abundantly supplied with that article ; but its exportation being no longer permitted, its cul- ture is now, of course, neglected ! — (Simond, p. 539.) Sugar canes were, at one time, pretty extensively cultivated in Sicily ; but their culture has been long declining, and is now nearly extinct. Were the bounty of nature towards Sicily not counteracted by vicious laws and institutions, she would undoubtedly be one of the richest and finest of European countries. All that she requires is security of property and freedom of industry. Let but these be given to her, and a few years will develope her gigantic resources, and elevate Girgenti, Termini, and Sciacca, to a very high rank among corn-shipping ports. PALM OIL (Ger. Palmol ,■ Ft. Huile depalme, Huilede Senegal ,- It. Olio dipalma ,- Sp. Accite de pa/ma) is obtained from the fruit of several species of palms, but especially from that of the Elais Guineensis, growing on the west coast of Africa, to the south of Fer- nando Po, and in Brazil. When imported, the oil is about- the consistence of butter, of a yellowish colour, and scarcely any particular taste : by long keeping it becomes rancid ; loses its colour, which fades to a dirty white ; and in this state is to be rejected. It is sometimes imitated with hog's lard, coloured with turmeric, and scented with Florentine iris root. The inhabitants of the coast of Guinea employ palm oil for the same purposes that we do butter. — (Lewis's Mat. Med. ,- Thomson's Dispensatory.) Account of the Quantities of Palm Oil entered for Home Consumption in the United Kingdom, the Amount of Duty received thereon, and the Rate of Duty, each Year since 1821. Quantities entered for Home Con- sumption. Hates of Duty charged. Quantities entered for Home Con- sumption. Rates of Duty 1821 1S23 1S24 isr> 1826 !■„■(. 100,059 69,837 73,666 74,624 84,998 94,268 12,289 11 8,429 9 9,045 5 9,373 2 10,632 17 11,783 10 Per Cwt. 2s. 6d. ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto 1827 1828 1829 1830 JS31 1832 Cwt. 98,070 120,599 175,393 179,658 175.452 220.32S L. s. d. 12,356 10 4 16,084 15 8 21,952 5 22,468 6 1 21,932 27,542 Per Cwt. 2$. 6rf. ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto The price of palm oil (duty paid) varies from 33/. to 34/. a ton. Almost all the palm oil made use of in this country is brought from the western coast of Africa, south of the Rio Volta. PAMPHLET, a small book, usually printed in the octavo form, and stitched. It is enacted by 10 Ann. c. 19. { 113., that no person shall sell, or expose to sale, any pamphlet, with- out the name and place of abode of some known person, by or for whom it was printed or published, written or printed thereon, under penalty of 20/. and costs. It is enacted by the 55 Geo. 3. c. 185., that every book containing 1 whole sheet, and! not exceeding 8 sheets, in 8vo, or any lesser size ; or not exceeding 12 sheets in 4to, or 20 sheets in folio, shall be deemed a pamphlet. The same act imposed a duty of 3s. upon each sheet of one copy of all pamphlets published. This duty, which was at once vexatious and unproductive, hardly ever yielding more than 1,000?. or 1,100/. a year, was repealed in 1833. PAPER (Ger. and Du. Papier,- Fr. Papier ,■ It. Carta; Sp. Papcl; Rus. Bumaga,- Lat. Charta; Arab. Kartas ,- Pers. Kaghas). This highly useful substance is, as every one knows, thin, flexible, of different colours, but most commonly white, being used for writing and printing upon, and for various other purposes. It is manufactured of vegetable matter reduced to a sort of pulp. The term paper is derived from the Greek sraa-fyor (papyrus, see post), the leaves of a plant on which the ancients used to write. Paper is made up into sheets, quires, and reams,- each quire consisting of 24 sheets, and each ream of 20 quires. Historical Sketch of Paper. Difference between ancient and modern Paper. — It has often been a subject of wonder with those learned and ingenious persons who have written Vol. II.— Z 34 266 PAPER. concerning the arts of the ancient world, that the Greeks and Romans, although they pos- sessed a prodigious number of books, and approached very near to printing in the stamping words and letters, and similar devices, should not have fallen upon the art; the first rude attempts at typography being sufficiently obvious, though much time and contrivance have been reepjired to bring the process to the perfection in which it now prevails. They ought rather, perhaps, to have wondered that the more civilised nations of antiquity did not invent paper, which must precede the invention of printing, as may be easily shown. The rocks, pillars of stone or of marble, and especially the walls of edifices, supply fixed surfaces, upon which, were we unprovided with more convenient tablets, much valuable information might be preserved ; and were all our public and many of our private buildings thickly covered with inscriptions, the memory of divers historical facts, and other matters of importance, might be handed down to posterity. Men wrote thus in very remote ages ; and the old usage is still retained in many instances, particularly in our churches and cemeteries. In very remote ages, also, we read that they were accustomed to write upon portable surfaces of various kinds: and if it were possible to deprive us of our ordinary means of fixing and communi- cating our thoughts, modern ingenuity would speedily reinvent numerous expedients which have long been superseded ; and we should have recourse to plates of metal of various dimensions, sometimes, probably, as thin as foil ; to slices of soft, light wood, not thicker than those of which band-boxes are sometimes made ; to cloth, leather, and the like. These materials would often be primed like the canvass of painters, that they might more readily receive, and more plainly show, the ink or paint that formed the characters. It is evident that, in the course of time, large libraries might be gradually composed of books constructed in this manner; and the whole amount of human learning might still be very considerable. The substances which we have enumerated are all somewhat costly : it would be desirable, therefore, to find one that was cheaper; and we should doubtless direct our attention very early to that which has served the office of paper in all times, and is used as such in some countries of the East at this day, — we mean the leaves of trees. Some of the palms, and other vegetables, that are natives of hot countries, furnish the Orientals with books that are not incommodious : the leaves of the indigenous plants of Great Britain are not so well suited for the purpose; but by care in the selection and skill in the preparation, some might certainly be chosen, which would, in some degree, be fit to receive writing. Leaves, when they are dry, are apt to split in the direction of the fibres; it has commonly been found ex- pedient, therefore, to glue others at the back in an opposite direction ; and by thus crossing the fibres at right angles, the texture is strengthened ; and when it has been pressed and polished, the page is less unseemly and inconvenient than might have been supposed. Such, in the main, was the structure of the ancient paper. In Sicily, and in other countries on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, but principally in Egypt and in the Nile, or rather in the ponds and ditches that communicate with that river, grows, in the nineteenth century after the death of the last of the Ptolemies, as of old under that illustrious dynasty, and under their predecessors the Pharaohs, a lofty and most stately reed or rush, the Cyperus Papyrus of modern botanists. It has been introduced into the hot-houses of some of our botanical gardens, where it may be seen conspicuous with its long, drooping, and graceful plume. A description of the various purposes to which the ancients applied this useful plant, would fill a volume ; we shall speak of that only from which it has earned an immortality of renown. The inner bark was divided with a needle into very thin coats ; these were placed side by side longitudinally, and the edges were glued together; similar layers were glued across these behind, at right angles, to give the page the requisite strength ; and the sheets were pressed, dried, polished, and otherwise prepared for use. Ancient writers have described the process, and especially Pliny, {Hist. Nat. lib. xiii. c. 11, 12, 13.). From that naturalist, and the notes of Hardoum and his other commentators, it may be fully traced ; and Mr. Bruce has collected the authorities, and has added his own observations, in the 7th vol. of the 8vo edi- tion of his Travels. That remarkable person even attempted to make paper from the papy- rus; in which, however, he was not very successful ; and he imputes his failure to the erro- neous directions of Pliny ; for it seems not to have occurred to him, that, had he endeavoured, trusting to written directions, without experience and traditional art, to make modern paper, or even a pair of shoes, he would, most probably, have been equally infelicitous. Alexandria was the chief seat of this valuable manufacture ; but in later periods much was also made at Rome, where an article of superior beauty was produced. Pliny enumerates the various kinds of paper that were composed, from the coarsest, which was used, like our brown paper, for packing, to the most expensive and finest. The consumption of paper was very con- siderable ; it seems to have been tolerably cheap ; and since the principal part was made at Alexandria, it was an important article in the commerce of that city — furnishing employ- ment for many workmen and much capital. Flavius Vopiscus relates, that in the 3d cen- tury, the tyrant Firmus used to say there was so much paper there, and so large a quantity of the glue or size used in preparing it, that he could maintain an army with it : — " Tantuin habuwK de charlis, ut publice sxpe. diceret, cxercitum se alere posse papyro et glulino." We may doubt whether the value of the paper which any single city now contains would do PAPER. 2G7 the like. Learned men haw discussed the antiquity of thla manufacture. It is not impro- bable that an earlier date ought to be assigned to it than is commonly given; nor ought we rashly to conclude thai it was unknown at a particular period, because it is not mentioned in a poem of that time; for the poet BOUght to celebrate the achievements of gods and he- roes, and not to compose an Encyclopedia, or a Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences. An- cient paper was while, smooth, durable, ami well adapted in all respects for writing; hut it was not suited for the printer: by reason of the closeness of the grain, it would not receive the mk from the types more kindly than shavings of wood, &e. ; and so brittle was its tex- ture, that it would' have shivered into pieces under the press. Nor did it resemble modern paper in its structure: it was, in truth, an inartificial mass; leaves, or rather strips of bark ■a nivea virentium herbarum"), being pasted together by the edges, others were laid hind ; whereas the paper which we now use is, perhaps, the most subtle and extraordinary of human inventions. If a cistern or other vessel be filled with water turbid with lime or clay, and the earth allowed to subside slowly, the water being evaporated, or drawn oil" gently, and the sediment left to dry, the calcareous or argillaceous deposit will represent faithfully the formation of paper; and it will be smooth, and of an equal thickness throughout; for an equal portion of the earth of which it is formed was suspended in the troubled water over each point in the bottom where it finally lodged. In making paper, the water is turbid with the pulp or paste of triturated rags, and the suspended pulp is not suf- fered to subside slowly ; but a sieve or frame of wire gauze is dipped equally into the cis- tern, and is raised gently to the surface, and agitated in a level position, which facilitates the passage of the water through the wires, while the fibres of rag are in some degree interwoven by it, and, remaining on the surface of the sieve, form the sheet of paper. This is pressed betwe 11 felts, to exclude the water, and to render its texture closer; it is dried and sized, and undergoes various operations, which it is unnecessary to enumerate, as we seek only to show that the result of this wonderful invention is as much an aqueous deposit as the earthy sediment at the bottom of a cistern, although it is obtained more rapidly. Modern paper has nothing in common with the ancient, save the vegetable fibre which is the basis of both. The application of rotary motion has effected wonders in many of the arts ; nor have the results been less astonishing in the paper-mill: instead of dipping the sieves or frames into the cistern of turbid water, a circular web, a round towel of woven wire, revolves under tho vessel, receives the deposit, conveys it away, and, by an adjustment of marvellous delicacy, transfers it uninjured, although as frail as a wet cobweb, to a similar revolving towel of felt: thus an endless web of paper is spun, as long as the machine continues to move, and the water charged with pulp is supplied. We are unable to pursue the process, however inte- resting ; for we desire merely to explain the general principle according to which our paper is constructed. It is to this admirable material that we owe the invention of printing, which could not subsist without it: its pervious and spongy texture imbibes and retains the ink, and its toughness resists the most violent pressure; arid, in a well-bound book, under favour- able circumstances, its duration is indefinite, and, for all practical purposes, eternal ! It is true that legal documents are sometimes printed on parchment, which is less liable to be torn, or injured by rubbing ; and the luxury of typography occasionally exhibits a few im- pressions of a splendid work upon vellum; and that these two substances were known to the ancients : but they are necessarily expensive, and the cost of either far exceeds the price of the best penmanship; so that it would be altogether unprofitable to cast types, to con- struct presses, and to incur the various and heavy charges of an establishment for printing, unless we possessed a cheaper material. We owe the introduction of paper into Europe to the Arabians or Moors. There is some uncertainty as to the precise era of its first appearance; and we are unable to trace the ori- gin of the precious invention, or even to imagine by what steps men were led to it. We cannot conceive how any one could be tempted to pound wet rags in a mortar, to stir the paste into a large body of water, to receive the deposit upon a sieve, to press and to dry it. The labour of beating rags into pulp by the hand would be as hopeless as it would be tedious and severe. It is true that paper was originally made of cotton, — a substance less obstinate than linen rags, which are now commonly used. At present, the fresh rags are torn in pieces by a powerful mill : formerly, it was the practice to suffer them to rot ; to place them in large heaps in a warm and damp situation, and to allow them to heat and ferment, and to remain undisturbed until mushrooms began to grow upon them; so that, being partially !, it might be less difficult to triturate them. Nevertheless, the invention of paper is a mystery. The Chinese possess the arts of making paper and of printing; but we know not how long they have had them, nor whether the Mohammedans learned the former from The illiterate inhabitants of some of the islands in the South Seas were able to com- pose a species of paper, which they used in fine weather for raiment, of the bark of trees. The basis of paper being the vegetable fibre, it has been made of various substances, as straw, as well as of rags.* * We are indebted for this valuable historical sketch to our learned friend, T. J. Hogg, Esq., barris • ter-at-law. Tin; reader may resort, for further information as to the history of paper, to the article on it in Recs's Cyclopaedia. 268 PAPER. Manufacture of Paper in England. — The application of paper to the purposes of writing and printing, and the fact of its being indispensable to the prosecution of the latter, render its manufacture of the' highest utility and importance. But, even in a commercial point of view, its value is very considerable. France, Holland, and Genoa had, for a lengthened period, a decided superiority in this department. The finest and best paper being made of linen rags, its quality may be supposed to depend, in a considerable degree, on the sort of linen usually worn in the country where it is manufactured ; and this circumstance is said to account for the greater whiteness of the Dutch and Belgian papers, as compared with those of the French and Italians, and still more the Germans. The rags used in the manu- facture of writing paper in Great Britain, are collected at home ; but those used in the manu- facture of the best printing paper are imported, principally, from Italy, Hamburgh, and the Austrian States, by way of Trieste. — (See Rags.) We believe, however, that it was owing rather to the want of skill, than, as has sometimes been supposed, to the inferior quality of the linen of this country, that the manufacture of paper was not carried on with much suc- cess in England till a comparatively recent period. During the 17th century, most part of our supply was imported from the Continent, especially from France. The manufacture is said to have been considerably improved by the French Refugees who fled, to this country in 1685. But it is distinctly "stated in The British Merchant (vol. ii. p. 266.), that hardly any sort of paper, except brown, was made here previously to the Revolution. In 1690, however, the manufacture of white paper was attempted ; and within a few years, most branches were much improved. In 1721, it is supposed that there were about 300,000 reams of paper annually produced in Great Britain, which was equal to about two thirds of the whole consumption. In 1783, the value of the paper annually manufactured was esti- mated at 780,000/. At present, besides making a sufficient quantity of most sorts of paper for our own use, we annually export about 100,000/. worth of books. We still, however, continue to import certain descriptions of paper for engraving from France, and a small sup- ply of paper hangings. The duty on both amounts to about 2,800/. a year. In 1813, Dr. Colquhoun estimated the value of paper annually produced in Great Britain at 2,000,000/. ; but Mr. Stevenson, an incomparably better authority upon such subjects, estimated it at only half this sum. From information obtained from those engaged in the trade, we incline to think that the total annual value of the paper manufacture in the United Kingdom, exclusive of the duty, may at present amount to about 1,200,000/. or 1,300,000/. There are about 700 paper-mills in England, and from 70 to 80 in Scotland. The number in Ireland is but inconsiderable. Of these mills, we believe very few have lately been un- employed. About 27,000 individuals are supposed to be directly engaged in the trade : and, besides the workmen employed in the mills, the paper manufacture creates a considerable demand for the labour of millwrights, machinists, smiths, carpenters, iron and brass founders, wire-workers, woollen manufacturers, and others, in the machinery and apparatus of the mills. Some parts of these are very powerful, and subject to severe strain ; and other parts are complicated and delicate, and require continual renovation. Owing to this, the manu- facture is much greater in importance, as a source of employment, than might at first be supposed, or than it would seem to be considered by government, who have loaded it with an excise duty amounting to mere than three times as much as the total wages of the work- people employed ! The modern discoveries in chemical science have not only materially facilitated the manu- facture, but have greatly enlarged the supply of materials from which paper may be made. Until within these few years, the sweepings of cotton mills, owing to the grease and dirt with which thev are mixed up, were of no value whatever, except as manure. But means having been discovered of rendering them white, they are now made into very good paper; and the neighbourhood of Manchester has, in consequence, become a principal seat of the manufacture. During the present century, so remarkable for improvements in the arts, this manufacture has been signally promoted, notwithstanding the excise regulations, by the application of machinery to the conversion of pulp into paper. The first idea of this originated in France: a model of the machinery was brought to this country by a M. Didot, which, though very far from giving assurance of success, was yet sufficient to induce English capitalists and en- gineers, particularly Mr. Donkin, to follow up the scheme ; and in the course of a few years they have brought it to a high degree of perfection. Mr. Dickinson, of Hertfordshire, one of the most intelligent mechanists and extensive paper manufacturers in England, has invented a machine of a different construction for the same purpose, and has also introduced various subsidiary improvements into the manufacture. The result is all but miraculous. By the agency of a great deal of complicated machinery, so admirably contrived as to produce the intended effect with unerring precision and in the very best manner, a process, which in the old system of paper-making occupied about three weeks, is performed in as many minutes! A continuous stream of fluid pulp is, within this brief space of time, and the short distance of 30 feet, not only made into paper, but actually dried, polished, and every separate sheet cut round the edges, and rendered completely ready for use ! The paper manufactured by PAPER. 2G9 this wonderful combination of intelligence and power is, at once, moderate in price, and for urposes superior in quality to that which was formerly made by hand. The sample before the reader, though not the finest that is made, will warrant what is now stated. Mr. Dickinson has very recently made an important improvement in the paper manufacture, on the principle of veneering in cabinet work. He makes two webs of paper, each by a sepa- rate process; and by laying them together while in an early stage, they are rendered insepa- rable by the pressure to which they are subjected. This paper is used m copperplate printing; and by adopting a peculiar method of preparing the pulp, ami selecting a liner rag for the web which forms the lace of the paper, it is much better calculated tor taking a fine impres- sion. This admirable invention has put nearly a total stop to the importation of French paper, which was formerly used in considerable quantities by copperplate printers. Duty on Paper. Excise Regulations.— It is difficult to say whether the duty on paper, orthe regula- tions miiicr winch that duty is collected, be the more objectionable. All writing, coloured, or wrap- ping paper, card-boards, and pasteboards, are denominated 1st class paper, and pay 3d. per lb. duly ■. i >; unless manufactured wholly of tarred ropes, without the tar being previously extracted, in paper is denominated 2d class, and pays lid. per lb. (14s. a cwt.) . Millboards and scale- boards, made ol ibe same materials as 'id class paper, pay 2jd. per lb. (Sis-, a cwt.) duty. in the various descriptions of 1st class paper varies from about 25 or 30 per cent, on the i aboui 200 per cent, on the coarsest : A duty so oppressive has led to the commissi' fvery great frauds, which all the vigilance of the officers, and the endless multiplication of checks andpenal- e been unable to prevent ; the real effect of such miserable devices being to injure the honest manufai turcr, and to give those of a different character greater facilities for carrying on their fraudu- lent schemes. But, laying out of view for a moment Lhe oppressiveness of the duty, can any thing be mure preposterously absurd, than to interdict the manufacturer of wrapping paper dor it is to him that the regulation applies! from using any other material than tarred rojns ! If tln-K' must be a iluty on paper, b-i it in assessed upon the finished article on an od valorem principle ; but do not let t lie plans ami combinations of the manufacturer be interfered with. Were it not for the existing regulation, wrapping paper of equal strength ami better appearance than what is now manufactured, might be made of much less cosily materials. Since the peace, ami lhe very general introducti f iron cables, larre.l ropes have advanced considerably in price; but as the use of any other mat trail wkatt vi r v. ould .i, increase of 14s. a cwt. of duty, advantage cannot be taken of this circumstance ; s.i that 'illation, without putting one sixpence into the pockets of government, obliges the public to pa) an iiu reased price for an inferior article! Neither is tins its only effect i a good deal of the re- nwn out in sorting raus, which might be used in the manufacture of coarse wrapping paper, is ;i sold by the manufacturers for about 3s. a cwt. ; while a good ileal that might be used in the same v, ay cannot be sold at all, but is absolutely lost. It is plain, therefore, that this regulation has a two-fold operation : first, in adding to the cost of wrapping paper, by compelling it to be made from a comparatively expensive article; and, secondly, in adding to the expense of fine paper, by preventing the refuse of the rai's used in its manufacture (rom being beneficially employed. ither regulations in the excise acts (43 Geo. 3. c. 20. and 42 Geo. 3. c. 94.) as to paper, are of a piece with that now brought under the reader's notice. Every step of the manufacture must be con- ducted under the surveillance of the excise ; anil the provisions as to entries, folding, weighing, sort- elling, removing, &ic. are not only exceedingly numerous, but are in the last degree vexatious, I compliance with them is enforced under ruinous penalties. That this is not an rated statement will be obvious from the following extracts from the statements of manufac- given in Mr. Poulett Thomson's admirable speech on the taxation of the empire, 2Cth of March, " We are bound," says a manufacturer on whose accuracy and honour I (Mr. P. Thomson) can rely, '•to give 21 or 419 hours' notice (accordine to the distance the exciseman lives), before we can change any paper, and to keep it in our mills for 21 hours afterwards before we send it to market, unless it ighed by the supervisor ; to have the different rooms in our manufactories lettered; to have our engines, vats, diesis, and presses numbered ; and labels pasted on each ream : should we lose one label, the penalty is 20(W. 1 generally write a request for 500 labels to the excise at one time ; and Bbould any person get into my mill, and steal or destroy them, the penalty would be 100,00(1'. I there is not any kind of paper pays more lhan 20s. per ream duty. If the penalty were 40s. it would be quite sufficient to answer every purpose for the security of the revenue. We are obliged, also, to take out a \ early licence ; and a mill witli 1 vat pays as much as one that has 10." Another says, — " It is no slight aggravation of the evil, that the laws are so scattered and confused as i it almost impossible for any body to have a knowledge of them ; and frequently, what is a gnat annoyance to an honest man, is no check to a rogue. It is true, the excise laws are seldom, or perhaps never, acted upon to their utmost rigour; but still they confer almost unlimited power on those who have the administering of them, over the properly of all who come under their influence ; and I am persuaded that they never could have existed, if they had effected the whole of the com- muniiy." It is singular that nothing should hitherto have been done to amend regulations so justly complained of. In point of fact, they are good for nothing but the oppression of the trade. It has not been shown that their maintenance is indispensable to enable the duty !■: be assessed and collected ; but if such be ibe case, u is, oi itself, a sufficient ground for the repeal of the duty. Our condition is not, for- tunately, such as to require that one of the most important manufactures carried mi in the empire should be subjected to a system of oppressive regulations fur the sake of 700,0002. a year. Hut, though it were possible to assess ami collect the duty so as to prevent fraud, wit bout interfer- ing wilb the manufacture, we should very much doubt, considering the purposes to which p ipei is ap- plied, the policy of subjecting it to any duty whatever. Printers, stationers, bookbinders, type- founders, artists, copperplate and lithographic primers, card-makers, paper-stainers and paper- hangers, &c. are all injured by the duly on paper. But the greatest evil of all is iis influence in increasing the price, and hindering the publication of books. " This places a great obstacle in the way of the progress of knowledge, of useful and necessary arts, and of sober, industrious habits. Books carry the production of the human mind over the whole world, and may be truly called the raw materials of every kind of science and art, and of all social improvement." — (See the admirable work of .Sir //. Parncll, on Financial Reform, 3d cd. p. 30.) At all events, the existing duties, varying as they do from 30 to 200 per cent, ad valorem, are quite exorbitant; nor can there be a doubt that they would be more productive were they adequately re- duced, and assessed on reasonable principles. Hut, as we have shown in the art. Hooks, it is not pos- sible to lay a duty on the paper intended to be used in printing, without committing injustice. No one can foretell, with any thing approaching to certainty, whether a new book, or even a new edition of an old book, will sell ; and the fact is, that one third of the books, and nineteen twentieths of the nam z2 270 PAPER. phlets published, do not pay their expenses. Now, we ask whether, under such circumstances, any thing can be more obviously unjust, more utterly subversive of every fair principle, than the imposi- tion of the same heavy taxes upon all publications,— upon those that do not sell, as well as upon those that do ? Upon a successful work, the duty may only be B reasonable deduction from the profits of the author and publisher j but when (a.s is the "case "with 1 out of 3 books, and 19 out of 20 pamphlets) the work does not sell, there are no profits from which to defray the duty, which has, of course, to be paid entirely out of the capital of the author or publisher! Such is the encouragement given to literature, BUCh the facilities afforded to the diffusion of useful information, by the popular government of Eng- land ! All other businesses meet with very different treatment. Dealers in gin or brandy, for exatn- lodge Iheir goods in bonded warehouses, and are not obliged to pay any duty upon them until they are sold for ho ne consumption; but such privilege is denied to the bookseller, though the article in wbicb he deais be a thousand limes more capricious. He must pay the duty on the whole impression of every I k, before bringing a single copj of il to market; so that he not unfrequentfy p tys duty upon 1,000 volumes, though unable to sell above 150 or 200, except as waste paper ! Even this is nol the « bole injury done him- for upon an advertisement announcing the sale of a i'ul. pam- phlet, as heavy a duly is charged as if it announced the sale of an estate worth 100,0002. I There are but two ways of putting an I tld to this scandalous injustice ; viz. either by entirely re- pealing the paper duty, or by putting publishers under the surveillance of the excise, and assessing the. duty on works according to the number sold at the publication prjee. The former would be the simple method ; but if 1 he state of the finances will not allow of the sacrifice of the paper duty, there are no ible difficulties in the way of the latter alternative. And were it adopted, and the duties reduced and simplified, jmtice would be done to authors and publishers, and a very great stimulus given to the paper manufacture, without any loss of revenue. An Account of the Quantities of the different Sorts of Paper charged with Duties in each of the 3 Years enled the 5th of January, 1H33 ; the Rates of Duty on such Paper ; the Gross and Nett Pro- duce of tin: Duties ; the Drawbacks on Paper exported, and the (lost per Cent, at which the Nett Revenue is collected, separating the Accounts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Quantities charged with Duly. Ei^'reil Sc itlan 1 Ireland first Class Paper. -'- J 3 SecM Class Paper. Lis. 39,580,581 Lbs. 12,908,470 7,130,121 1,468,362 1.2-7,311 566,972 : MillbrJ., Glazed Paper, Cwt. 1,887 _»7.o3,i .; -■ Paste- Ciot. s. 9,013 t- 2,208 1 1 S 1.716 S t 2,' 20 14 J 50 J. i 1 1 1 15,008 Gross Produce. L. s. d. 1 620,503 10 9 \ 106,56S 15 5 } 20,037 8 3 L. s. d. Drawbacks onPape. exported. s. d. 584,539 4 8 21,832 9 98,589 17 9 j 6,513 3 11 18,720 17 2 : 1,123 6 747,111 14 5 701,849 19 7 29.468 Universities, Kiug'sPrmter, Hot Pressers, L. s. d. 14,137 5 4 1,465 13 9 193 6 1 15,796 5 2 lei. ii. I 38,629,254 3 132268,757 6,775,032 1,302,186 1,579,176 4^9642 16,706,471 15 317.P7 ■ 3,876 S.776 281 ' 22233 n | S I, .18 28 I 1,635 1 14 20 128 ' 19,506 15 607,452 8 101,903 12 72«.'G2 IG 571,040 92,853 18,814 682,707 18 6 22,414 12 5 7,031 10 3 579 15 10 13,997 6 11 2,018 16 3 112 16 3 30,025 IS 6 England Scotland Ireland 13,457,233 1,603,745 470,081 16,531,069 4,031 |21 470 s,s»7 lis 2..SM 11 ( 1,913 28 i 1,939 14 (629,938 6 I 10S.331 9 | 24,834 8 11 763,104 3 II 591,569 10 II 99,778 2 7 24,395 11 10 715.743 5 4 JVote. — The cost per cent, at which the duty on paper is collected, cannot be stated with any degree Of accuracy, the officers being employed in charging excise duties generally ; but the sum which would probablj be saved to the revenue, under the head of "Salaries to Officers," if the duties on paper should be repealed, may be estimated at 5,500/. ; and for stationery supplied by the revenue for pur- ion- ted u itb the paper duties, a further saving of 750/., making altogether 6,250/., which is about ~- per cent, on the nett revenue of the last year. (Iii the edition of this Supplement issued in October, 1835, we stated, "The Com- mi-si mors of Excise Inquiry have made a very important suggestion with respect to the duty on paper. They recommend that the existing distinction between first class and second class paper should be put an end to ; and that a duty of 1 hd. per lb. be charged indiscriminately on all descriptions of paper. Were this recommendation adopted, a half would be deducted from the duty now charged on all paper used for writing and printing; and the manufacturer of inferior or wrapping paper, would be allowed to make use of what- <\< r materials he pleased. This judicious suggestion will, no doubt, be adopted. The stimulus to consumption that would be given by the full in the price of paper consequent to a reduction of this sort, makes it abundantly certain that the revenue would lose little or nothing by the change; at the same time that the manufacturer would be relieved from several vexatious regulations, and that the gross injustice inflicted on authors and publishers by the paper duties (see vol. i. p. 197.) would be materially mitigated. To suppose that, under such circumstances, the duty should not be reduced, would be to suppose that government was not anxious to encourage, but to discourage, the manufacture; and that it preferred dealing unjustly by authors and publishers !" — (See lUh Report of Commissioners of Excise Inquiry.') We arc glad to be able to say, that we have not been disappointed in this anticipation. The duty on all writing and printing paper has been reduced a half or from 2d. to Hrf. per Hi., which is now the rate charged on all paper, millboard, pasteboard, &c. The oppressive PARCEL— PARTNERSHIP. 271 duty of lfrf. the square yard, charged on paper, when printed or stained, oyer and above the ordinary duty on such paper, has been wholly repealed. The effect of this wise and judi- cious measure, in reducing the price of paper used in printing, has already been very sensibly felt. The abolition of the discriminating duty on stained or printed paper promises, also, to be of very material importance. The reduction of price it has occasioned, has enabled a much larger class of persons to get their apartments papered ; and it will in this way be productive, not only of a great additional demand for paper, but of a great increase of comfort and cleanliness. — Sup.) PARCEL, a term indifferently applied to small packages of wares, and to large lots of goods. In this latter sense, 20 hogsheads of sugar or more, if bought at one price, or in a single lot, are denominated " a parcel of sugar." PARCELS, BILL OF, an account of the items composing a parcel. PARCHMENT (Ger. Pergame.nt ; Fr. Parchemin ,■ It. Car tap ecor a ,- Sp. Perganrino), the skin of sheep or goats prepared in such a manner as to render it proper for writing upon, covering books, &c. It is an important article in French commerce : besides being largely exported, the home consumption is very considerable. The name is derived from Pergamus, the city where it is said to have been first manufactured. PARTIAL LOSS. See Insurance (Marine). PARTNERSHIP, the association of two or more individuals for carrying on some busi- ness or undertaking in common ; each deriving a certain share of the protits, and bearing a corresponding share of the loss arising therefrom. The term partnership is usually applied to those smaller associations in which the partners personally conduct their joint affairs : the term company being applied to those great associa- tions conducted by directors and servants appointed by the body of the partners to act for them; the latter having no direct concern in the management of the affairs of the company. — (See Companies ) The advantages of partnerships are obvious. Many businesses could not be successfully carried on without a larger command of capital than usually belongs to an individual ; and most of them require the combination of various species of talent. An individual may have capital sufficient to undertake a particular business ; but he may not be thoroughly versed in any of its details, or he may be familiar with certain parts of it and not with others ; so that it might be for his advantage to assume one or more individuals as his partners, suppos- ing them to be without capital, provided they possessed the skill and other qualifications re- quired in prosecuting the business. Associations of this sort enable capital and talent to derive all the assistance that each is capable of lending to the other. And as the gains of each partner usually consist of a certain proportion of the total profits made by the company, each has the most powerful motive to exert himself for the benefit of the concern. It is not, indeed, to be denied, that associations of this sort are occasionally productive of mischievous consequences. The public interest requires that the whole partners in a firm should be bound by the acts of any one of their number ; so that the folly or fraud of a single partner may detail very serious consequences upon those associated with him. Generally, however, this is not an evil of frequent occurrence ; and there can be no question that, both in a private and public point of view, partnerships are highly beneficial. To enter into any thing like a full discussion of the law of partnership would very far ex- ceed our limits. We shall, therefore, merely state a few of those leading principles with re- spect to it, as to which it is of importance that mercantile men, and the public generally, should be well acquainted. Formation of Partnerships. — The mere consent of the partners, fixed and certified by acts or contracts, is quite sufficient to constitute a private copartnership, so that if two or more merchants, or other persons, join together in trade, or in any sort of business, with a mutual, though it may be unequal, participation in the profit and loss of the concern, they are in every respect to be considered as partners. No particular form or words of proceeding is necessary to constitute a partnership. It may be entered into either by an express written agreement, or by a merely verbal one. The former ought in almost all cases to be preferred. The contract of copartnery should state the parties to it, the business to be carried on, the space of time the partnership is to continue, the capital each is to bring into the business, the proportion in which the profit and loss arc to be divided, the manner in which the busi- ness is to be conducted, the mode agreed upon for settling accounts at the dissolution of the partnership, together with the special covenants adapted to the circumstances of each particu- lar case. To constitute a partnership, there must be a participation in uncertain profits and losses: and the true criterion to determine, when money is advanced to a trader, whether the indi- vidual making the advance is to be looked upon as a partner or not, is to ascertain whether the premium or profit be certain and defined, or casual, indefinite, and depending upon the accidents of trade. In the former case he is a lender merely ; in the latter he is a part- ner. The mere participation in the profits of any business or adventure, without a participa- tion in the losses, constitutes a partnership, so far as to render the individual so participating 272 PARTNERSHIP. liable to third parties for the engagements of the concern, though as between the parties themselves it may be no partnership. Thus, if a clerk or other servant stipulate for a share of the profits of any business as a reward fur his labour, he becomes responsible to third parties as a partner, and no private arrangement can cancel his liability. If an individual, by his own act or inadvertence, allow himself to appear to the world as a partner, he is precluded from disputing the fact, even though he have no interest in the profits. A partner who withdraws from a firm is liable on account of the remaining partners continu- ing his name in the firm, though without his consent, unless he take the necessary precau- tions — (see post) — to show that he has ceased to belong to it. If there be no express stipulation as to the management of partnership property, the ma- jority decide as to the disposition and management of the joint affairs of the firm ; or, if there be but two parties in a firm, one may manage the concern as he thinks fit, provided it be within the rules of good faith, and warranted by the circumstances of the case. The general duty of a partner is to keep in view, at all times, and in all transactions, the interest and welfare of the partnership, by acting honestly and uprightly, and as a prudent man would conduct his own affairs. Lie hility of Partners as to third parties. — It may be laid down as a general rule, that part- ners whether actual, ostensible, or dormant, are bound by the act of their partner, made in the course of and with reference to the partnership business, and in the regular course of dealing by the firm ; and though the general rule of law be, that no one is liable upon any contract, except such as are privy to it, yet this is not contravened by the liability of partners, as they are supposed virtually present at and sanctioning the proceedings they singly enter into in the course of trade, or as being each vested with a power enabling them to act at once as principals and as the authorised agent of their copartners. It is for the advantage of partners that they are thus held liable ; for the credit of their firm is in consequence greatly enhanced, and facility is given to all their dealings, even when they reside in different parts of the country, or of the world. A due regard to the interest of strangers is at the same time observed ; for where an individual deals with one of several partners, he relies upon the credit of the entire firm, and therefore, ought to have his remedy against all the individuals who compose it Unless, however, the act of one partner relate to and be connected with the partnership trade, and in the course of dealing by the firm, such acting partner only will be bound ; for it is only by acting in the course of their particular trade or line of business that an implied authority is delegated by partners to each other ; and it is only in such transactions that third parties have a right to rely upon the partnership funds. To bind a partnership, credit must be given to the firm itself, and not to one merely of its partners. One of them may even, in furtherance of the objects of the firm, enter into a contract with some third party ; but if such contract be made exclusively and solely upon the credit of the individual partner, it will only bind him, and not the firm. The presumption of the law, however, always is, that a contract with one of the partners in reference to the business of the firm has been entered into upon the credit of the whole ; and this presumption is not to be rebutted, except by very clear evidence. One partner cannot, as such, except in bankruptcy, bind another by deed. The authority of a partner is revocable ; and it is now fully established that a disclaimer of the authority of the partners in any particular transaction will preclude him from binding his copartners. Even during the subsistence of the partnership, one partner may to a certain degree limit his responsibility ; and if there be any particular speculation or bargain proposed, which he disapproves of, he may, by giving distinct notice to those with whom his partners are about to contract that he will not be concerned in it, relieve himself from all consequences. Such notice would rebut bis prima facie liability. The partnership would be suspended quo id this transaction. Thus, if a partner draw, accept, or indorse a bill or note, he will, in all ordinary eases, thereby render the firm liable. But, to use the words of Lord Ellenbo- rough, " it is not essential to a partnership that every partner should have such power ; they may stipulate among themselves that it shall not be done ; and if a third parly, baring notice of this, will take such security from one of the partners, he shall not sue the others upon it, in breach of such stipulation, nor in defiance of notice previously given to him by one of them, that he will not be liable tor any bill or note signed by the others." — {Galway v. Matthew, iO East, 264.) ; and so in other cases. However small the share a partner may have in a concern, he is liable for the whole of the contracted by the firm ; and must seek his remedy in a rateable contribution against Lis partners. Should one party enter into a smuggling or other illegal transaction on the partnership account, the other partners are liable to the duties and the penalty ; and the Crown may proceed against the real delinquent alone, or against all the partners. A book- seller, or newspaper proprietor, is answerable for the acts of his agent or copartner, not only civilly, but also criminally. Dissolution of Partnerships. — A partnership may be dissolved by the effluxion or expi- ration of the time during which it was originally agreed that it should continue. When a PASSENGERS. 273 copartnership is formed for a single dealing or transaction, the moment that is completed it is at an end. Partnerships may also be dissolved by death, agreement, bankruptcy, outlawry, dec. A court of equity will interfere to dissolve a partnership, in cases where a partner so misconducts himself as to be injurious to the firm, or to defeat the object for whicli the part- nership was formed ; or when a partner becomes insane, or is in such a state of mind as to render him permanently incapable of transacting the peculiar business of the linn ; or where a partnership is formed for an impracticable purpose. Indeed, in all cases, where even a partnership may be dissolved without the interference of a court of equity, it may be most prudent, if the dissolution be opposed by one of the partners, to file a bill, praying a dissolu- tion and account, and an injunction against using the partnership name. When a partnership is dissolved by agreement, or one of the partners withdraws from it, public notice of the dissolution must be given in the London Gazette,- and a specific intima- tion of the circumstance must be sent to all individuals accustomed to deal with the firm. Where such intimation has not been sent, the individual withdrawing from the firm may be made liable to third parties after he has ceased to have any thing to do with it. A dormant partner, whose name has never been announced, may withdraw from a firm without making the dissolution of partnership publicly known. When the joint debts of the firm are paid, and the property duly distributed among the partners, the dissolution may be said, in a general sense, to be accomplished. If any one of the linn be guilty of a breach of duty, in misapplying the effects before the concern is finally wound up, the proper course is to apply to the Court of Chancery to appoint a manager. Within a reasonable time after the death of one partner, the survivors must account to the represi ntatives of the deceased; and if not willing to do so, a court of equity will compel them. In taking partnership accounts at the death of a partner, they must commence with the last stated account ; or, if there be none such, with the commencement of the partner- ship; and they must end with the state of the stock at the time of the partner's death, and the proceeds thereof until it be got in. No notice is necessary to third parties of the death of a partner ; the partnership is dissolved, and all liabilities for subsequent acts cease. The surviving parties are to be sued alone for the partnership liabilities and obligations, for which they are liable to the full extent. But they are not liable for the separate debts of the deceased partner, unless, after payment of all the joint debts, they have a surplus of the partnership effects in their hands. Upon a dissolution by death, if the joint effects be insufficient to pay the partnership debts, the separate estate of the deceased partner, if he have any, is liable, for the deficiency. The statements now made will, probably, be sufficient to give our readers a tolerably dis- tinct notion of the formation of partnerships ; and of the more important rights, duties, liabili- ties, &c. arising out of such institutions. Those who wish to go deeper into the subject, may consult the treatises of Watson and Montague on the Law of Partnership ; Chilly's Commercial Law, vol. iii. pp. 225 — 269.; Woolrych on Commercial Law, pp. 2S8 — 317.; &c. [See Kent's Commentaries on American Law, Lecture 43. — Am. Ed.] PASSENGERS, in commercial navigation, are individuals conveyed for hire from one place to another on board ship. Passage ships are those peculiarly appropriated to the con- veyance of passengers. Reg- illations as to the Conveyance of Passengers. — The conveyance of passengers between Great Britain and Ireland is regulated by the ad 1 Geo. 4. c. 88., which provides, that no vessel employed in the conveyance of passengers, of less than 200 tons burden, shall carry more than 20 persons as pas- sengers, unless a license to that effect has been obtained from the Custom-bouse. A licensed vessel is mil to take, exclusive of the crew, more than 5 adult persons, or 10 children under 14, or 15 children under 7 years (if age, fur every 4 tons burden ; and if such vessel be partly laden with goods or wares, not lo lake more than the above proportion of passengers for every 4 tons that remain unladen. Penalty for carrying more than twenty without licence, 501. ; and for a licensed vessel carrying more than the above proportion for each 4 tons burden, 51. for each passenger. Merchant vessels of not more than 100 tons, not to carry more than 10 persons ; or of not more than 200 tons, not more than 20 persons; under a penalty of 5/. each person. The conveyance of passengers to North America is re'gulated by the 9 Geo. 4. c. 21. This act pro- vides, that no ship shall sail from the United Kingdom for any port or place in his Majesty's posses- sions on the continent or islands of North America, with more than three persons on board for every 4 tons of the registered burden of such ship, the master and crew being included ; and no ship to carry passengers, unless of the height of 5i feet, at least, between decks : 2 children under 14, or 3 under 9, or 1 child under 12 months with its mother, to be reckoned as one person. Good and wholesome pro- visions to be provided, at the rate of 50 gallons of pure water for every person on board, and ">olbs. of b tad biscuit, oatmeal, or bread-stuffs for every passenger. Ships that have their full complement of passengers are prohibited from carrying any part of their cargo or stores between dicks. Jietoro clearing out, the master is to deliver to the collector a list of the passengers, specifying as accurately as may be their names, ages, professions or occupations, and the name of the port or place at which each is contracted to be landed. Masters of ships compelling passengers to land at any other place than that agreed upon, shall forfeit to every such passenger so landed a sum of -in/. Masters win) take a greater number of passengers than allowed by law, or do not provide the requisite quantity of water and provisions, or stow them or anv part of the cargo between dicks, or furnish false lists to the collector, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor. A bond for 1,000/. with one good and sufricient surety, shall be given by the master of every ship clearing out for British North America with pas- sengers on board, that such ship is seaworthy, and that all and every the rules and regulations of this act will be well and truly performed. Such bond may be without a stamp. This act does not extend to Post-office ships, nor to the Bahama Islands, nor to the West Indies. 35 274 PATENT. It is enacted by the 9 Geo. 4. c. 47., that the master of any packet or vessel employed in carrying passengers from one part of the United Kingdom to another is to be licensed by the commissioners of excise to retail foreign wine, strong beer, cider, perry, spirituous liquors, and tobacco. Such licence to be annually renewed, and to be transferable by endorsement. Duty to be paid by the owners on obtaining such a licence, 11. Penalty for selling wines, &c. without a licence, for every offence, 10Z. It is enacted by 9 Geo. 4. c. 76., that every steam vessel which is of the registered tonnage of 140 tons, shall be deemed to be a vessel of 200 tons at least. The ftd 6 Geo. I. c. 116., which regulated the conveyance of passengers to foreign parts, was repealed by 7 & 6 Geo. 4. c. 19. In some respects, passengers may be considered as a portion of the crew. They may be called on by the master or commander of the ship, in case of imminent danger either from tempest or enemies, to lend their assistance for the general safety; and in the event of their declining, may be punished for disobedience. This principle has been recognised in several cases; but, as the authority arises out of the necessity of the case, it must be exercised strictly within the limits of that necessity. — (Boyce v. Bucliffe, 1 Campbell, 58.) A pas- senger is not, however, bound to remain on board the ship in the hour of danger, but may quit it if he have an opportunity ; and he is not required to take upon himself any responsi- bility as to the conduct of the ship. If he incur any responsibility, and perform extraordi- nary services in relieving a vessel in distress, he is entitled to a corresponding reward. The goods of passengers contribute to a general average. — {Abbott on the Law of Shipping, part iii. c. 10.) Keturn of the Number of Persons who have emigrated from the United Kingdom to any of the Colonies of Great Britain in each Year since 1820, and to the United States of America since 1825; distinguishing the Colonies to which they have emigrated. — (Pari. Paper, No. 650. Sess. 1830, and No. 6'J6. Sess. 1833.) New Souih Wales, Years. Tlri'hh North American Colonies. British West Indies. Cape of Good Hope. Van Diemen's Land, and Swan River. United States. No. of Persons. No. of Persons. No. of Persons. No. of Persons. No. of Persons. 1821 12,470 1,772 404 320 1822 11,282 1,423 192 875 1823 8,133 1,011 184 543 1821 7,311 1,353 119 780 1825 8,741 1,082 114 485 5,551 1826 12.818 1,913 116 903 7,063 1827 12,648 1,156 114 715 14.5-26 1828 12,084 1,211 135 1,056 12,S17 1829 13,307 1,251 197 2,016 15,678 1830 30,574 - 204 1,212 24,887 1831 58,067 - 114 1.561 23,418 1832 66,339 - 196 3,733 32,872 The foregoing statement, founded upon special returns transmitted from the various ports of the United Kingdom by the local officers of customs, exhibits the number of persons of both sexes, and of all at'es, who have emigrated to the colonies in each of the last 10 years, so far as the same can be ascertained. The officers report that they have not the means of distinguishing males from females, or adults from children, in these returns; and in some cases they state that the distinction cannot be drawn with accuracy between emigrants and passengers of other descriptions. For the regulations as to the landing of passengers in New York, see New York. PATENT, a privilege from the Crown granted by letters patent (whence the name), conveying to the individual or individuals specified therein, the sole right to make, use, or dispose of some new invention or discovery, for a certain specified period. The power to grant patents seems to exist at common law ; but it is limited and defined by the famous Statute \!1 .lac. 1. c. 3., which enacts, "That any declaration before-mentioned shall not extend to any letters patent and grams of privilege for the term of 14 years or under, thereafter to be made, of the sole working or making of any manner of new manufactures within this realm, to the true anil first inventor and inventors of such manufactures, which others at the time of making such letters patent and grain* shall not use. so is also they be not contrary to the law, nor mischievous to the state, by raising prices of commodities at home, or hurt of trade, or generally inconvenient. The said 14 years to be accounted from the date of the first letters patent, or grant of such privilege thereafter to be made ; but that the same shall be of such force as they should be if that act had never been made, and none other." Policy of Patents. — The law with respect to patents is unavoidably encumbered with several difficulties. The expediency of granting patents has been disputed ; though, as it would seem, without any sufficient reason. Were they refused, the inducement to make discoveries would, in many cases, be very much weakened ; at the same time that it would plainly be for the interest of every one who made a discovery, to endeavour, if possible, to conceal it. And notwithstanding the difficulties in the way of concealment, they are not insuperable; and it is believed that several important inventions have been lost, from the secret dying with their authors. On the other hand, it is not easy to decide as to the term for which the patent, or exclusive privilege, should be granted. Some have proposed that it slioulil lie made perpetual; but this would be a very great obstacle to the progress of im- provement, and would lead to the most pernicious results. Perhaps the term of 14 years, to which the duration of a patent is limited in England, is as proper a one as could be sug- gested. It may be too short for some inventions, and too long for others ; but, on the whole, it seem< a pretty fair average. 'fication. — Previously to the reign of Queen Anne, it was customary to grant patents PATENT. 275 without any condition, except that they should be for really new inventions. But a condi- tion was then introduced into all patents, and is still retained, declaring that if the inventor do not, by an instrument under his hand and seal, denominated a specification, particularly describe and ascertain the nature of his invention, and in what manner the same is to be performed, and also cause the same to be enrolled in Chancery within a certain time (gene- rally a month), the letters patent, and all liberties and advantages whatever thereby granted, shall utterly cease and become void. This was a very judicious regulation. It secures the invention from being lost ; and the moment the patent expires, every one is in a situation to profit by it. Mode of Granting a Patent. — Letters patent are obtained upon petition and affidavit to the Crown, setting forth, that the petitioner has, after great labour and expense, made a cer- tain discovery, which he describes, and which he believes will be of great public utility, and that he is the first inventor. The petition is referred to the attorney or solicitor general, who is separately attended by the applicant and all competitors, if there be any. They ex- plain their projects to him, and he decides on granting or withholding the patent. When the inventions of two or more conflicting applicants coincide, he rejects all the applications. It would seem, that to decide upon such difficult questions in mechanics as are often agi- tated in applications for patents, a familiar knowledge of the principles and practical appli- cation of mechanical science would be indispensable. But by the law, as it now stands, such knowledge is not deemed necessary. The legal officers of the Crown are the sole judges as to what patents should or should not be granted; their award is final ; and they are sub- ject to no responsibility, other than the common remedies against public officers by im- peachment, indictment, &c. — none of which would be entertained, unless a corrupt motive were established. After approval by the law officers, the grant is made out, sealed, and enrolled. Considering the authority under which patents are granted, can any one wonder at the number that have been overturned in the courts of justice] or at the litigation to which they have given rise 1 Expense of Patents. — Separate patents have to be taken out for England, Scotland, and Ireland, if it be intended to secure the privilege in the three kingdoms. The expense of stamps, fees, &c. is in all cases very heavy. It varies according to the intricacy of the in- vention, the opposition (if any) to the patent being granted, &c. According to Mr. Farey, it may be estimated at 120/. for England, 100/. for Scotland, and 125/. for Ireland. — (See his valuable evidence in the Commons' Report on Patents, p. 17.) Conditions as to Patents. — The novelty and utility of the invention are essential to the validity of a patent; if it can be shown to have been in use previously to the grant of the patent, or to be of no utility, it will be void. It must also be for something vendible — something " material and useful made by the hands of man." — (Lord Kenyan, 8 T. R. 99.) A philosophical principle only, neither organised, nor capable of being so, is no ground for a patent ; because it is an element and rudiment of science, and which, till applied to some new production from these elements, cannot, with justice to other inventors, be applied to the exclusive use of any one of them. In all patents there is required, in the words of Lord Tenterden, "something of a corporeal or substantial nature, something that can be made by man from the matters subjected to his art and skill, or at the least some new mode of employing ■practically his art and skill." — (Godson on the Law of Patents, p. 81.) Previously to Lord Tenterden, it had been ruled that a new process or method was not the subject of a patent. Hut his Lordship having suggested that "the word manufacture (in the statute) may, perhaps, extend to a new process to be carried on by known implements, or elements acting upon known substances, and ultimately producing some other known substance, &c." — (Godson, p. 83) — this principle of interpretation has now been adopted. A patent for a machine, each part of which was in use before, but in which the combination of the different parts is new, and a new result is obtained, is valid. But, in order to its being valid, the spe- cification must clearly express that it. is in respect of such new combination or application, and of that only ; and not lay claim to original invention in the use of the materials. A patent may be granted for an addition to an old invention. But the patent must be confined to the additionot improvement, that the public may purchase it without being encumbered with other things. If the patent include the whole, it will be void ; for the property in the addition or improvements can give no right to the thing that has been improved. — (Godson, p. 71.) A valid patent may be obtained for an invention, "new in this realm," though it may have been previously practised in a foreign country. A patent is void, if it be for several distinct inventions, and any one of them fail of originality. The specification must be prepared with ffreat care. It should set forth the invention fully and cor- rectly. The terms used must be clear and unambiguous; no necessary description must be omitted, nor what is unnecessary be introduced ; and the invention must be described in the best and most im- proved state known to the inventor. If any one of these conditions be not complied with, the patent will be void. Any inaccurate or defective statement, were it even inserted through inadoertency, will vitiate the whole. Caveat. — It is not unusual for inventors who have not brought their inventions to perfection, and who are afraid lest they be anticipated by others, to lodge a caveat at the offices of the attorney and solicitor general ; that is, an instrument by which notice is requested to be given to the person who enters it, whenever any application is made for a patent for a certain invention 1 herein described in general terms. The entry of a caveat is, therefore, nothing more than giving information that an in- vention is nearly completed ; so that, if any other person should apply for a patent for the same tiling, the preference may be given to him who entered it. An injunction may be obtained for the infringement of a patent, in the same way as for a violation of the copyright acts. Patents have been sometimes extended by act of parliament beyond the term of 14 years, on the ground that that term was too short properly to reward the inventor. 276 PATENT. Account of the Number of Patents granted in the Eight Years ending with 182&. 1821 108 I 1-24 ■ - IS1 | 1827 - - 148 1K22 113 1885 - ■ 249 lb23 - - lj2 1S23 -.133 | 1826 - • 131 | Total number of patents in force in May, 1629, 1,855. The reader will find a great deal of curious and instructive information with respect to patents, in the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons on that subject (No. 332. Sess. 1829;, particularly in the evidence and papers laid before the Committee by Mr. Farey. The treatise on the Law of Patents and Copyrights, by Mr. Godson, is clear and able. (The reader will find in the article Patents, in the Dictionary, some remarks on the grounds on which they are granted, and on the difficulty of legislating on the subject. The object in giving a patent is twofold. In the first place, it is intended to stimulate and reward invention ; and, in the second place, it is intended to prevent an invention from being lost, by obliging the inventor, when he takes out a patent, to describe it accurately. The diffi- culty in legislating on the subject is to hinder real bona fide inventors from being harassed by unfounded actions, and at the same time to prevent quacks and pretenders from appro- priating discoveries already made, to the injury of the public. To be useful, any law on such a subject must be drawn up with great care and circumspection. But such certainly has not been the case with the act as to patents (5 & 6 Will A. c. 77), passed in 1835, of which a copious abstract is subjoined. It is altogether one of the crudest and most bungling attempts at legislation that has ever come under our notice. It gives to the patentee a right to make constant alterations in his specification ; so that it will be next to impossible to learn from it what the invention really is for which the patent is granted. Under the old law, a patentee, who made any material improvements on his invention, was entitled to get a new patent for the improvements, so that no injury was done him by obliging him to make his specification quite accurate, at the same time that the public interests were secured. But every one naturally wishes to conceal his inventions; and, instead of counteracting this prin- ciple, the new law really offers a bonus on inaccurate specifications, by enabling the patentee to disclaim some parts and to amend others ; and he may do this over and over again, pro- vided he obtain leave from the attorney or solicitor general, to whose " good pleasure" the most important interests would thus seem to be left ! It is not easy to imagine any thing more absurd. But we have little doubt, that the inconveniences that will result from it will lead to its speedy repeal or amendment. Some of the other clauses seem also to be highly questionable. Any person having obtained Letters Patent for any Invention may enter a Disclaimer. — Any person who hath obtained or shall hereafter obtain letters patent, for the sole making, exercising, &c. of any invention, may, if he think fit, enter with the clerk of the patents of England, Scotland, or Ireland, respectively, asthe case may be, having first obtained the leave of the attorney-general, or solicitor- general in case of an English patent, of the lord advocate or solicitor-general of Scotland in the case of a Scotch patent, or of the attorney-general or solicitor-general for Ireland in the case of an Irish patent, a disclaimer of any part of either the title of the invention or of the specification, staling the reason for such disclaimer, or may, with such leave as aforesaid, enter a memorandum of any altera- tion in the said title or specification, not being such disclaimer or such alteration as shall extend the exclusive right granted by the said letters patent ; and such disclaimer or memorandum of alteration, being filed by the said clerk of the patents, and enrolled with the specification, shall be taken to be part of such letters patent or such specification in all courts whatever : provided that any person may en- ter a caveat, as caveats are now entered, against such disclaimer or alteration; which caveat shall give the party entering a right to have notice of the application being heard by the attorney-general or solicitor-general or lord advocate respectively ; provided also, that no such disclaimer or alteration shall be receivable in evidence in any action or suit (except in any proceeding by scire facias) pending at the time when it was enrolled, but in every such action or suit the original title and specification alone shall be given in evidence, and taken to be the title and specification of the invention for which the letters patent have been granted ; provided also, that it shall be lawful for the attorney-general or solicitor-general or lord advocate, before granting such fiat, to require the party applying for the same to advertise his disclaimer or alteration, as to the said attorney-general, &c. shall seem right, and shall, if he require such advertisement, certify in his fiat that the same has been duly made. — i J 1.) Mode of Proceeding where Patentee is proved not to be the real Inventor. — If in any suit or action it shall be proved or found by the verdict of a jury that a person who has obtained letters patent for any invention, or supposed invention, was not the first inventor thereof, or of some part thereof, by reason of some other person or persons having invented or used the same, or some part thereof, before the date of such letters patent, or if such patentee or his assigns shall discover that some other person had, unknown to such patentee, invented or used the same, or some part thereof, before the date of such letters patent, it shall be lawful for such patentee or his assigns to petition II. M. in council to confirm the said letters patent or to grant new letters patent, the matter of which petition shall be heard before the judicial committee of the privy council ; and such committee, upon examining the said matter, and being satisfied that such patentee believed himself to be the first and original inven- tor, and being satisfied that such invention or part thereof had not been publicly and generally used before the date of such first letters patent, may report to II. M. their opinion that the prayer of such petition ought to be complied with, whereupon II. M. may, if he thinks fit, grant such prayer; and the said letters patent shall be available to give to such petitioner the sole right of using, making, and vending such invention : provided that any person opposing such petition shall be entitled to be heard before the said judicial committee ; provided also, that any person party to any former suit or action touching such first letters patent, shall be entitled to have notice of such petition before presenting the same. — ($2.) // in any Action or Suit a Verdict pass for the Patentee, the Judge may certify, §c. — If any action at law or suit in equity shall be brought in respect of any alleged infringement of such letters patent heretofore or hereafter granted, or any scire facias to repeal such letters patent, and if a verdict pass tor the patentee, or if a final decree or order be made for him, upon the merits of the suit, it shall he lawful for the judge who tried such action to certify on the record, or the judge who shall make such order to give a certificate under his hand, that the validity of the patent came in question before him, which record or certificate being given in evidence in any other suit or action touching such patent, if a verdict pass, or order be made, in favour of such patentee, he shall receive treble costs in such suit PATRAS. 277 or action, to be taxed at three times the taxed costs, unless the judge making such second or other order, or trying such second or other action, certify that he ought not to have treble costs. — (J 3.) Mode of Proceeding in ease of Application for the Prolongation of the Term. — If any person who hath or shall hereafter obtain letters patent shall advertise in the London Gazette 3 times, and in 3 London papers, and 3 times in some country paper published in the town where or near to which he carried on any manufacture of any thing made according to his specification, or near to or in which he resides in case he carried on no such manufacture, or published in the county where he carries on such manu- facture, or where he lives in case there shall not be any paper published in such town, that he intends to apply to II. M. in council for a prolongation of his term of sole using and vending his invention, and shall petition II. M. in council to that effect, it shall be lawful for any person to enter a caveat at the council office ; and if H. M. refer such petition to the judicial committee of the privy council, and notice shall first be by him given to any person who has entered such caveats, the petitioner shall be heard by his counsel and witnesses to prove his case, and the persons entering caveats shall likewise be heard by their counsel and witnesses ; whereupon the judicial committee may report to H. M. that a further extension of the term in the said letters patent shall be granted, not exceeding 7 years ; and H. M. is hereby authorised and empowered, if he think fit, to grant new letters patent for the said invention for a term not exceeding 7 years after the expiration of the first term : provided that no such, extension shall be granted if the application by petition be not made and prosecuted with effect before the expiration of the original term in such letters patent. — (#4.) In case of Action, Sec, Notice to be given. — In any action brought for infringing any letters patent, the defendant on pleading thereto shall give to the plaintiff, and in any scire facias to repeal such letters patent the plaintiff shall file with his declaration a notice of any objections on which he means to rely at the trial of such action, and no objection shall be allowed to be made in behalf of such defendantor plaintiff at such trial, unless he prove the objections stated in such notice : provided always, that it shall be lawful for any judge at chambers, on summons served by such defendant or plaintiff on such plaintiff or defendant respectively to show cause why he should not be allowed to offer other objections whereof notice shall not have been given, to give leave to offer such objections, on such terms as to him shall seem fit. — (J 5.) Costs inactions for infringing- Letters Patent. — In any actionbrought for infringing any letters patent, in taxing the costs thereof regard shall be had to the part of such case proved at the trial, which shall be certified by the judge, and the costs of each part of the case shall be given according as either party has succeeded or failed therein, regard being had to the notice of objections, as well as the counts in the declaration, and without regard to the general result of the trial. — (}6.) Penalty for using, unauthorised, the Name of a Patentee, S?c. — If any person shall write, paint, or print, or mould, cast, or carve, or engrave or stamp upon, any thing made, used, or sold by him, for the solo making or selling of which he hath not obtained letters patent, the name or any imitation of the name of any other person who hath obtained letters patent, for the sole making and vending of such thing, without leave in writing of such patentee or his assigns, or if any person shall upon such thing, not having been purchased from the patentee or some person who purchased it from him, or not having the license in writing of such patentee or his assigns, write, paint, or otherwise mark the word "patent," the words " letters patent," or the words " by the king's patent," or any words of the like kind, mean- ing, or import, with a view of imitating or counterfeiting the stamp, mark, or other device of the patentee, he shall for every such offence be liable to a penalty of 50X, to be recovered by action of debt, bill, &c. in any court of record at Westminster or in Ireland, or in the court of session in Scot- land, one half to H. M. and the other to any person who shall sue for the same : provided, that nothing herein contained shall be construed to extend to subject any person to any penalty in respect of stamp- ing or in any way marking the word "patent" upon any thing made, for the sole making or vending of which a patent before obtained has expired. — (J 7.)— Sup.) [See Kent's Commentaries on American Law, Lecture 34. — Am. Ed.] PATRAS, or PETRASSO, a sea-port in the N. W. corner of the Morea, near the en- trance of the Gulf of Lepanto, in lat. 38° 14' 25" N., Ion. 21° 46' 20" E. Population variously estimated, from 5,000 to 10,000. The port lies a little to the northward of the town ; but the part fronting it is unsafe, and exposed to heavy seas, particularly in winter. Vessels, therefore, go a little further up the gulf, where there is a mole or quay, and where they can lie close to the wharf. Patras has a more extensive trade than any other port of Greece. The principal exports are currants, oil, valonia, wine, raw silk, raw cotton, wool, skins, wax, &x. Of these, currants are by far the most important. The fruit is larger, and freer from sand and gravel, than that of the Ionian Islands. They are shipped in casks of various sizes; but, as the weight of the cask is included in that of the fruit, it is said to be, for the most part, made heavier and stronger than necessary. Morea currants are preferred in most countries, except Eng- land ; but here the currants of Zante are held in equal, or perhaps greater, estimation. The exports of currants from Patras, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1831, amounted to about 50,000cwt. a year, worth about 33,0007. More than half the quantity shipped in 1830 and 1831 was for England. The value of the exports of valonia and oil may, together, amount to from 1,0001. to 10.000L a year. The imports at Patros, as at the other Greek ports, consist principally of sugar, coffee, and other colonial products ; plain and printed cotton stuffs, woollen goods, salted fish, iron, tin plates, hard- ware, cordage, hemp, deals, &c. Imported articles are brought principally from the Ionian Islands, Malta, Venice, Leghorn, Marseilles, and Trieste ; but, from the unsettled state of the country, it is quite impossible to form any accurate estimate of their amount, either as respects Patras, or any other Greek port : — Shipping .— The arrivals at Patras in 1830 and 1831 have been Port Charges.— Foreign and Greek vessels pay as follows :— Flags. 1830. 1831. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. British Greek Ionian Austrian - Sardinian • Tuscan Neapolitan Papal French • Dutch Russian Ottoman - 10 254 146 36 10 2 6 3 6 1 8 4 1,417 9,017 5,291 3,757 469 168 164 184 499 130 898 481 8 301 79 46 4 1 5 2 3 1 11 3 1,105 10,623 3,148 7,541 520 97 164 177 316 170 1,849 355 Greek. Ph. L L. s. d. Anchorage "i Port dues >• 8 23 or 5 10 Health office J Additional ~) when cargo | or ballast is S 18 — 12 9 landed or loaded J ( Total Greek L. 18 6 12 74 or 25 — 17 8 Foreign £.168 The Tariff established by the government, in March, 1830, is in force, according to which all articles may be imported and exported on payment of the duties therein fixed, without distinction of foreign or native flag. The rate of duty is 10 per cent, ad valorem for imports, and 6 per cent, ad valorem for exports. Vol. II.— 2 A 278 PATTERNS, PAWNBROKERS. Money.— Since the revolution, the Greeks have established a system of coinage in imitation of that of France. The phoenix is a silver coin, that should contain 9-10ths of pure metal, and l-10th of alloy, or 4029 grammes of the former, and 448 do. of the latter, being worth about Sid. sterling. The lepta is a copper coin, being 1- 100th part of the phcenix. But the silver coins are already so much debased, thai they have been refused even by the officers of government. Weight* and Measures. — The quintal is divided into 44okes, or 1321bs. Hence, lOOlbs. of Patras = 881bs. avoirdupois. Silk weight is l-5th heavier. A sack of currants weighs 1401bs. of the common weight, or about 1231bs. avoirdupois. The «taro, corn measure, = 2} Winch, bushels. The long pic, or pik, used in measuring linens and woollens, =27 English inches. The short pic, uspd in measuring silks, = 25 ditto. We have derived these details, partly from the Answers made by the Consul at Patras to the Circular Queries ; partly from the Archives dit Commerce, tome ii. pp. 236—242. ; and partly from other sources. Commerce of Greece. — Considering the favourable situation of Greece, the number and excellence of her ports, the hardy enterprising character of the people, and the progress they have already made in navigation, nothing seems to be required to insure her rapid advance- ment in commercial industry, but the establishment of good order and internal tranquillity. We trust that this sine qua non of prosperity will now be realised ; and that the newly con- stituted government will be strong enough to curb the factions into which the population has been split, and to put down and punish every species of outrage. If they succeed in this, and abstain from all attempts, by prohibition or otherwise, to force manufactures and com- merce, we have no doubt that the progress of Greece will be all that her most sanguine friends could wish. It appears from a report presented to the congress at Napoli, in Janu- ary, 1832, that Greece was at that time possessed of 2,941 vessels of all sorts, of which 614 were of the 1st class, that is, of more than 150 tons burden. The value of the imports into Greece, in 1831, are estimated in the same document at about 1,100,000/. sterling. It must, however, be observed, that a large proportion of these imports is carried to Syra, which has now become an important entrepot, merely that they may be sent at convenient opportuni- ties to the Turkish provinces in Europe, Asia Minor, &c. — (See Archives du Commerce, tome ii. p. 239.) It is deeply to be regretted, that Candia, or Crete, was not either added to the new king- dom of Greece, or made independent. We cannot help considering it as disgraceful to the Christian nations of Europe, that this famous island, where European civilisation first struck its roots, should be consigned to the barbarians by whom it is now laid waste. It is as well entitled to the favourable consideration of England, France, and Russia, as any part of Con- tinental Greece ; and we do hope that measures may yet be devised for rescuing it from the atrocious despotism by which it has been so long weighed down. — (See Greece.) PATTERNS, are specimens or samples of commodities, transmitted by manufacturers to their correspondents, or carried from town to town by travellers, in search of orders. Pat- terns, if not exceeding 1 ounce weight, shall be charged with only an additional penny of postage, provided they be sent under cover, open at the sides, and without any letter or writing, except the name of the person sending the same, the place of his abode, and the price of the article or articles. — (52 Geo. 3. c. 88.) PAWNBROKERS ash PAWNBROKING. A pawnbroker is a species of banker, who advances money, at a certain rate of interest, upon security of goods deposited in his hands ; having power to sell the goods, if the principal sum, and the interest thereon, be not paid within a specified time. 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Paivnbroking. — The practice of impledging or pawning goods, in order to raise loans, is one that must necessarily always exist in civilised societies, and is, in many cases, productive of advantage to the parties. But it is a practice that is extremely liable to abuse. By far the largest proportion of the bona fide borrowers of money on pawn consist of the lowest and most indigent classes ; and were the lenders not subjected to any species of regulation, advantage might be taken (as, indeed, it is frequently taken, in spite of every precaution) of their necessities, to subject them to the most grievous extortion. But, besides those whose wants compel them to resort to pawnbrokers, there is another class, who have recourse to them in order to get rid of the property they have unlaw- fully acquired. Not only, therefore, are pawnbrokers instrumental in relieving the pressing and urgent necessities of the poor, but they may also, even without intending it, become the most efficient allies of thieves and swindlers, by affording them ready and convenient outlets for the disposal of their ill-gotten gains. The policy of giving legislative protection to a business so liable to abuse, has been doubted by many. But though it were suppressed by law, it would always really exist. An individual possessed of property which he may neither be able nor willing to dispose of, may be reduced to a state of extreme difficulty ; and in such ease, what can be more convenient or advantageous for him than to get a loan upon a deposit of such property, under condition that if he repay the loan, and the interest upon it, within a certain period, the property will be returned \ It is said, indeed, that the facilities of raising money in this way foster habits of imprudence ; that the first resort for aid to a pawnbroker almost always leads to a second ; and that it is impossible so to regulate the business, as to prevent the ignorant and the necessitous from being plundered. That this statement, though exaggerated, is to a certain extent true, no one can deny. On the other PAWNBROKERS AND PAWNBROKING. 279 hand, however, the capacity of obtaining supplies on deposits of goods, by affording the means of meeting pressing exigencies, in so far tends to prevent crime, and to promote the security of property ; and it would seem as if the desire to redeem property in pawn would be one of the most powerful motives to industry and economy. At the same time, too, it must be borne in mind, that it is not possible, do what you will, to prevent those who are poor and uninstructed from borrowing; and that they must, in all cases, obtain loans at a great sacrifice, and be liable to be imposed upon. But the fair presumption is, that there is less chance of any improper advantage being taken of them by a licensed pawnbroker, than by a private and irresponsible individual. Although, however, the business had all the incon- veniences, without any portion whatever of the good which really belongs to it, it would be to no purpose to attempt its suppression. It is visionary to imagine that those who have property will submit to be reduced to the extremity of want, without endeavouring to raise money upon it. Any attempt to put down pawnbroking would merely drive respectable persons from the trade, and throw it entirely into the hands of those who have neither property nor character to lose. And hence the object of a wise legislature ought not to be to abolish what must always exist, but to endeavour, so far at least as is possible, to free it from abuse, by enacting such regulations as may appear to be best calculated to protect the ignorant and' the unwary from becoming the prey of swindlers, and to facilitate the discovery of stolen property. 2. Obligations under which Pawnbrokers should be placed. — For this purpose it seems indispensable that the interest charged by pawnbrokers should be limited, that they should be obliged to give a receipt for the articles pledged, and to retain them for a reasonable time before selling them ; that the sale, when it does take place, should be by public auction, or in such a way as may give the articles the best chance for being sold at a fair price ; and that the excess of price, if there be any, after deducting the amount advanced, and the interest and expenses of sale, should be paid over to the original owner of the goods. To prevent pawnbrokers from becoming the receivers of stolen goods, they should be liable to penalties for making advances to any individual unable to give a satisfactory account of the mode in which he became possessed of the property he is desirous to pawn ; the officers of police should at all times have free access to their premises ; and they should be obliged carefully to describe and advertise the property they offer for sale. 3. Law as to Pawnbrokers. — It may appear singular that pawnbrokers should hardly have been named in any legislative enactment till after the middle of last century. It was enacted by the 30 Geo. 2. c. 24., that a duplicate or receipt should be given for goods pawn- ed; and that such as were pawned for any sum less than 10/. might be recovered any time within two years, on payment of the principal and interest ; but the rate of interest was not fixed. This defect was supplied by the 25 Geo. 3. c. 48. ; but the act 39 & 40 Geo. 3. c. 99. contains the latest and most complete regulations on the subject. Every person exercising the trade of a pawnbroker must take out a license, renewable annually, 10 days at least before the end of the year, for winch he shall pay, within the cities of London and West- minster, and the limits of the twopenny post, 151., and everywhere else, 71. 10*. No person shall keep more than 1 house by virtue of 1 licence ; but persons in partnership need only take out 1 licence for 1 house. All persons receiving goods by way ol pawn or pledge for the repayment of money lent thereon, at a higher rate of iuterest than 5 per cent., to be deemed pawnbrokers. Upon every pledge on which there shall have been lent not ex- reeding 2c. 6d., interest may be charged at the rate of l-2d. per month. L. i. d. if o L. 5 1 per month 7 6 11-2 - 2 — 2 6 2 1-2 — 5 3 — 7 6 31-2 — 2 and not exceeding 2 8 .And for every sum exceeding 40s., and not exceeding 10/., at the rate of 3d. in the pound, by the calendar month, including the current month ; and so in proportion for any fractional sum. Pawnbrokers are to give farthings in exchange. Persons applying to redeem goods pawned within 7 days after the first calendar month after the same shall have been pledged, may re- deem the same without paying any thing for the first 7 days ; and, upon applying before the expiration of 14 days of the second calen- dar month, snail be at liberty to redeem such goods, upon paying the profit payable for 1 calendar month and the half of another ; and in all cases where the parties so entitled, and applying as aforesaid, after the expiration of the first fourteen days, and before the expiration of the second month, the pawnbroker is allowed to take the interest of the whole second month; and the Eame regulations and restric- tions «hall take place in every subsequent month. When goods are pawned for more than 5$., the pawnbroker, before advancing the money, shall immediately enter in his hooks a descrip- tion of the pawn, the money lent thereon, the day of the month and year, the name of ihe person pawning, and 'he name of the street, and number of the h^use, if numbered, where such person resides, and use the letter L, if the person be a lodger, and the letters H K, if a housekeeper; and also the name and abode of the owner of the parly ottering such pledge; and if the money lent shall cot exceed 5s. , such entry shall be made within 4 hours after the goods shall have been pawned; and the pawnbroker shilt, at the time of taking the pawn, give to the person so pawning a duplicate, corresponding with the entry in the book, which the party pawning, shall take in all cases ; and the pawnbroker shall not receive any pledge, unless the party so pawning shall receive such duplicate. Rates payable for Duplicates. L. s. d. gratis. If under 5*. - bs. and under 10*. 10*. and under 20s. - - 1 20s. and under 5J. - - 2 51. and upwards - - 4 The duplicate to be produced to the pawnbroker before he shall bo compelled to redeliver the respective goods and chattels, except as herein-after excepted. The amount of profits on duplicates shall be added on pledges re- deemed, and such duplicate shall be kept by the pawnbroker for I year. Fersons pawning other people's goods without their consent, may be apprehended by the warrant of 1 justice, and convicted in a pe- nalty not exceeding 5/. nor less than 20s., and the full value of the goods pawned; and if the forfeiture be not immediately paid, the justice shall commit the party to the house of correction, to be kept to hard labour for 3 calendar months ; and if within 3 days before the expiration of the commitment the forfeiture shall not be paid, the justice may order the person to be publicly whipped, and the for- feitures shall be applied towards making satisfaction to the parly in- jured, and defraying the costs; but if the party injured shatl decline to accept such satisfaction and costs, or if there be any overplus, such forfeitures or overplus shall be paid to the poor of the parish. Persons forging or counterfeiting duplicates may be seized and de- livered to a constable, who shall convey them before a justice ; and, upon conviction, such person shall be committed to the house of cor- rection for anytime not exceeding 3 calendar months. Persons offering pledges, not givinira satisfactory account of them- selves, or the means by winch they became possessed of such goods, or wilfully giving any false information, or if there shall be reason to suspect that such goods are stolen, or illegally obtained, or if any person not entitled to redeem goods in pawn shall endeavour to re- deem the same, they may be seized and delixered to a constable, to be carried before a justice; and if there should appear ground for a second examination, thev shall be committed to the common gaol or house of correction, to be dealt with according to law; or where such proceedings are not authorised by the nature of the offence, the party shall be committed for any time not exceeding 3 calendar months. Persons buying or taking in pledge unfinished goods, linen, or ap- parel, intrusted to others to wash or mend, shall forfeit double the sum lent, and restore the goods. Peace officers are empowered to search for unfinished goods which shall be come by unlawfully. 280 PAWNBROKERS AND PAWNBROKING. An account of the sale of pledges for more than 10j. is to be entered by pawnbrokers in a book, and the surplus is to be paid to the owner of the goods pawned, it demanded within three yean of the sale, llty of lOi. ant treble the sum lent. Pawnbrokers are lo place in view the table of profits ; and their name and business is to be placed over the door, on penalty of 101. Pawnbrokers injuring goods, or selling them before l he lime speci- fied, she 1, upon application to a magistrate, be compelled lo make satisfaction fur the same; and if the satisfaclion awarded shall be equal to or exceed the principal and profits the pawnbroker shall deliver the goods pledged to the owners without being paid any thing for principal or profit. Pawnbrokers shall produce their books before a magistrate ; or, refusing so to do, shall forfeit a sum not exceeding 101. nor less than 51. Pawnbrokers offending against this act,shall forfeit for every offence not less than AOs. nor more than 10/. It has been held by the Court of King's Bench, thit a pawnbroker has no right to sell unredeemed pledges, after the expiration of a year : idi Ibl lime the goods were pledged, if, while they are in bis pn»- session, the origiml owner tender him the principal and interest due.— ((■fairer v. Sni Ifc, --' I of January, 1820.) On a motion for a new trial, Lord Tenterden said, "I am of op Dion, that if the pledge med >t the expiration of a year and a day, (and a ■ notice sivt- n ih?.t 3 months further are to be allowed for itsri i .option,) the I <'•■ nbrOKer has a rittht to expose it to sale so soon as he can, con- sistently with the provisions of the act; but if at any lime Uforetht sale has actually taken place the owner of the goods tender the prin- cipal ind interest aril expenses incurred, he has a right to his ^oods, and Ihe pawnbroker is not injured ; fir the power of sale is allowed him merely to secure lo him the money which he has i getlier with the high rate of interest which the law allows to him in his character of pawnbroker." When goods are unlawfully pawned, the pawnbroker is to restore them ; and their houses may be searched during the hours of busi- ness, by a warrant from a magistrate for the discovery of such pro- Persons producing notes or memorandums are to be deemed the owners of the property. — , . . . Where duplicates are lost, the pawnbroker, upon affidavit made by the owner of such loss before a magistrate, shall deliver another du- plicate. Goods pawned are deemed forfeited at the end of a year ; tint, on notice from persons having goods in pledge, 3 months further are to be allowed beyond the year for redemption ; such notice lo be given before the twelvemonth is expired. All goods pawned may be sold at the expiration of one whole year; and all goods so forfeited, on which above 10s. and not exceeding 10/. shall have been lent, shall be sold by public auction, an . wise; notice of such sale being twice given, at least 3 d ivs before Ihe auction, in a public newspaper, upon pain of forfeiting to the owner of the goods not more than 61. nor less than 2/. All pictures, prints, books, bronzes, statues, busts, carvings in ivory and marble, cameos, intaglios, musical, mathematical, and philoso- phical instruments, and china, shall be sold by themselves, and with out other goods, 4 times only in every year; viz. on the 1st Monday in Ja.-.uarv. April, Ju'y. and October, m every year. Pawnbrokers are not lo purchase goods while in their custody, nor take in pledges from persons under 12 sears of age, or nor take in any goods before 8 in the forenoon, cr after 8 in the even- ing between M ^oluitUnas-day and Lady-day. or before 7 in the fore- noon or after 9 in the evening during the remainder of the yi ar, ex- ceptil £ only until 1 1 on the evenings of Saturday, and the ev< ntrr,'s preceding GoJd Friday and Christmas-day and every fast or thanks- giving day. Such is the present state of the law with respect to pawnbrokers. On the whole, the regulations seem to be judiciously devised. Perhaps, however, the rate of interest on small deposits might be advantageously lowered. The law allows interest at the rate of \d. per month to be charged on loans of 2s. 6d., which is at the rate of 20 per cent. : but the same sum of hd. per month is exigible from all smaller loans; and as very many do not exceed Is. 6d., and even 6d., the interest on them is exceedingly oppressive. No doubt there is a great deal of trouble with respect to such loans; but still, considering the vast number of advances under 2s. 6d. it would seem that the interest on them might be somewhat reduced. Perhaps, too, it might be advisable, still better to secure compliance with the statute, to enact that no one should be licensed as a pawnbroker without producing sufficient security for a certain sum to be forfeited in the event of his knowingly or wilfully breaking or evading any of its provisions. This would prevent (what Dr. Colquhoun says is not an uncommon practice) swindlers from becoming pawnbrokers, in order to get the means of selling stolen goods. — (Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis, 2d ed. p. 156.) It would be a useful regulation to oblige pawnbrokers to insure against losses by fire. Much mischief has been occasioned by the neglect of this precaution. An Account of the Number of Pawnbrokers licenced in the Metropolis, and in the Country, with the Rates respectively charged on their Licences, and the Duty received on the same, in each of the Five Years ending the 5th of January, 1830.— {Pari. Paper, No. 681. Sess. 1830.) Taken out at the Head Office, London. Taken out in the Country. Tears ending Rate of Duty. dumber. Duty. Rate of Duty. Number. Duty. /.. s. L. s. L. i. L. i. 5th January - 1826 15 7 10 261 8 3,915 60 15 0? 7 10 J 7,010 — 1827 15 267 4,005 15 0) 7,223 7 10 37 10 7 10 J — 1828 15 7 10 274 7 4,110 52 10 15 0> 7 10 J 7,904 10 — 1829 15 411 6,lt;5 15 16 240 7 10 6 75 7 10 1,596 11,970 - 1830 15 295 4,425 15 47 705 7 10 7 52 10 7 10 1,038 7,785 The produce of each rate of duty not being distinguished in the distributors' accounts until the year ending the 5th of January, 1829, the number of licences cannot be given prior to that date for the country. 4. Notices of Pawnbroking in Italy, France, licine as a stimulant. — (Thomson's Dispensatory.) The price varies, including the duty, (6d.), from 25. to 2.s. 6(7. per lb. PENCILS (Ger. Pinsel,- Du. Pinseelen ,■ Fr. Pinceaux ,- It. Pennelli ,- Sp. Pinceles), the instruments used by painters in laying on their colours. They are of various kinds, and made of various materials ; some being formed of the bristles of the boar, and others of camel's hair, the down of swans, &c. PENCILS, BLACK LEAD. See Black Lead Pencils. PENKNIVES (Ger. Federmesser ,- Fr. Canifs ,• It. Temperini ,■ Sp. Corta plumas), small knives, too well known to need any particular description, used in making and mend- ing pens. The best and most highly ornamented penknives are manufactured in London and Sheffield. PENNY, formerly a silver, but now a copper coin. This was the first silver coin struck in England by our Saxon ancestors, being the 240th part of their pound ; so that its weight was about 22 i grains Troy. PENS (Fr. Plumes a, ecrire ,- Ger. Schreibfrdern ,- It. Penne da scrivere ,- Rus. Pera Stivoli), well known instruments for writing, usually formed of the quills of the goose, swan, or some other bird. Metallic pens have been occasionally employed for a lengthened period : but it is only within these few years that they have been extensively introduced. They first began to be largely manufactured by Mr. John Perry, of London. Mr. P. having succeeded in giving to his pens a greater degree of softness and elasticity than was possessed by any metallic pens previously in use, they speedily obtained a very extensive sale. This success brought crowds of rivals into the field ; so that metallic pens are now manufactured in vast quantities, and of an immense variety of forms. But though they have superseded, to a very considerable extent, the use of quills, and have some peculiar advantages, it does not appear possible to give them the elasticity of the quill, nor to fit them so well for quick and easy writing. PENNYWEIGHT, a Troy weigh', being the 20th part of an ounce, containing 24 grains. PEPPER (Fr. Poivre; Ger. Pfrffer,- Du. Peper ,■ It. Pepe ,- Sp. Pimicnta ,- Rus. Pe- rez,- Lat. Piper), the berry or fruit of different species of plants, having an aromatic, ex- tremely hot, pungent taste, used in seasoning, &c. The following sorts of pepper are met with in commerce : — I. Black Pepper (Fr. Poivre,- Ger. Schwarzm pfrffer,- It. Pepe negro,- Sp. Pimi- enta ,- Sans. Mercha,- Hind. Gol-mirch ,- Malay, Lada ,- Jav. Mariha), the fruit of a creep- ing plant (Piper nigrum), one of the pepper genus, of which there are upwards of 80 spe- cies. It is cultivated extensively in India, Siam, the Eastern islands, &c. It requires the support of other trees, to which it readily adheres. It climbs to the height of 20 feet; but is said to bear best when restrained to the height of 12 feet. It begins to produce at about the 284 PEPPER. 3d year, and is in perfection at the 7th ; continues in this state for 3 or 4 years ; and de- clines for about as many more, until it ceases to be worth keeping. The fruit grows abun- dantly from all the branches, in long small clusters of from 20 to 50 grains ; when ripe, it is of a bright red colour. After being gathered, it is spread on mats in the sun, when it loses its red colour, and becomes black and shrivelled as we see it. The grains are separated from the stalks by hand rubbing. That which has been gathered at the proper period shrivels the least ; but if plucked too soon, it will become broken and dusty in its removal from place to place. The vine produces two crops in the year; but the seasons are subject to great irregularities. Pepper should be chosen of a pungent aromatic odour, an extremely hot and acrid taste, in large grains, firm, sound, and with few wrinkles — for of these it always has some. Reject that which is shrivelled, or small grained, or which on being rubbed will break to pieces. In point of quality, the pepper of Malabar is usually reckoned the best; but there is no material difference between it and that of Sumatra, and the other islands. In the market of Bengal, where they meet on equal terms, the produce of Malabar is generally about 2 per cent, higher than the other. In Europe, there is generally a difference of id. per lb. in favour of Malabar ; but in China they are held in equal estimation. Black pepper sold ground, is said to be often adulterated with burnt crust of bread. II. White Pepper is made by blanching the finest grains of the common black pepper, by steeping them for a while in water, and then gently rubbing them, so as to remove the dark outer coat. It is milder than the other, and is much prized by the Chinese; but very little is imported into England. III. Cayenne Pepper is the produce of several varieties of the Capsicum, an annual plant, a native of both the Indies. The best, which is brought home from the West Indies ready prepared, is made from the Capsicum baccatum (bird pepper). It has an aromatic, extremely pungent, acrimonious taste, setting the mouth, as it were, on fire, and the impres- sion remaining long on the palate. It is sometimes adulterated with muriate of soda ; and sometimes with a very deleterious substance, the red oxide of lead ; but this fraud may be detected by its weight, and by chemical tests. — (See Chillies.) IV. Long Pepper. — This species is the produce of a perennial {Piper longutri), a native of Malabar and Bengal. The fruit is hottest in its immature state ; and is therefore gathered while green, and dried in the sun. It is imported in entire spikes, which are about 1| inch long. It has a weak aromatic odour, an intensely fiery pungent taste, and a dark grey colour. The root of long pepper is a favourite medicine among the Hindoos. The quantities of the last 3 species of pepper imported are quite inconsiderable, compared with the quantity of black pepper. — (Mi/burn's Orient. Com.; Ainslie's Mat. Indica ,■ Thomson!* Dispensatory, 4d. ditto 4s. 9d. per lb., and ) ditto ditto ditto 1813 Recort s destroyed. 1 per lb., and 32. 3s. 4ti per ( cent, ad valorem. 31. 3s. id. per cent. £■ ad valorem. } 4s. 9d. 9 l-2d. Is. Id. 1814 941,569 95,C6S 4 10 5 From 10th April, U.IOJAJ I per lb. J 5s. per lb. ditto lOd. ditto 1815 1.099,423 103.025 11 10 ditto ditto ditto "ditto ditto 1S'6 99,390 19 1 ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto JSI7 • 113,887 6 7 ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto 1818 l,4">7,363 125,093 15 6 ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto 1819 1,3 2,027 119,271 7 1 (From 5th Julv, it. 6d. ) l per lb. 5 2s. 6d. per lb. 2s. 6d. 2s. it. Gd. 1S20 1,404,021 14 174,063 2 9 ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto IS21 I 16,208 2 3 ditto di'to ditto ditto ditto 1822 1--'! 1,446,4001-4 1.308,9*3 179,586 11 4 170,627 6 8 ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto From 10th October, 2s. 6J. per lb. on all sorts. 1824 1,447,030 1-2 180.816 3 5 ditto iv.'-, 850,0-7 1-4 106,221 15 ditto 1S26 2,529,027 126,517 4 8 From 5th January, \s. per ]b. if from British possessions. 1-27 1,919,931 1-2 97,496 5 11 ditto 182-j 1,927,7181-2 96,467 12 5 ditto 1^29 1,933,641 96,725 19 2 ditto 1830 2,009,154 100,492 ditto 1831 2,050,052 102.639 ditto 1832 2,225,491 111,233 ditto Supply of Pepper. — The following instructive details with respect to the supply of pepper are taken from the Singapore Chronicle ; to which thoy were contributed by John Crawfurd, Esq. — than whom there can be no more competent authority as to such subjects. Of all the products of the Eastern islands, and of the countries immediately in their neighbourhood, in demand among strangers, black pepper is the most important, both in value and quantity. The pepper countries extend from about the longitude of 96° to that of 115° E., beyond which no pepper is to be found ; and they reach from 5° S. latitude to about 12° N., where it again ceases. Within these limits we have Sumatra, Borneo, the Malayan peninsula, and certain countries lying on tin- east coast of ihe Gulf of Siam. The whole produce of the island of Sumatra is estimated not to fall short of 168,000 piculs, of 133} lbs. each ; the south-west coast being said to produce 150,000, and the north-east coast 18,000 piculs. The pepper ports on the north-east coast of Sumatra are Lankat and Delli, with Sardang. The first 2 produce 15,000 piculs, and the latter 3,000 annually. The cultivation is carried on by the Batta nation in the interior. The purls on the south-west coast, and the amount of their produce, as given in a recent estimate, are as follow: viz. port and district of Trumah, 40,000; district of Pulo Dua, 4,000: ditto of float, 30,000 : coast from Tampat Titan to Susti, 33,000; port of Susu, 1,000 ; Kualla Batta, 20,000 ; Analabu, 2,000 j districts to the north of Analabu, 20,000; making in all, 150,000 piculs. Here it is of importance to remark, that the culture and production are extremely fluctuating. During the last pepper season, there obtained cargoes on the west coast of Sumatra, 27 American ships, 6 country traders, 4 large French ships, besides the ships belonging to the East India Company, which generally take away 500 tons. Nearly tint whole of this trade is in the hands of Europeans or Ameri- cans j the pepper finds its way to Europe, to America, and in a small proportion to China. The north-east coast of Sumatra, from Pedier down to the Carimons, is estimated, as already men- tioned, to produce Is, 000 piculs. Prince of Wales Island is the principal depdt for this, from whence the greatest part is exported to India and China. The produce of Prince of Wales Island itself is about 15.000 piculs. Of the islands at the mouth of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, Bingtang, on which Rhio is situated, and adjacent islands, produce 10,000 piculs ; and Lingga about 2,000. A large proportion of this is brought to Singapore, which exported last year about 21,000 piculs; some part to Bengal and China, but principally to Europe direct, in free traders. The west coast of the Malayan peninsula produces no pepper, with the exception of about 4,000 piculs afforded by the territory of Malacca. (In Ihe east coast of the peninsula, the production of pepper is very considerable. The ports of Pa- tani and Calantan — chiefly the latter — yield about 16.000 piculs annually, and Tringanu about 8,000. A portion of this is brought to Singapore and Penang ; but we believe the greater proportion goes di- rect to China in junks, of which 3 large ones frequent Tringanu annually, and 1 Calantan. The Ame- ricans, too, occasionally visit these ports. In the year 1821, 3 vessels of considerable burden obtained cargoes. The east coast of the Gulf of Siam, from the latitude of 10'° to that of 121° N., affords an extensive produce of pepper. This coast is scarcely known, even by name, to the traders of Europe. The prin- cipal ports here are Chantibun, Ttingyai, Pongsoin, and Kampop ; the first 2 being under the dominion of Siam, and the latter under that of Katnboja. The whole produce is estimated at not less than 60,000 piculs ; 10,000 of which are brought at once to the capital of Siam as tribute to the kin;;, and the whole finds its way to China in junks. It remains only to estimate the produce of the island of Borneo. The wliule produce of Borneo is estimated at about 20,000 piculs ; of which a large share is carried to China 286 PERCH, PETERSBURGH. direct in junks, some by Portuguese vessels ; and about 7,000 piculs are now annually brought by the native craft of the country itself to Singapore in the course of that free trade, which is happily flou- rishing at this settlement. Tlie data which have been stated, will enable us to estimate the whole production of the Malayan Archipelago, including that of the peninsula of Malacca, and that of the cast coast of the Cull" of Siam. as 308,000 piculs ; and as there is no other part of the world that affords pepper, excepting the western coast of the peninsula of India, and this affords but 30,000 piculs, or less than l-10th part of what the places we have enumerated produce, we have, accordingly, at one view, the whole production of the earth, being 3.18.000 piculs, or 45,000,666 lbs. avoirdupois. The average price of pepper has heen lately ahoul 9 Spanish dollars a picul ; so the whole value drawn into India from Europe, China, and the New World, on account of this single commodity, is 3,042,000 dollars. The quantity given in this statement may appear enormous ; but if meted out to the whole population of the globe, or to 1 .OdO.OOO.OOO of people, it would be found that the average annual consumption of an individual would amount to no more than 323 grains. Mr. (raw ford lias very recently supplied us with a revised estimate of the production of pepper as follows : — Ua. Sumatra (west coasl) 20,000.000 Siam Do. east coast) 8,000.00(1 Malabar Islands in the Straits of Malacca 3,600,000 Malay peninsula - 3.733,333 2,666,667 Total - 50,000,000 The localities in the previous estimate are quite correct ; and we, therefore, did not think it would be ri»ht to suppress it. But. though this may be depended upon as being a fair statement of what has been, till a compara- tively late period, the average supply of pepper, the extreme depression of price has occasioned a very considerable decline in the production of some of the places mentioned above, within the last 4 or 5 years. The lale advance of price will, however, probably, check any further diminution of produc- tion. But though prices were to rise still more considerably than they have done, the effect on the supply, owing to the plant requiring a few years to come to maturity, may not, at first, be so great as might he supposed. (The duty on pepper, has been reduced from Is. to 6r7. per lb.; a reduction that will doubtless lead to a very material increase of consumption. — (6 & 7 Will. 4. cap. 60.) — Sup.) [See Imports and Exports. — Am. Ed.] PERCH, a long measure, 16£ feet in length. — (See Weights and Measures.) PERMIT, a licence or instrument, granted by the officers of excise, authorising the re- moval of goods subject to the excise duties. It is enacted hy the 11 Geo. 3. c. 30., that no person shall demand or receive a permit for the removal of brandy, arrack, rum, spirits, and strong waters, coffee, tea, and cocoa nuts, without the special di- rection i» tenting of the person out of whose stock they are to come, on pain of forfeiting 501. ; and in default of payment, to be imprisoned 3 months. Persons taking out a permit, and not removing the goods within the prescribed period, nor returning the permit to the officer, forfeit treble the value of the goods mentioned in such permit. By the 57 Geo. 3. c. 123., persons selling, lending, or making use of a permit for any other purpose than that for which it was granted, forfeit 5001. By the 6 Geo. 4. c.80. $ 116. it is enacted, that any retailer of spirits sending out more than one gallon without a lawful per- mit; any rectifier, compounder, or dealer, receiving into his stock any spirits without a permit ; or any carrier, boatman, nr other person, assisting in the removal or transportation of any spirits with- out a permit ; shall forfeit 200Z. over and above every other penalty, together with all such spirits : the packages, carts, horses, Sec. employed in the removal of such goods shall also be forfeited, and may and shall be seized by any officer of excise. The 9 Geo. 4. c. 44. £ 5. dispenses with the necessity of a permit for the removal of coffee and cocoa. The commissioners of excise provide frames or moulds for making the paper used for permits, which has the words " Excise Office" visible in the substance of it. It is a capital offence to make such frames, or to have them in one's possession without a lawful excuse. These reiulations will, it is most probable, be speedily modified ; the commissioners of excise inquiry, of whom Sir Henry Parnell is chairman, having recommended the abolition of permits in case or the removal of tea, and some other articles. PERRY, a fermented liquor made from pears, in the same manner as cider from apples. The pears best fitted for producing this liquor are exceedingly harsh and tart; but it is itself pleasant and wholesome. — (See Cider.) PETERSBURGH, the modern metropolis of the Russian empire, situated at the con- fluence of the river Neva with the eastern extremity of the Gulf of Finland, in lat. 59° 56' 23" N., Ion. 30° 18|' E. Population (including military) 480,000. This flourishing emporium was founded by Peter the Great, whose name it bears, in 1703. In the same year, the first merchant ship that ever appeared on the Neva arrived from Holland ; and the czar, to mark his sense of the value of such visiters, treated the captain and crew with the greatest hospitality, and loaded them with presents. In 1714, 16 ships arrived at Petersburgh; in 1730, the number had increased to 180; and so rapid has been the pro- gress of commerce and civilisation in Russia since that period, that, at present, from 1,200 to 1,500 ships annually enter and clear out from Petersburgh ! It is much to be regretted, that, although favourable to commerce, the situation of Peters- burgh is, in other respects, far from being good. The ground on which it stands is low and swampy; it has, on different occasions, sustained great injury from inundations ; and the country round is, generally speaking, a morass and forest, so that almost every thing re- quired for the subsistence of the inhabitants must be brought from a distance. No one less bold and daring than Peter the Great would have thought of selecting such a situation for the metropolis of his empire ; and none possessed of less power and resolution could have succeeded in overcoming the all but insuperable obstacles which the nature of the country opposed to the completion of his gigantic schemes. Cronsladt, situated on a small island about 20 miles W. of Petersburgh, may, in some measure, be considered as the port of the latter. Almost all vessels bound for Petersburgh PETERSBURGII. 287 touch here ; and those drawing above 8 feet water load and unload at Cronstadt ; the goods being conveyed from and to the city in lighters, the charges of which vary according to the demand at the time. The merchants' harbour at Cronstadt is fitted to contain about 600 ships ; but it is exposed to the westerly winds. Cronstadt is strongly fortified, and is the principal station of the Russian fleet. Vessels bound for Petersbui;gh must pass by the narrow channel to the south of the island, commanded by the fortifications of Cronstadt orr the one side, and of Cronslot on the other. The woodcut on the next page, taken from the official survey published by the Russian government, gives a better idea of the situation of Petersburgh, Cronstadt, &c. than could be derived from any description. Trade, 3 poods of hemp, flax, tal- low, iron, copper, and ashes ; 44 poods of bristles, isinglass, leather, and wax ; 5 dozen of deals ; 3,50) hare skins ; 8 chetwerts of wheat or linseed ; and 60 pieces of sail-cloth. The following regulations for the importation of foreign goods are strictly enforced : All goods imported must be accompanied by the following docu- ments: — 1. The declaration of the captain, according to the form ordered by the Custom-house. 2. An attestation from the Russian consul, and where there is no consul, from the Custom house of the place, of the quantity and qua- lity of the goods, and a declaration that ihey are not the produce, ma- nufacture, or property of an enemy's country. 3. Bills of lading of all goods, in which the weight, measure, or quantity of each package must be specified. In case the bills of la/ting are not exactly after this regulation, the goods pay double duty as a line. In case more is found ttuUD specified in the bill of lading, the surplus is confiscated ; if less is found, the duty must be paid on the quantity specified. Of wine, it is not sufficient to specify the number of pipes or hogsheads only, but also their contents in gallons, &c. Of lemons, the number in each box must be specified. Of ma- nufactured goods, the measure of each piece must be specified, and the number of pieces in each bale. It is indifferent whether the gross or thenett weight be specified. If the packages be all of the same weight, measure, or contents, a general specification will do, as for example, 100 casks alum, of 17 lispound each. Of dye woods, the weight of the whole need only be mentioned. Of goods of small bulk, as pepper, &c, it is sufficient to state the weight of every 5 or 10 bales, but with specification of the numbers. There must not be any erasures or blots in the bill of lading. All goods not accompa- nied by these documents, or where the documents are not according to the above regulations, will be sent back. Bills of lading may be made out either to some house, or to order. The following charges have been fixed by the merchants of Petersburgh :— Per cent. Commission on sales and purchases • 2 Extra charges on all goods - - 1 Commission and extra charges for goods delivered up - - - 2 Brokerage on sales and purchases • 1-2 Ditto on bills - - - - 1-4 Ditto on freight, per ton, 60 copecks. Stamps - - - - 38 Per cent. Clnrges on duty, paid inwards - 4 Ditto, paid outwards • • * 4 Commission for collecting freight, or average inwards - - - 3 Cmiimiwi'ju for procuring freight out- warts 2 For clearances, 40 roubles. Dues to be paid to the church, 10 roubles each vessel. Clearing of ships, of or tinder 25 lasts each, 40 roubles each vessel. 2'> to •.Odo. 60 — B0 - 75 BO 100 - 100 100— 150 • 150 150 or above, 200 Tare on Goods exported, as fixed by the Custom-house. Dry Goods. Per i In barrels or chests • In sacks .... In mats, or sacks made of mats Except Muscovy leather, of which is deducted Dry Goods. Per cent In barreii or chests - - - 10 In vessels of glass or earthenware - 20 In sacks • • • - 2 Moist Goods. Pressed ( Soap - Meat and salt fish Tallow Moist Goods. Honey Treacle All other moist goods Tare on Goods Imported. Dry Goods. Per cent. I Dry Goods. In double sacks - • - 4 In sacks and mats together - In mats - - - - 3 1 In baskets Per cent • 5 - i PETERSBURG!!. 291 Moist Goods imported— The following are some of the tares specified in the tariff:— 34 — 20 — - 20 per cent. Olive oil in casks - - - • - • 17 per cent of Italy, in flasks and straw of France, in flasks and carthenw; Salt fish in barrels And generally on all moist goods in Inrrels in glass and earthen ware • Miscellaneous Goods. Cotton tsvist in bales ... in chests and barrels Bills drawn in Russia, and payable after date, are allowed 10 days' grace : but it payable at sight, 3 days only: Sundays and holidays are included in both cases. The Julian calendar, or old style, is still retained throughout Russia. This is twelve days later than the new style ; and in leap-years, 13 days, after the month of February. Port Charges payable on British Ships at the Port of Petersburg!! Cochineal must be weighed triken from the cask* ; far - - poods - - - - - * "2 lbs, sacks of from 2 to 3 1-2 poods - • 1 Indigo in serons ; every seron of from 5 1-2 to 7 poods ....--- in 1-2 serons, 2 1-2 to 4 poods of Guatemala in boxes ( from J to 51 61 1 71 mi 111 121 131 ] 141 1 151 lfil 171 1-1 191 201 211 221 2!! 241 251 261 Lasts 30 40 R 60 1! 70 80 n ft. 90 ft. 100 1! Mil ft. 120 1! 130 R 140 150 160 ft. ft. ft. 170 R. 180 ft. i:«i ft. 100 ft. 2111 ft. 220 230 1240 ft. 2 41 ft. a H. ft. ft. Lastage - 1! 16 H> 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 :V 56 60 | 64 68 72 76 80 81 -.s '.12 96 60 60 60 60 60 6J 60 6J 60 60 60 60 1 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 Clearing passes i n Cron- in in 10 10 10 in 10 10 10 in in 10 10 in in 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 in 10 Address money 40 50 fiO 50 60 M) 60 70 70 70 Mi 80 90 90 100 100 110 110 120 12 l 130 IS 20 25 30 35 4(1 45 50 55 6n 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 1 IU 11:, LJU 6 7 9 II 1?, 14 16 17 19 21 23 24' 26 28 29 31 33 34 36 Do. expedition Company's agent zn 25 3n 35 40 15 50 1 55 60 Hfi 711 75 1 80 85 90 95! 100 106 110 6 8 10 12 14 .6 18 1 20 22 21 26 23 1 30 32 34 36 1 3S 4i 42 44 4b Total - Roubles 168 1% 214 232 259 277 29s|322,340 358 386 403 -131 449 176 491,522 :,».< 567 5S5 613 630 658 676 rj)3 Ships cleared out from Petersburgh during the Nine Years ending with 1833. Years. 1825. 1826. 1827. 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. Floss. British - American Other nations - Total - Ships. 801 76 411 Shi-pi. 483 57 405 Ships. 7.53 64 415 Ships. 749 66 475 Ships. 831 62 605 Ships. 753 46 634 Ships. 910 58 630 Ships. 710 69 602 Ships. 696 62 481 "1.239 1,283 945 1.232 1 1,290 1 1,498 ' 1,483 1,598 1,381 The trade of Petersburgh is exhibited in the following Tables : I. Official Statement of the Trade of Petersburgh in 1833. Imports. Exports. Total. Principal Articles. Duty paid. Principal Articles. Duty paid. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Valuation. Roubles, c. Poods, lbs. Roubles, c. Roubles, c. Gold and silver 27,581,954 35 Hemp 1,990,334 10 16,067,003 21 Cotton twist - 476,584 8 39,235,804 45 Flax 247,511 23 raw - 81,731 16 2,127,491 Potashes 464,873 5 2,917,415 20 Coffee - 104,367 25 4,829,616 52 Tallow 4,069,926 37 41,761,031 91 Sugar, raw - 1,279,213 6 29,914,4*2 23 candles 36,607 33 498,957 22 Spfces- 13,441 35 661,745 25 Leather, unwrought 96,189 13 Silken manufactures . 1,707 25 3,962,568 Jufts 32,009 16 1,283,191 70 Woollen do. ■ 10,913 22 6.163,212 50 Iron 897,723 3 6,481,721 68 Cotton do. 10.467 4 3,521,841 90 Copper 218,698 in 8,386 879 Flaxen do. 509 25 466,5i5 Bristles 60,328 5.926,665 94 Wine in casks 111,136 5,829,925 25 Cordage and cables 251,488 14 1,991,148 68 in bottles 395,808 2,220,324 60 Linens 205,736 8,068,195 Spirituous liquors 6,914 788,629 50 Grain 17,015 473,495 99 Apothecaries' drugs - 1,534,476 45 Other articles . 19,960,705 77 Outer articles • Total - Of the above were 40,410,226 84 Total - 169,148,853 84 116,954,950 29 286,103,804 13 merchants - . 129,565,130 8E . - 71,385,444 67 200,950,575 55 by foreign guests - - 39,172,525 42 . - 45,083,812 73 84,256,338 15 by passengers and captains Value of exports fall - 411,197 54 • • 485,692 89 896,890 43 short of that of im- ports • . . . 62,193,903 55 In 1832 they amounted 156,976,657 80 • • - 113,543,825 82 In 1833 they increased by - - 12,172,196 4 ' 3,411,124 47 [I. Official Account of the Values of the Imports into and Exports from Petersburgh, with the Produce of the Custom Duty thereor , in each Year since 1800. Years. Imports. Exports. Duties. Years. Imports. Exports, Duties. Roubles. Rmibles. R'mbles. Roubles. Roubles. Roubles. 1800 20,070,935 32,255,354 1 4,931,506 1817 118,743,838 100,704,113 20,986,305 1801 27,074,118 31,110,996 5,684,229 1818 151,258,904 100,675,732 23,163,291 1802 24,735,783 30,695,561 6,312,509 1819 111,106,315 84,998,642 20,623,839 1803 22,846,472 31,893,082 7,079,395 1820 168,256,897 105,085,920 29,747,994 1804 21,008,478 29,565,661 6,972,520 1821 135,420,718 100,631,073 25,707,705 1805 20,478,047 30,151,653 6,085,222 1822 104,166,738 97,932,190 21,656,056 1806 18,710,234 28,997,388 5,230,300 1823 105,969,720 104,070,326 22,386,579 1807 16,114,443 28,945,545 4,982,461 1824 120,423,890 97,729,518 27,012,661 1808 1,452,223 5,875,696 918,056 1825 115,164,068 121,174,898 30,056,764 1809 5,159,798 20,314,406 2,277,908 1826 120,188,634 91,591,514 31,633,413 1810 10,058,485 25,798,279 3,204,847 1827 126,666,415 116,791,217 34,503,722 1811 25,472,332 39,838,862 5,562,332 1828 131,480,572 107,207,647 36,058,514 1812 41,739,114 59,626,165 10,023,966 1829 149,135,403 107,428,928 41,184,631 1813 80,613,958 55,173,681 15,475,972 1830 144,899,905 111,255,171 37,597,566 1814 75,169,453 92,768,886 11,905,177 1831 150,303,541 115,958,678 43,118,367 1815 65,961,238 107,989,493 1 40,684,924 1832 156,976,657 113,543,825 48,267,378 1816 1 90,204,829 77,766,729 13,908,416 1833 169,146,853 116,954,950 50,098,914 292 PETERSBURGH. III. Official List of Goods cleared for Exportation at the Petersburgh Custom-house, during the Six Years ending with 1835. Articles. 1830. 1831. 1S32. 1833. 1634. 1835. Bristles, cut - - poods 855 60S 464 947 722 1,323 Uka'ka 3,776 4,5S0 5,764 6,613 2,637 5.664 1st sort - — 26.925 30,130 23,434 29,490 18,565 14,326 2d cort - — 16.6-6 16,115 13,165 11,440 9,782 102265 Suchoi 13,074 15,619 15,071 11,635 10,217 14,698 all other . — - . 1,102 3,115 Cantharides - 670 921 594 832 638 1,656 Castnreum: Russia * - lbs. . 16 37 Caviar - - poods 60' 319 584 463 198 149 Copper - — 180,581 77,3-4 143,343 2I2.5SS 281,120 180,423 Cordage, new - - — 55,951 34.129 8",b01 189,580 69,640 05,217 old - - — 56,036 55,6 5 42,325 61,907 109,958 67,952 Down, eider - - lbs. 156 14 161 15 goose - • poods 183 41 264 223 1,263 851 goats' • 5.414 590 3,887 4,160 1.498 3,119 Feathers - — 9,281 10,791 18,505 24,077 35.839 31,759 Flax, 12 head - - — 126.519 10,656 2(1,507 7,521 5,703 697 9 head - 252.265 103,911 265.W93 I3",lb4 150.546 85,755 6 held - - — 120,149 59,290 185,075 102,826 1072201 76,010 codilla • 94,653 123 089 69.031 106,139 75.400 64,095 yarn - - — 18,266 17,2-0 16 857 8,9 2 13,330 9,812 Furs: Ermine- • pieces 2 4 Squirrel - — 1,455 1,783 2.621 765 3 1,010 1,899 Galls . - poods 469 486 3-4 154 13 Glue - - — 1.690 4,596 4,124 3,112 1,561 1,536 Grain: Barley chtwts 1,513 6,507 Oats . 8,609 79.198 10 Rve - • — 126,094 176.649 59,800 3.226 4 Wheat 243,536 397,915 142,560 13,334 2 Gum, ammoniac ■ poods 61 178 29 22 13i galbauum . — 42 22 22 1 Hair, camel . — 7 23 10 379 goats' 1.033 138 76 453 1,568 ox and cow 2,176 496 4.735 642 Hemp, clean - — 633,363 803,791 907.254 1,050,454 878,017 896,029 oulshot 532.731 454,274 382,802 371,696 337/25 441,145 half-clean — 303.716 281,315 547,013 568,183 679,725 662.393 codilla — 26,"32 68,499 46,526 11,319 28,527 19,772 yarn - 191 242 1.-22 2.101 6,374 Hides, raw, cow — 71,965 95.924 107,462 63,136 116.697 73,670 horse 39,742 8.014 9,488 6,137 66,631 32.663 ox — 27,044 41,046 14.900 3,597 10.608 6,812 red - 22,903 14,197 19,494 30,049 39.039 9,6>4 white - — 1,390 2,501 2,591 1,947 3,533 2,161 black • 26 96 63 12 37 30 dressed - pieces 285 150 5 128 44 502 Horse manes - poods 10,901 5,150 9,796 12,470 11,484 22,489 tails 8.496 5,129 6,053 11,385 8,860 9,994 Iron, in bars ■ — 658,783 901,611 1,203,766 828,315 490,445 796,46s blocks 2,223 1,452 1,775 4, "6 1,243 9,096 sheets - — 1,856 19.395 36,304 64,521 13.613 62.039 old — 22,133 26.890 29,247 26 575 40,334 30,569 Isinglass 3,175 4,303 3,963 3,619 3,713 3,823 Samovy — 1,011 I.22S 2,052 1,910 1,840 2,023 Liquorice 1,923 1,216 2,443 4,790 2.574 688 Manufactures: Flems- pieces 65,327 76. A 25 6I.S02 68,121 62,672 6", 179 Ravens-duck 43,506 46.497 66, (-97 75,465 68,461 81,328 Sailcloth 40,663 50.953 50,298 62,150 56,179 66 446 Diaper, broad arsh. 1,465,229 2^-5,866 1,282,9 1,762.430 2,04 8>48 2,777.097 narrow 57,65'J 2 .2,51 1 370,658 154,081 190,S47 163,016 Linen, broad — 60 70,025 1I0.55S 57,261 2,062 narrow 1,000 112,500 3. 00 191,703 Drillings 333,457 17,452 189,496 114,813 11 -.625 322,343 Crash- — 1,111,301 1,125.-26 1,240,101 1,694,806 1,005,844 1,700,332 Meal, rve htwts. 10,007 8,205 20 5 ir 470 wheat - 2,055 1,720 226 201 76* 32 Musk, Siberia - lbs. . 174 10 Oil, aniseed - poods 57 19 39 9 hemp seed — 490,527 153.423 243,829 2C2.168 269.322 88,518 linseed • 582 1,724 3,865 356 526 230 Potashes — 639,21-7 63I,5f0 408.994 464,873 367.771 345,297 Quills .... 1,000 19,507 27,221 35.776 56,757 67,773 54,-40 Rhubarb - - poods 462 531 158 335 22S 346 Seeds : Aniseed — 8,662 3,801 2,861 3,3*4 1,483 2,217 Cumin-seed - 2,295 921 2,399 6,559 3,603 5,396 Hemp seed - < htwts. 727 570 123 135 40 12 I.inseed — 181,252 212,619 151,193 156.222 145,291 237,944 Worm-seed poods 587 410 1,021 1,63.8 1,5-7 733 Skins: Calf - — 5,003 6,029 1,4 '4 23,215 30,2-7 21,777 dressed - pieces 6SS 278 1,122 1,320 3,261 8,633 Ba'iger- 1,655 3,528 711 401 1.045 998 Cat - — 953 2,330 361 1.604 900 1,636 F.rmine 64.590 14." 1 2,190 16,757 55.i;;o 49.500 Hare, gray — 108,589 1,000 81.246 93,370 37,6-0 71,730 white - — 60,840 118,260 33,640 408,667 635.3 1 69,-150 Sable - 255 92 32 340 818 391 Squirrel — 146,744 280,500 428,945 334,016 318,199 600, IC6 Soap .... poods 8,936 7,131 7,695 1,875 12,178 Sik leather - 2,978 3,346 3,366 911 678 603 laib - pieces I.705J380 2,143,640 1,915,600 1,500.310 1.9-5,410 933 354 Tallow poods 3,579.22') 3,518,140 3,717,416 4."' 9,! 26 3,721,238 2,631,192 candles 36,545 A 148 31,677 3 .607 19. 3i 15,225 War, whi'e - 6,514 5,024 3,690 6,711 106 2 yell w - — 6.S94 3 129 1,058 2,490 705 559 candles - 379 233 298 211 161 173 Woods : Hatlens pieces 32,830 174,368 115,84S 90,291 81,109 161,715 Beams 11 151 10 14 204 Deals — 669,000 657,394 514.319 603.640 754,866 5-4.332 Lalhwood 83 987 34,824 I64.06S 57,635 99.842 123.687 Wool, Sheep - poods 8,664 26,868 38, 711 65,979 3'i>70 42.799 woollen yarn - : :■ 904 1.019 2,881 2,465 2,184 Sundry goods, per value Total value roub. Roub. 1,(21.633 985,243 1,087,718 1,839,071 4.29VW6 111,255,171 115,958 673 1132543.825 | 116,954,950 119,44! BIS 107,030,066 1 The navigation opened in 1632 on the 1 5th of April. — — 1633 - 26th — — closed in 1832 - 14ih of November. — — 1633 - 2d of December. In 1S33, Ibe first ship arrived was American, on the 26'h of April. _ _ sail,,! . Prussian • 71hofMay. — last arrived - Prus-ian • 30 h of Nov. — — tailed - British - 27th — PETERSBURGH. 293 IV.. Account of the Quantities of the Principal Articles of Foreign Produce imported into Petersburgh in each of the Four Years ending with 1835. Articles. 1832. 1833. 1 834. 1835. Articles. 1832. 1833. 1834. 1835. Alum - poods 15,253 63,814 25,06 63,594 Pepper - poods 6,642 8,642 9,390 7,570 Almonds 17,767 10,190 9,792 18,781 Pimt-nto 2,004 690 841 184 Annatto 1,443 230 613 1,394 Porter hhds. 583 735 667 873 Brandy ankers 859 931 696 248 Do. - bottles 4,840 2,400 6,760 4,746 Brimstone poods 20,085 101,986 80,799 151,271 Quercitron bark poods 17,975 6,687 6,270 27,176 Camphor 2,118 2,595 556 193 Quicksilver- 1,618 1,062 1,463 1,157 Cinnamon and cassia Rice 25,809 49,820 21,425 31.610 lignea — 1,996 1,453 252 374 Rum ankers 7,289 7,l>27 7,144 3,723 Cloves 734 316 360 16 Saillower - poods 2,031 3,969 1,786 3,101 Cochineal — 1,661 3,768 2,436 3,312 Saffron lbs. 774 1,107 579 627 Cocoa or chocolate ni ts — 3,036 1,628 35 1,634 Sago poods 202 240 63C 74 Coffee — 101,350 111,638 94,728 78,32iU SaJ ammoniac — 2,801 3,121 1.642 2,99!i Cotton, raw - 70,168 84,742 110,786 167,9828 Salt - 390,891 666,411 428.35C 349,440 Cotton goods, viz. 1 Sarsaparilla- — 3,814 5,345 4,679 6.268 Cambrics - pieces 155,082 99,210 44,69S 106,318 Shumac — 23,129 13,116 10,422 10,139 Muslins and hand Skins, bear - pieces 1,516 981 18S 813 kerchiefs — 43,081 33,754 28,237 26,610 racoon — 50,394 43,612 19,185 43,439 printed Velveteens & velve — 8,357 15,190 3,598 4,929 Sugar, raw, Brazil Do. Havannah poods 21,697 29,405 47,491 7,844 s — 1,3,9 8,321 8,839 7,669 — 1,357,726 1,353,167 1,179,837 1,048,221 Fruits: Lemons boxes 18,311 27,858 22,635 25,744 Do. all other kinds 6,621 484 450 18,417 Oranges, sweet — 20,234 42,581 33,89-i 52,549 Tin- — 33,880 29,034 19,883 15,902 Do. bitter - 808 907 603 1,111 Twist, dyed 23,889 20.495 10,393 4,427 Raisins poods 3,700 3,035 8,861 3,975 undyed — 541,014 532,654 441,916 575,612 Gums, Arabic anc Wine, Champagne bottles 376,587 423,927 393,441 329,051 Senegal — 10,959 5,809 4,574 9,530 Fiench hhds. 13,911 9,159 6,559 10,472 Benjamin - 803 795 320 609 Port, and Span. pipes 4,124 6,058 4,215 4,379 copal 951 1,189 2,074 3,885 Rhenish • 1,365 1,031 1,100 867 gutti or gamboge — 170 157 97 51 Woods, Brazil, Nicho- olibanum • — 5,392 6,121 3,521 11,962 las, and St. Martha poods 76,328 98,264 100,301 116,862 Indigo Lead, in pigs — 30,726 24,253 23,935 22,727 dye, rasped — 4,824 1,782 2,965 6,507 235,8 II 121,501 128,643 156,773 fustic 6,411 54,294 104,858 52,176 in sheets — 10,367 17,866 12, ',91 16 420 logwood - — 274,523 504,373 164,421 156,086 Mace - lbs. 437 249 863 3,716 mahogany 36,846 6S,571 61,152 56,865 Madder poods 75,077 36,312 68,023 1 17,376 Woollen goods, viz Manganese * 14,731 21,873 16,413 19,562 Camlets - pieces 37,744 25,753 24,535 21,143 Nutmegs 87 34 85 66 Carpets - 502 712 398 750 Oil apothec, & scent Cloth — 7,037 2,952 2,705 2,658 ed, with the vessels 855 737 698 995 Kerseymere 816 321 508 411 salad and ordinary — 125,532 110,072 149,005 122,'3iis Ladies' cloth — 2,356 996 365 178 V. Official Statement of the Trade of the principal Russian Cities in 1830 and 1831. Places. Imports. Exports. Duties. 1830. | 1831. 1830. 1831. 1830. 1831. Petersburgh - 131,943,177 150,303,541 111,255,172 115,958,678 37,597,567 | 43,11S,367 Narva - 207,642 209,570 715,740 939.40S No returns. Moscow 3,382,556 4,949,042 469,019 883,942 662,107 925,508 Reval - 1,838,948 1,565,622 1,062,560 1,074,744 No re turns. Hapsal 9,805 32,752 193,917 255,306 12,726 18,517 Kunda 93,529 65,935 54,270 57,041 1,084 1S,680 Riga - 15,853,598 ' 14,125,895 45,059,132 56,267,269 7,491,643 7,195,081 Archangel 1,188,096 1,155,872 11,935,088 12,829,710 1,344,872 1,453,321 Odessa 23,450,121 21,169,121 27,031,960 20,063,953 3,641.073 3,520,851 Taganrog 4,528,854 6,410,552 8,395,647 9,403,298 1,387,123 1,838,437 Libau - 562,543 584,318 3,455,589 5,065,115 648,127 449,078 Windau 69,708 65,254 461,344 465,498 No returns. Pernau 262,765 259,903 2,456,956 2,313,410 413,955 1 324,158 Arensburg 24,728 15,993 265,272 378,855 51,912 29,643 Radziviloff - No returns. Nor turns. 1,677,604 | 997,348 VI. Official Statement of the British and Foreign Shipping at the Port of Petersburgh, during the Year ending the 31st of December, 1833. ■ Of what Countries. Win- tered, 1832. Arrived in 1833. Sailed. Lastage. Wintering. New built l M \ Part Car - Goods. In Bal- last. Total. At the Ports Of Ships arrived. Of Ships sailed. In Peters- burgh. In Cron- stadt. Peters- burgh. Cron- stadt. New Ships. Peters. Cron. Great Britain America Bremen Hamburgh - Hanover Spain Holland Denmark Lubeck Mecklenburg Naples Norway Oldenburgh • Prussia Portugal Russia Rostock Sardinia France Swedec Total . In 1832 In 1833 a de- crease of - 4 3 9 4 2 r 372 58 16 7 15 2 25 26 38 5 2 41 7 51 1 25 4 37 31 32 2 2 14 1 10 19 4 3 290 3 14 11 9 '2 1 16 8 1 14 10 694 62 17 8 31 2 38 49 43 7 2 42 8 77 1 52 5 57 41 30 11 4 30 34 29 31 7 22 7 61 16 6 20 31 664 61 6 4 2 4 20 12 2 20 1 16 1 36 1 35 13 10 3 696 62 17 8 30 2 34 47 46 7 2 42 7 83 1 48 5 1 57 44 72,164 9,2223-4 1,1761-2 3251-2 1,461 1 2 218 1,877 2,255 2,412 1-2 2931-2 259 2,086 306 4,432 129 1-2 11,1633-4 2541 4 140 4,099 1,824 72,1071-2 9,2223-4 1,1761-2 325 1-2 1,421 1-2 218 1,670 2,191 2,626 293 1-2 259 2,086 274 4,7943 4 129 1-2 10,746 254 1-2 140 4,208 1,824 1 4 1 6 1 1 14 2 1 I 4 29 7 764 94 380 1,238* 1,404 166 339 899 10 3 1,239 1,381 124 116,0991-2 115,9671-2 8 Remarks on Tables. — It would appear from the above Tables, that the trade of Petersburgh has in- creased with extraordinary rapidity since 1812. But though its increase since that epoch has been very considerable, it has not been by any means so great as might be inferred from the previous statements. * Of these, 155 ships brought coals. 294 PETERSBURGH. The reason is, that the returns are all made in paper roubles ; and that they have borne a much lower value, as compared with silver, since 1812, than they did previously. Since 1826, however, the value of the paper rouble has been pretty constant ; and in the interval there has been a considerable in- crease of trade. We have no doubt, indeed, that the commerce of Russia is yet only in its infancy ; and that it will continue to increase according as the increase of population and the slow but gradual progress of civilisation develope the gigantic resources of this great country. It is reasonable, too, to suppose that this developemeiit will be accelerated by the adoption of a more liberal system of commer- cial policy. Trade and Navigation of the Russian Empire in 1834. Account of the Total Values, as per Price Currents, of the different Articles exported from Russia to Foreign Countries in 1831, and of those imported by her from the same; specifying the Exports to and Imports from each Country. 1 Couutries. Experts. Imports. Countries. Exports. Imports. Countries. Exports, j Imports. Sweden Pru«,a Denmark Elsinore Hattse Towns Holland Rouble*. Roubles. 3. M.423 3.5S6.108 12.722.4-8 16,451,597 6,2,9.-31 [ 2,498,632 l,43-',0S9 5,314, ^12 1 27/71,719 8,992,937 6.205,153 Great Britain France Spain and Por- tugal Italy - Rouble*. 105,577,812 10,671,770 1,099,565 3,821,476 10,542,600 Roubles. 63,536,295 12,530,647 4,507,750 4,151,319 11,158,752 Turkey A»ia . America Other places - Total ■ Roubles. 16.516,568 17,496,'4S 10,673,266 2,719,661 A'- uhlcs. 18.4 1 8,636 21,833,156 21,210,234 284,630 217,322,446 214,324,630 General View of the Foreign Trade of the Russian Empire in 1831. Exports. Articles for consumption - — manufacture - — manufactured Sundries . Gold and silver Value per price currents - Excess of imports - Value per declarations Excess of imports - Average value Excess of imports • RiOibles. 8,635,951 170,023,836 13,901 ,2S6 7,264,243 8,192,4S8 Roubles. 1,159,363 3,990,250 8,407,755 3,y'S,7?7 453,905 208,018,786i 17,950,053 222,441,648 17,950,053 215,230,217 17,950,053 Total. A' atbla. 9,796,3 1 7 174/114.1*6 22.309,(23 11,203,020 6,646,393 2-'5,968,«39 6,820,015 240,391,701 25,027,817 233,160,270 16,923,916 Articles for consumption • — manufacture- — manufactured Sundries - Gold and silver Confiscated goods • Value per price currents • Value per declarations - Average value Excess of exports Roubles. 66,257,313 92.937,6)7 26,978,001 6,318,523 18,690,698 451,648 Rubles. 7,902,731 3,187,293 5,694,142 5,048,988 1.0S5.20I 36,277 Ri.ubles. 74,160,044 96,124,932 32,672,143 11,367,511 19,976,099 468,125 211,634,220 22,954,634 242,464,S84 227,149,552 22,954,634 22,954,634 2J4,7»8,854 225,419,518 250,140,186 11,927,410 Account of Ships arrived in the different Ports of the Russian Empire in 1832. Arrived | at S, a. a 5 | S % a X a >• S E 12 2 1 15 3 3 7 2 19 12 13 15 4 1 20 162 19 201 3 3 00 2 82 46 1 47 47 12 1 13 13 jj 1 1 jj £ o 10 10 10 12-: 294 7 908 7 Bfi 7. 6 8 8 55 5S • r, H 1 1 13 43 3 3 3 3 10 10 i3 3 4 * 4 ! i 5 £ •< 16 16 1 I 17 Total. 1,404 61 60 5 18 1,522 19 96 339 57 3,601 457 15 472 628 85 138 136 81 171 7 20 1,446 44 201 Cronstadt and Peters- burgh Narva Reval Kunda Hapsal Riga Arensburg - Pernau Libau Windau Total Baltic Sea . 8 5 1 6 21 581 34 14 2 2 341 3 16 18 3 1,017 95 139 33 1 19 2 2 "I 156 101 4| - 12 9 54 37 10 9 356 299 68 1 7 3 1-5 - 13 82 13 372 108 16 13 2 8 394 ' 94 8 6-0 129 9 1 111 6 9 7 2:3 25 7 119 4 8 23 5 191 135 1 2 81 9 1 2j:i Archangel - Onega . Total White Sea - — 233 14 247 105 105 2| 3 2 3 6 . 70 32 32 1 1 ii ll Odessa Taganrog - Redoutkale - Total Black Sea • 12 13 30 30 1 • 1 103 Mil Astrakhan • Total Caspian Sea • 121 " "I" Grand total . 158 1,294 4t. ■ 301 375 751 305 192 343 18 H 221 t 908 69 58 41 5,720 In compiling this article, we have consulted Starch's Picture of Pctersburrrh, c. 9. ; Schnitiler, Essai d'une Statistique Generate de la Russie, pp. 133 — 157.; Ricard, Traiti Gineral du Commerce, ed. 1781, torn. ii. pp. 208 — 317. ; Tookc's View of Russia, book 12. ; Coze's Travels in the North of Europe, 6vo ed. vol. iii. pp. 282 — 358. &c. ; Oddy's European Commerce, p. 69. ; Returns from the Consuls at Petersburg!! and Odessa; but we have derived our principal information from the private communications of emi- nent Russian merchants. (Law as to Ships' Stores and Provisions in Petersburgh and other Russian Ports. — Much inconvenience having arisen to shipmasters in Russian ports, from their not attending to the following regulations as to sum's, &c, they are subjoined for their information : — Shipmasters arriving in ports of the Baltic from beyond the Sound, or in the ports of the Black and Azoff seas from beyond the Dardanelles, are allowed to pass for the use of their crews for each man of the same, including the shipmaster — PEWTER, PHILADELPHIA. 205 Spirituous liquors, 2 ankers, 14 gallons; beer or porter, 3 "rillons : wine, 1 gallon : coffee, 10 lbs. Russian weight : ten, 1J l!>. Russian weight : suirar, id IPs Russian weight, 'M< lbs. English. Duty is to be paid On any overplus found on board the vessels, if snip goods be admitted to duty. Note— If the overplus be entered, it is not confiscated : if not, it is confiscated, and a fine levied of fine times the. duty on admissible goods, and twice the sale value un prohibited goods. Account of the Quantity and Value of the different Articles of Russian Produce, shipped at Peters- burg for Great Britain, during each of the Five Years ending with IS35.— {furl. Paper, No. 587. Sess. 1630.) Articles. 1831. 1832. 1S33. 1834. 1833. Quantity. Value. Quantity, Value. Quintity. 1 Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Poods. 11 fubks. Poods. RoubUs. Pouds. 1 Roubles. Poods. Roubles. Poods. Roubles. Tallow 3.0 0.166 33,100,826 3,2r;6,6l7 35.933,117 3 636,843 40,225,338 3,4)9,536 37,834,896 26,180,979 Hei. ^ 1,175,138 7,050,923 1,157,469 6.941,814 1,235,886 7,77 .,216 1, 2lo,l 11 7, I52,b-i!j 1319,45 7.9 6,706 Flax - 3)1,343 3.013,430 499, = 41 4,99 ",,4 10 311,182 3,41I,S20 341,402 3,11 1,1 23 210, 31 2,101,310 Polishes 143,72 1 1 .140,760 10.201 81 638 19,551 156,403 21,621. 1 72,95 < 15,78 126,288 Hnsllcs 66,156 4,492,480 33,827 2,706 160 44,407 3,632,560 37,0:7 2,966,160 32, ISO 2,574,400 Isinglass 4,651 1,6 8,900 4,874 1,705,930 4,5:!) 1.5^5,500 2,504 H7«,400 4, .1 1,452,850 Hides - 8b, 113 1,291,693 100,552 I.53S, ;so 90.S2) 1,36 '.4)5 194,' 91 2,924,895 102,292 1, 31,3-0 Wools 5,92 1 177.870 14314 430,340 3)3)1 9 9,120 2s),873 89.1,190 28,866 B85,! BO Irun - 36-.071 Chi-sts. 2 934 Pieces. 4 ,833 1,840,333 33,',679 1,753,395 264,155 1,32J,775 111,111 555,705 216,1)26 1,081,630 Linseed 6,028,020 122,625 3,678,730 125,183 3,755,490 108,703 3,261,150 139 057 4,171,710 Lathwood 114,971 608,084 151,521 449,323 112,331 408,775 120, '94 473 100 118,275 Deals - 2,5j5,53I 2,555.531 1,906,011 1,906,011 • 2,175,032 2,175,r32 2,457,938 2 4)7,138 2,049,567 2.019, r .67 Total value - 62,4 14,' 66 61,798,366 66,432 026 62,933, IS2 50,171.084 Or in Bterling- L. 2,714,986 L. 2,686,835 L. 2SiS.349 L. 2,735,225 I. 2, is 1,482 PEWTER (Ger. Zinn, Zinngeisserzinn ; Fr. Elain ,• It. Stagno; Sp. E.s/ano, Pellre ; Rus. Olowo), a factitious metal used in malting plates, dishes, and other domestic utensils. It is a compound, the basis of which is tin. The best sort consists of tin alloyed with about l-20th or less of copper, or other metallic bodies, as the experience of the workmen has shown to be most conducive to the improvement of its hardness and colour, such as lead, zinc, bismuth, and antimony. There are 3 sorts of pewter, distinguished by the names of plate, trifle, and ley-pewter. The 1st was formerly much used for plate and dishes; of the 2d are made the pints, quarts, and other measures for beer ; and of the ley-pewter, wine measures and large measures. — (Ure.) PHILADELPHIA, a large city and sea-port of the United States, in Pennsylvania, near the confluence of the rivers Delaware and Schuylkill, in lat. 39° 57' N., Ion. 75° 10' W. Population, in 1830, 168,000. Harbovr, Light-houses, Pilotage, c^-c. — Vessels of the largest burden ascend the river as far as New- castle, lint those drawing above 18 or 20 feet water cannot reach Philadelphia, on account of a bar a little below the city. The entrance to the magnificent bay formed by the embouchure of the Delaware lias Cape May on its north, and Cape Henlopen on its south side. The former in lat. 38° 57' N., Ion. 75° 47' 45" W., is a sandy headland, rising about 12 feet above the level of the sea. It has recently been surmounted by a light-house, 60 feet in height. The light revolves once a minute ; an eclipse of 50 seconds being succeeded by a brilliant flash of 10 seconds. It is seen in clear weather from 20 to 25 miles off. Cape Henlopen, marking the southern boundary of the bay, is in lat. 38° 47' N., Ion. 75° 4' 35" W. A little south from it is a hill, elevated about 60 feet above the level of the sea : and on it is erected a light-bouse, 72 feet in height, furnished with a powerful fixed light, visible in clear weather 10 leagues off. To the N. of this principal light, and close to the extremity of the cape, a second light- house has been constructed, 36 feet above the level of the sea, which is also furnished with a fixed light, which may be seen at about 6 leagues off. The channel for large ships is between Cape Henlopen and the banks called the Overfalls. The navigation is, however, a little difficult, and it is compulsory on ships to take pilots The latter frequently board them at sea : but if not, as soon as a ship comes between the capes, she must hoist the signal for a pilot, and heave to as soon as one offers to come on board.— (Coalier sur les Phares, 2ded. See post, for regulations as to pilotage.) Trade. — The exports principally consist of wheat and wheat flour, Indian corn, and other agricul- tural products, lumber, coal and iron, various species of manufactured goods, &c. The principal im- ports are cotton, woollen, and silk goods : sugar, coffee and tea, wines, spices, &c. In point of shipping, Philadelphia is the third port of the United States : being in this respect inferior only to New York and Boston. The registered, enrolled, and licensed tonnage belonging to Philadelphia, in 1832, amounted to 79,988 tons, of which 27,214 were employed in the coasting trade. The total value of the articles imported into Pennsylvania, in the year ended the 30th of September, 1832, was 10,678,358 dollars : the total value of the exports during the. same year being 3,516,066 dollars. Banks.— There were, in 1830, in Philadelphia, 12 joint stock banks, exclusive of the Bank of the United States. Allowing for the share of the capital of the latter employed in banking speculations in the city, the total capital engaged in bank business in Philadelphia that year may be taken at 10,667,000 dollars, on which a dividend accrued of 693,075 dollars, being at the rate of 6"497 per cent. The bank of the late Mr. Girard, being a private establishment, is not included in this estimate. — (Statement by J. H. Goddard, Esq., JVeio York Daily Advertiser, 29lh Jan. 1831.) None of the Philadelphia banks issue notes for less than 5 dollars. They all discount good bills, having 60 or 90 days to run, at 6 per cent. In Philadelphia the banks have been pretty successful; but in Pennsylvania, generally, there have been many failures. Insurance. — There were, in Philadelphia^ in 1830, 9 marine insurance companies, with an aggregate capital of 3.280,000 dollars: they divided amongst them, during the same year, 275,400 dollars, being ut the rate of 8-396 per cent. There were also, in 1830,4 fire insurance companies in the city, having amongst them a capital of 1,600,000 dollars. Their dividends, during the year, were 90,000 dollars ; but, as one of the companies, with a capital of 200,000 dollars, paid nothing, the dividends amounted to 6-428 per cent, on the produc- ing capital. In Pennsylvania, the dollar is worth 7*. dd. currency ; so that 11. sterling = 11. 13s. Ad. currency.—" (See New York.) Weights and Measures same as those of England. 296 PHILADELPHIA. PHILADELPHIA L ...X, -\^ m* Light House^f^ S" \ l 'C<' {''■: \ : 10 '". % Fixed L III l ' ': * -ii \ 5 IC 3'.» J* 16 9 -• '«{^Cape Henlopen ■^•f$ «U '6 75 PHILADELPHIA. 297 Regulations of the Port.—J( any master or captain of any ship or vessel, or other person, shall refuse or neglect to comply with l he directions ol the harbour master, in matters within the jurisdiction 6K hi% office, such pers n shall, for each and every such oniaice, s ve- rily forfeit and pay any sum not exceeding 100 dollars. And tin- sail harbour master, shall in full iomp(-n Ships ------- Barques -------37 Brigs - - - - - - - 274 Schooners - - - - - - -117 Galliot -------1 Mistico -------l Sloop -1 Total - - - 521 Of these vessels there were 86 belonging to foreign ports, viz. : Austrian -------2 Bremen ------- 9 British -------56 Years. Foreign 1913 - 74 1814 - 43 1915 - 487 1816 - 538 •1817 - 532 1818 - 576 1819 - 450 1820 - 479 1821 - 411 1822 - 494 1*23 - 482 1624 - 501 1825 - 484 1926 - 482 1827 - 469 1823 - 450 1829 - 374 1830 - 415 1831 - 396 1832 - 429 1833 - 474 1834 - 430 1835 - 429 1836 - 421 1837 - 409 1838 - 464 1839 - 521 The Arrivals in 1839, were 90 Coastwise 319 583 1,113 1,101 1,238 1,101 1,046 877 913 1,212 1,018 981 1,195 1,195 1,320 1,247 2,210 3,287 3,262 2.849 2,573 2,686 3,573 3,764 7,776 10,860 Total. 393 K 626 y« 1,600 1.639 1,770 1,677 1 ,496 1,356 1,354 1,706 1,500 1,482 1,679 1,677 1,789 1,697 2,594 3,702|| 3,658 3,277 3,047 3,116 4,002 4,185 8,185 11,324 11,188 - 11,709 Colombian ------ 3 Danish -------2 Dutch ------_i French -------2 Genoese -------l Hamburg -------2 Haytien -------2 Portuguese ------ I Prussian -------I Russian -----..2 Spanish -------1 Swedish -------1 Total - 86 Value of the Goods Imported into this port during the year 1837 and 1838, and three quarters of 1839. In 1837, - $10,130,838 1838, ----- 10,417,815 1839, (three quarters) -------- 12,571,164 Showing an increase in the three quarters of this year, of $2,153,349, over the whole of 1838. Duties accruing to the United States from Imports into this port during the fiscal year in 1838 and 1839. 1st quarter, October 1st to December 31st, 1838, - - - - $139,682 90 2d do. January 1st to March 31st, 1839, - - - - 735,680 51 3d do. April 1st to June 30th, ------ 717,063 78 4th do. July 1st to September 30th ------ 1,078,695 77 In 1838 the amount was Showing an increase of Total, $2,971,122 97 - 1,917,108 80 - 1,054,014 17 Statement showing the Amount of Domestic Produce Exported from the port of Philadelph reign Ports, from the 1st of January to the 30th of September, 1639. ia, to Fo- Arlicles. Wheat flour, Bye do. Corn meal, Corn, Ship bread, do. Rice, Pnrk, Hams and bacon, Lard, Butter, Cheese, bbls. 132,159 $909,*S2 do. 20,796 101,056 do. 56,712 221,728 bush. 11,971 12,815 bbls. kegs 14,0081 16,214/ 85,204 tierces 449 13,177 bbls. 1,082) pounds 46,167 V 65,319 do. 300,694 S do. do. 61,690 ) 8,895 j 11,259 Articles. Beef, Hides, Tallow, Pickled fish, Ginseng, Sperm <5c whale oil, Sperm candles, Tallow candles Soap, Rosin & turpentine Tar and pitch, bbls No. pounds bbls. pounds {.■alls. pounds do. do. , bbls. do. 282-) 365 V 1,514) 1,363 317,443 29,0M 31,860 74,985 7 755,186 5 14,466 \ 926/ White and coloured cotton goods, 5,224 7,387 117,765 24,378 13,811 80,792 43,301 100,956 ♦From the 1st of August to 31st December: no records previous part of the year. > T »7 dn r" mfints r " r ,ll(;se two years lost or mislaid. % Embargo. t War with Great Britain. || Opening of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal PHILADELPHIA 299 Comparative Statement of the Value of Foieign ami Domestic Hoods exported from Philadelphia during the years 1837 and 1838, and the three quarters of 1839 ending September 301 h. Domestic. 0881,665 1837- -First quarter, Second do. Third do. Fourth do. Total, -First quarter, Second do. Third do. Fourtli do. Foreign. $113,041 345,627 488,180 489,468 Domestic. 0363,733 650,547 786,677 796,859 1838- $1,436,316 $51,227 323,078 131,835 202,646 02,567,815 $282,702 816,001 585,981 778,5-U 1839- First quarter, Second do. Third do. 1,307,061 1,180,907 Total, $918,558 $3,369,630 RECAPITULATION. Total value in 1837, $4,004,131 — 1838, 3,172,051 — three quarters of 1839, 4,318,188 Total, $708,786 $2,463,265 Comparative Statement of the Amount of Foreign Sugar Imported into the Port of Philadelphia for Five Years, from 1835 to 1839, inclusive. With the Quantity Exported during the same period for the benefit of Drawback. IS35. Months. n X n 1 3 u 1838. Months. i S a 1 4 1 u 130 January - February - March - - April - - May - - June - - July - - August September October - November December 228 102 1,316 2,937 2,158 2,809 672 2,134 322 542 2,120 1,076 64 1,048 1,135 1,035 1,469 443 564 158 14 254 140 739 1 ,943 1,439 1,411 425 2,461 1,179 1,024 1,523 184 1,915 2,494 1,562 620 6,298 4,244 148 123 46 692 167 January - February - March- - April - - May - - June - - July - - August September October - November December 269 123 2,078 2,266 2,605 1,759 1,668 4,658 2,786 4,437 1,736 3,537 9 858 1,832 1,11-2 1,637 1,429 963 522 547 6 135 404 5 8,012 423 1,455 2,434 101 1,978 720 261 1,081 52 10,735 107 309 20 2,866 3,375 36 16 Total - 16,408 6,424 14,2S6 15,218 317! 859 Total 27,922 9,050 17,2161 17,412 52 1 130 1836. 1705 1839. January - March - - April - - May - - June - - July - - August September October - November December 70 2,046 911 3,537 4,033 1,165 750 1,305 1,692 1,860 814 275 1,093 905 1,500 691 776 567 264 345 4,483 119 2,288 3,440 6,129 2,771 1,694 207 318 375 5,445 11 January - February - March - - April - - May - - June - - July - - August September October - November December 444 339 1,788 3,326 3,575 1,412 1,330 3,778 3,067 2,706 1,592 101 171 1,814 1,398 1,895 1,188 2,602 1,080 722 318 92 111 1,250 4 3,079 2,096 330 1,858 3,593 1,813 203 667 670 1,038 51 3,259 1,798 401 4,909 154 3 ! n -- 469 280 699 814 42 5,962 11 198 182 143 2839 Total - | 18,183 6,416 21,824 13,722 534 4544 Total - 23.458 11,391 16,807 10,575 117 1837. The Amount Exported during the same period for the benefit of drawback, has been as fol- lows, viz. — February - March - - April - - May - - June - - July - - August September October - November December 123 - - 979 2,408 3,450 4,640 326 2,530 785 50 2018 3,010 257| 6 3,392' 599 853 Exported in | 1 2,369 1,538 769 4,127 1,585 793 80 2,194 2,240 330 744 435 335 355 8 570 106 1,728 101 418 6 559 107 1835 - - 1836 - - 1837 - - 1838 - - 1839 - - 167 1 10 1,135 - - 4,746 219 403 - - 4,9421 44 4,215 30 2,805 75 3,829 500 1,447 2,898 2839 The gross weight of Refined Sugar, exported in 1839, for the benefit of bounty, was 214 tons, Total - 19,980| 5,323 5,433 14,139 50 2018 Comparative Statement of the Quantity of Coffee imported into Philadelphia from Foreign Ports, during the Five Years commencing with 1835 and ending with 1839. 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. Imported from Bags. J Hhds. Tee. Bis. Bags. Tcs. Bis. Bags. Hhds. Bis. Bags. HhJs. II!-. Bags. Hhds. Tcs. Bis. Laguira 17,200 24,700 18,414 38,527 2.5/39 Rio de Janeiro 12,882 56,108 36,*37 45,309 46,476 1 St. Domingo . 12,216 2,788 4,488 12,578 2,801 Cuba - 7,536 5,5S3 12,44'. 9,745 4,717 80 2 117 Porto Rico - 2,537 1,968 1,484 1,597 498 ■ 10 Java - 11,748 605 Maracaibo - 1,808 2,736 2,309 3,122 8,788 Europe 96 105 All other places Total - 5 47! 21 4_'l 3 •lb 136 470 | 744 138 109 769 18 27 66,031 1 47| 21 | 424 93,8821 3 | 46 75,977 136 470 112,257 138 109, 89,193 98 2 156 300 PHILADELPHIA. Comparative Statement of the Gross Amount ofweighable Foreign Merchandise imported into Phila- delphia during the Five Years commencing with 1835 and ending with 1839. Names of Articles. Iron, railroad - Rol eJ bar - Hammered,, sheet, boop Pi? - Old and scrap Castings Chain cables and anchors Steel Anvils • Nails and spikes Hammers auJ sledge: IroD wire Lead, pi? and old Hemp, Russia - Cordage - Tallow - Glassware Sii?ar of lead and paints Rri sties - Glue - Wool - Fish, smoked and dried Copper, rods and bolts Corks - Cheese - Chocolate Soap Paper and books Twine - Cotton • Hams - Pork - Alum • Sugar - ♦Coffee • ♦Tea, green ♦Black *Cassia • ♦Cocoa • ♦Pimento * Indigo - ♦Raisins, prunes, and figs ♦Nutmegs, mace, and cloves ♦Ground ginge ♦Almonds ♦Pepper ♦Camphor ♦Currants ♦Flax - 9,752 6,195 232 8: 3| 2 15 5,039 14 . 1,445 1 3 1,340 IS 436 ,'i 33 1 - 44 1 1 40 J 37t 3 85 9 » 92 3 1 6 11 2 43 7 :'. 2 Is 3 452 6 2 2 .'! 36 9 1 9 In 80 Id 2 ID 3 1 656 3 41 13 2 5 15 3 4 10 '?. 2 3 23 2 3 59 19 1 IS 4 9, 1 3 3 1 7 3 10 ID 3 11,487 8 1 6,26', 10 356 17 1 49 17 1 28 8 2 81 13 13^ 17 7. 157 7 3 915 15 2 1 10 3 4 2 57 19 1 99 1 3 2 2i H 1 10 15 4,692 1,534 1 5* 12 3 5 1 8 . 23 15 9 1 21 37 19 2 57 17 4 12 3 12 3 8 4 17 14 1 15 6(1 1 2 20 1 it; 13 208 10 1 15 62 19 1 6 9 2 13 3 1 l 3 11 2 1 18 3 3 3 22 8 9 2 " 8 15 2 9 6 7 3 , ' 1 11 - 2 3 16 8,235 13 1 2 5.16S 2 1 15 367 2 IN 71 17 61 7 2 11 58 7 2 18 5 1 12 2S 2 3 13 637 15 1 4 - - 16 1 5 42 7 15 39 3 16 2 13,436 6,767 274 6,085 II 3,654 11 14,159 5,517 208 1,626 Those marked thus * are the estimated or invoice weights. Statement of the Quantity of Foreign Wines, Spirits, Molasses, &x., imported direct into Philadelphia during the Five Years commencing with 1835 and ending with 1839; with the Quantity exported during the same Period for the benefit of Drawback. Articles. Imported. Exported. Duty per gallon. 1835. | 1836. 1 1837. 1833. 1839. 1S35. | 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839. Molasses Brandy - Holland gin Rum Whiskey Cordials- Arrack • Porter, ale, and brown stout - Vinegar • Oil, olive, in casks Linseed Castor Fish • Wine, Madeira - Port - Sherry Tenerifle San Lucar - Malaga Sicily". '. Champagne . Burgundy Rhenish Claret White French Moselle Muscat and Frontignac - Galls. 1,279,195 329,530 133,225 12,154 1,271 577 2,407 3,318 15,341 15,246 50 34,830 48,888 75,247 33,616 99,978 174,-70 45,703 6,823 3,050 45 488 83,431 200,876 36 3,642 Galls. 1,095,981 321,600 93,873 436 2,351 639 298 650 992 5,816 4,462 237 15,218 42,726 34,237 1 1 ,053 79,082 128,985 9,206 1,850 1.179 58,417 125,697 7,118 Galls. 1,079,410 108,212 9\26I 3,502 2,6S2 599 978 1,657 6,157 7,250 9,076 15,3'.6 19,980 40,156 9,330 84,285 17,541 3,644 2,471 64.983 73,315 3,020 Galls. 1.640,079 299,467 136,931 1,746 4,453 306 40 873 2,012 1,863 42,194 67,262 1,938 46,177 2,750 172.0-2 6,677 218 971 256 34,346 89,608 27 6,106 Galls. 1,369,025 246,605 119,826 1,995 10,349 441 1 4,414 625 21,565 5,738 643 396 20,862 71,356 ' 14,682 24,461 5,190 175,178 17,570 6,480 268 96,2 >l 89,210 6,302 Galls. 4,668 2,663 9,410 184 648 533 1,010 224 2,097 5,425 25,322 200 Galls. 31,032 357 243 863 3,048 4.102 33,122 9,234 9,931 Galls. 2,676 597 443 1,252 2,891 10,755 87 12150 4,685 Galls. 5,480 131 3,246 171 758 620 11,895 3,690 2,370 Galls. 10,874 1,114 1,307 4,022 16.9C0 1,592 Cts. 5 63 75 63 75 53 53 53 20 8 20 25 40 15 1 12 1-21 12 121 712 712 334 334 71-2 71-4 51-2 5 1-2 71-2 11-2 21-2 71-2 71-2 512 There are now, 1840, 16 banks in Philadelphia, with capitals amounting, exclusive of that of the Bank of the United States, to $18,050,000. The number of marine insurance companies amounts to 10, with an aggregate capital of $3,330,000; and there are 9 fire insurance companies, with a capital of $3,450,000; besides 3 associations for mutual assurance against fire, operating without any specified capital. — Am. Ed.] PHOSPHORUS— PILCHARDS. 301 PHOSPHORUS, a substance of a light amber colour, and semi-transparent; but, when carefully prepared, nearly colourless and transparent. When kept some time, it becomes opaque externally, and has then a great resemblance to white wax. It may be cut with a knife, or twisted to pieces with the fingers. It is insoluble in water; its specific gravity is 1-77. When exposed to the atmosphere, it emits a white smoke, and is luminous in the dark. When heated to 148° it takes fire, and burns with a very bright flame. When phosphorus is inflamed in oxygen, the light and heat are incomparably more intense ; the former dazzling the eye, and the latter cracking the glass vessel. — (Thomson's Chemistry.) PIASTRES, on DOLLARS, Spanish and American silver coins in very extensive circu- lation. Value, at an average, about 4s. 3c?. sterling. — (See Coins.) PILCHARDS (Ger. Sardellan ; Du. Sardynen ,■ Fr. Sardines ,■ It. Sardine ,■ Sp. Sar- dinas ,■ Rus. Sardelil ,■ Lat. Sardinx), fishes closely resembling the common herring, but smaller, and at the same time thicker and rounder. They are rarely found on the British shores except on the coasts of Cornwall and Devon, particularly the former, where they are taken in great numbers from the month of July to September, both inclusive. It is a say- ing of the Cornish fishermen, that the pilchard is the least fish in size, most in number, and greatest for gain, taken from the sea. Pilchard Fishery.— This is carried on along the coast of Cornwall and Devon, from the Bolt Head in the latter, round by the Land's End to Padstow and Bossiney in the former. Its principal seats are St. Ives, Mount's Bay, and Mevagissey. The fish usually make their appearance in vast shoals in the early part of July, and disappear about the middle of October: but they sometimes reappear in large quantities in December. They are taken either by seans or by drift nets, but principally by the former. A sean is a net, varying from 200 to 300 fathoms in length, and from 10 to 14£ do. in depth, haying cork buoys on one edge and lead weights on the other. Three boats are attached to each sean, viz. a boat (sean boat), of about 15 tons burden, for carryingthe sean ; another (follower), of about the same size, to assist in mooring it ; and a smaller boat (lurker), for general purposes. The number of hands em- ployed in these 3 boats varies from about 13 to 18, but may be taken, at an average, at about 16. When the shoals offish come so near the shore that the water is about the depth of the sean, it is employed to encircle them ; the fishermen being directed to the proper places for casting or shooting the nets by persons (huers) stationed for that purpose on the cliffs.* The practice is to row the boat with the sean on board gently round the shoal; and the sean being, at the same time, thrown gradually into the water, assumes, by means of its buoys and weights, a vertical position, its loaded edge being at the bottom, and the other floating on the surface. Its 2 ends are then fastened together ; and, being brought into a convenient situation, it is moored by small anchors or grapnels. At low water, the enclosed fish are taken out by a small sean or tuck net, and carried to the shore. A single sean has been known to enclose at once as many as 3,000 hogsheads of fish ! But the quantity taken depends on so many accidental circumstances, that while one sean may catch and cure in a season from 1,000 to 2,000 hogsheads, others in the neighbourhood will not get a single pilchard. In some places, the tides are so strong as to break the seans and set the fish at liberty. When the quantity enclosed is large, it requires several days to take them out, as they must not be removed in greater numbers than those who salt them can conveniently manage. Drift nets are usually about a mile long, by about 4J fathoms deep ; they are shot in the open sea, and entangle the fish in their meshes in the same way as the herring nets. The fish thus taken are said to be superior to those taken by the seans. As soon as the fish are brought to shore, they are carried to cellars or warehouses, where they are piled in large heaps, having a sufficient quantity of salt interspersed between the layers. Having re- mained in this state for about 35 days, they are, after being carefully washed and cleansed, packed in hogsheads, each containing, at an average, about 2,000 fishf ; they are then subjected to a pressure sufficient to extract the oil, of which each hogshead yields about 3 gallons. This oil usually sells for from 12 to 15 per cent, under the price of brown seal oil. The oil, blood, and dirty pickle that drain from the fish while they are piled up, are collected in reservoirs, and sold to the curriers. The bro- ken and refuse fish and salt are sold to the farmers, and are used as manure with excellent effect. The skimmings which float on the water in which the pilchards are washed, are called garbage, and are sold to the soap-boilers. The pilchard fishery has been rather declining of late years. This has been ascribed partly to the failure of the catch, partly to the withdrawal of the high bounty of 8s. 6d. per hhd. formerly paid on exportation, and partly to the relaxed observance of Lent in the Mediterranean, and the imposition of a heavy duty on the importation of the fish into Naples, which has long been their principal market. The following is An Account of the Exports of Pilchards during the Three Years ending with 1832; specifying the Places to which they were exported, the Quantity shipped for each, and their Price at the Port of Shipment. Years. Leghorn. Naples. Genoa. Ancona. Venice. Trieste. Malta. Messina. C. Vecchia. Total. Prices. 1830 1831 1832 Hhds. 2,473 4,031 3,784 Hhds. 9,751 10,276 11,612 Hhds. 1,665 2,100 3,116 Hhds. 1,587 5,286 5,078 Hhds. 4,562 4,205 5,781 Hhds. 1,652 520 1,000 Hhds. 94 237 Hhds. 304 Hhds. 618 510 Hhds. 21,194 27,112 31,618 s. s. 35 to 40 35 -40 25 -45 Of the 27,112 hhds. exported in 1831, St. Ives furnished 12,141, and Mount's Bay 9,013; the remain- der being furnished by Mevagissey, St. Austle's Bay, St. Mawes, Fowey, &c. Pilchards are not used in England, except in Cornwall and Devon, where about 3,000 hhds. a year may at present be made use of. We believe, however, that their consumption in these counties has begun to increase with considerable rapidity. The sean fishery employs from 2,700 to 3,000 hands, and about 180 or 190 seans ; but exclusive of * The tunny fish in the Archipelago was caught in a similar way : — " Ascendebat quidam (Anglice huer, Gra;ce thunoscovos) in altum promontorium, unde thunnorum gregem specularetur, quo viso, sig- num piscatoribus dabat, qui retibus totum gregem includebant." — (Bishop of London's Notes on the Persm of JEschylus, quoted by Dr. Paris, in his Guide to Mount's Bay, p. 150.) + Mr. Pennant inadvertently states the number of fish in a hogshead at 35,000.— (British Zoology, vol. iii. p. 344. ed. 1776). Trusting to his authority, we fell into the same error in the first edition of this work. Voi. II.— 2 C 302 PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. these, there are a considerable number of seans unemployed, in consequence of the failure of tin fishery since 1814, and other causes. The first cost of each scan, with iis boats, may be about "501. The drift fishery employs, during the season, from 900 to 1,000 men, and about 230 boats ; the cost of each boat and nets amounting to about 200/. The labour in the cure of the fish maybe taken at about 4s. a hogshead. The total capital embarked in the fishery, in 1832, was estimated by those en- gaged in it at from 200,000/. to 230,000/. The drift fishermen employ themselves, when not engaged in the pilchard fishery, in the mackarel, herring, and hook-line fisheries. The sean fishermen consist principally of agricultural labourers, miners, &c. attracted to the business in the expectation, (in which, however, they are not unfre- quently disappointed,) of making a comparatively large sum by a few weeks' exertion. But there are always 3 or 4 individuals of the crew of each sean that are regularly bred, expert fishermen. Four fifths of the persons employed on shore in the salting, curing, packing, &c. of the fish, are women. The wages of those employed in the fishery are made sometimes to depend on the number of fish taken ; but in other instances they are independent of any such contingency. The fishery at St. Ives is carried on under a particular act of parliament, which is said to occasion the employment of a third more seans than are necessary. The exaction of a tithe of the fish is a very serious burden on the fishery ; sometimes it is taken in kind, but is more generally compounded for. — (Dr. Paris's Guide to Mount's Bay and the Land's End, 2d ed. pp. 146 — 156. ; Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii. p. 471., and private information obtained from authentic sources, and obligingly communicated, by Mr. Coulson, of Penzance.) PILOTS and PILOTAGE. The name of pilot or steersman is applied either to a particular officer, serving on board a ship during the course of a voyage, and having the charge of the helm and the ship's route ; or to a person taken on board at any particular place, for the purpose of conducting a ship through a river, road, or channel, or from or into a port. It is to the latter description of persons that the term pilot is now usually applied ; aDd pilots of this sort are established in various parts of the country by ancient charters of incor- poration, or by particular statutes. The most important of these corporations are those of the Trinity House, Ueptford Strond ; the fellowship of the pilots of Dover, Deal, and the Isle ofThanet, commonly called the Cinque Port pilots ,■ and the Trinity houses of Hull and Newcastle. The 5 Geo. 4. c. 73. established a corporation for the regulation and licens- ing of pilots in Liverpool. The principle of the law with respect to pilots seems to be, that where the master is bound by act of parliament to place his ship in charge of a pilot, and does so accordingly, the ship is not to be considered as under the management of the owners or their servants, and they are not to be liable for any damage occasioned by the mismanagement of the ship, unless it be proved that it arose from the negligence or misconduct of the master or men : but when , it is in the election or discretion of the master to take a pilot or not, and he thinks fit to take one, the pilot so taken is to be considered as the servant of the owners, who are to be respon- sible for his conduct. — (Abbott on the Law of Shipping, part 2. c. 5.) The statute of 6 Geo. 4. c. 125. has consolidated the laws with respect to the licensing, employment, &c. of pilots. It is of great length; but all its provisions of any material im- portance may be embraced under the following heads : — 1. Appointment of Pilots. — The corporation of the Trinity House of Deptford Strond are required to appoint and license fit and competent persons, duly skilled, to act as pilots for the purpose of conduct- ing all ships or vessels navigating the Thames, the Medway, and the several channels, creeks, and docks thereof, between Orfordness and London Bridge, as also from London Bridge to the Downs, and from the Downs westward as far as the Isle of Wight, and in the English Channel from the Isle of Wight up to London Bridge; and all ships and vessels sailing as aforesaid (except as herein-after mentioned) shall be conducted and piloted within the aforesaid limits by such pilots, and by no other persons whomsoever. No person shall be licensed by the said corporation as a pilot, who has not served as mate for 3 years on board of, or been for 1 year in the actual command of, a square-rigged vessel of not less than 80 tons register tonnage, as to licences for the North. Channel upwards; and not less than 150 tons register tonnage, as to licences for the North Channel, Queen's Channel, South Channel, or other channels downwards ; or who shall not have been employed in the pilotage or buoyage service of the said corporation for 7 yeais, or who shall not have served an apprenticeship of 5 years to some pilot vessel licensed under the act passed in the 52 year of the reign of George III., or under this act ; and no person so licensed shall take charge as a pilot of any ship or vessel drawing more than 14 feet water, in the river Thames or Medway, or any of the channels leading thereto or thereupon, until such person shall have acted as a licensed pilot ibr 3 years, and shall have been after such 3 years, on re-examination, approved of in that behalf by the said corporation, on pain of forfeiting 10/. for every such offence ; and the person employing or permitting such pilot to take charge of such ship or vessel is also to forfeit 10/.—} 3. Every pilot licensed by the corporation of the Trinity House of Deptford Strond is to pay an annual licence of 3/. 3s., and 6.r that purpose, or where and so long as the ship shall be in distress. — $71. Licensed pilots who have executed the bond before mentioned shall not be li ible to any action for damages on account of neglect or want of skill, at the suit of the party grieved, in any greater sum than the amount which shall have been spei ilied In way of penalty in such bond, and the pilotage payable to him in respect of the voyage during which the neglect or want of skill are alleged to have been exhibited. — J 57. 5. Fees of Pilotage. — The charge on account of pilotage is regulated in various places by usage or statute, ami generally increases in proportion to the depth of water which the vessel draws. The Trinity House Corporation and the Lord Warden of the cinque Ports have authority,' as before men- tioned, to fix t lie r.ites mi account of pilotage to be charged by all pilots licensed by them. — (Subjoined to this article are Tables of the present rates.) Any pilot carried to sea beyond the limits of his district without his free consent, except in cases of absolute necessity, shall, over and above his pilotage, receive 10s. 6(2. a day, to he computed from and Inclusive of the day next after the day on which the vessel shall pass the limit to which the pilot was engaged to conduct her, and until he shall be returned to the port or place where he was taken op board, or be discharged for a sufficient time to enable him to return there.— $ 3ft. PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. 305 Pilots are to qualify themselves for conducting vessels in and out of Ramsgate harbour, and the harbours of Dover, Sandwich, and Margate, and shall be entitled to and receive for such pilotage at the rate of 5s. for every fool of the draught of water of every vessel so piloted.— e)$ 39, 40. Ships bound to the Thames, repairing to Standgate Creek, or other places appointed for the per- formance of quarantine, are to pay the full charges of pilotage to such place, and a further sum of 8s. a day for the days the pilot shall be obliged to remain on quarantine. Any boat or vessel running before a ship or vessel, not having a licensed pilot on board, when such ship or vessel cannot be boarded, for the purpose of directing her course, the pilot on board such boat or vessel, or, if no pilot be on board, the person having the command thereof, anil who shall run 1" tore much ship at the request or by direction of tlje master, shall be entitled to full pilotage for the distance run.— $34. „ . ., All the sums which shall become due to any licensed pilot for the pilotage ot foreign ships or vessels trading to or from the port of London may be recovered from the owners or masters ol such ships or vessels, or from the consignees or agents thereof, who shall have paid, or made themselves liable lo pay, an v other charge for the ship or vessel in the port of her arrival or delivery as to pilotage inwards, and in the port whence she shall clear out or sail as to pilotage outwards ; and may be levied in like manner, according to the amount, as any penalty may be recovered and levied by virtue of the act, demand thereof being made in writing at least fourteen days before such levy. And the master or other person having the charge of ships or vessels, not having British registers, which shall inter into or sail from the port of London, and which are by law required to be piloted by persons licensed by the corporation of the Trinity House, or the consignees or agents thereof, are to pay at the Trinity House, in London, to persons appointed by the corporation of the Trinity House, the full pilotage inwards and outwards ; viz. as to pilotage outwards, the amount for the distance which the ship is by law required to be piloted ; as to pilotage inwards, where a pilot shall have been on board, the amount for the distance piloted by him, if greater than that which she shall be required to be piloted ; if less, or if no pilot shall have been on board, the amount for the distance which she was by law required to be piloted : the pilotage inwards may be levied, &c. upon the master or other person in charge, con- signee, or agent, in the same manner as in the case of ships having British registers, if such pilotage inwards be not paid within fourteen days from the day of the ship's reporting inwards.—.} $41. 46. The pilotage outward upon foreign vessels is to be calculated according to the scale or amount of tonnage upon which such ships or vessels are rated in the port of London for payment of light and other dues, or according to the draught of water thereof, as the Trinity House may think most proper. —i 49. In order to prevent controversies with respect to the draught of water of ships not having British registers, the Trinity House is empowered to appoint an officer to measure the draught of water of ships u ith respect to which there is anv controversy, such officer receiving \l. Is. for his trouble if the ship be below the entrance to the London Docks, arid 10s. 6d. if above such entrance, from the party against whom he niav decide. If arriving inwards, application for such officer must be made within 12 hours after the ship has come to her moorings, and before she begin to unlade ; and before quilting her moorings, if clearing outward. — $ 50. The Trinity House are empowered to take measures for the relief of foreign vessels coming to the port of London with fish, corn, and other provisions on board, either from the whole or part of the charges on account of pilotage that would fall upon them under this act. — $ 51. No foreign vessel shall be cleared outwards until a certificate, signed by the person appointed for that purpose by the Trinity House, that the pilotage has been paid, has been produced ; the corpora- tion pay the pilot employed, on proof that he has duly performed his service, the pilotage, after deduct- ing the 6d. duty. — $47. The consignees or agents of any ship or vessel are authorised and empowered to retain in their hands respectively, out of any monies which they may have received or shall thereafter receive for or on account of such ship or vessel, or the owner or owners thereof, so much as shall be sufficient to pay and discharge such pilotage, and any expenses attending the same. — $45. 6. Responsibility, Sec. of Masters.— Ships coming from the westward, bound to any place in the Thames or Medway, not having a duly qualified Cinque Port pilot on hoard, shall, on arriving at Dnn- geness, and until they have passed the south buoy of the Brake, display and keep flying the usual sig- nal for a pilot to come on board ; and the master shall heave to and shorten sail, so as to facilitate the entry of the pilot. Persons not displaying such signal, Arc. shall forfeit and pay double the amount of the sum that the charge for pilotage would have amounted to. And it is further provided, that all masters of vessels acting themselves as pilots, or employing any unlicensed person as such, or any licensed person out of the limit of his qualification, after any licensed and qualified pilot shall have offered to come on board, or made a signal for that purpose, shall forfeit double the sum that would have been legally demandable as pilotage, and an additional penalty of 5/. for every 50 tons burden of the ship, if the Trinity House or Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, as the case may be, shall think it proper to certify the same. But the master of any of the following vessels may pilot the same, so long as he is not. assisted by any unlicensed pilot or other person than the ordinary crew : viz. the master of any collier, or of any ship or vessel trading to Norway, or to the Cattegat or Baltic, or round the North Cape, or into the White Sea, on their inward or outward voyages, or of any constant trader inwards, from the ports between Boulogne inclusive, and the Baltic (all such ships or vessels having British registers, and coming up by the North Channel, but not otherwise), or of any Irish trader using the navigation of the rivers Thames and Medway, or of any ship or vessel employed in the regular coasting trade of the kingdom, or of any ship or vessel wholly laden with stone from Guernsey, Jersey, Mderney, Sark, or Man, and being the production thereof, or of any ship or vessel, not exceeding the burden of 60 tons, and having a British register (or not exceeding the burden of 60 tons, and not having a British register, if authorised so to do by an order of the privy council), or of any other ship or vessel whatsoever, whilst the same is within the limits of the port or place to which she belongs, the same not being a port or place in relation to which particular provision hath heretofore been made by any act or acts of parliament, or by any charter or charters for the appointment of pilots. — $ $ 59, 60. The master or mate of any vessel, being the owner or part owner thereof, and residing at Dover, Deal, or the Isle of Thanet, shall not be liable to any penalty for conducting or piloting bis own ship or vessel up or down the river Thames or Medway, or into or out of any place within the jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports. — $ 62. This act shall not extend, or be construed to extend, to subject the master or owner of any ship or vessel to any of the penalties of this act, for employing any person or persons whomsoever, as a pilot or pilots, in and for the assistance of such ship or vessel, whilst the same shall be in distress, or in consequence thereof, or under any circumstances which shall have rendered it necessary for such owner or master to avail himself of the best assistance which at the time could be procured. — $61. No owner or master of any ship or vessel shall be answerable for any loss or damage which shall happen to any person or persons whatsoever, from or by reason or means of no licensed pilot or of no duly qualified pilot being on board thereof, unless it shall be proved that the want of such licensed or 2 c 2 39 306 PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. of such duly qualified pilot respectively sliall have arisen from any refusal to take such licensed or qualified pilot on board, or from the wilful neglect of the master of such ship or vessel in not heaving to, or using all practicable means, consistently with her safety, for the purpose of taking on board thereof any pilot who shall be ready, and offer to take charge of the same. — $ 53. Nothing in this act shall extend, or be construed to extend, to make the owner of any ship or vessel liable in any such case, for any loss or damage beyond tbe value of such ship or vessel and her appur- tenances, and the freight due, or to grow due, fur and during the voyage wherein such loss or damage may happen or arise. — } 54. No owner or master of any ship ox vessel shall he answerable for any loss or damage which shall happen to any person or persons whomsoever, from or by reason or means of any neglect, default, incompetency, or incapacity of any licensed pilot acting in tbe charge of any such ship or vessel, under or in pursuance of any of I he provisions of this act, where and so long as such pilot shall be duly qua- lified to have tbe charge of such slop or vessel, or where and so long as no duly qualified pilot shall have offered to take charge thereof. — } 55. Nothing in this act shall lie construed to extend to deprive any person or persons of any remedy or remedies upon any contract of insurance, or of any other remedy whatsoever, winch he or they might bave had if this act had not been passed, by reason or on account of the neglect, default, incompetency, or incapacity of any pilot duly acting in the charge of any ship or vessel, under or in pursuance of any of the provisions of this act, or by reason or on account of no pilot or of no duly qualified pilot being on board of any such ship or vessel, unless it sliall be proved that the want of a pilot arises from a refusal on the part of the master to take such pilot on board, or to heave to for him. — $ 56. All masters or other persons having the command of any ship, who shall report, or be privy to any one reporting, a false account of the draught of water of such ship, shall, besides the full pilotage, for. feil il mble the amount thereof; and any master or other person having any interest, share, or pro- perly in any vessel, who sliall fraudulently alter any marks on the stem or stem post (hereof, dimi- nishing the draught of water, or shall be privy or consent thereto, shall for every such offence forfeit and pay the sum of 501)1. 7. Recovery of Penalties. — Penalties incurred under this act, not exceeding 20/., are to be recovered before a justice by prosecution within six months ; and penalties above 20'. by action of debt in any of the courts of record at Westminster, to be commenced within twelve months ; but if it shall be made to appear, as soon after as the circumstances of the case will admit, that the commencement of the pro- secution or action has been delayed by reason of the absence of any party or parties, whether offend- ing or complaining, or of any necessary witness, then, upon such circumstances being stated by affi- davit, made before any judge of any of his Majesty's courts of record at Westminster, any such judge may order or authorise the commencement of the prosecution or action within such further lime as he shall think fit to limit. It is, however, provided that nothing therein contained shall affect or impair the jurisdiction of the Court of Loadmauage, or High Court of Admiralty, nor the right of the city of London, nor (in general) any separate jurisdiction established under anv act of parliament or charier. — $ $76, 77, 87, 68, 69. By-Laws, Regulations, and Ordinances as to Pilots, framed by the Trinity Corporation, and sanctioned by Lord Tenderden, l'Jth of April, 1826. I. Annuls the previous regulations. II. It is ordained, that every pilot who shall be ordered to proceed on hia Majesty's service, by any order signed by the deputy master or secretary of the said corporation, or by the officer for the time being for the said corporation at Yarmouth, or elsewhere, duly authorised to act in matters of pilotage, or who shall be so ordered, in writing or otherwise, by any officer in his Majesty's service, shall im- mediately proceed thereon ; and every pilot who shall fail so to do, or shall evade the receipt of any such order, or who shall quit or decline such service, shall for the first offence forfeit 5/., and for the second and every subsequent offence 10Z. each. III. It is ordained, that every pilot engaged in the charge of any ship employed by government in the transport service, shall observe particularly if any unnecessary delay take place on the part of the master in proceeding towards his destination ; and if any delay does take place, such pilot shall, on his return, report the same to the secretary of the said corporation, and upon going on hoard, such pilot shall give notice to the master that he has orders so to do. IV. It is ordained, that no pilot having the charge of a merchant ship shall stop the same alongside the moorings of his Majesty's ships at Deptford, or elsewhere, or between the Round Tree and Bathing-house, Gravesend (except in either of such cases there he an extri me necessity for so doing, or leave be obtained for that purpose from the proper officer or officers in that behalf), and all pilots licensed by the said corporation are at all times to be particularly careful to steer clear of the king's ships in passing them. V. It is ordained, that every pilot, when called upon or required to pilot any ship or vessel, shall, if under engagement to any other ship, forthwith make known such engagement, and specify the parti- culars thereof truly and faithfully to the person calling for or requiring such pilot's service ; and in case of any concealment, misrepresentation, or falsehood, in respect of such alleged previous engage- ment, the pilot offending shall forfeit 10/. VI. It is ordained, that every pilot who shall have taken charge of any ship from the river Thames to the Downs, or elsewhere, shall, without any additional compensation in that behalf, wait on board for the space of 3 complete days while such ship may be detained at Gravesend, or elsewhere, for want of seamen, or by any other casualty ; nor shall he at the end of.'! complete days be at liberty to quit such ship, or receive any additional compensation, if she shall be further detained by winds, weather, or tides; and should the ship be detained beyond ;i complete days on any other account except winds, weather, or tides, the pilot having the charge thereof shall nevertheless still (if required so to do) remain in the charge of her, provided a compensation of Gj>-. per day be offered 10 him in that behalf by the master or owner. VII. It is ordained, that every pilot shall in all cases demean himself civilly and respectfully towards all persons who may require his service, and towards all officers in his Majesty's navy, and shall maintain a strict temperance and sobriety in the exercise of his office, and shall use his utmost care and diligence for the safe conduct of every ship which he shall be intrusted with the charge of, and to prevent her doing damage to others. VIII. It is ordained, that every pilot who shall undertake the charge of any ship downwards, shall, before his departure, leave, or cause to be left, notice thereof, in writing, at the proper office at the Trinity House in London, with one of the clerks there attending, and sliall be considered as disen- gaged until he shall have done so; and upon such pilot's return, he shall immediately, in his own per- son, attend at the said office, and make and sign such entry, in a book there kept for that purpose, as the said corporation shall from time to lime direct or require. PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. 307 IX. It is ordained, that every pilot licensed by the said corporation shall, from time to time, and at at all times, in ohedience to the order or summons of tin- said corporation, under the hand of the secretary thereof for the time being, duly delivered or offered to such pilot, or left a reason- able time at the usual or last known place of residence of such pilots attend the said corporation, at their courts, by-boards, or committees, or their secretary for the time being, at the Trinity Bouse in London; and that every pilot licensed by the said corporation, upon a certificate of qualification from sub commissioners of pilotage, shall, in like manner, attend tin- sub-commissioners of the port or place for which such pilot shall be so licensed, in obedience to the order or summons ol I sub-coin miss io ne is, under their hands, or the hands of the major part of them, duly delivered, offered, or left as aforesaid, to answer to any charges brought against such pilots respectively, <>r for I be per- formance of any public service, or for any other purpose whatsoever ; ami in default of such attend- ance, every pilot so offending shall forfeit for the first offence 40s., and for the second and every subsequent offence 51. each. X. It is ordered, and hereby directed, that every pilot licensed or to be licensed by the said corporation, upon their receiving a certificate of examination by any sub-commissioners of pilot- age, shall, for such examination, and for granting the licence thereon, pay the sum of 2 guineas io the said sub-commissioners of pilotage by whom he shall be examined, or to one of them ; and shall also, for the renewing or confirming such licence from time to time, pay to the sub-commissioners of pilotage for the time being, at or for the port or place specified in such licence, or to 1 ol' them, the annual sums following ; (that is to say), every pilot so licensed or to be licensed as aforesaid, for the ports of Plymouth, Portsmouth, or Cowes respectively, the annual sum of 2 guineas ; and every pilot licensed or to be licensed as aforesaid, for any other port or place, the annual sum of 1 guinea, unless the pilots at or for such port or place shall be divided into 2 classes ; and, in that case tin; pilots of the 1st diss are to pay the annual sum of 2 guineas each, and pilots not of the 1st class the annual sum of 1 guinea each. XI. It is ordained, that no pilot shall add to or in any way alter his licence, or make or alter any endorsement thereon, nor shall he be privy to any such licence or endorsement being altered. XII. It is ordained, that every pilot who shall observe any alteration in any of the sands or channels, or that any of the buoys or beacons of the said corporation are driven away, broken down, or out of place, Bhall forthwith deliver or send a correct statement thereof, in writing, to the secretary of the said corporation for the time being. XIII. It is ordained, that every pilot shall, whenever he comes to an anchor, carefully observe the settings of the tide, and the force of the stream ; and if it shall happen that he comes near to a sand or other object or cause of danger, and there be any other ships or ship in compan) likely to fall in therewith, such pilot shall immediately give notice thereof to the captain or, principal offi- cer of the ship under his care, that he may make a signal to such other ship or ships for avoiding the same. XIV. It is ordained, that no pilot shall, on any pretence, aid or assist, either in his own person or with his boat or servants, or by any other means whatever, the lauding, removing, or secreting any seaman from any merchant ship or vessel, to avoid serving in his Majesty's navy, or escape the impress for the same. XV. It is ordained, that every pilot shall from time to time conform himself strictly to all directions which shall be given to him by any of the harbour masters authorised by act of parliament, under the corporation of the city of London, touching the mooring, unmooring, placing, or removing of any ship or vessel under his charge, as long as such ship or vessel shall be lying and situate within the limits of the authority of such harbour master. XVI. It is ordained, that each and every pilot belonging to a licenced pilot vessel shall be at liberty to entertain one apprentice and no more. XVII. It is ordained, that for any work done on the rivers Thames or Medway by men in boats, being less than the work for the whole tide, the pay shall be, for half a tide's work, 4s. to each man, am' so in proportion for any lime less than a whole tide, the pay for which is settled by the said act of the 6tb year of the reign of his present Majesty at 8s. XVIII. It is ordained, that in all cases where pecuniary penalties and forfeitures are annexed to the breach of the foregoing by-laws, rules, orders, regulations, and ordinances the said corporation of Trinity House may mitigate and reduce the same to I -4th part at their discretion. XIX. It is ordained, that every pilot who shall offend against any or either of the foregoing by-laws, orders, regulations, and ordinances, shall, for every such offence (whether the same shall subject him to any pecuniary penalty or not, and in addition to such penalty if any), be liable to have his licence annulled and forfeited, or suspended, at the discretion of the said corporation. JV. B. — Besides conforming themselves diligently to the above by-laws, rules, orders, regulations, and ordinances, the pilots licensed by the corporation of the Trinity House are, of course, in all tilings to observe and obey the same enactments and provisions relating to such pilots contained in the said act of parliament made and passed in the 6th year of the reign of his Majesty King George the Fourth, a copy of which act has been delivered to each of the said pilots. *** The following Tables of the charges on account of pilotage, &c. are the most complete that have hitherto been published. They have all been derived from official sources, so that their accuracy may be depended upon. 308 PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. < H C o H> >» fc- = — o H - 55 - c - u Z d a r-2 »^ < -a = c U w i.-! — -? ■*- rt ~ r» — — ^ to^ocDr- mvO) Ci — i-^ rt t»a> — rsi rt t* CO t-nvt^ 00 CO CO S OiOrtrt «w ^O 0Oau> oeooooc prt «-* — wtoocort ■iOO « TTU = ©rt ©rt e rt OOCO OC >o« o«o «ci n rt -h « •. ) o — « wo « •• 1*2 *J1« ' Mo - '1»« ' 'So* ' BJ3£ — fl c -^ -3 rt .J rt j| o|5« fc.fg •« fc J« ft 5 g 8J s Er»8 9 § | J J t * &3 5SO J?«a >3?S.3S5;oa uSS5 oZtn 3 t " t rt 2 Srj Ig-Ssl £ _ i ■on" .c " §• »;35S ,o -• li Hfl c £ ^oi« a c S •ri°«n p« ►J s ^ssa o u rt _• -d = e«»-» O « ^O-Taotc o o> -J2^S3 W > o Q i Em o XI .: -a 010501 " ■55-0 b » 1 ~°22 c 5 E -522S"~ j ^=oon C O rt S to 2 0} £ v4 2 2 Z ■"" c-S fc H i 33 O" 9 5_g * ■o*2"° 0*j ^ Cr. O «= rt = g a) ■s~ rt ,jo-N>n * = J ■o =>»»<= •n = £ ^oi'Jom £5 ^i 0, 2 = "' • * ^nocse. 'S = ^30 0>0-T in -jtOCD<00 C c £^2 ^jt-tKcon — c 2 !c £ . ^■oone) 11 -•"22* M 10 " 50 ™ •= o "°'c. o , s ■a o C .a & T3 o •a e2 a s I •! • •a i s S-=fe ■ o 1 ; w5 1 in h c K | . -" u, i S u n J* o 2 rt H w H ■g s « a <> 8 e 'a- | § S3 -~" I Eg 1° l-SS PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. 300 For putting a Pilnt on Hoard, and for Pi- lotage of Ships and Vessels to the Anchorage in the Downs.* 60 Tons, and under 150. 150 Tons, and under 260. 250 Tons, and under 400. 400 Tons, and under 600. 600 T.ms, and upwards. From off Dungeness to off Folkestone ; the church hearing N. N. W. by com- Froin off Folkstnne to the South Foreland, the lights in one • From off the South Foreland to the L. I. d. ZOO 1 10 1 6 L^ I. d. 3 2 1 5 L. s. d. 3 10 2 10 1 10 L. s. d. 4 3 10 L. 1. d. 5 5 4 4 3 3 For a boat of a class carrying an anchor of above L. a. 4 cwt. with a corresponding tow-line :. ». rf. -) 2 2 ( 1 1 C 15 J Per t rip for (lie whole distance from Gtavcsend to London; and in proportion for any part of that distance. vice in those boats, 8s. per tide Rates charged for the Pilotage of Vessels, ing them in some of the Beaumaris District, viz— From Bangor to a line drawn from Great Ormes Head to Point Linas ; and to and from, and into and out of, all ports and places within those limits. A'. B.— No master of a vessel is compelled to take a pilot within this district, unless coming into or going out of port; but if he do take a pilot, it must be one of the district pilots, if one offer. Rales of Pilotage, for Piloting Ships within the Beaumaris District. Inwards. L. s. d. (■ Under 100 tons - 15 From the outside >....„> 100 to 200 - - 1 1 of theSouud - <" lt0 " leliay ^ 200 — 300 - - 1 11 6 1.300 and upwards - 2 2 r Under 100 tons - 10 6 From the inside > inti , thl , Riv ) 100 to 200 - - 15 of the Sound • . J«"otneBay< 2( , _ 300 . . I l (.300 and upwards - 1 11 6 Outwards. Under 100 tons - • - - 10 6 ICO to2>0 - - - - - - 15 200 — 300 - - - - - - 1 1 300 .nd upwards - - - - - 1 11 6 Ships uot having British registers are to pay 14 more than is stated in the above T.iule. L. s. d. Should the pilot be landed at Great Ormes Head — extra - 2 2 It taken out of the limits of bis licence, to Chester or Li- verpool - - - - - - 3 3 In case the pilot should happen to have charge of the vessel to either of the said places - - - - 5 5 The sum of 7*. 6 300 and upwards From the Holms to IyogroaJ, under • 100 tons 100 and under 200 — 200 — 3)0 200 and upwards From Portishead, Kingroad, Hungroad, or Broad Pill, to Cumberland or Bathurst Basin, or vice veisa, under - 40 tons 40 and under 60 60 — SO — 100 — 100 — 200 — 200. — 300 — 300 and upwards From Portishead, Kingroad, Hungroad, or Broad Pill, to of them, under 100 tons - 100 and under 200 200 300 300 and upwards Per yes. Per Ves. L. s. d. L. s. d. 13 11 17 6, 1 I 102 i o u | 1 II 3 10 6 14 17 6 10 IS 1 1 5 Dartmouth District.— From Bob's Nose to the Start, and vice versa; and to and from, and into and out of, all ports and places within those limits. N. B.— No master of a vessel is compelled to take a pilot within this district, unless goin* into or coming out of port, within aline drawn from the Mewstone to ihe Blackstone ; but if he do take a pi- lot between Bob's Nose and the Start, it must bo one of the district pilots, if one offer. «a(ei nf Pilotage, for piloting Ships within the Dnrtmouth Dis- trict.— All British ships, if boarded without the i East, or the Blackstone West, are to pay as follov Drawing 10 feet of water and ur 10 to 12 feet - 12 to 14 — - 14 to 16— ■ 16 feet and upwards All British ships, if boarded \ of the Mewstone Per Foot. - 5 ithin that line, are to pay 1-4 part All British ships, boarded within the Castle, are to pay only 1-2 pilotage, subject to the consideration of Ihe weather, which is to be settled by the sub-commissioners. In carrying ships out of the harbour, the pilotage is to be in all cases 1-3 less than the inward pilotage. All ships not having British registers are to pay 1-4 more than the rates above stated. Masters of ships taking a pilot at sea ; viz. 2 leagues or more from the harbour's mouth, are to pay according to circumstances attending the hazard run, assistance required, Ac, which is to be regulated, in case of dispute, by Ihe sub-commissioners. 'Hie pilot is to provide proper tow-boat and crew consisting of at least 4 men ; for who! services he shall be entitled to charge 2s. G'rf. per man per day, in ad- dition to the rMe nf pilotage ; and, in case of dispute, to be settled by the sub-commissioners, and the assistance rewarded according to the risk, time, and trouble. Downs to the hie of Wight.— Rates of Pilotage vhose Ships drawing 7 feet and under 10 — 11 — 12 — 3 15 When the pilot is put on board by a boat from the shore, one seventh to the pilot, and the remaining six sevenllis to the boat and crew. 310 PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. Ships drawing 13 feet Above 21 Dutlitu N. B.— No master of a vessel is compelled *o take a pilot, within this district, unless going into or coming out of a port within a line drawn from the Manacles to the Hodman ; but if he do take a pilot between the Dodrnau and the Lizard, it must be one of the district pilots, if one offer. Foreign Rate. British Rate. L. s. d. L. s. d. Ballast dues. Taken on board within the harbour 2 6 per ton 1 8 per ton thrown out — - 10 - 8 — Tonnage dues 16 — 9 — Inwards. Pilotage over the Bar from ' the Hanks 6 per foot 3 per foot within — • 4 — 2 — within the Heads 3 — 16 — From Poolbeg to the Quays 16 — 10- Outwards. From the Quays to Poolbeg laden 16 — 10 — From Poolbeg over the Bar laden 16 — 1 — Harbour dues. Vessels from India or China - West Indies, Azores, Madei- ra, Teneriff-, Cape de Verd Isles,Greenland,and Davis's Straits - America, Mediterranean, or any port north of Dront- heim Any part between Dunkirk and Gibraltar (including Dunkirk), and from any part in the Baltic N. B. — British vessels navi- gated by non freemen pay 12 more. Foreign Rate, L. s. d. 5 per ton 14 — 10 — 8 — L. s. d. 2 6 per ton Exeter District, viz, — From Lyme to Bob's Nose, and vice versa ; and to and from, and into and out of, all ports, and places within those limits. N. B.— No master of a ship is compelled to take a pilot within this district, until he comes off the ports of Exmouth and Teignmouth j but if he do take a pilot between Lyme and Bob's Nose, it must be one of the district pilots, if one offer. Hates of Pilotage for I'essels in and over Exmouth Bar, to the Moorings in the Bight at Exmouth, and out again over the Bar. Coasters. 60 tons ~\ 90 — 1 - 100 — 100 — 1 125 — 125 — ;--- 150 — 150 — 175 — 175 — 200 — 200 — 250 — SO tons 3 6 90 250 4 7 6 9 6 "U 300 — 400 — And if carried up toTopsham Quay and back, 1 guinea extra. Ship! from Foreign Ports. 80 tons CO tons 80 — 100 — 300 r BU ion! M 100 — S= 150 — c 6 J 200 — ■g 8 I 250 — * 300 — L3i0 — 7 6 9 6 15 6 And if carried up to Topsham Quay and back, I guinea extra. 160 ■ 100 tons 150 — 200 — 250 I 300 — 1.400 — 200 — 250 — i.300 — Ships from Foreign Parts. 80 ton» 3 100 — 3 150— 4 200 250 — — 5 a. 2 300 -1-., slits' - 7 0- 1 From To S. a g to 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 « Sea& vice < versa Carrick Road, Falmouth, k St. Mawes' Harbours, & St. Just Pool 1 1-24 30 J 35 42 46 50 55 60 67 75 84 94 Do. do. | ?21 24 27 30 34 38 42 47 52 60! Carrick f Roads,! & rice j versa L Falmouth, & St. Mawea' Harbours, & St. Just Pool 1 ' ' ' 1 J. 6d. per foot of the draught of water. Masters of vessels takiDg a pilot at sea, are to pay— 'ithout a line drawn from L. s. d. For putting a pilot on board the Manacles to the Dodman - - • - 2 2 Ditto, from the entrance of Helford Harbour to the Gull Rock -110 Ditto, a mile without the Shag Rock of Pendennis Point • 10 6 Ditto, oft' the Lizard, or in the parallel of fhe Lizard, or meeting a vessel there, and running before her, not being able to put a pilot on board, provided the master of the vessel consents to receive a pilot at that distance -330 Ships not having British registers are to pay 1-4 more of the rates of pilotage than stated in the above Table. N. B.— No allowance for a pilot going on board a ship in the har- bour to take her out. except in extremely bad weather, or when ships are on shore or makinssitmals of distress, in which case a reasonable compensation is to be made. All vessels belonging to the port of Truro, bound to or from foreign parts, including Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, are to pay no more than 1-2 the above rates ol pilotage, when navigating Within the limits of the Falmouth district on their pa-sage to or from Truro. The rate of Is. 6d. per foot for subsequent removal remaining unal- tered. Fowey District, viz. — From Looe, inclusive, to the Dodman, and vice versa ; and to and from, and into and out of, all ports and places within those limits. A T . B.— No master of a vessel is compelled to take a pilot within this district till he comes otf the port of Looe; or within a line drawn from the Looe to the Gribben Head, for the port of Fowey ; or from the Gribben Head to Blackhead, for Polkerns Bay ; or from the Gribben Head to the Dodman, for Mevagissty ; but if he do take a pilot between Looe and the Dodman, it must be one of the district pilots, if one offer. Rahs of Pilotaae for pilotine: ships within the Fowey District. All British ships of 14 feet water and upwards, if boarded without the land, off Looe or the Dodman, which must he known by the western land, called Ihe Gray, being open off the Dodman, shall pay 5s. per foot pilotage, if carried into the harbourof Fowey, Mevagissey Pier, Charlestown Basin, or Looe. British ships under 14 feet water, boarded as above slated, to pay 45. per foot for the like service. British ships above 14 feet, within that line, to pay only 4s. per foot ; and ships under 14 feet, boarded as above, only 3s. per foot for the like service. All ships not having a British register to pay 1-4 more than the rates above stated. All the above rates to be paid in proportion for every !-2 foot of water, but no allowance to be made fur any draught of water above, or under 1-2 a foot. In carrying ships to sea from the said harbour, the pilotage to be in all cases 1-3 less than the inward pilotage, as mentioned in the third article. All ships which may anchor on their arrival either in Mevagissy Bay, or the sands off Fowey, to pay only 1-2 of the before-mentioned rates of pilotage. All pilots employed to carrv ships from any one of the harbours to another, to be paid the same pilotage as if the said ships had been boarded within the headlands coming from sea. Masters of ships taking a pilot at sea (which is optional with 3 league in 11. 6 leagu 10 leagu } without a line drawn from the Looe to the Dod- and proportionately for intermediate distances. Galiuay. Ships not having British registers, nor being privileged as British, to dm M more than the above rates. ; rm idea boat and crew to assist over the bar to a mooring berth; for which they shall be paid, over and above the pilotage, 2». M i ir each man or oir employed for that purpose. Mu'cre of ships taking a pilot off the Bill of Portland, or the Start (which is optional to theml. are to pay, bevor.d the pilotage from Bob's Nose, or Lyme, as follows, viz. :— Colliers and coasters, 2 guineas ; ships from'foreign ports, 3 guineas ; and proportionately for intermediate distances. Falmouth District, niz From the Dodman to the Lizard, and vice versa ; and lo and from, and into and out of, all ports and places Within those limits. Foreign Rate. British Rate. L.s. d. L.s. it Pilntase from Sea to the Roads, and vice versa 20 to 60 tons 10 per ves. 5 per ves. 60— 100 — 14 — 7 — 100— 150 — 1 — 10 — 1 ■() — 200 — ISO — 14 - 200 and upwards 1 14 8 — 17 4 — From thcRoadslolln Da I:. and vux versa 20 to 60 tons 15 — 7 60— 100 — 110 — 10 6 — 100— 150 — 1 10 — 15 — 150—200 — 2 2 — 1 1 200 and upwards 2 12 - 1 6 PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. Hull — con t inued. 311 Harbour dues Anchorage Pilotage - - oversea coastwise Foreign Kate. Hritish Rate. L. J. d. 1 8 per ton 4 — 1 2 14 — L.I. d. U H per ton 4 — 1-2 — 1 12 — From To Under ! 10 to 10 \ 13 Feet. ! Feet. 13 Feet wards. Sea or Orford- < The Rolling ( Grounds - \ Harwich Har-J bour • ■) Harwich Har- ( hour - - ( Harwich Har- > bour - - 5 Sea or Orford- ) The Rolling > Grounds • y £. s. d. L. s. d. 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 11 6 1 11 6 1 2 2 two thirds of the L. s. d. 4 4 2 2 3 3 above. Ships not having British registers are to pay 1-4 more of the rates of pilotage than stated iu the above Table, to be paid at the Custom- house, Harwich. Foreign Rate. British Rate. L. >. d. L. i ,1. Sea pilotage. From the Humbcr to Lyme or Boston Deeps 12 per foot 8 per foot Trinity house Dues. Buoyage - under 20 tons 11 per ves. 2 ier ves. 30 11 2 f> 40 11 — 3 — 60 11 — 3 6 — 60 11 — 4 — 65 II — 4 n — 70 14 4 6 80 14 — 5 n — 90 14 — 5 6 — 100 14 — 6 — 110 14 6 6 120 14 t) — 7 — 130 14 I) — 7 fl — 135 14 — 7 6 — 140 17 (1 8 150 17 — 8 « 160 17 (1 — 9 170 17 — 9 6 — 180 1 — 10 n — for every additional 10 1 — 6 — Fine on importing a cargo 1 — Nil. Do. exporting — 6 13 4 Harbour master's dues 2 H — — Holyhead District, viz.—Tn and from the anchorages at Great Ormes Head, along the coast of the hie of Anglesea and Wales, as far as Bardsey Island, and to and from, and into aud out of, all ports and places within those limits (.except the barand harbour of Caernarvon, and the Swellies). N. /?.— No master of a vessel is compelled to take a pilot within this district, till he comes to the North Stack, bound to Holyhead Harbour; but if he do take a pilot between Gieat Ormes Head and Bardsey Island, it must be one of the district pilots, if one offer. Rates of Pilotage, fen- piloting Ships into and out of the Harbour of Holyhead. Town Dues for British Vessels. Vessels per Register to pay, for 300 and less than 400 Tons 200 and 120 and less than less than 300 Tons.|200 Tons. 80 aud less than 120 Tons. 60 and less than 80 Tons. Under 60 Tons. L. i. d. 3 3 L. s. d. 2 2 L. s. d. 1 11 6 L. s. d. 1 L. s. d. 1 1 | IS L. s. d. 10 6 All ships and vessels, under any circumstances of distress, are to pay such pilot a further sum of money, to be calculated according to the extent and circumstances of such distress, and the services afforded. Ships and vessels which shall be boarded by pilots, at the distance of 3 leagues or farther to the southward and westward of Holyhead (where it is optional to masters of vessels to take pilots), are to pay the several rates lollowing j viz. L. s. d. On having a Liverpool pilot on board, off Point Lims, and landing the Holyheid pilot there - - - - 3 3 On landing the pilot at the Great Ormes Head - - 4 4 If a pilot is taken beyond the limits of his licence to Ches- ter Water or to Liverpool - - - - 5 5 With the sum of Is, 6d. per day for every day such pilot may be de- tained on board in consequence of the ship or vessel performing qua- rantine, or detained under any other restrictions such ships may be liable to. Pilots boarding ships and vessels at a less distance than 3 leagues from the Head, as above, are to receive 10*. Gd. less for pilotage than the above rates. It is particularly requested that commanders of ships, on discharg- ing their pilots off Point Linas, or the Ormes Head, should be certain that such pilots will be taken on shore without being delayed on board such vessels or boats as may receive them : as a pilot will be entitled to 7*. 6d. per day for every day he shall be kept out from landing, after the day he is discharged from the snip or vessel he may have piloted, unless it can be proved that such delay had unavoidably happened from the violence of the wind and weather. Town Dues for Alien Vessels. Anchorage, under 100 tons 100 and not 200 tons 200 and upwards Jettage, under 100 tons if loads out more 100 and not 200 tons - if loads out more 200 and upwards if loads out more Hostage, per each It. sterling of the freight wards ..... Amongst the officer?, per ship Ballast, for each ton taken on board, outwards Jettage. Inwards. Outwards. L. J. d. L. s. d. L. s. d. Under 40 tons 1 I 6 1 40 and do! 45 tons 1 2 1 45 — 50 1 6 2 1 6 60 — 100 1 6 2 6 2 6 100 — 150 2 3 6 3 6 150 — 200 2 4 6 4 200 — 250 2 6 5 5 250 — 300 2 6 6 6 300 and upwards - 2 6 7 6 6 Exempt if Not due unless with belonging goods landed at, or to free- taken in at, Hull, men. or within the har- bour. Inwards. River pilotage. From the Northness of Dimling- ton seen open, or clear of the land to the s ward thereof From the same, foi sels com i ng from the southward From the same, for sels coming from the northward and ward • From the floating lighi until Spurn light; northeast From Spurn light; north-east, to the buoy of the Burcome or Grimsby Outwards. With goods - ballast - goods from Grimsby ballast • Pilots attending on vessels Dock dues. Vessels coming to, or going between Hull and the West In- dies, North or South America, Africa, Green- land, or any place east of the North Cape of Norway, within the Straits of Gibraltar, and south of Cape St. Vincent Between Hull, and all places above the Sound, and westward of Ushant in Europe, without the Straits of Gibraltar Between Hull, and any port in Sweden, Den- mark, or Norway, be- low Elsineur, Germany, Holland, Flanders, or France, to the eastward of Ushant Foreign Rate. 7 per foot 7 — 7 — 5 3 — 10 6 per day 3 6 per ton 5 per foot 5 — 5 — 3 6 — 7 per day 1 9 per ton 312 PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. Ipswich. Fore ign Rate. British Rate. I.. ,, d. I: s. a. Water bailiff's dues ". 4 per ves. 1 8 per ves. River dues, under 40 lous- 2 per ton 1 per ton 40 10 50 3 — 2 — 50—60 4 — 3 — 60— 70 6 — 4 — 70— 80 8 — 5 — 80— 90 1 — 6i — 90— 100 n 4 — 8 — 100— 180 1 8 — 10 — 180 aud upwards » 1 8 — If delivering or taking m a cargo, at nr below 5 — Pilotage from Dowoham Reach to Levington Creek, and via t« m » 1 6 per foot 9 per foot From Levington Creek to Harwich Harbour, and vice versa n 1 — 6- From Uowuham Reach to Harwich Harbour, and vice versa ... ii 2 6 - II 1 3 — From Ipswich Quav to Downham Reach, and vice versa. — Vessels with 1 mast - n 2 6 — (1 1 3 — With 2 or more ,- 3 6 — I 6 — Pilots refusmg to conduct ships, or assist ships in distress, to forfei 10/., and lose their licence. Masters in coasting trade in ballast, or under the burden of 100 tons, may pilot their own Teasels. Masters of vessels forcibly taking pilots beyond the limits of the port, shall forfeit not exceeding 2C7., nor less linn 5/. Pilots misbehaving to have their license recalled, and if tliey act afterwards, to be liable to the same penalties as if they were not pilots. Vessels liable to pay pilotage coming into port, to display a signal for a pilot, under a penalty of 51. Reward fur pilots assisting ships in distress to be settled by the committee. Compensation to be made to pilots for taking vessels out of the port which have been forced back, to be fixed by the committee. Ships forced back after parting with the pilot, and piloted out again. from Hoylake, to pay 1-2 ttie prices. Every master to give the pilot a true account of the draught of water of his ship, and pilots authorised to admeasure. Pilots to obey the order* of the harbour and dock masters. No vessels to be brought round the Rock, or into the docks, in the night time. Londonderry. Liverpool. Rates of Pilotage for British Vessels trading to Foreign Parts. Per Foot. L. s. d. Inward.— Trom the length of the west end of Great Ormes Head, bearing S. by W., or before Penman Bachan be shut in with Great Ormes Head, at the rate of -090 From the eastward of Great Ormes Head, as above -080 From the only house now on Great Hilbra Island, bear- ing S. S. W. by the compass, or shall be piloted from the Road of Hoylake only, or from the buoy of the Fair-Way in Fofmby Channel - - • -040 Outward. — Whether through the Rock or Formby Chan- nel 4 No British vessel, trading to foreign parts, inward and outward bound, is to refuse a pilot ; but if such vessel have passed the Brazil buoy in the Rock Channel, or the Middle Patch buoy in Formby Channel, or it a pilot boat fall in with a vessel in the narrows of the channels in stormy weather, that she cannot board her without im- minent danger, the pilot shall then lead the way, and, in either case, be entitled to such pilotage as shall be awarded by the committee at their next meeting. For Alien Ships and Vessels. Per Foot. L. s. d. Inward.— Trom the length of Great Ormes Head, as above, at the rate of - - - - - - 12 From the eastward of Great Ormes Head, as above - II From the only house now on Great Hilbra Island, bear- ing S. S. W. by the compass, or shall be piloted from the Road of Hovlake onlv, or from the buoy of the Fair-Way in Fofmby Channel - - - - 5 6 Outward.— Whether through the Rock or Formby Chan- nel 7 An alien vessel, inward or outward bound, is not to refuse a pilot, as circumstances are described for English foreign vessels as above. For Coasting Vessels, and those trading to and from Ireland, the Islands of Faro or Ferro, Jersey, Guernsey, Aldemey, Sark, and Man. Per Foot. L. s. d. Inward. — From the length of Great Ormes Head, as above, at the rate of - - • - - - 4 6 From the eastward of Great Ormes Head, as above * 4 From the only house now on Gre.a Hilbra Island, bear- ing S. S. W. by the compass, or shall be piloted from the Road of Hoylake only, or from the buoy of the Fair- Way in Formby Channel - - - - Outward. — Whether through the Rock or Formby Chan l:t 1 Foreign Rate. British Rate. L. ». d. L. s. d. Quay dues (except French) 6 per ton 3 per ton coasting 2 — Harbour dues - oversea 6 — 3 — coasting — 2 — Inwards. Pilotage. 7 feet and under 1 1 per ves. 14 per ves. Above 7 ft. arid under 8 ft. 3 per foot 2 per foot 8-9 3 4 — 2 2 - 9 — 10 3 8 — 2 4 — 10 — 11 4 — 2 8 — 11 — 12 4 4 — 3 — 12 — 13 4 8 — 3 4 — 13 — 14 5 — 3 8 — 14 — 15 5 4 — 4 — 15 and upwards 5 8 — 4 4 — Outwards. 7 feet and under 17 6 per ves. 10 6 per ves. Above 7 ft. and under 8 ft. 2 6 per foot 1 6 tier foot 8 — 9 2 9 — 1 9 - 9 — 10 3 — 2 — 10 — 11 3 3 — 2 3 — 11 — 12 3 6 — 2 6 — 12 — 13 3 9 — 2 9 — 13 — 14 4 — 3 — 14 — 15 4 4 — 3 3 — 15 and upwards 4 4 — 3 6 — A T . B— All British ships from foreign parts to pay 4d. per foot extra; or if bound to foreign ports, having on board 1-2 a cargo, or with passen- gers, to pay 4(1. per foot extra, in addition to the above charges. Lynn. Foreign Rate. British Rate. L. s. d. L. s. d. Town dues. Beaconage 1 1-2 per ton 1 per ton Stackage - 03-4 — 1-2 — and l-5th of the bea- conage if at the Boal. Ballast 8 per 3 tons 4 pr. 3 tons Mooring dues • 11-2 per ton 3-4 per tOD goods goods which may be In- creased to 2 — 1 — Pilotage, 10 ft. & under 3 per foot 1 6 per foot 10 1-2 to 12 3 6 — 19 — 12 1-2 to 14 1-2 4 — 3 2 — 14 1-2 and up- 5 — 3 2 6 — wards 2 Milfvrd, District, viz.— From Caldy Island, along the coast to Sf. David's Head, and from thence to Cardigan Island, and i",, 2 and to and from, and into and out of, all ports and places within No coasting vessel to pay for less than 8 feet of water, nor any ves- sel to pay for odd inches under 1-2 a foot. No coasting vessel, in- ward or outward bound, of the burden of 100 tons or upwards, (unless she be in ballast,) is to refuse a pilot, as the master or owner, &c must pay the full pilolag** ii one ba offer* 1. No vessel is lo be deemed a coaster unless she has been 6 months in that trade. Extra Pay. Per Day. L. s. d. In the river, exclusive of the day coming from sea, the day of docking, and the day of going to sea, for the pilot's attendance, if required by the master, or owner, &c. - 5 And if the attendance of a pilot boat be requested as above 2 2 The pilotage from sea into Hoylake is 1-2 inward, and from Hoy- lake out to sea 1-2 outwards. %* Notwithstanding the pilot or the boat be not employed a I >v. to 1"' paid fir a day. So far include! all the rates and prices for pilotage and extra pay. The Pilots' I b beg leave to recommend to the merchants of ] erpool, &c. that when a pilot conducts a ship or vessel into port to their satisfaction, lo employ the same pilot to take the vessel out again ; and if he should be absent on duty, that one belonging to the same boat be employed.' PiloW Ituki and Regulation!. — Any person acting as a pilot in the port of .Liverpool, without a licence, to forfeit 20/. N. J?.— No master of a vessel is compelled to take a pilot within this district, unless going into or coming out of port, within a line drawn from Lenny Point to Shnkam Island ; but il be do t.tke a pilot >! ly Island and Cardigan Island, it must be one of the dis- trict pilots, if one offer. Rates Of Pilotage, for piloting Ships into the Harbour of Milfoid, and up and duwn the said Harbour. From To Rates per Foot. Under 14 Feet. 14 Ft. and upwards. A line drawn from | St. Anne's Point-: to Sheep's Island A line drawn from ( St. Anne's Point j to Sheep's Island,-; or from Hubber- J stone Road I Any part of thehar-^ hour below a line | drawn from New- )■ ton Nose Point to | Martins Haven J Any place above a^ line diawn from Newton Nose > Point to Martin's 1 Haven, inadditionj 2 6 2 L. *. d. 3 6 2 6 PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. 313 Additional Rates for Ships boarded without the entrance of the Harbour. L. s. d. From a line drawn from Lenny Point to Skokam Island, in addition per foot - - • - -020 If to the southward of St. Gown's Head, ditto - - 1 Or from Caldy Island eastward, or from the westward of the Grassholm, or 3 league" without Lenny Point, in addition to the harbour pilotage - • - 3 3 6 leagues ditto • • • - -440 10 leigues ditto - - - • -660 One fourth part is to be added to the harbour rates for ships not having British registers. Rates for Services and Jissista7ice performed in the Harbour. For a boat carrying an anchor of above 6 cwt., with a correspond- ing hawser — I. s. d. If in Iluhberstone Roads - • 2 2 0"\ Each man in the boat, each tide -050 If below Hubberstoue Roads, a line drawn from the E. point of Gil'is- wick, to the E. point of Angle Bay and above the Stack Rock - - 2 12 6 Each man in the boat, each tide - 6 If in Dale Road, and the anchor is brought from Milford - - 4 4 Or if carried off from Dale - - 2 12 6 Each man in the boat, each tide * 6 For a boat carrying off an anchor of 3 cwt. and not exceeding 6 cwt., with a corresponding hawser, the boat and men to have 3-4 of the sums above specified. For a boat with an anchor of 2 cwt. and not exceeding 3 cwt., with i ling hawser, the boat and men to have 1-2 of the said above specified sums. For unmooring a ship drawing 14 feet water, and upwards, and bringing her alongside the quay, or into Hubberslone Pill — From the situation, 1st or 2d, before mentioned— Not exceeding ; at the discre- tion of the sub- commissioners. feet, 1/. 13*.: 12 feet, 51. )s. Gd. ; 13 fret, 51. P*. 6d. ; 14 feet, 51. IB*.; r. fft t, 61 i., j I6fei I, 61. I till feet, tt. 2s, ; 18 f et, w. hi. t ]<5 ' .; 21 reef, 121. ]jo$. ; above 21 fcet, Harbour Pilotage. — New Haven.— $ feet draught and under, pur fuol, It. bd. ; 8 to 10 feet, \s. Vd. ; above 10 feet, 3*. Rye.— h feet draugh 1 and under, per foot, 2s. Id. ; 8 to 10 feet, 3*.; above 10 feet, 4*. Shorehanu—Q feet draught and under, per foot, 2*. Gd. ; 8 to 10 feet, 3jt. ; above 10 feet, 4*. North Channel, tyc. vpivards from Orfrdnessto London— Of the pilots within this district, some are licensed from the Dudgeon light- vessel to Orfordness, and thence to the Downi ; others are further licensed fruin Smith's Knoll to Orforduess. But the taking of pilot* along the coast, to the norths aid ol Orfordness, is optional to master* of vessels; though, if a pilot be employed, he must be licensed as above, if one offers. Licences gnnted for the northward of Orfordness do not authorise the pilotage into or out of Yarmouth Roads or Il.irbour, except as may be requisite in the passage to the Downs or river. Penzance District, viz. — From the Lizard to Cape Cornwall, and vice versa ; and to and from, and into aud out of, all ports and places within those limits. N. B.— No master of a vessel is compelled to take a pilot within this district, until he comes within a line drawn from St. Clement's Isle to Trewavas Head, for Mount's Bay and Penzance ; but if he does take a pilot between the Lizard and Cape Cornwall, it must be one of the district pilots, if one offer. For the pilot If with a boat an additional sum of Each person employed - From the 3d station specified For the pilot If with a boat, an additional sum of Each person employed - Not exceeding ; at the discre- tion of the sub- corn mis- i oners. ( Not exceeding ; 5 1 at the 1 tion of L commis s From To £ i to 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 Sea, and J vice versa ] Either of the -i roadsteads or piers in Mount's Rav 1,0 16 24 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 67 77 1 All road- f steads, k< vice vena 1 Either of the different piers in Mount's Bay - }'" Ed. per foot of the draught of water. And for taking a ship of 14 feet draught of water and upwards, from the quays, or Hubberstoue Pill, to moorings in any of the situa- tions before mentioned, the like sums above specified. Ships under 14 feet draught of water, to or from the situations be- fore mentioned, 3-4 of the sums for the pilot; the boats and man as For putting a pilot on board Ships not having British registers are to pay 1-4 more than stated in the above Table. Boats and vessels boarded by pilots at a distance southward of the bay — : specified. For new mooring a ship drawing 14 feet water, in either of the situations before described— L. s. d. For the pilot - . - - 10 6 If with a bnat, an additional sum of - 10 6 Each person employed ithout a line drawn from the L. s. d. 6 Not exceeding. Foreign Rate. British Rate. L. i. d. L. s. d. Pilotage into or out of the port, or into or out of any of the creeks or members thereof from 1st April 1 9 per foot 1 3 per foot 1st October 2 — 16 — Up or down the Tyne be- tween North and South Shields, and any part of the river above Bill Point .... 2 0- 16 — Up oi down the river be- low Bill Point 1 6 - 10 — W B.—5s. per vessel extra, Buoyage and beaconage. f with lee- Vessels loaded 50 tons wards. and under 1 6 per ves. 4 per ves. 61 to 100 1 6 — 9 — 101 — 200 1 6 — 11 — 201 — 300 1 6 — 11 — 301 and above • 1 6 — 13 — Town dues. On coals and grindstones exported 1 4 pr. chal. 2 pr. chal. Harbour dues - laden 6 10 per ves. 4 6 per ves. ballast 5 10 — 4 2 — Some particular kind of do. 8 4 — 7 — without ballast or goods 4 10 — 3 2 — Hostmen's dues. Grind- stones - - - - ? pr. chal. 4pr.chal. Anchorage ... 1 per veB. Nil. Newhaven and Shorekam District, viz.— From Duneeness to the Owers, and vice versa; and to and from, and into and out of, all ports and piaces within those limits. N. B.— No master of a vessel is compelled to take a Bitot within this district, until he comes to the entrance of Rye, Siioreham, or Newhaven, and is bound to one of those porta ; but if he does take a pilot between Dungeness and the Owers, it must be a district pilot, , if one offers. Rate's of Pilotage, for piloting Ships within the Newhaven Dis- trict.— Cowt pilotage from Duneeness to the west end of the Owers: 7" feet draught and under, 21. 16*. 6d.; 7 to 10 feet, 41. As. Gd. ; 1 Vol. II.— 2 D Lizard to Tol Pedan Penvi Ditto, within a line drawn from the Lizard to Tol Pedan Penwith, and without a line drawn from Cam Dew to Pengwinion Point - - - • - 1 1 Ditto, within a liue drawn from Cam Dew to Pengwinion Point, and without a line drawn from St. Clement's Isle to Trewavas Head • - - - - 10 And within those limits to be charged inwards. Plymouth District, viz.— To the westward as far as Looe, and eastward as far as the Start ; and to and from, and into and out of, all ports and places within those limits. N. B. — No master of a vessel is compelled to take a pilot within this district, except going in or comine out of the port, within a line drawn from the Ram Head to the Mewstone ; but if he do take a pilot between the Start and Looe, it must be one of the district pilots, if one offer. Rates of Pilotage, for piloting Ships within the Plymouth Dis- trict.—l. All British ships of 14 feet water and upwards, except East Indiamen, if boarded without the land off Penlcc Point or the Mewstone, which must be known by the western land being open off the Ram Head, shall pay 5s. per foot pilotage, if carried into the Harbour of Hamo.ze, Catwater, or Sutton Poo!. 2. British ships under 14 feet water, down to 8 feet, boarded as above stated, are to pay 4*. per foot for the like service. 3. Ships above 14 feet, within that line, are to pay only 4*. per foot ; and ships under 14 feet, boarded as above, only 3i. per foot, for the like service. 4. All ships under 8 feet water, are to pay as above stated, as if the vessel was of that draught. 5. All the above rates are to be paid in proportion for every 1-2 foot of water, but no allowance is to be made for anv draught of water less than 1-2 foot. 6. In carrying ships to sea from the said harbours, the pilotage is to be, in all cases, the same as the inward pilotage. 7. All ships which may anchor on their arrival, either in Cawsand Bay or Plymouth Sound, are to pay only 1-2 of the before -mentioned rates of pilotage. 8. All pilots employed to carry ships from anyone of the harbours to another, are to be paid the same pilotage as if the said ship had been boarded within the headlands coming; from sea. 9. Should any ship above 17 feet water be boarded while the west- ern land is open off the Rim Head by one of the 2d class pilots, and he runs the ship as far in as either of the buoys on the Panther or Shovel, and is there superseded by one of the 1st class, he shall be entitled to l-3d of the pilotage. 10. Masters of ships taking a pilot at sea — L. t. d. 3 leagues without a line drawn from the Ram Head to the Mewstone, are to pay - - - - 3 3 6 leagues ditto • - - - - - 4 4 (\, 10 leagues ditto - - - - -660 and proportionately for intermediate distances. 11. Ships not having British registers are to pay 1-4 more of the rates of pilotage than is stated in the above Table. 12. If a master chocwe to retain or employ a pilot whilst at anchoi the rate for the lay days is to be Is. Gd. a day, not including the da» coming in or going out. 40 314 PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. Poole District, viz.— From Cbristchurch, inclusive, to St. Alban's Head, and vice versa ; and to and from, and into and out of, all ports and places within those limits. N. B.— No master of a vessel is compelled to take a pilot within this district until he conies to the entrance of Poole, Studland Bay, or Cbristchurch, bound to one of those places ; but if be do take a pilot between Chris-church and St. Alban's Head, it must be one of the dis- trict pilots, if one offer. Rates of Pilotage for piloting Ships within the Poole District. — For the pilotage of any vessel from Studland Bay to Poole Quay, 3s, per foot. For Ihe pilotage of any vessel from Studland Bay to Brownsea, 2-3 is of the above. For the pilotage of any vessel from St. Alban's or Cbristchurch Head, to Poole Quay, 4r. per foot, and in proportion from those heads to Brownsea, &c For the pilotage of any vessel from any place between either of those heads and Studland Bay, to Poole Quay, 3*. 6d, per foot; and in proportion from the same places to Brownsea, &c. For the pilotage of any vessel outwards j the same as for a vessel inwards. Ships not having British registers are to pay 1-4 more of the rates of pilotage than above stated. The pilot having char*e of any ship or vessel, either inwards or OQtwarls, and being required by the master or owner to remain on boar f tnv such ship or vessel, shall be paid -1*. per day in addition to the limited pilotage, for every day after the first. The pilot of any vessel shall, if required by the owner or master only, provide a boat, with 4 men to attend her, from Stakes to the Quay, or from the Quay to Slakes, to tow her in or out, or to carry ropes on shore or to the buoys, as may be necessary ; for which ser- vice there shall be paid the sum of 10s. The pilots shall at all times, when required by the masteror owner, lend their assignee to work any vessel to or from the quay, into or out of the harbour; for which service they shall be paid as follows, viz.— For working a vessel to or from the bay, 5*. per man j to or from Brownsea, 3r. ditto ; and to or from Stakes, 2s. ditto; and the same tor the boat they attend in ; and As, per day each man, if detained on board after the first day. Coasting vessels to pay 2-3ds of the above rates of pilotage. Port Glasgow. Harbour dues. If a foreign voyage - Above 30 tons coasting Pilotage. From any place between Cumray Light & the Clough Light, or from the anchorage at Fairlee Roads, Rotbsav Bay, or Quarantine Sta'tion, Holy Lock, to Greenock Roads, mooring and berthing, or trice versa From any place inside the Clough Light, or from the anchorage at Gourock Roads, or the Tail of the Bank - Vessels inward bound, not boarded until nearer Gourock than the Bay of Quirk - - - From Greenock to Port Glasgow, which rate is to be added to above for vessels from any of those stations for that port Foreign Rate. British Rate, 0| 1}- 0}- Portsmouth and Cowes District, viz.— From the Owers, within and without the Isle of Wight, to Peverel, and vice versa; and to and from, and into and out of, all ports and places within those Omits. A". B.— The pilots of this district have authority to supersede such of the London or Cinque Port pilots as are licensed for the charge of vessels to the Isle of Wight, when they arrive near the channels lead- ing into the ports and harbours within the Isle of Wight ; but no mas- ter of a vessel is compelled to take a Portsmouth or Cowes pilot till within 5 miles of Bembndge Ledge, or 3 miles of Dunnose, St. Ca- tharine's, or the Needles, (or till at St. Helen's, if he is piloted thereto by a duly licensed London o: Cinque Port pilot,) but if he do take on board a pilot between the Owen and Peverel, it must be one of the district pilots. Hates of Pilotage, for piloting Ships within the Portsmouth and Cowes District.— Prom 5 miles without Bembridge Ledge, or3miles without Dunnose or St. Catharine's, or 3 miles from the Needles 1 Point, coming in at that passige. To Spithead, Molherbank, Stokes Bay, or Cowes Road. Per Foot. s. d. For ships of every draught, ai far as 17 feet inclusive - 6 From 17 fret to 20 feet draught inclusive • - -60 Above 20 feet draught • - . - - 7 But if the ship be boarded within 2 miles of the buoys off Bem- bn ■Ig-.or within 3 miles of the Ntedles'Poict, the rate to be I*, per foot less than the above for each foot the ship draws. And the same rates as the above for pilotage outwards. Ships inward bound, boarded between the Needles and Hurst Cas- tle, to pay 2j. per foot. Between Hurst Castle and N. ■-.-. I Ships anchoring and remaining at St. Helen's, Yarmouth, or Ly- mingion, either inward or outward bound, to pay 1-2 the rate of pilotage. Pilots taken on board by the captain without the above limits, to receive the following pay ; viz. — L. s. d. If at 3 leagues from the Wight - - - 3 3 6 Into ditto - - - 4 4 10 ditto ditto - . -660 ae^i proportionately for any intermediate distances. Ships coming into Cowes Harbour to pay li. 6o\ per foot, and the sjne on going out, as harbour pilotage. Pilots of ships drawing 17 feet water and nnder, are to hare 2>. per foot in addition to the pilotage from sea, from any place within the Isle of Wight to Portsmouth Harbour, or to Southampton, or to Buckler's Hard, or to Langstone Harbour and Lymington ; and for all vessels drawing above 17 feet water, 3s. per foot. Ships coming from the Downs with a London or Cinque Port pilot* to the Isle of Wight, and he continuing the charge into any of the places within the said islands, no duly licensed pilot oifering, is to be allowed 1-2 pilotage from St. Helen's to the anchorage, but not other- wise. For transporting vessels from one berth to another in Portsmouth harbour- As far as 200 tons - - - ]0s. Gd. 200 to 300 - - - 13/. Above 300 - - - 2\s. For the pilotage of vessels from Southampton to Redbridge, Eling, Fortham, or Chapel, and vice versa, \s. per foot ; and from South- ampton to Himble, Bureledon, Leap, Buckler's Hard, or Beau lieu, and vice versa, I*. 6a". per foot ; and for any intermediate distance, a proportionate rate. Ships not having British registers are to pay M more of the rates of pilotage than stated in the above Table. If a master choose to retain or employ a pilot while at anchor, the rate for the lay days is to be Is. 6d. per day, not including the day coming in or going out. For every 10 leagues beyond the meridian of Peveril Point, for ships not exceeding 14 feet water, 31. 3s. ; for the same distance, for ships of more than 14 feet water, 41. As. ; and proportionately for in- termediate distances. All vi ssels belonging to the port of Southampton, bound to or from foreign parts, are to pay no more than 1-2 the foregoing rates of pilot- age, when navigating within the limits of either the Cowes oi Portsmouth districts, provided such vessels shall at the lime be ac- tually bound to or from the port of Southampton. All vessels trading to or from the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Al- derney or Sark, are to pay no more thau 1-4 the foregoing rates of pilotage when navigating within the limits of the Portsmouth or Cowes districts. Stilly District, viz.— To and from, and into and out of, all ports and places in and about the Scilly Islands. Coasting vessels of 60 — 60 to 75 75 — 100 100 — 200 200 tons Vessels from foreign ports 60toua 100 — t. s. d. 1 I 1 II 6 2 2 2 12 6 3 3 2 2 2 12 6 200 — 300 — - - . - 5 15 6 400 — - - . - 6 6 and in proportion for greater tonnage. Ships not having British registers are to pay 1-4 more than is above stated. Stigo. Foreign Rate. British Rate. L. i. d L. s. d. Harbour dues 9 per ton 6 per ton From From From From April 1. Oct. 1. April 1. Oct. 1. to to to to Sept. 30. Mar. 3J. Sept. 30. Mar. 31. 1. d. ». d. 8. d. j. d. Inward. Pilotage from the Wheaten Rock to the Oyster Island 2 2 6 1 C 2 Roghley Point to do. - I 6 2 1 2 1 6 Outside the Bar to do. - ! 1 1 3 10 1 Sligo side the Bar to do. 5 7 4 6 The Island to the Quay 1 6 1 6 1 1 Do. to the Pool - 9 9 6 6 "i a ward. From any place to the sea 3 3 6 2 2 6 pel foot drau ght of water. Foreign Rate. British Rate. L. l. d. L. , d. Tees Navication dues. Vessels trading to or from the river Tees from or to any port (except laden with Norway timber only) - 1 6 per ton n 9 per ton If laden with Norway timber only - 10 — n 6 — Town dues - 6 per ve«. (1 .'. Pilotage from Sea to*l I'h buoy • 1 9 per foot i 3 per foot From* Sea to Cargo Fleet • X 3 — ?, — From Cargo Fleet to Middieburg • 10 — (1 9 — From Cargo Fleet to ~ Newpoftor Portrack = 2 6 — n i 3 — From Cargo Fleet to lJ Stockton 3 — a - N. B.—5i. per vessel extra, if with lee- boards. PIMENTO. 315 Wattrford. Pilotage- Taking pilots at the following distances. 12 Feet and upwar Is, be- tween SStb M.irchand 29th September, per Foot. Above Creden Head, and no further than Passage. ^O of O b Q a if 2 ■ Cos qJ Westward. Eastward. Br. Fo. Br. Fo. S' ,/. 4 5 4 ;i ti Br.l Fo Zd. \s. d. 4 5 10 3 85 4 3 4 111 Gt.Newtown Head Saltees - Foilskirt - -|Bag&BunHd. Below Duncannon, and nearer than Foilskirt or Bag and Bun - GtNewtownHead 1 Saltees - Foilskirt - - | Ba ? & Bun Hd. Below Duncannon, and neirer than Foilskirt or Bag and Bun - GtNewtownHead | Saltees - Foilskirt • -|Bag&BunHd. Below Duncannon, and nearer than Foilskirt or Bag and Bun • Gt.Newtown Head 1 Saltees - Foilskirt - • | Bag& Bun Hd. Below Duncannon, and nearer than Foilskirt or Bag and Bun - r. ,i 1 8 1 4 1 (. d. 3 2 7 2 3 : ( Between 29th September and 25th March, per Foot. 2 l|3 6 1 8 3 9 1 4 2 7 3 0' 4 1 1 1 4 5|6 3 2 7 4 54 0:5 10 2 3,4 3 8 5 4 More than 6 and less than 12 Feet, between 25th March and 29th Sept., per Foot. 1 2I2 7 1 11 10 2 119 91 81 2 3 6l3 2 4 11 3 3 4 5 1 2 7 2 9 4 Eetween 29th September and 25th March, per Foot. 1 sh 0I2 4|4 0I3 g\s 4 1 6 2 7 2 lj3 6 3 6 4 11 1 2|2 1 1 10 3 3 2 4 5 Pilotage outwards, the same as Fo lskirt, or Bag and Bun Head. Foreign Rate. British Hate, L. s. cL L. 8. cU Tonnage dues. Vessels re- porting at the Custom- house, (vessels, two thirds of whose cargo shall be coals, nrfrom any port of Ireland, excepted) - 5 per ton l\ per ton Vessels,two thirds of whose cargo shall be coals 3 — \\ — Vessels arriving from any port in Irelaud 2 — 1 — Weymouth, and off those of Bridport and Lyme ; but if he do take a pilot between St. Allan's Head and Lyme, it must be one of the district pilots, if one oiler. Rates of Pilotage, for piloting Shipswithin Vie Weymouth District. Ballast dues. Taken on board - British foreign Thrown out British foreign If above the River or Pill of Killma- below the Cove. If between the River or Pill of Kilmacow and the Cove. If by If at Bal- Lighters. , last Quay. Per Ton. L. 1. d. 3 3 4 6 1 10 2 9 Per Ton. L. s. d. 1 10 2 8 11 1 7 Per Ton. L. 1. d. 1 4 2 2 9 1 5 A line drawn from"! Lulworfh to the I outer part of the \ Race or Shambles J Weymouth or f Portland Roads or > Bay - - -) Sea - - -\ Ditto • Weymouth or 1 Portland Roads or Bay J Weymouth j Harbour • ] Bridport Har* ; bour - - ' Lyme Harbour • Per F.« I. 2 2 From S I-,,! to 10 Feet. Per Fl 0/. 2 6 3 2 6 3 2 6 I 3 The same rates of pilotage to be paid outwards. Ships not having British registers to pay 14 more of the rates of Dtlotage than is staled in the above Table. Thl pilot of anv vessel shall, if required by the owner or master only provide a boat with 4 men to attend her, from the roads to Ihe quay, or from the quay to the roads, to tow her in or out or carrv ropes on shore or to the posts, &c, as may be necessary, for which service each man is to be paid is. per tide ; the owner of the boat to be Masten orshfps takimfa pilot at sea (which is optional to them) to pay as follows, viz.— L ^ ^ From St Alban-s Head or Bill of Portland, to off Bridport 2 2 Q If "leagues from the limits of Weymouth, Bridport, or If 6 y dTlto ditto « « 2 If 10 ditto ditto - - - • • b "> " Yarmouth.- Rata of Pilotage for piloting Ships urithin the Yar- mouth District.-Tor ships above 14 feet draught of water. From To Amount. The Dudgeon Light, its r parallel of latitude, or] the northward thereof, [ and vice versa - - I Yarmouth, and ot'ce J versa - - - - 1 Yarmouth Roads - -< Sea - - - -\ ( Smith's Knoll, and vice I versa • ] Orfordness - - ■< Orfordness Yarmouth Road, within ) or without the sands • 5 Downs - Orfordness Downs .... Sea, through the Cockle, 1 St. Nicholas, or over the V Stanford • - -J Yarmouth Roads, through ) any of the channels - J Orfordness The entrance of the GatO ways leading into Yar- > mouth Roads - -J The entrance of the Gat- 1 ways leading into Yar- >■ mouth Roads - -) L. s. 10 10 7 7 2 5 16 16 3 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 For ships of 14 feet draught of water, and under, 2-3ds of the above rate. Into and out of the Harbours of Yarmouth and SmtthwdcL—Tor all laden ships, Of above 50 and not exceeding 60 tons 1 I 60 — 70 — > ' n Weymouth District.— From St. Alban's Head to Lyme, and vice versa ; and to and from, and into and out of, all ports and places within those limits. iV. B.— No master of a vessel is compelled to take a pilot within this district, until he comes within a line drawn from LulworthCove to the Shambles, or within the Race, into the ports of Portland and 70 175 — 1 6 90 — 1 8 100 — 1 10 110 — I 13 120 — I 16 1130 — 2 200 — 3 The pilotage for ships in ballast is to be l-3d part of the pilotage of laden ships ; and ships returning into port by distress of weather, contrary winds, or on account of accident, are to pay 2-3ds of their common pilotage. Ships not having British registers are to pay 1-4 more of the rates of pilotage than stated in the above Table. PIMENTO, ALLSPICE, or JAMAICA PEPPER (Fr. Poivre de Jamalque ,■ Ger. Nelkenpfeffer ,■ It. Pimenli), the fruit of the Myrtus pimento, a beautiful tree which grows in great plentv on the hills on the north side of Jamaica. The berries are spherical, and, when ripe, of a black or dark purple colour. But, as the pulp is in this state moist and gluti- nous, the berries are plucked when green ; and being exposed in the sun to dry, they lose their green colour, and become of a reddish brown. They are packed in bags and hogsheads for the European market. The more fragrant and smaller they are, the better are they ac- counted. They have an aromatic, agreeable odour, resembling that of a mixture of cinna mon, cloves, and nutmegs, with the warm pungent taste of the cloves. Pimento is used in me dicine; but its principal use is in the seasoning of soups and other dishes. "The return," says Mr. Bryan Edwards, "from a pimento walk in a favourable season are prodi- gious. A single tree has been known to yield 150 lbs. of the raw fruit, or 100 lbs. of the dried spice j 316 PINCHBECK, PINE there being commonly a loss in weight of \ in curing ; but this, like many other of the minor produc- tions, is exceedingly uncertain, and perhaps a very plenteous crop occurs but once in 5 years. The price'in the Brilish'market, as may be supposed, fluctuates accordingly; but I believe its average for some vears past may be set down at "id. per lb., exclusive of the duty (3d.). "—(Vol. ii. p. 372. ed. 1819.) The price of pimento in bond, in the London market, has varied (if late years from id. to 5^. per lb. At the period when Mr. Edwards's work was published, the annual imports of pimento from Jamaica amounted to about 672,000 lbs., and were decreasing every year— {lac. cit.). But at an average of the 3 years ending with 1832, the annual imports were 2,349,893 lbs., the annual exports 1,927,731 lbs., and the annual entries for home consumption 316,348 lbs. There has been, however, a considerable falling off" in the imports of 1631 and 1832, which do not amount to much more than the half of those of the previous 4 years. The duty of 5d. per lb., being more than 100 per cent, on the price of the article, produces, at a medium, about 7,000/. a year. It ought to be repealed altogether. Jamaica furnishes more than 9-10ths of the pimento brought to England. PINCHBECK (Ger. Tomback ,■ Du. Tombak; Fr. Tambac, Similar,- It. Tombacco „• Sp. Tambac, Tumbaga), a name given to one of the man)- imitations of gold. By melting zinc in various proportions with copper or brass, some alloys result, the colours of which ap- proach more or less to that of gold. This composition is frequently employed as a substitute for gold, in the formation of watch-cases, and various other articles of a like description. Pinchbeck is sometimes called Tambac, and sometimes Similar and Petit-or. PINE, or FIR, a species of forest tree, next, if not superior, to the oak, in point of utility and value. There are above 20 species of pines. They do not bear flat leaves, but a spe- cies of spines, which, however, are real leaves. They are mostly, though not all, evergreens ; but the appearance of the tree, as well as the quality of the timber, varies with the species, and also with the situation in which it grows. Generally speaking, the timber is hardest and best in exposed cold situations, and where its growth is slow. We shall only notice those species, the timber of which is most in use in this country. 1. Scotch Pine (Pi?ms Sylvestris), is a native of the Scotch mountains, and of most northern parts of Europe; being common in Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Lap- land. It is straight, abruptly branched, rising in favourable situations to the height of 80 or 90 feet, and being from 3 to 4 feet in diameter. It is at perfection when 70 or 80 years old. The colour of the wood differs considerably ; it is generally of a reddish yellow, or of a honey yellow, of various degrees of brightness. It has no larger transverse septa, and it has a strong resinous odour and taste. In the best timber, the annual rings are thin, not exceeding ,' th of an inch in thickness ; the dark parts of the rings of a bright reddish colour ; the wood hard and dry to the feel, neither leaving a woolly surface after the saw, nor filling its teeth with resin. The best Norway is the finest of this kind, and the best Riga and Memel are not much inferior. The inferior sorts have thick annual rings ; in some, the dark parts of the rings are of a honey yellow, the wood heavy, and filled with a soft resinous matter, feels clammy, and chokes the saw. Timber of this kind is not durable, nor fit for bearing strains. In some inferior species, the wood is spongy, contains less resinous matter, and presents a woolly surface after the saw. Swedish timber is often of this kind. Scotch fir is the most durable of the pine species. It was the opinion of the celebrated Mr. Brindley, " that red Riga deal, or pine wood, would endure as long as oak in all situa- tions." Its lightness and stiffness render it superior to any other material for beams, girders, joists, rafters, &c. It is much used in joiners' work, as it is more easily wrought, stands better, is much cheaper, and is nearly, if not quite, as durable as oak. Scotch fir is exported from Norway and Sweden, under the name of redwood. Norway exports no trees above 18 inches' diameter, consequently there is much sap wood ; but the heart wood is both stronger and more durable than that of larger trees from other situations. Riga exports a considerable quantity under the name of masts and spars ; pieces from 18 to 25 inches' diameter are called masts, and are usually 70 or 80 feet in length ; those of less than 18 inches' diameter are called spars. — (See Riga.) Yellow deals and planks are im- ported from various ports of Norway, Sweden, Prussia, Russia, &c. Tar, pitch, and turpen- tine, are obtained from the Scotch fir. — (See these titles.) When the tree has attained to a proper age, it is not injured by the extraction of these products. 2. Spruce Pine. — Of this there are 3 species: the Norway spruce, or Pinus abies ; white spruce, or Pinus alba ,■ and black spruce, or Pinus nigra. These are noble trees, rising in straight stems from 150 to 200 feet in height. They yield the timber known by the name of white fir, or deal, from its always being imported in deals or planks. Deals imported from Christiania are in the highest estimation. — (See Ciiiustiania.) The trees are usually cut into 3 lengths, generally of about 12 feet each ; and are afterwards cut into deals by saw-mills, each length yielding 3 deals. The Norway spruce thrives very well in Britain, and produces timber little inferior to the foreign: it is somewhat softer, and the knots are extremely hard. The white spruce, or Pinus alba, is brought from British North America. The wood is not so resinous as the Norway spruce : it is tougher, lighter, and more liable to twist in drying. The black spruce, or Pinus nigra, is also an American tree ; but it is not much imported into this country. The black and white spruce derive their names from the colour of the bark ; the wood of both being of the same colour. PINE-APPLE— PIRACY. 317 The colour of spruce fir, or white deal, is yellowish or brownish white ; the hard part of the annual ring a darker shade of the same colour ; it often has a silky lustre, especially in the American and British grown kinds. Each annual ring consists of two parts; the one hard, the other softer. The knots are generally very hard. The clear and straight-grained kinds are often tough, but not very difficult to work, and stand extremely well when properly seasoned. White deal, as imported, shrinks about ^th part in becoming quite dry. 3. Weymouth Pine, or White Pine (Finns strobus), is a native of North America, and is imported in large logs, often more than 2 feet square and 30 feet in length. It is one of the largest and most useful of tho American trees, and makes excellent masts ; but it is not durable, nor fit for large timbers, being very subject to dry rot. It has a peculiar odour. 4. Silver Fiu (Pi?ius picea), is a native of the mountains of Siberia, Germany, and Switzerland, and is common in British plantations. It is a large tree, and yields the Stras- burgh turpentine. The wood is of good quality, and much used on the Continent both for carpentry and ship building. The harder fibres are of a yellow colour, compact, and resin- ous ; the softer nearly white. Like the other kinds of fir, it is light and still', and does not bend much under a considerable load ; consequently, floors constructed of it remain perma- nently level. It is subject to the worm. It has been said to last longer in the air than in the water ; and, therefore, to be fitter for the upper parts of bridges than for piles and piers. 5. Larch (Pinus lurix). There are 3 species of this valuable tree; 1 European, and 2 American. The variety from the Italian Alps is the most esteemed, and has lately been extensively introduced into plantations in Great Britain. It is a straight and lofty tree, of rapid growth. A tree 79 years of age was cut down at Blair Athol, in 1817, which contain- ed 252 cubic feet of timber ; and one of 80 years of age, at Dunkeld, measured 300 cubic feet. The mean size of the trunk of the larch may be taken at 45 feet in length, and 33 inches' diameter. The wood of the European larch is generally of a honey yellow colour, the hard part of the annual rings of a redder cast ; sometimes it is brownish white. In com- mon with the other species of pine, each annual ring consists of a hard and a soft part. It generally has a silky lustre ; its colour is browner than that of the Scotch pine, and it is. much tougher. It is more difficult to work than Riga or Memel timber ; but the surface is better when once it is obtained. It bears driving bolts and nails better than any other species of resinous wood. When perfectly dry, it stands well ; but it warps much in seasoning. It is in all situations extremely durable. It is useful for every purpose of building, whether external or internal ; it makes excellent ship timber, masts, boats, posts, rails, and furniture. It is peculiarly adapted for flooring boards, in situations where there is much wear, and for staircases : in the latter, its fine colour, when rubbed with oil, is much preferable to that of the black oaken staircases to be seen in some old mansions. It is well adapted for doors, shutters, and the like ; and, from the beautiful colour of its wood when varnished, painting is not necessary. — We have abstracted these particulars from Mr. Tredgold's excellent work, The Principles of Carpentry, pp. 209 — 217. PINE-APPLE, or ANANAS, though a tropical fruit, is now extensively cultivated in hothouses in this country, and is well known to every one. When of a good sort and healthy, it is the most luscious, and, perhaps, the best fruit that this country produces ; and when carefully cultivated, is equal in point of quality to that produced in the West Indies. A pine-apple raised at Stackpool Court, Pembrokeshire, and served up at the coronation dinner of George IV., weighed 10 lbs. 8 oz. — ( Vegetable Substances, p. 379., Lib. Entert. Knowledge.) PINT, a measure used chiefly in the measuring of liquids. The word is High Dutch, and signifies a little measure of wine. The English pint used to be of 2 sorts ; the one for wine, the other for beer and ale. Two pints make a quart; 2 quarts a pottle; 2 pottles a gallon, &c. The pint, Imperial liquid measure, contains 34-659 cubic inches. PIPE, a wine measure, usually containing 105 (very nearly) Imperial, or 126 wine gal- lons. Two pipes, or 210 Imperial gallons, make a tun. But, in practice, the size of the pipe varies according to the description of wine it contains. Thus, a pipe of port contains 138 wine gallons, of sherry 130, of Lisbon and Bucellas 140, of Madeira 110, and of Vidonia 120. The pipe of port, it is to be observed, is seldom accurately 138 gallons, jnd it is usual to charge what the vessel accurately contains. PIPE-CLAY, a species of clay abounding in Devonshire, and other parts of England, employed in the manufacture of various sorts of earthenware, and in bleaching. PIRACY, consists in committing those acts of robbery and violence upon the seas, that, if committed upon land, would amount to felony. Pirates hold no commission or delegated authority from any sovereign or state, empowering them to attack others. They can, therefore, be only regarded in the light of robbers or assassins. They are, as Cicero has truly stated, the common enemies of all (communes hostes omnium) ; and the law of nations gives to every one the right to pursue and exter- minate them without any previous declaration of war ; but it is not allowed to kill them without trial, except in battle. Those who surrender, or are taken prisoners, must be brought before the proper magistrates, and dealt with according to law. 2d2 318 PIRACY. By the ancient common law of England, piracy, if committed by a subject, was held to be a species of treason, being contrary to his natural allegiance; and, by an alien, to be felony only : but since the statute of treasons (25 Edw. 3. c. 2.), it is held to be only felony in a subject. Formerly this offence was only cognisable by the admiralty courts, which proceed by the rules of the civil law ; but it being inconsistent with the liberties of the nation that any "man's life should be taken away, unless by the judgment of his peers, the statute 28 Hen. 8. c. 15. established a new jurisdiction for this purpose, which proceeds according to the course of common law. It was formerly a question whether the Algerines, and other African states, should he considered pirates: but, however exceptionable their conduct might have been on many occasions, and however hostile their policy might be to the interests of humanity, still, as they had been subjected to what may be called regular governments, and had been admitted to enter into treaties with other powers, they could not be treated as pirates. Pirates having no right to make conquests, or to seize upon what belongs to others, cap- ture by them does not divest the owner of his property. At a very early period of our his- tory, a law was made for the restitution of property taken by pirates, if found within the realm, whether belonging to strangers or Englishmen: but any foreigner suing upon this statute must prove that, at the time of the capture, his own sovereign and the sovereign of the captor were in mutual amity ; for it is held that piracy cannot be committed by the sub- jects of states at war with each other. Piracy was almost universally practised in the heroic ages. Instead of being esteemed infamous, it was supposed to be honourable. — (Latrocinium maris glorise habebatur. — Justin, lib. xliii. c. 3.) Menelaus, in the Odyssey, does not hesitate to inform his guests, who admired his riches, that they were the fruit of his piratical expeditions — (lib. iv. ver. 90.) ; and such, indeed, was the way in which most of the Greek princes amassed great wealth. — (Goguet, Origin of Laws, vol. i. p. 383. Eng. trans.) The prevalence of this piratical spirit in these early ages may, perhaps, be explained by the infinite number of small independent states into which the country was divided, and the violent animosity constantly subsisting amongst them. In this way ferocious and predatory habits were universally diffused and kept alive ; and it is not to be supposed that those who were at all times liable to be attacked by hosts of enemies, should very accurately examine the grounds upon which they attacked others. According, however, as a more improved system of government grew up, Greece, and a few states, as Athens, Corinth, &c, had attained to distinction by their naval power, piracy was made a capital offence: but though repressed, it was never entirely put down. Cilicia was at all times the great stronghold of the pirates of antiquity: and in consequence of the decline of the maritime forces of Athens, Rhodes, &c, which had kept them in check, they increased so much in numbers and auda- city as to insult the majesty of Rome herself; so that it became necessary to send Pompey against them, with a large fleet and army, and more extensive powers than had been ever previously conferred on any Roman general. During the anarchy of the middle ages, when every baron considered himself a sort of independent prince, entitled to make war on others, piracy was universally practised. The famous Hanseatic League was formed chiefly for the purpose of protecting the ships of the confederated cities from the attacks of the pirates by which the Baltic was then infested. The nuisance was not finally abated in Europe till the feudal system had been subverted, and the ascendency of the law everywhere secured. In more modern times, some of the smaller West India islands have been the great resort of pirates : latterly, however, they have been driven from most of their haunts in that quarter. They are still not unfrequcntly met with in the Indian seas east of Sumatra. Besides those acts of robbery and depredation upon the high seas, which, at common law, constitute piracy, some other offences have been included under that term. Thus, by the stat. 1 1 & 1'2 Will. .1. c. 7., if any nalural-born subject commits any act of hostility upon the high seas against others of his Majesty's subjects, under colour of a commission from any foreign power, this, though it would .inly be an act of war in an alien, shall be construed piracy in a subject. And further, any commander or other seafaring person betraying his trust, and running away with any ship, boat, ordnance, ammuni- tion, or goods, or yielding litem up voluntarily to a pirate, or conspiring to do these acts; or any person assaulting tin' commander of a vessel, to hinder him from fighting in defence of ins ship, or confining him, or causing or endeavouring to cause a revolt on board, shall for each of these offences be adjudged a pirate, felon, and robber, ana shall suffer death, Whether he be principal, or merely accessory by setting forth such pirates, or abetting them before the fact, or receiving them, or concealing them or their goods after it ; and the stat. 4 (Jeo. 1. c. 2. expressly excludes the principals from the Benefit of clergy. Hy the slat. 8 Geo. 1. c. 24., the trading with known pirates, or furnishing them with stores or ammunition, or fitting out any vessel for that purpose, or in any wise consulting, combining, con- federating, or corresponding with them ; or the forcibly boarding any merchant vessel, though with- out seizing or carrying her off, and destroying or throwing any of the goods overboard, shall be deemed piracy ; and such accessories to piracy as are described by the siatute of King William are declared to be principal pirates, and all pirates convicted hy virtue of this act are made felons without benefit of clergy. To encourage the defence of merchant vessels against pirates, the commanders and seamen wounded, and the widows of such seamen as are slain In any engagement with pirates, are entitled to a bounty, to be divided among them, not exceeding the one fiftieth part of the value of the cargo saved ; and Hie wounded seamen are entitled to the pension of (Jreenwich Hospital. — (11 & 12 Will, i. c. 7.; 8 Geo. 1. c. 21.) The first of these statutes also enacts, that if any mariner or inferior officer of any English ship decline or refuse to light when commanded by the master, or shall utter any words PISTAC III A— PLANTAIN. 319 to discourage the other mariners from defending the same, he shall lose all the wages due to him, together'with such goods as he hath in tin; ship, and be imprisoned and kepi to hard labour for 6 months. The 6 Geo. 4. c. 49. enacts that a bounty shall be paid to the officers and crews of such of his Majesty's ships of war as maybe engaged ill the actual taking, sinking, burning, or otherwi stroying any vessel or boat manned by pirates, of 20Z. for each pirate i a ken or killed during the attack, and of 51. for every other man of the crew not taken or killed, who shall have been alive on board the said piratical vessel at the attack thereof. The same statute ($ 3.) enacts that vessels and other property taken from pirates, proved to have belonged to any of his Majesty's subjects, are to be delivered Up to them, on their paying a sum of money, as salvage, equal to l-6th part of the true value of the same. [See Kent's Commentaries on American Laiv, Lecture 9th. — Am. Ed.] P1STACHIA on PISTACHIO NUTS (Ger. Pistaschen .■ Du. Pistasjes ; Fr. Pistaches,- It. Ptstaccki, Fastucchi/ Sp. Alfocigos; Lat. Pistacias), the frail of the Pistachio vera, a kind of turpentine tree. It grows naturally in Arabia, Persia, and Syria ; also in Sicily, whence the nuts are annually brought to us. They are oblong and pointed, about the size and shape of a filbert, including a kernel of a pale greenish colour, covered with a yellowish or reddish skin. They have a pleasant, sweetish, unctuous taste, resembling that of sweet almonds ; their principal difference from which consists in their having a greater degree of sweetness, accompanied with a light grateful flavour, and in being more oily. Pistachias imported from the East are superior to those raised in Europe. — (Lewis's Mat. Med.) PITCH (Ger. Peek,- Fr. Poix, Brai ; It. Pece ,■ Sp. Pez ,- Rus. Smola gustaja), the residuum which remains on inspissating tar, or boiling it down to dryness. It is extensively used in ship building, and for other purposes. Large quantities are manufactured in Great Britain. The duty on pitch, which is lOd. a cwt., produced, in 1829, 448/., so that 10,752 cut. must have been entered for home consumption. An allowance is to be made for tare on pitch, of 93 lbs. each on Archangel casks. 36 lbs. each on Swedish do., and 56 lbs. each on American do. PLANE, a forest tree, of which there are 2 species ; the Oriental plane (Platanus Oricn- tulis), and the Occidental plane (Plat anus Occidentalis). The Oriental plane is a native of the Levant, and other Eastern countries, and is con- sidered one of the finest of trees. It grows to about 60 feet in height, and has been known to exceed 8 feet in diameter. Its wood is much like beech, but more figured, and is used for furniture and such like articles. The Occidental plane is a native of North America, and is* one of the largest of the American trees, being sometimes more than 12 feet in diameter. The wood of the Occidental plane is harder than that of the Oriental. It is very durable in water. The tree known by the name of plane in England is the sycamore, or great maple (Acer pseudo-plataniis). It is a large tree, grows quickly, and stands the sea spray better than most trees. The timber is very close and compact, easily wrought, and not liable either to splinter or warp. It is generally of a brownish white or yellowish white colour, and some- times it is very beautifully curled and mottled. In this state it takes a fine polish, and bears varnishing well. It is chiefly used in the manufacture of saddle trees, wooden dishes, and a variety of articles both of furniture and machinery. When kept dry, and protected from worms, it is pretty durable; but it is quite as liable as beech to be attacked by them. — (Tred- gold, p. 196.) PLANKS (Ger. and Du. Planken ,■ Da. Planker ,■ Sw. Plankor ,■ Fr. Planches, Bor- dages ,• Rus. Tolstiille olosku), thick strong boards, cut from various kinds of wood, espe- cially oak and pine. Planks are usually of the thickness of from 1 inch to 4. They are im- ported in large quantities from the northern parts of Europe, particularly from the ports of Christiania, Dantzic, Archangel, Petersburgh, Narva, Revel, Riga, and Memel, as well as from several parts of North America. PLANTAIN, or BANANA, the pulpy fruit of the Musa paradisiaca, an herbaceous plant, extensively cultivated in most intertropical countries, but especially in Mexico. It is not, like most other fruits, used merely as an occasional luxury, but is rather an established article of subsistence. Being long and extensively cultivated, it has diverged into numerous varieties, the fruit of which differs materially in size, flavour, and colour. That of some is not above 2 or 3 inches long, while that of others is not much short of a foot; some sorts are sweet, and of a flavour not unlike nor inferior to that of a good mellow pear ; but thejarger kind are, for the most part, coarse and farinaceous. The latter are either used fresh or dried in the srJYi, in which latter state they are occasionally ground into meal and made into bread. In Mexico, the sweeter sorts are frequently pressed and dried, as figs are in Europe ; and, while they are not very inferior to the last mentioned fruit, they are infinitely cheaper. "I doubt." says M. Humboldt. " whether there he any other plant that produces so great a quan- tity of nutritive substance in so small a space. Eight or 9 months after the sucker is planted-, it begins to develope its cluster. The fruit may be gathered in the 10th or 11th month. When the stalk is cut, there is always found, among the numerous shoots that have taken root, a sprout (pim polio), which, being 2-3ds the height of its parent plant, bears fruit 3 months later. Thus a plantation of bananas perpetuates itself, without requiring any care on the part of man, further than to cut the stalks when the fruit has ripened, and to stir the earth gently once or twice a year about the roots. A piece of ground of 100 square metres of surface will contain from 30 to 40 plants. During the course of a year this same piece of ground, reckoning the weight of the cluster at from 15 to 30 kilog. only, will yield 2,U0O 320 PLATE, PLATINA. kilog., or more than 4,000 lbs., of nutritive substance. What a difference between this product and that of the cereal grasses in most parts of Europe ! The same extent of land planted with wheat would not produce above 30 lbs.; and not more than 90 lbs. of potatoes. Hence the product of the banana is to that of wheat as 133 to 1, and to that of potatoes as 44 to 1." — (Essai sur U Nuuvelle £s- pasrne, torn. ii. p. 383. 2d ed.) The banana forms a principal part of the food of the people of Mexico ; and the apathy and indo- lence of the natives in the (terras calientes, or hot regions, has been ascribed, and probably with good reason, io the facility with which it supplies them with subsistence. It is by no means in such exten- sive use in tropical Asia ; and comes nowhere in it into competition with corn as an article of food. PLATE, the denomination usually given to gold and silver wrought into articles of household furniture. In order partly to prevent fraud, and partly for the purpose of collecting a revenue, the manufacture of plate is placed under certain regulations. Those who carry it on are obliged to take out a licence, renewable annually on the 31st of July. — (See ante, p. 137.) Assay offices are established in different places ; and any one selling any article previously to its having been assayed and marked, forfeit 50/. — (24 Geo. 3. c. 53.) No plate is passed at the assay offices, unless it be of the fineness of the old standard, or 1 1 oz. and 2 dvvts., or of the new standard of 11 oz. and 10 dvvts. Gold plate, with the exception of gold watch-cases, is to pay a duty of 17s. an oz., and silver plate a duty of Is. Qd. ; but watch-cases, chains, tip- pings, mountings, collars, bottle tickets, teaspoons, &c. are exempted. The 52 Geo. 3.c. 143. made the counterfeiting, or the transference from one piece of plate to another, of the marks, stamps, &c. impressed on plate by the assayers, felony without the benefit of clergy. But the offence is now punishable by transportation or imprisonment only. — (1 VV7//. 4. c. 66.) In his able speech on the state of the country, 18th of March, 1830, Mr. Huskisson said, "The rate of duty upon silver wrought plate, in 1601, was Is. 3d, upon gold 16s. an ounce ; it was afterwards raised to Is. 0d. upon silver, and 17s. on gold. But what has been the increase in the nett produce of the duty? It has risen from less than 5,000Z. in 1804, to 105,000^. in 182G ; a rise of more than twenty-fold, notwithstanding the greatly diminished supply from the mines, and the consequent increasing value of the precious metals. It may he further remarked, that this augmentation shows how large a por- tion of gold and silver is annually diverted from the purposes of coin to those of ornament and luxury." A Return, showing the Annual Nett Produce of the Duty levied on wrought Gold and Silver Plate, in each Year from 1806 to 1833, both inclusive ; distinguishing, as far as possible, Gold from Silver, and also the Rate of Duty in each Year.— (.Pari. Paper, No. 246. Sess. 1633.) Years Rate of Duty. Duty not distinguishable. ending 5th of January. Gold. Silver. Gold. Silver. Per oz. Peroz. L. s. d. L. t. d- L. i. d. 1806 16j. Is. 3d. 4,293 11 10 55,289 1 8 9,ss? 9 8 1807 — — 4,2-14 16 2 56,806 10 11 10,761 11 3 1-4 I80S — — 4,798 1 5 t 2 59.057 7 21-2 10,849 18 7 1-2 1809 — — 4,906 1 2 3-4 63,759 18 61-4 11,042 9 514 1810 5,033 9 8 14 69,452 2 3-4 12,3:>3 12 11 3 4 1811 — — 5,840 15 9 74,028 18 11 14,251 14 1-2 1812 — — 4,902 7 8 62,677 8 12,!H2 5 734 1S13 4,652 14 9 55,171 10 10 11,337 4 7 1-2 1814 — — 4,839 7 50,600 12 11 I0,7i5 12 5 3-4 1815 — — 5,361 12 10 53,i45 11 5 12,103 1 11 1816 16t. & 17». Is. 3d. & Is. 6d. 5,574 14 55,816 17 2 1 1.6 1 13 63-4 1817 17». U.6cL 5,174 4 8 57,416 15 10 12 564 8 91-2 1818 — — 2,971 3 7 60,150 12 6 13,023 15 6 3-4 1819 — — 2,869 4 6 1-4 89,610 14 61-2 1820 3,766 8 3-4 83,519 15 9 1-2 1821 2,478 17 612 72,531 7 1-4 1S22 — — 3,398 1 67,664 14 5 1-4 1823 4,783 15 6 1-4 71,220 9 5 1-2 1884 — — 5,522 18 6 1-4 73,267 5 1825 6,481 7 12 89.113 4 61-4 1826 — — 7,051 1 10 1 2 105,218 11 61-4 1827 5,<-59 6 81-2 80,512 12 5 1-4 1828 — — 6,037 5 3-4 78,236 5 3-4 1829 6,969 8 7 1-4 86.526 112 1830 — — 5,390 13 51-2 78,589 1 5 3 4 1^31 — — 4,853 19 312 74,439 18 4 1-4 1832 3,880 6 7 1-2 5J.473 13 5 1833 — — 4,398 6 6 62,582 16 10 3-4 JVote. — The produce of the duties on gold and silver plate cannot be distinguished for the country prior to the year ended 5th of January, 1819, the same not having been distinguished in the accounts Of the distributors. We endeavoured to show, in the former edition of this work, that Mr. Huskisson had been deceived by trusting to false or defective information ; and that, instead of the increase of the duties, and, con- sequently, of the consumption of plate, heint,' nearly so great as he had represented, it fell far short of what might have been fairly expected from the increasing wealth and population of the country. The preceding Table shows that our criticism was well founded. The stationary amount of duty may, perhaps, be accounted for by the facility with which the duties are evaded. The increase of duty in 1826 is a curious phenomenon. PLATINA, a metal which, in respect of scarcity, beauty, ductility, and indestructibility is hardly inferior to gold, was unknown in Europe till about the middle of last century, when it began to be imported in small quantities from South America. It has since been disco- vered in Estremadura in Spain, and, more recently, in the Ural Mountains in Asiatic Russia, where it is now raised in very considerable quantities. Platina is nf a white colour, like silver, but not so bright, and has no taste or smell. Its hardness is Intermediate between copper and iron. Its specific gravity is about 21*5, that of gold being 19 3; so that it is the heaviest body with Which we are acquainted. It is exceedingly ductile and malleable ; it may i»- hammered out into very thin plates, and drawn Into wires hoi exceeding l-1940th of an inch in diameter. In these properties it is probably inferior to gold, but it sec ins to surpass all the other metals. Its tenacity is such, that a wire of platina 078 inch in diameter is capable of supporting a PLATTING— POPULATION. 321 weight of 27431 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. It is one of llie most infusible of all metals ; but pieces of it may be welded together without difficult; when heated to whiteness. It is not in the smallest degree altered by the action of air or water. — {Thomson's Chemistry.) The late Dr. Wollaston discovered a method of fusing platina, arrti, consequently, of rendering it easily available in the arts. The Russians have, within these few years, issued platina coins bf the value of 3, f>, and 20 silver roubles. Platina first began to be an object of attention in Russia in 1824, when 1 pood 33 lbs. were collected. In 1830, the produce amounted to .'tn:i poods II lbs. in 1831, a piece of native platina was discovered at Demidoff's gold mines, weighing 20 lbs. 2.; zult.— (, Official Statements published by the Russian Government.) PLATTING, slips of bast, cane, straw, &c. woven or plaited for making into hats, &c. — (See Hats, Straw.) PLUMS, the fruit of the Prunus dornestica, are too well known to require any descrip- tion. They were introduced into England in the 15th century, and are cultivated in all parts of the country. There are said to be nearly 300 varieties of plums. PLUMBAGO. See Black Lead. POMEGRANATE, POMEGRANATES (Ger. Grawtapfel ; Fr. Grenades ,■ It. Gra- nati, Melagrani ; Sp. Granados), the fruit of the pomegranate tree (Punicti granatum). This tree, which grows to the height of 15 or 20 feet, appears to be a native of Persia, whence it has been conveyed, on the one side, to Southern Europe, and on the other, to the tropical parts of Asia, and eventually to the New World. The fruit is a pulpy, many-seeded berry, the size of an orange, covered with a thick, brown, coriaceous rind. The pulp has* a reddish colour, and a pleasant subacid taste. The value of the fruit depends on the smallness of the seed and the largeness of the pulp. The finest, called by the Persians, badana, or seedless, is imported into India from Caubul and Candahar, where the pomegranate grows in perfec- tion. The tree thrives all the way to the equator; but, within the tropics, the fruit is hardly lit for use. The pomegranates brought to England from the south of Europe and the West Indies are very inferior to those of Persia. — {Private information.') POPLAR (Ger. Pappel, Pappelhaum ,■ Du. Popelier ; Fr. Peuplier ,■ It. Pioppa ,• Sp. Alamo ,• Lat. Popitlus). Of the poplar (Pupulus of botanists), there are about 15 species described ; of these, 5 are common in England ; viz. the common or White, the Black, the Aspen or trembling poplar, the Abele or great white poplar, and the Lombardy poplar. In most favourable situations, the white poplar grows with great rapidity, sometimes sending forth shoots 16 feet long in a single season. The wood is soft, and not very durable, unless kept dry ; but it is light, not apt either to swell or shrink, and easily wrought. The Lom- bardy poplar grows rapidly, and shoots in a complete spire to a great height ; its timber does not differ materially from that of the white poplar. It is very light ; and is, therefore, well adapted for the manufacture of packing-cases. None of the species is fit for large timbers. — (Tred 'gold's Principles of Carpentry ,- Veget. Sub., Lib. of Entert. Knowledge.) POPULATION. To attempt giving in this place any explanation of the laws which regulate the progress of population, would be quite inconsistent with the objects and limits of this work. It may, indeed, be thought that the word has no business here. However, as it is frequently of importance in commercial questions, and in others materially affecting commercial interests, to be able to compare the consumption of an article with the popula- tion, we believe we shall gratify our readers by laying before them the following Tables, showing the results of the different censuses that have been taken of the population of Great Britain and Ireland, [and of the United States. Population of the United States. States. Pop. Pop. Pop. Pop. Pop. Slaves. Slaves. Slaves. Slaves. Slaves. 1790. 1300. 1810. 1820. 1830. 1790. 1800. 1-10. 1820. 1830. Maine - 96.540 151,719 228,705 298,335 399,955 New Hampshire 141.899 133,762 214,360 214,161 269,323 158 8 Vermont - 85,416 154,465 217,713 235,764 280.652 17 Massachusetts 378,717 423,245 472,040 623,287 610,403 Rhode Island 69,110 69,122 77.031 83,059 97,199 952 381 103 48 17 Connecticut 238,141 251,00.! 262,042 275,202 297,665 2,759 951 310 97 25 NewYoik 310,120 586,756 959,949 1,372,812 1,918,608 21.324 20,343 15.(17 10,038 75 New Jersey 184,139 211,949 249.555 277,575 320,823 11,423 12,422 10,851 7,657 2,254 Pennsylvania 434.373 602,365 810.091 1,049,458 1,348,233 3,737 1,7' 6 795 211 403 Delaware 59,093 64,273 72,671 72,749 76.74S 3,8s; 6,153 4,177 4,509 3, .-92 Maryland 319,728 341,548 380,546 407,350 447,040 103,036 105,635 111, 02 107,398 1(2,294 Vir S inia. 748,308 830,200 974.622 1,065,379 1,211,405 203,42' 34 5,786 392 513 1 ■. 3 4(9.757 North Carolina - 393.751 478,103 655,500 633,829 737,987 IOl',572 133,296 168,824 205,017 215,601 South Carolina - 249,073 345,591 415,115 502.741 581,185 107,094 146,151 196,365 258,475 315,401 Georgia - - 82,548 162,101 252,433 3I0,9>7 616,823 29,264 59,404 105 218 149,1 >6 217,531 Alabama 20,845 127,901 309,527 41,879 117,519 Mississippi 8,850 40,352 75,448 I36,e.21 3,489 17,088 32,8 i 65,6=9 76,658 153,407 215,739 34,661 69.061 109,588 Tennessee 35,791 105,6n2 261,727 422,813 6-1.904 3,417 13,584 44.535 80,107 141,603 Kentucky 73,077 220,955 406 511 564,317 687,917 11,830 4,034 80,561 126,732 165,213 Ohio 45,365 230,760 581,434 937,903 Indiana • . *, s ™ 24.521 147,178 343,031 135 237 190 Illinois • 12,282 65,211 157,455 168 817 747 Missouri- 20,845 66 586 140,445 3,011 10,222 25,031 District of Columbia - 14,093 24,023 33,039 39,«34 3,244 5,395 6,377 6.119 Florida Territory 34730 15,501 Michigan Territory 4,762 8,896 3l,f39 24 32 14,273 30,38S 1,617 4,576 Total - 3,929,827 5,305,925 7,239,814 9,638,131 12,863,920 697,897 893,041 1,1! 1,361 1,538,(64 2,009,031 41 .tfra. Ed ] 322 POPULATION. T. Population of Great Britain in 1801, 1811, 1821, and 1831, showing its Amount at each Period in each County of England and Scotland, and in the entire Principality of Wales ; with the Ratio ot Increase. Increase Increase Increase Counties. 1S01. per Cent. 1811. per 1821. per 1831. Cent. Cent England. Bedford - 63,393 11 70,213 19 83,716 14 95,383 Berks 109.215 8 118,277 131,977 10 145.289 Buckingham 107,441 9 117,650 14 134,063 9 146,529 Cambridge 69,346 13 101,109 20 121,909 18 143,955 Chester • 191,751 18 227,031 19 270,' 98 24 334,410 Cornwall 188,269 15 216,667 19 257,447 17 302,440 Cumberland 117,230 14 133,744 17 156.124 10 169,681 Derby 161,142 185,487 15 213.333 11 237,170 Devon - 343,001 12 383.308 15 439,040 13 494,168 Dorset - 115,319 8 124,693 16 144.499 10 1 19,258 Durham • 160,361 11 177,625 17 207,673 22 255,827 Essex 226,437 11 252,473 15 239,424 10 317,2)3 Gloucester 250,809 12 285,514 18 335,- ,3 15 3.-6,ii04 Hereford - 89,191 5 94,073 10 103,243 7 110,976 Hertford . 97,577 14 111,654 16 129,714 10 14.3,341 Huntingdon 37,568 12 42,208 15 4-.771 9 53,149 Kent 307,624 21 373,095 14 426,016 ' 12 479,155 Lancaster 672,731 23 828,309 27 1,052,S59 27 1,336,854 Leicester - 130,081 16 150,419 16 174,571 13 197,003 Lincoln • 208,557 14 237,891 19 2S3,058 12 317,244 Middlesex 818,129 17 953,276 20 1,144,531 19 1,358,541 Monmouth 45,582 36 62.127 15 71,833 36 98,130 Norfolk - 273,371 7 291,999 18 344,363 13 390,054 Northampton 131,757 7 141,353 15 162,483 10 179,276 Northumberland - 157,101 9 172,161 15 199,965 12 222,912 Nottingham 140,350 16 162,900 15 186,873 20 225 320 Oxford - 109,620 9 119,191 15 136,971 11 151,726 Rutland - 16,356 16,380 13 18,487 5 19.3S5 Salop 167,639 16 194,298 6 206.153 8 222,503 Somerset • 273,750 12 303,180 17, 355,314 13 403,908 Southampton 219,656 12 245,080 15a- 283,298 11 314,313 Stafford - 239,153 21 295,153 17 345,S95 19 410,435 Suffolk - 210,431 11 234,211 15 270,542 9 29o,304 Surrey 269,043 20 323,851 23 398,658 22 486,326 Sussex • 159,311 19 190,083 22 233,019 17 272,328 Warwick 208,190 10 229,735 20 274,392 23 336,988 Westmoreland - 41,617 10 45,922 12 51,359 7 55,041 Wilts 185,107 5 193,828 15 222,157 8 239,181 Worcester 139,333 15 160,546 15 184,424 15 211.356 York(EastRiding) 110,992 16 134,437 14 154,010 10 168,646-1 City of York „ „,L and Ainstey - 24,393 12 27,304 12 30,451 17 35,362 g York (North Rid- ing) 158,225 7 169,391 11 187,452 2 190,873 S (West Rid- ing) - 565,2S2 16 655,042 22 801,274 22 976.415J 8,331,434 14} 9,538,827 "1 11,261,437 16 13,089,333 H'alcl. 541,546 13 611,788 17 717,438 12 805,236 Scotland, Aberdeen 123,082 10 135,075 15 155,387 14 177,651 Argyle - 71,859 19 85,585 14 97,316 4 101,425 Ayr 84,306 23 103,954 22 127,299 14 145.055 Banff - 35,807 2 36,668 19 43,561 12 48,604 Berwick - 30,621 1 30,779 8 33,385 2 34,048 Bute 11,791 2 12,033 15 13,797 3 14.151 Caithness - 22,609 4 23,419 29 30,238 14 34,529 Clackmannan 10,858 11 12,010 10 13,263 11 14.729 Dumbarton 20,710 17 24,189 13 27,317 22 33,211 Dumfries - 54,597 15 62,960 13 70,878 4 73,770 Edinburgh 122,954 21 148,607 29 191,514 15 219,592 Elgin - 26,705 5 28,108 11 31,162 10 34,231 Fife 93,743 8 101,272 13 114,556 12 12-,8.19 For far • 99,127 8 107,264 6 113,430 23 139,606 Haddington 29,986 4 31.164 13 35,127 3 36,145 Inverness • 74,292 6 78,336 15 90,157 5 94,797 Kincardine 26,349 4 27,439 6 29,118 8 31,431 Kinross - 6,725 8 7.245 7 7,762 17 9,072 Kirkcudbright • 29,21 1 15 33,684 15 38,903 4 40,590 Lanark - 146,699 31 191,752 27 244,387 30 316,819 Linlithgow 17,844. 9 19,451 17 22,685 3 23,291 Nairn - 8,257 8,251 9 9,006 4 9,334 Orkney and Shet- land - 46,824 • 46,153 15 63,124 10 58,239 Peebles - S.735 14 9,935 1 10,046 5 1(1. 578 Perth 126,366 7 135,093 3 139,050 3 14J,wi4 Renfrew - 78,056 19 92,596 21 112,175 19 133,443 Ross and Cro- marty - 65,343 10 69,853 13 68,828 9 74.820 Roxburgh 33,682 II 37,230 10 40,892 7 43.663 Selkirk - 6,070 16 5,889 13 6,637 2 6.833 Stirling ■ 60,825 14 68,174 12 65,376 11 12,821 Su'herland 23,117 2 23,629 23,640 7 25,518 Wigton - 22,918 17 26,891 23 33,240 9 36,258 1,599,068 14 1,805,688 16 2,1*3,456 13 2,365,807 Sum MARY OF GRE at Brit AIN. Eng.and - 8.331,434 14| 9,551,888 "t 11,261,437 16 13,0S9,33S Wales - 511,546 13 611,788 17 717, 1:{S 12 805,236 Scotland - l,',9'l,M,1 14 1,805,698 16 2,093.456 13 2,365,307 Army, Navy, kc 470,593 640,500 319,300 277,017 10,942,646 I5± 12,609,864 14 14,391,631 15 16,537,393 PORCELAIN. 323 II. Population of Ireland, as determined liy the Censuses taken in 1813, 1821, and I831, showing its Amount at each Period In each County, with the Kates of Increase. Counties, &c. 1813. Increase per Cent. 1821. per Cent 1831. Province of Leinstcr. Carlow - 69,566 13 78,952 3 decrease 81,576 Droghcda Town - 16,123 12 18,118 4 increase 7,365 Dublin County - 1 10,437 35 150,011 22 1S3.042 City .... 176,610 6 185,881 9 2 3,6-2 KiMare 85,138 16 99,065 9 108.401 Kilkenny County 134,664 17 158,716 6 1692283 City .... . # 23,330 2 23,74 1 King's County .... 113,226 IS 131,088 9 1 11 i 2 1 Longford - - - . • 95,917 12 107,570 4 112,391 Louth ..... # 101,011 7 108,168 Meath 142,479 11 159,1 S3 11 I77,li2:( Queen's County .... 1 13,857 17 134,275 8 1 15,843 Westmeath .... 128,819 6 13ti,799 Wexford # 170,S06 7 IS2.991 Wicklow Total • Province of Munstcr. 83,109 22 ' 110,767 10 122,301 1,757,492 9 1,927,967 Clare ..... 160,603 29 208,089 24 258,262 Cork County .... 623,936 20 629,786 12 71 6,926 City .... 64,394 66 100,658 6 107,041 Kerry ..... 178,622 21 216,1^5 22 2i.l, ..'1 Limerick County ... 103,805 no 218,432 6 233,505 City - 59,045 12 662575 Tipperary .... 290,531 19 346,896 16 402,598 Waterford County ... 119,457 7 127,842 15 148,077 City .... Total - Province of Ulster. 25,467 12 28,679 28,821 1,935,612 14 2,215,364 Antrim . . - - - 231,548 13 262,860 19 314,608 Armagh • 121,449 62 197,427 11 220,651 Carrickfergus Town 6,136 30 8,n23 8 8,698 Cavan ..... . 195,076 16 228,050 Donegal ..... * 248,270 20 298,104 Down ..... 287,290 13 325,410 8 352,671 Fermanagh - 111,250 17 130,997 14 149,555 Londonderry • 186.IS1 4 193,869 14 222,416 Mnnaghan .... 140,433 24 174,697 11 195,532 Tyrone - . - - - Total - Province of Connaught. 250,746 4 261,865 15 302,943 1,998,494 14 2,293, 12S Galway • 140,995 119 309,599 27 394,287 Town .... 24,684 12 27,775 19 33.120 Leitrim ..... 94,095 32 124,785 12 141,303 Mayo ..... 237,371 23 293,112 25 367,956 Roscommon .... 158,110 32 208,729 14 239,903 Sligo Total - * 146,229 17 171,508 - 1,110,229 22 1,348,077 Summary. Provinces. 1813. 1821. 1831. Increase per Cent, on 1821. Leinster - - - - - 1,757,492 1,927,967 ) 1,935,612 2,215,364 1 . 1,998,494 2,293,128 1 Connaught .... Total ■ 1,110,229 1,34S,077 2. ! 6,801,827 7,781,536 1 1* PORCELAIN, on CHINA WARE, a very fine species of earthenware. The first spe- cimens of this fabric were brought to Europe from China and Japan. The best Chinese porcelain is of a very fine texture, white, semi-transparent, and sometimes beautifully coloured and gilt ; is infusible, and not subject to break by the sudden application of heat or cold. The Chinese term for the article is tse-ki. But the Portuguese, by whom it was first brought in considerable quantities into Europe, bestowed on it the name of porcelain, from porcella, a cup. Common earthenware, sometimes of a very good quality, is manufactured in Canton, Fokien, and several other provinces of China. But it is a curious fact, that the beautiful porcelain imported into Europe is made only in the town of Kingtesing, in the province of Kyangsi. Its manufacture is fully described by Duhalde, in his account of China, under the head "Porcelain and China wan." The porcelain of Japan is decidedly inferior to that of China; very little is imported, and it is valued only as a curiosity. After porcelain began to be imported, its beauty soon brought it into great request, notwithstanding its high price, as an ornament for the houses and tables of the rich and the great. The emulation of European artists was in consequence excited. Very little information was, however, obtained as to the mode of manufacturing porcelain till the early part of last century, when the process was developed in a letter from a French Jesuit in China, who had found means to make himself pretty well acquainted with the subject. The knowledge that thus transpired, and the investigations of Reaumur and other chemists, prepared the way for the establishment of the manufacture in Europe. It was first com- menced at Dresden, which has been famous ever since for the beauty of its productions ; but the finest and most magnificent specimens of European china have been produced at Sevres, in France, in the factory carried on at the expense of the French government. British Porcelain Manufacture.—- -This, though unable to boast of such fine specimens of costly work- manship as have been produced at Sevres and Dresden, is of much greater national importance. * JV. B.— Not enumerated in 1813. 324 PORK— PORT-AU-PRINCE. Instead of exclusively applying themselves to the manufacture of articles fitted only for the consumption of the rich, the artists of England have exerted themselves in preference to produce China ware suit- able for the middle classes; and have succeeded in producing articles at once excellent in quality, elegant in form, and cheap. We are principally indebted for the improvements made in this important manufacture, to the genius and enterprise of the late Mr. Josiah Wedgwood. This extraordinary man owed none of his success to fortuitous circumstances. Devoting his mind to patient investigation, and sparing neither pains nor expense in accomplishing liis aims, he gathered round him artists of talent from different countries, and drew upon the stores of science for aid in pursuing the objects of his praiseworthy ambition. The early and signal prosperity that attended his efforts served only as an incentive to urge him forward to new exertions, and as means for calling forth and encouraging talent in others, in a manner calculated to promote the welfare of his country. Previously to his time, the potteries of Staffordshire produced only inferior fabrics, flimsy as to their materials, and void of taste in their forms and ornaments; the best among them being only wretch-'d imitations of the grotesque and unmeaning scenes and figures portrayed on the porcelain of China. But such have been the effects resulting from the exertions and example of this one individual, that the wares of that district are now not only brought into general use in this country, to the exclusion of all foreign goods, which had been largely imported, but English pottery has since been sought for and celebrated throughout the civilised world, and adopted even in places where the art was previously practised. An intelligent foreigner, M. Faujas de St. Fond, writing on this subject, says, — "Its excellent work- manship, its solidity, the advantage which it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine glaze impenetrable to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and the cheapness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active and so universal, that in travelling from Paris to Petersburg!), from Amsterdam to the farthest part of Sweden, and from Dunkirk to the extremity of the south of France, one is served at every inn upon English ware. Spain, Portugal, and Italy are supplied with it; and vessels are loaded with it for both the Indies and the continent of America." — (See the quotation in the Account nf the Porcelain Manufacture, p. 10., in Dr. Lardner's Cycluptrdia ; for the statistical delail3 with respect to the manufacture, see the article Earthkxware, in this work.) The British porcelain manufacture is principally carried on at the potteries in Staffordshire, and at Worcester, Derby, Colebrook Dale, and other places. Murrhine Cups. — It was long a prevalent opinion among modern critics, that the vasa murrhina, so famous in Roman history, were formed of porcelain. Fompey was the first who brought them to Rome from the East, about 64 years before the Christian era. They were used as drinking cups, and fetched enormous prices ; Nero having given, according to the common method of interpreting, 58,00OJ. for a single cup! The extravagance of the purchaser may, in this instance, be supposed to have in- creased the price ; so that the degree of estimation in which these cups were held may be more accu- rately inferred from the fact, that, of all thejich spoils of Alexandria, Augustus was content to select one for his share. — (Sueton. lib. ii. c. 71.) Pliny (lib. xxxvii. c. 2.) says they were made in Persia, particularly in Karamania. But those who contend they were China ware, chiefly found on the fol- lowing line of Propertius : — Murrkeaque in Parthis pocula cocta focis. — (Lib. iv. Eleg. 5. lin. 2G.) In despite, however, of this apparently decisive authority, M. Le Bland and 51. Larcher have, ir, two very learned dissertations (JWemoire? de Litterat. torn, xliii.), which Dr. Robertson has declared are quite satisfactory, endeavoured to prove that the vasa murrhina were formed of transparent stone, dug out of the earth in some Eastern provinces, and that they were imitated in vessels of coloured glass. — (Robertson's Disquisition on India, note 39.) Dr. Vincent [Commerce and SVacigation of the Ancients, vol. ii. p. 723.) inclines to the opposite opinion ; but the weight of authority is evidently on the other side. At all events, it is plain that if the murrhine cups were really porcelain, it had been exceedingly scarce at Rome, as their price would otherwise have been comparatively moderate. But it is most probable that the ancients were wholly unacquainted with this article ; which, indeed, was but little known in Europe till after the discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope. — (For some further details on this question, see Kippingii Sntiq. Rom. lib. iv. c. 3.) PORK, the flesh of the hog. Salted and pickled pork forms a considerable article of > export from Ireland to the West Indies and other places. Pork and Bacon exported from Ireland in the under-mentioned Years. Years. Pork. Eicon. Years. 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 Pork. Bacon. Quantity. Official Value. Quantity. Official Value. Quantity. Official Value. Quantity. Official Value. 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1-2(1 Cwt. 154,719 103,585 133,095 118,345 120,334 142,431 L. 214,226 143,425 184,265 163,862 166,616 197,212 Cwt. 236,349 227,668 191,025 214,956 221,134 262,736 L. 327,252 315,205 264,496 2'i7,S:il 310.340 363,797 Cwt. 141,211 115,936 120,046 106,543 108,141 L. 195,559 160,527 166,218 147,521 149,734 Cwt. 366,209 241,!- 65 343,675 313,788 362,278 L. 507,059 334,890 475,858 434,475 501,615 Most part of the bacon is exported to England— (See Bacon), — and also a good deal of the pork. The account cannot be brought further down than 1825, the trade between Great Britain and Ireland having since then been placed on the footing of a coasting trade. PORT. See Wine. PORT-AU-PRINCE, the capital of Hayti, or St. Domingo, in lat. 18° 33' 42" N„ Ion. 72° 27' 11" W. Population variously estimated, probably from 18,000 to 20,000. It is situated on the west coast of the island, at the bottom of a large and deep gulf. It was founded in 1749; since which, with few intervals, it has been the capital of French St. Do- mingo, as it is now of the entire island. It is partially fortified ; the harbour being protected by a battery on a small island at a little distance from the shore. The country round is low and marshy ; and the heat in the summer months being excessive, the climate is then ex- ceedingly unhealthy. The buildings are principally of wood, and seldom exceed 2 stories in height. Harbour. — The entrance to the harbour is between White Island and the southern shore. The depth of water varies from about 18 feet at ebb to about 21 do. at full tide. It is customary, but not compul- sory, to employ a pilot in entering the harbour. They are always on the look-out. Ships moor head and stern, at from 100 to 500 yards from shore; loading and unloading by means of boats, as there aro PORT-AU-PRINCE. 325 neither docks nor quays to assist these operations. The harbour ia perfectly safe, except during hurricanes, which may be expected from August to November. Hayti is, next to Cuba, the largest of the West India islands. It was discovered by Co- lumbus, on the 5th of December, 1492. Its greatest length is estimated at about 160 leagues, and its greatest breadth at about 40. Its superfices is estimated at about 2,450 squan Three principal chains of mountains (from which emanate smaller mountain arms) runfrom the central group of Cibao. The whole of these are described as fertile and susceptible of cultivation, even to their summits; affording great variety of climate, which, contrary to what is the lact in the plains, is remarkably healthy. The soil of the plains is, in B very rich vegetable mould, exceedingly fertile, and well watered. There are several large rivers, and an immense number of smaller streams, some tributary and other's independent. The ports are numerous and good. The harbour of Cape St. Nicholas, the fortifications of which are now in ruins, is one of the finest in the West Indies; being inferior only to the Havannah. Timber of the finest description is most abundant ; and mines of gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, and rock salt, besides other natural productions, are said not to be wanting. The French are, therefore, fully justified in designating this magnificent island, La Reine des Antilles. The principal towns, besides Port-au-Prince, are Cap Haiticn, formerly Cap Francois, on the north coast, St. Domingo on the south, Les Cayes, and Jacmel. Previously to the revolt of the blacks, Hayti was divided in unequal portions between the French and Spaniards ; the former possessing the west, and the latter the eastern and larger portion of the island. The revolution began in 1789 ; and terminated, after the most dread- ful massacres, and the destruction of a vast deal of property, in the total abolition of slavery, and the establishment of an independent black republic. The Spanish part of the island and the French were finally consolidated in 1822. Population. — In 1789, the French part of Hayti was by far the most valuable and flou- rishing colony in the West Indies. The population was estimated at 524,000; of which 31,000 were white, 27,500 people of colour, and 465,500 slaves. The Spanish part of the island was much less densely peopled; the number in 1785 being estimated at 152,640 ; of which 122,640 were free people of all colours, mostly mulattoes, and the rest slaves. The population of the entire island, in 1827, was estimated by M. Humboldt at 820,000 of whom 30,000 were whites ; but there are good grounds for thinking that this estimate is exaggerated. Imports. — The principal articles of import are provisions ; such as flour, rice, mess and cargo beef, fish, &c. and timber, from the United States ; cotton goods of all sorts, Irish and Scotch linens, earthenware, cutlery, ammunition, &c. from England ; wines, satins, liqueurs, jewellery, toys, haberdashery, &c. from France ; and linens, canvass, gin, &o. from Holland and Germany. Exports. — There has been an extraordinary decline in the quantity and value of the arti- cles exported from Hayti since 1789. Sugar, for example, has fallen off from 141,000,000 lbs. to almost nothing ; coffee from about 77,000,000 lbs. to a little more than 32,000,000 lbs. in 1826 ; cotton from 7,000,000 lbs. to 620,000 lbs. in do. ; indigo, from 758,000 lbs. to nothing, &c. ! Mahogany is almost the only article, the exports of which have rapidly increased of late years. The following Table illustrates what has now been stated : — A General Table of Exports from Hayti, during the Years 1789, 1801, and from 1818 to 1826, both inclusive. Years. Clayed Sugar. Muscovado Sugar. Coffee. Cotton. Cacao. I .- , Mo* Dye Woods. Tobacco. Caslor Oil. Mahogany. Cigars. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Gal. Feci. 1799 47,516,531 93,573,300 76,>-35,219 7,00 4,274 75:,'25 2V749 1801 16,540 18,518,572 43,420,270 2,450,34:) 648.51^ 804 99,419 6,768,634 5,217 iSIS ! « 5,1-13.567 26,065,200 474.IIS 431.365 6,819,3 j0 19,140 121 129,962 1SI9 157 3,790,143 29,240,919 216,103 370,43!) 3,094,409 39,699 711 1520 2,787 2,514,502 35,137,759 346,539 556,424 1,919,748 97.G00 157 1 1S21 ■ 600,934 2il,'i25,951 820,563 261,792 . 3,725,186 76,40i 55.005 1522 • 200,454 24,235,372 592,368 464,154 . 211,927 8,295,080 588,957 2.622,277 279.000 1-J1 1 l 92 ) 33,802,837 332,256 335,540 6,607,308 387,014 2,369,047] 393,800 1824 5.106' 44,269,054 1,028,04 461,ti94 1,2 iO 3,868,151 718,679 2,151,7471 175,000 1S25 2,020; 36,034,300 815,697 339,937 3,948,190 503,425 1826 32.804 32,IS9,7S4 620,972 467,692 . 1 . 5,307,745 340,55^ 2,136,984 179,500 1 Guaiicuin, in 1822, 7,338 lbs.— 1823, 13,056 lbs.— 1S24, 63,692 lbs. The destruction caused by the deplorable excesses which accompanied the revolution ex- plains a part of this extraordinary falling off: but the greater part is to be accounted for by the change in the condition of the inhabitants. It could not reasonably be expected that the blacks were to make the same efforts in a state of independence they made when goaded on by the lash to exertions almost beyond their powers. It may, however, be fairly anticipated that they will become more industrious, according as the population becomes denser, and as they become more civilised, and acquire a taste for conveniences and luxuries. Hitherto industry in Hayti cannot be said to be free. It is enforced and regulated by the Code Rural, which is, in fact, a modification of the old French regulations as to slavery embodied in the Code Noir. " The provisions are as despotic as those of any slave system that can be con- ceived. The labourer may almost be considered adscriptus gkbx ,- he is deemed a vaga- bond, and liable to punishment, if he venture to move from his dwelling or farm without notice ; he is prohibited from keeping a shop ; and no person can build a house in the couu Vol. II.— 2 E 326 PORT-AU-PRINCE. try unconnected with a farm. The code determines the mode of managing landed property; of forming contracts for cultivation between proprietor and farmer — farmer and labourer; of regulating grazing establishments, the rural police, the inspection of cultivation and culti- vators ; of repressing vagrancy ; and of the repair and maintenance of the public roads. Lastly, it affixes the penalty of fine in some cases, and in others of indefinite imprisonment, at the option of the judge of the peace." — (Mr. Consul Mackenzie's Despatch ,■ Purl. Paper, No. 18. Sess. 1829.) Another serious obstacle to industry seems to be the enormous weight of the taxes im- posed to defray the French indemnity. These are greatly beyond the means of the Hay tiaus ; so that the stipulated payments are in arrear, and will have to be abandoned. Besides the articles specified in the above Table, hides, tortoise-shell, wax, ginger, and bullocks' horns are exported in considerable quantities. Hides are principally exported from the eastern, or, what was, the Spanish part of the island. They constitute a valuable article. In despite, however, of these unfavourable circumstances, it appears abundantly certain that a con- siderable increase has taken place within these few years in the exports of coffee, cotton, mahogany, tobacco, and some other articles. But it is very difficult to arrive at the exact truth with respect either to this or any other matter connected with Ilayti. During the discussions on the slave trade, both parties referred to it in support of their peculiar views ; and the most contradictory statements were put forth as to the numbers and condition of the people, the extent of trade, &c. A good deal of smug- gling is also carried on ; so that even the official statements are not to be depended on. The subjoined account of the exports of 1832 is taken from the Anti-Slavery Record of the 6th of June, 1S33. We do not pretend to guarantee its authenticity; but we have been assured by competent judges that it does not involve any material error : — " Computed amount of exports for 1S32, according to the Custom- bouse books : Coffee exported from Port-au Prince - Gonalves Cap Hal'ien Jeremie - Les Caves Jacmel - Partie de 1'Est - 19,000,000 lbs. 2,500,000 8,000,000 3,000,000 8,000,000 5,000,000 5,500,000 Cotton, from all parts Mahogany — Tobacco — Cacao, from all parts Dve woods — Hides — Tortoise-shell — Cigars — 500,000 lbs. 50 0,000 — s.... 00 12 COO lbs. 500,000 " The value of the crop of coi sterl. The duties realised on th to purchase it, and 2d]y, the ex| 13 dollars the 1,000, ; crop. This would g estimated at about 1,000.000;. 11, 1st, by the imports required n liicli are sutject to a duty nf estimated ai 25 per cent, on the value of the 250,000/. on the cetTcr. ^ his, at 7 Haitian dollars to the pound sterling, makes 1,750,'XO dollars of revenue realised by this commodity alone." -50,000.000 lbs. 1,500,000 — 6,000,000 feet. 500,000 lbs. The duties on imports amount, at an average, to about 900,000 dollars a year. The total rerciptsof the treasury may be estimated at about 2,500,000 dollars, which is, however, exceeded by the expen- diture. The Americans, British, French, and Germans carry on almost the whole trade of Ilayti. The im- ports from England are very decidedly larger than those from any other country ; but the exports to America exceed those destined for us. As the articles carried to Ilayti from the United States are, for the most part, bulky, consisting of flour, salt fish, and provisions of all sorts, timber, StCj the number of American vessels engaged in the trade very materially exceeds those trading under any other flag. Arrivals— The arrivals of shipping at Port-au-Prince and Cap Ha'itien, in 1829, 1830, and 1831, have been as under : — Places. 1829. 1630. 1831. Port-au-Prince ----- vessels tonnage Cap Ha'itien ------ vessels tonnage 130 18,268 10,596 157 22,823 77 11,767 171 23,686 69 9,070 Port Charges.— The charges on a native and foreign ship of 300 tons are the same, and as follows: — Dollars. Tonnage duty* - - - - 300 Administrator - * - -12 Commandante de place - - - * 12 Commissaire de guerre - - - 12 Commandante de port - - - 12 Director of customs - - - - 12 Interpreter ----- 12 Treasurer ----- 12 Doctor ..... 12 Stamps for entry and clearing - - - 16 50 Founiaiu tax 20 Pilotage - - - - 2 Total, currency 434 50 Custom-house Regulations.— On arrival, the master of the vessel Erocecls i ' with the interpreter, where be makes is declaration whether he discharges his cargo in the port. If he discharge, his invoice! are translated, and the goods v. , presence of the consignee, who is allowed to land and store them. On clearing outwards, the merchant pavs the duties oft the cargoes both ways, and exhibits a receipt it tbeomce of the commissi i rede guerre, commandante de place, and commandante de port, who sign a certi- ficate that the vessel may depart. ,. vmg.— The warehousing and bonding system is establish- ed by law, but there are al present do buildings appropriated to the reception of bonded goods. Until very recently, goods were permit- ted to be bonded under this law in the merchants' stores ; a late order hat, however, suspended that indulgence. The rate is I per cent, per year, and do allowance made for waste or loss. Goods exported in the same vessel they arrive in, pay, if landed, 1-2 per cent, and wharf- age fees. Money.— The weight of the dollar is 216 grain? ; the 1-2 and It dollar being in proportion. But nearly 12 the weight of the coin consists of tin or other alloy ; so that the value of the dollar docs not exceed Is. 6d. sterling. Weights in Hayti are divided as in avoirdupois and apothecaries* weight ; but they are about S per cent, heavier than British weights. Measures.— Same as those used in France. Regulations as to Trade —It is enacted, that all persons exercising any trade or profession, excepting that of cultivating the soil, must be provided with a patent or licence to carry on such trade or profes- sion ; that all strangers admitted as merchants into the republic must, iu the first place, procure the permission of the president to take out a patent, which, when obtained, only authorise them, under heavy penalties, to carry on a wholesale business, not with each other, but with the Haytians, in the open perls, which are Port-au-Prince, Go- nalves, Cap Haltien, Port-a Plate, Santo Dumingo, Jacmel, LesCayes, and Jeremie. The minimum quantities of goods that may be sold are fixed by the same law. The Haytian consignee may be also a retailer, on taking cut a corresponding patent. A charge of 2.000 dollars is made for rich patent to a foreigner hading to Port-au-Prince; 1,800 for Les Cayes. Cap Haltien, and and I,600for each of the remaining porta, Duties.— The duties on all i < nnsigned to .], tn's an- 17 1-2 per cent, nn ail whether they I B broughl in native or foreign I Hon of those from the United Slates, which pay an additional 10 per cent, on the amount of the duties. Goods consigned to native mer- chants pav only 16 1-2 per cent. The following articles are duty free in all bottoms:— Shot of all sizes, grenades, howitzers, bomb-shells, anil other projectiles of artil- lery j iron and bronze raunon, mortars, muskets and bayonets, car- bines, pistols, and cat airy sal res, briquets, or short swords for infan- try; machines and instruments for simplifying and facilitating the cultfc Ition of the toil, and the preparation of iis products : horses and cattle, mules, asses, gold and silver coin ; classical and elementary works, sewed in boards, or bound in parchment, for the instruction of routfa. The following is a list of articles absolutely prohibited, without reference to their place of growth :— Mahogany, logwood, lignum *This is the present consul's statement. Mr. Consul Mackenzie says, that as ITaytian vessels pay for a licence, they are not subject to the tonnage duty. Perhaps, however, the regulation in this respect has been changed since his "Notes" were published. PORTERS AND PORTERAGE— PORT LOUIS. 327 Among the respectable marchanda t much good faith , bul v. , f the customers, J ■ .. Mich as tailors and shoemakers, and t pen a v. n ■ i Prince. An ! I I ipectabie appearance of several booksellers 1 ibops, haviox looked in vain i amounted to md the expenditure in Great Britain on account of the island to 77,8571. ; making together 244,3662. — (Pari. Paper, No. 194, Sess. 1631.) It appears from the accounts published bv the Board of Trade, that the total revenue of the colony in 1831 amounted to232,43S/., and the expenditure to 249,824/.— (Vol. i. p. 246.) We believe, however, that, by enforcing a system of unsparing relrenchment r this unfavourable balance might be considerably diminished: at present, both the number of functionaries and their salaries seem quite excessive.— (This article has been almost entirely compiled from official documents.) PORTO-RICO, the capital of the valuable Spanish island of the same name, in lat. 18° 29' 10" N., Ion. 66° 13' 15" W. It is situated on the north side of the island, on a penin- sula joined to the main land by a narrow isthmus. The fortifications are very strong : the town which stands on a pretty steep declivity, is well built, clean, and contains from 20,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. Harbour. — The harbour of Porto-rico has a striking resemblance to that of the Ilavannah, to which it is but little inferior. The entrance to it, about 300 fathoms in width, has the Worro Castle on its . and is defended on the wes! side by forts erected on 2 small islands. Within, the harbour expands into a capacious basin, the depth of water varying from 5 to 6 and 7 fathoms. On the side opposite to the town there are extensive sand banks; but the entrance to the port, as well as the port itself, is unobstructed by any bar or shallow. The island of Porto-rico lies in the same latitude as Jamaica. Though the smallest of the greater Antilles, it is of a very considerable size. Its form is that of a parallelogram ; being about 1 15 miles in length from east to west, with a mean breadth of about 35, con- taining an area of 4,140 square miles. The surface is plentifully diversified with hills and valleys, and the soil generally fertile. It has, however, suffered much from hurricanes; those of 1742 and 1825 having been particularly destructive. Since the breaking up of the old Spanish colonial system, the progress of Porto-rico has hardly been less rapid than that of Cuba. Her population, which in 1778 was estimated at 80,650, amounted, accord- ing to a census taken in 1827, to 288,473, of which only 28,408 were slaves. A large pro- portion of the free inhabitants are coloured : but the law knows no distinction between the white and the coloured roturier ,• and this circumstance, as well as the whites being in the habit of freely intermixing with people of colour, has prevented the growth of those preju- dices and antipathies that prevail between the white and the black and coloured population in the United States, and m the English and French islands. — (Ba/bi, Abrcge de la , p. 1175; Poinsett's Notes oji Mexico, Lond. ed. pp. 4 — 11.) . r and coffee are by far the ere a test articles of export. Next to them are cattle, tobacco, rum. cotton. . d. If the distance of such places shall not exceed 15 miles, British measure ....... 4 8 1 1 4 Exceeding 15, and not exceeding 20 snch miles - 5 10 1 3 1 8 20 — — 30 — 6 1 6 2 30 — — 50 — 7 1 2 1 9 2 4 50 — — 80 — 8 1 4 2 2 8 80 — — 190 — - 9 1 6 2 3 3 120 — — 170 - — 10 1 8 2 6 3 4 170 — 230 — 11 1 10 2 9 3 8 230 — — 300 — - 1 2 3 4 300 — — 400 — 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 400 — _ 500 — 1 2 2 4 3 6 4 8 500 — — 600 — 1 3 2 6 3 9 6 600 — — 700 — - 1 4 2 8 4 5 4 700 - - - - - 1 5 2 10 4 3 5 8 Letters and packets conveyed by packet boats between the ports of I'oripatrick and Donaghadee, a packet postage over and above all other rates ...---. 4 8 1 1 4 Letters and packets conveyed by packet boats from or to Holyhead or Milfnni Haven, too* froni any j»ort in Ireland, a packet postage over and above all other rates - .... 2 4 6 8 Letters and packets conveyed by packet boats to or from Liverpool, from or to Dublin, or any other port in Ireland, a packet postage over and above all other rates - - 8 1 4 2 2 8 Provided that no letter sent by way of Liverpool shall be chargeable with a higher rate of postage than if it were sent by way of Holyhead. Letters and packets to and from any part of Great Bri tain or Ireland, by way of Dublin and Holyhead, in addition to all other rates (Menai Bridge) ...... I 2 3 4 Letters and packets to and from any part of Great Britain or Ire- land, by way of Conway and Chester, in addition to all other rates (Conway Bridge) ...... 1 2 3 4 And so in proportion in all the aforesaid cases for any other letter or packet of greater weight than an ounce. POSTAGE AND POST-OFFICE. 333 Letters containing 1 enclosure are cjutrgpable with 2 single rates. Letters con; ■ I Lb with 3 Bingle rates. J I innce, « bat- ever the contend may be, are chargeable with A every I- ! of an ounce above that weight, an additional single rate is 1 i soldiers and sailors, If single, and in conformity to the act of parliament, are chargeable with I penny only. Post: 1 . Single Letter ' l Pence. Great Britain. From any post-office in Great Britain to any place not u such oiiice For ;ui', d , and not exceeding 20 miles 30 — 50 — And so in proportion; the pontile increasing progressively \d. for a single letter for every IU0 miles. ■■ Ireland. in Pence. From any post-office m Ireland to anyplace within 7 Iribh miles from such office 2 Exceeding 7 and not exceeding IS Irish miles • 3 150 — 2u0 — - 12 200 — 2)0 — - 13 250 — 300 — 14 'r every 100 miles, Irish measure, above 300 n ilea, a furthar , of id. Double and treble letters charged according to the e scale of advance as in England. Foreign Parts. — Postage of a single Letter to and from London. Germany via France West India Islands ningo - Gibraltar Malta and Mediterranean Madeira The Azores - The Canaries * France - . - 10 Dover and Cahis - - 3 Italy - - - ) Ionian 1*1 cs and Turkey via > I 7 France - - •' ) Germany ■ - - "\ Norway • - . Russia - - . • I i o • f Denmark - - - | ■ ) Switzerland - - -12 letters from the United Kingdom to any part of ■ ' ■ ■ the receiver; or, 2n or, 3rd, they may pay the B\ , to the fron- paidin advance, on all I on all letters 1 t the West In- dian colonies and British America,) otherwise they will not be tor- warded. No letter addressed to any part in France will be chargeable with more than a single rate of Bi i i may be, if it do not exceed- 1-4 of an ounce double postage from 1-4 oz. and no 1 exceeding 1-2 oz., and treble postage from 1-2 oz. and not exceeding 1 oz. ■ ge in France is charged wholly by weight, without refer- ence to the composition of the letter, and is at the rate of a single postage if under 1-4 oz., and so on in proportion. A single sheet of iiing more than 1-4 oz. is therefore liable in France to additional i ' Letter*. — Persons desirous of registering letters and packets for France, and passing through France, may have them en- tered on the letter-bill ; such letters will be liable to a ■ rate of 2s. 6d. each, in addition to the ordinary British rates, and to Portugal Ri istils - Buenos Ay res Chili - Peru i ' Honduras Mexico - Tampico - J- 3 • I • J - ) ' Portugal and Gibraltar, via France 1 7 double the French postage, according to weight. The loftofe pay* ment to the place of di ■ being re jsten I, before 6 o'clock in 1 nights, and before 10 o'clock on Tuesdays and I Mails made up in London as follows : France, daily. , Thursday, and Friday, and Friday. , Brazil, and Buenos Jlyres, first Tuesday, monthly. Lisbon and Madeira, every Saturday. Gibraltar, Malta, Spain, Greece, Corfu, Egypt, and India, 1st of every month. Mi tico and Savannah, 15th of every month. Jamaica, Hayti, Leeward Islands, and Carthagena, 15th of every month. Jamaica, Leeward Islands, Uayti, and La Guayra, 1st of every month. Letters for Portugal, Brazil, and other foreign ports, will in fu- ture be received until the hour for closing the boxes for inland letters. CONVEYANCE OF NEWSPAPERS BY POST. The former acts relating to this department of the Post-office have been repealed and consolidated by the 6 & 7 Will. 4. c. 54., of which the following official abstract has been published : — charge; if to lie sent by private ships a postage of id. each must be ■(. — Printed newspa] I Mamp-duty, and duly stamped, sent by the General I United King- dom, will he delivered free of all charge, being no longer subject to twopenny post rates as heretofore. Newspapers not hiving passed, or (o pass, through the general post, but which penny post of anvcity, town, or place, will he charged Id. each on delivery. British Colonics and Possessions.— Printed newspapers, duly i any of his Maje ind possessions beyond seas, sent by his Maje will be forwarded free of paid on putting Minn into a po .' to India, the Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, &c. will no I . ■ t ■ it I . . ', r '. each. us, brought 1 e ; if brought by private ships they will be charged Id. each on delivery. 1 1- may be sent from one British colony to another, t':n the United Kingdom, by his Majesty's packets, free of post- age. Foreign Parts. — In the former impressions of this work, we had occasion to point out and censure the objectionable practice that had long prevailed in the Post-office, of eking out the salaries of the clerks in the foreign department by allowing them to charge heavy stuns on the newspapers transmit- ted to and received from foreign parts. To such an extent was this practice carried, that, while the annual cost of a daily London paper amounted (previously to the late reduction of the stamp-duty,) in any part of Great Britain, to 9Z. \s. a year, it could not be had at Calais or Boulogne for less than 13/. 5*., the clerks in the Post-office being allowed to charge 41. 4s. for their trouble in conveying it ! The fees charged on the French papers brought to England were similar. It is not going too tar to say, that this preposterous system opposed a far more serious obstacle to the diffusion of intel! than run- that could have grown out of the fears and efforts of the most arbitrary and powerful mo- narchs. Luckily, however, it is now wholly abolished ; French papers being received in all parts of the United Kingdom on payment of \d. of postage, and British papers being transmitted to all parts of France, subject only to a charge of 4 centimes on delivery. The regulations are as follows : — merated in the preceding list, must be charged 2d. each when put into the poBt j newspapers from such countries, brought into the United Kingdom by 1 ckets, or by privaU ■ her to the British c tw ithin 7 days after tin papers must be print am which 1 of either of thee provisions, ■ I . from the British colonics o» from foreign pa ■ .■ thereof Tit th> plai e of its addr< opened or used, bul not otherwise), be n-dnecte 1 nn l i ■■■ at any other place m, free from any additional charge; hut if it shall have been Will) on re-directiuu, he charged with the rate of a single letter from Print d newspapers, duly si I to the under-men- md places, may he forwarded by his Majesty's Packets free of charge, viz.:— France Buenos Ayres H imburgh . mbia i !arai cas Carthagena Bogota Hayti, or St. Domingo. If sent by private ships, Id. each must be paid oc putting them snto a post-office. Newspapi i published in any of the aforenamed countries and his Majesty's packets, will he delivered free of From France, which are liable to 1-2.7. each nn delivery ; il brought by private ships, they will bi i harged Id. each. Printed newspapers, duly stamped, and sent i v his Majesty's pack- ets, or by private ships, to other foreign countries and places not euu* I ■■ Corfu, and Ionian Islands 334 POSTAGE AND POST-OFFICE. the place at which it shall have been redirected or reposted to the place where delivered. General Iictru!atioiis.—AU newspapers forwarded by post must be ■ r in coven, open at the sides; they are other- wise chargeable ^ itfa postage as letters. pers, British or foreign, containing' any letter, paper, or thing enclosed, or with any writing or marks of reference or infor- mation whatever upon them, or upon the covers, other than the ad- dress, will be charged with treble tiie duty of letter postage. Postmasters are authorised and required to exami newspapers^ to protect the revenue from fraud ; and the I General is empowered by the Act of Parliament to proceed against parties attempting any frauds upon the revenue through the medium of newspapers. The gross receipt and nett revenue derived from the two-penny fst in the metropolis in the under-mentioned years, has been as fol- ows :— Years. Gross Receipt. Charge of Collection. Nett Revenue. 1'34 1835 L. 109,148 112,924 L. 45,425 47,510 L. 63,723 1 "-..»! ! TworExxY Post-Office. — Besides the General Post-office, or that intended for the conveyance of letters from one part of the kingdom to another, and to and from foreign parts, letters are received in the metropolis, and other large towns, for delivery in the same. In London, these letters are charged 2d. ; but in other towns they are only charged Id. The limits of the twopenny post extend to all places within a circle of 12 miles from the General Post-office ; there are daily several deliveries, and the establishment is extremely convenient. The Twopenny Post-office is dependent upon, though in some measure distinct from, the General Post-office. Its principal office is at the General Post-office. There are a great number of receiving houses scattered up and down the town and the adjacent country. To places having but 2 deliveries a day, letters are sent off at the above hours of 10 in the morning and 4 or 7 in the afternoon. Such as go off at 10 are delivered at noon ; those at 4 are delivered the same evening; and such as go otf" at 7 are for delivery early next morning. To places having only 1 post a day, they go off at 10, and are delivered the same day at noon. The deliveries in the country should be completed, generally, be- tween the hours of 1 1 and I ; between 6 and b in the evening ; and by, or about 9 in the morniug. From the Country to London,— It put into the pos* in time for the morning despatch, the) arrive in town between 10 and 11 o'clock, and are sent out at 12 from the principal office, for delivery in all parts of London. If put in for theatternoou despatch, they arrive between the hours of 5 and 6, and are sent out at 7 for delivery the same evening. From one Part of the Country to another.— If going from one part of a ride or district to another part of the same ride or district, and put in for the morning despatch, they are delivered, through the means of aby-postarran;:ement. thesnmeday atnoon. If put in tor the afternoon despatch, they are delivered the same evening, where an evening delivery is given. If going to parts not belonging to the same ride, they come to London, such letters put into the post for the morning despatch, are delivered in the country the same evening, when an evening delivery is given ; if for the afternoon despatch, the next morning, where a morning delivery is given ; or otherwise at noon. Stamps.— The date stamp on letters, or, if there be more than one, that having the latest hour, shows the day and time of day they were despatched for delivery; that on returned letters excepting, which shows the time they were returned to the office as deaJ ! sons having occasion to con, plain of the delay of their letters, are re- quested to transmit to the superintending president the. a statement of the time of delivery, as the date and stamp will assist materially in tracing their course. Postage.— The postage of each letter or packet posted at any office within a circle of 3 miles from the General Post-otfice, for delivery at any place within that limit, is Id. To or from ajl places beyond this circle (being within the limits of this office) it is 3d. All beyond the 3 mile circle, and wi'.bin the 12 mile circle, pay 3d. Soldiers and Sailors.— Single letters from or Co soldiers and sailors, under certain restrictions, pass throughout both this and the general post, or either, for Id. only, if paid at putting in. Newspapers. — Newspapers posted at London, or at any place within the 12 mile circle, for delivery within that limit, ;ire charged Id. each ; but they pass to or from the General Post free of postage. Letters < f Value. — This Office is not liable to make good the loss of property contained in letters. But. for the greater security of such property, it is recommended that notice of it be given to the office- keepers, at putting into the post. This, however, with tie exception of bank or other notes, or drafts payable to bearer, winch should be cut in halves and sent at twice, the first half to be acknow- ledged before the other is sent Weight.— No letters or packages exceeding the weight of 4 oz. can be'sent by this post, except such as have first passed by, or are intended to pass by, the general or foreign mails. Letters f or this Post not to be put into the General Post.— Letters fur the twopenny post are sometimes put into the general post, by which they are unavoidably delayed. It is, therefore, recommended that they be put into tie twopenny post offices or receiving houses, may be regularly forwarded by their proper com Letters w i I i ■'■.'..— And to prevent the possibility of ng surreptitiously obtained from the of) ■ -ii 1 1 i. epers are strictly forbidden returning, to ircumstancM 1 his j* moreovei i ■ instant a letter is committed to the post, it is no longer the properly of the sender. Post-office Revenue. — The progress of the Post-ofTice revenue of Great Britain has been very remarkable. Most part of its increased amount is, no doubt, to be ascribed to the greatly increased population of the country, and the growing intercourse among all classes of the community ; but a good deal must also be ascribed to the eilbrts made in the early part of the reign of George III. to suppress the abuses that had grown out of the privilege of franking, and still more to the additions that have repeatedly been made to the rates. We believe, however, that these have been completely overdone; and considering the vast importance of a cheap and safe conveyance of letters to commerce, it will immediately be Been that this is a subject deserving of grave consideration. In point of fact the post-office revenue has been about stationary since ISM; though, from the increase of population and commerce in the intervening period, it is pretty obvious that, had the rates of postage n Regulations of the Two-Penny Post-Office.— The principal office is aitheGeneral Post-office, St. Marti nVIe- Grand, where letters may be posted 1 hour later at each despatch than at the receiving houses. For the accommodation of the western part of the metropolis, letters are received at the office at Charing Cross, corner of Craig's Court, and at theoffice in Regent Street, near Langham Place, 1-2 hour later at each despatch than at any of the other receiving houses. There are 6 deliveries and 6 collections of letters in London, daily ; and by a recent regulation, the 7 o'clock delivery has been extended to all the environs of London, within the circle of 3 miles from the General Post-office ; and most of these places have now 5 deli- veries and 5 despatches, daily. Most other parts of the country dis- tricts have 3 deliveries, and two despatches daily. The following are the places within the 3 mile circle that have 5 deliveries an i 5 despatches daily :— Camden Town; Dalston ; Hack- ney ; Islington ; Kent Road (Old), as far as St. Mary-le-Strand work- house ; Kenningtohj Kentish Town, as far as Mansfield Place; . Newington Butts; Pentouville ; Shacklevvell; Somers Town; Vauxhall and Walworth. The following places have 4 deliveries daily : — Bayswater; Bow ; sex ; Bromley, Middlesex; Camber well; Chelsea; Little Chelsea, as far as Church Lane ; Hollo way ; Highbury ; Ken- sington, Paddington; and South Lambeth. There is an extra despatch of letters from the last mentioned places in the middle of the day, and also from Clapham, Clapton, Efarop- stead, Homertou, Stockwell, and Stratford. Letters forwarded by this extra despatch, are delivered in London 3 hours earlier than those forwarded by the last despatch, and in most parts of the country dis- tricts, they are delivered the same night. By command of the Postmaster General, the country delivery of this office has been extended to a circle of 12 miles from the General Post-office. The places that have been added to the country districts i f the twopenny post by this extension, have also a delivery by the General Post. Letters intended for that delivery, must be put into general post-offices only. J he tune by which letters should be put into the receiving houses, or the principal office, For each delivery of the day, and that by which they are despatched for delivery, are as follows : — Letters going from one Part of the Toum to another. If put into the re- Or the principal They are sent out • houses by office by for delivery at 8 morning 9 morning 10 morning If) — 11 — 12 — 12 — 1 afternoon 2 afternoon 2 afternoon 3 — 4 — 5 — 6 — 7 — 8 — 9 — 8 next morring. And each delivery should be completed generally in about I 1-2 hour after the despatch from the principal office, according to dis- tance and number of letters, Sec. From London to Vie Country. If put irdo the re- I of the 2 despatched ). -uses by principal offices by be latter at 9 morning 10 u oi 2 afternoon 3 afternoon 4af[emoon 5 - 6 — 7 - POSTAGE AND POST-OFFICE. 335 been so high as to force recourse to other channels, the revenue must have been decidedly greater now than at the end of the war. Were the rates moderate, the greater despatch and security of the post-office conveyance would hinder any considerable number of letters from being sent through other channels. But, in the estimation of very many persons, the present duties more than countervail these* advantages; and the number of coaches that now pass between all parts of the country, and the facility with which the law may be evaded, by transmitting letters in parcels conveyed by them, renders the imposition of oppressive rates of postage quite as injurious to the revenue as to individuals. The gross produce of the post-office revenue of Great Britain, exclusive of Ireland, in the under-mentioned years, has been as follows : — Ye*rs. Duty. Yean. Duly. Years. Duty. Years. Duly. £ £ £ £ 1722 201,804 1810 1,675,076 1828 2,048,012 1833 2,031,603 1755 110,663 1814 2,005,987 1829 2.021,418 1833 1775 345,321 1820 1,993,885 1830 2,053,720 1 -::t 2,079.509 1793 745,238 1825 2,160,390 1831 2,064,334 1635 2,107,677 1800 1,083,950 The progress of the Scotch branch of the post-office revenue has been quite extraordinary. In 1698, Sir Robert Sinclair of Stephenson had a grant from William III. of its entire produce, with an extra allowance of 3002. a year, on condition of his keeping up the post; but, after trial, he abandoned the undertaking as disadvantageous. In 1709, the Scotch post-office revenue was under 2,0002. : its amount in 1835 was 209,2072. gross, anil 197,9882. nelt ; having increased nearly a hundred fold, in little more than a century! In 1781, the (Jlasffovv post-office produced only 4,341/. 4s. Sd:, while its revenue Is at. present nearly 40,0002. ! — (Stark's Picture of Edinburgh, p. 144 ; Cleland , s Statistics of Glasgow ; Finance Book for 1835, &x.) The expenses of collecting the post-office revenue amount, at an average, to from 21 to "0 per cent, on the gross receipt. In 1835, they were, for Great Britain, 582,509/.. being at the rate of about 27| per cent. After all deductions on account of collection, over-payments, drawbacks, &c, the total nett payments into the exchequer, on account of the post-office revenue of Great Britain, in ls;jj amounted to 1,41S,0002. The British post-office is admitted on all hands to be managed with great intelligence. But there are several departments in which it is believed that a considerable saving of expense might he effected. In 1835, the packet service cost, freights deducted, 57,919/. ; and the mileage to mail coaches, anil the payments to guards, tolls, &c, amounted to about 90,000/. The conveyance of mails in Canada, Nova Scotia, and Jamaica, was an item of above 12,672/.! There may, in all, be about 3,000 persons employed in the carriage and distribution of letters in Great Britain only ; besides about 180 coaches, and from 4,000 to 5,000 horses. Account of the Gross Receipt of the Post-office R evenue at the following Cities and Tc wns in 1S33, 1831, and 1835. Years. Places. Places. 1833. 1834. 1835. 1833. 1834. 1835. L. i. d. L. s. d. L. t. d. L. j. d. L. s. ri L. s. d. | London • 642 871 7 660,411 11 4 664,189 5 2 Preston - 5,190 8 11 5,146 8 6 5.230 1 8 Birmingham 28,814 4 29,258 1 7 30.802 1 11 Mi. Hi Id 11,582 16 2 11,759 16 4 12,215 4 S Bnslol . 33.242 13 8 33,210 17 8 3.1,7)0 4 6 Edinburgh 4i,S64 16 41,6s0 6 f" 41,959 4 1*' Coventry 4.357 8 10 4,421 2 7 4,543 18 4 Aberdeen 8,479 12 1 8,596 15 i s 8,586 9 9 Hull 14,853 19 9 14,859 15 1 15.219 17 1 Dundee 7,904 8 2i 8,11 2 18 III Leels 21,331 18 20.670 6 5 22,192 11 10 Glasgow 36,481 3 36,433 3 5 3H.9 4 4 5| Leicester 6 439 9 5 6.4f3 6 6 6,710 14 4 Dublin- 69,096 9 8 70,314 1 1 BS '.2 12 11 Liverpool 74,080 11 1 77,333 1 4 82,639 1 3 Belfast • 9,457 13 11 10312 1 9 Macclesfield 1,955 2 5 2,051 10 2 2,053 2 Cork - 11,721 10 11 12,516 12 8 Manchester 56,287 16 11 60,621 12 6 61,373 7 8 Limerick 1.935 14 3 2.040 15 Norwich 9.766 6 11 9,689 18 9,557 10 3 Drogliela 6.357 6 1 6, 5- -' n Nottingham 9,368 7 1 9,195 2 4 9,097 15 1 Londonderry - 3,510 19 10 3,654 2 8 3,7 - 19 7 Waterford 5,361 1 2 5,339 12 5,334 4 11 cislle (Staff) - 6,858 7 8 6,891 11 •J 7,106 10 6 Irish Post-office. — The most gross and scandalous abuses were long prevalent in every department of the Irish post-office. The commissioners of Revenue Inquiry exerted them- selves to abate the nuisance ; but, as it would appear from the evidence of the Duke of Rich- mond before the committee of the House of Commons on public salaries, without much effect. His Grace, however, laboured with laudable activity and zeal to introduce something like honesty, order, and responsibility into this department. The gross revenue of the Irish post office amounted, in 1835, to 245,665/.; the expenses of collection were 96,23S/.; and the nett payments into the exchequer, 122,300/. (Postage nf Letters. — We stated in our last Supplement that it was probable that the Post- office regulations with regard to the postage and transmission of letters, would speedily be placed on an entirely different footing; and in that anticipation we have not certainly been disappointed. It was obvious, indeed, to any one at all acquainted with what has been going on for these few years past, that the late rates of postage could not be much loncrer main- tained. The fact that the Post-office revenue had continued nearly stationary durin"- the twenty years ending with 1838, notwithstanding the vast increase in that period of popula- tion and of the intercourse between the different parts of the empire, was a conclusive proof that the rates of postage had been carried to a vicious excess ; and that in the arithmetic of the Post-office, as well as of the Customs, two and two, instead of always making four, sometimes make only one. The effectual reduction of these rates was, therefore, urgently required, not only because of the importance to a commercial and manufacturing community 336 POSTAGE AND POST-OFFICE. of having the charge for the conveyance of correspondence fixed at a moderate amount, but because it was all but certain that moderate "rates of postage would be more productive of revenue. It did not however follow, that because an average charge of Id. or 73c?. each, on all letters conveyed by post, was very decidedly too much, that an invariable charge of \d„ whether the letter were conveyed 1 mile or 1,000 miles, was the precise limit that should be adopted ! This was to rush from one extreme to another, and to endanger a considerable amount of revenue without any equivalent advantage. It must, no doubt, be admitted that the proposal for a uniform penny rate of postage had many recommendations in its favour. Being calculated at once to obviate trouble and save expense, it could not fail to be accept- able (what reduction of taxation is not?) to a large portion of the public, particularly to persons engaged in business. We believe, however, that the scheme was more indebted for its popularity to the oppressiveness of the old rates of postage than to any intrinsic merits of its own. Had these been reduced four or five years ago to a reasonable amount — that is, had letters of 1 oz. weight coming from Scotland or Ireland to London been reduced to (id,, and other letters in proportion, and mercantile circulars been allowed to pass under covers open at the ends at Id. or "d. each, we venture to say that the clamour for a uniform rate of penny postage would not have made any way. But in this, as usually happens on similar occasions, those who delay to make reasonable and necessary concessions, at the outset, are, in the end, compelled to concede a great deal more than would at first have been satisfactory. This, at all events, has been eminently true in this instance. The clamour for a uniform penny rate became too powerful to be resisted ; and parliament, whether it were so inclined or not, was obliged to lend its sanction to the measure. The act 2d and 3d Victoria, cap. 52., for regulating the duty on postage, did not indeed enact that the charge for conveying letters of a given weight should, in all cases, be reduced to Id. ; but it was introduced for the avowed purpose of enabling the Treasury to take the necessary steps to bring the change about with the least inconvenience to all parties. In this view it gave the Treasury power to alter and reduce the rates of postage, without reference to the distance which letters may be conveyed, according to the weight of the letters, and not to the number or description of their enclosures : it also gave them power to adopt such regulations as they might think expedient as to stamped covers or envelopes ; to suspend parliamentary franking, &c. In virtue of the powers so conveyed, the Treasury have issued regulations by which all inland letters, without regard to the number of enclosures or the distance conveyed, provided they be paid when posted or despatched, shall, If not exceeding i oz. weight be charged Id. ; 1 oz. 2d. ; 2 oz. 4d. ; 3 oz. 6d. ; and so on, 2d. being- added for every additional ounce up to 10 oz., beyond which, with the following exceptions, no packet, whether subject to postage or not, is received : — 1. Parliamentary petitions and addresses to her Majesty. 2. Parliamentary proceedings. 3. Letters and packets addressed to or received from places beyond sea. 4. Letters and packets to and from public departments, and to and from public officers that formerly franked by virtue of their offices. 5. Deeds if sent open, or in covers open at the sides. They may be tied with string and sealed, in order to prevent inspection of the contents, but they must be open at the sides, that it may be seen that they are entitled to the privilege. With these exceptions, all packets above the weight of 16 oz. will be immediately forwarded to the Dead Cetter Office. But all letters not paid when they are posted or despatched are charged doable the above rates. All parliamentary and official franking has been put an end to; but members of either house of parliament are entitled to receive petitions to parliament free of charge, provided such petitions be sent in covers open at the ends, and do not exceed 6 oz. weight. N. U. The regulations as to the postage of foreign letters depend to a considerable degree on the varying regulations of foreign states, and could not, therefore, be advantageously noticed in this place. An important part of the new plan, suggested by Mr. Hill, of enclosing letters in stamped envelopes, has not yet come into operation. But it is in a forward state; and when it is carried into effect, it will, by all'ording an opportunity for purchasing envelopes beforehand, obviate the trouble that is now occasioned by the payment of letters when they are posted. Such are the more prominent features of the new system ; and none can deny that it has the recommendations of simplicity and cheapness in its favour, and that it will greatly faci- litate correspondence. But it may notwithstanding be doubted, whether its adoption was expedient. It is no doubt very convenient for merchants, bankers, middlemen, and retail dealers to get letters for Id. that previously cost them Id. or 7 Id.; but their satisfaction is not the only thing to be attended to in forming a fair estimate of the measure. The public exigencies require that a sum of above fifty millions a year should be raised, one way or other ; and so long as we are pressed by an unreasoning necessity of this sort, it is not much to say in favour of the repeal or diminution of any tax, that those on whom it fell with the greatest severity are delighted with the reduction. Sugar has in England become a neces- sary of life ; and its consumption, to say the least of it, is quite as indispensable to the bulk of the people, and especially to the labouring classes, as the writing of letters. But would it, therefore, be a wise measure to repeal the duty on sugar, or to reduce it to Is. a cwt. ? It has been alleged, indeed, that taxes on the transmission of letters are objectionable on prin- ciple, and should therefore be repealed, independently altogether of financial considerations ! But it is easier to make an allegation of this sort than to prove it. All taxes, however im- POSTAGE AND POST-OFFICE. 337 posed, if they be carried (as was the case with the old rates of postage) beyond their proper limits are objectionable; but provided these be not exceeded, we have yet to learn why atax on a letter should be more objectionable than a tax on the paper on which it is written, on the food of the writer, or on fifty other things. It has, however, been contended, that in this instance there will be no loss of revenue. and that the increase of correspondence growing out of the reduction of the postage will be so vast as fully to balance the reduced rate of charge. That there will be a very I crease in the number of letters posted is abundantly certain ; but, we apprehend, it will fall far short of this. Notwithstanding all that has been said about tire furor scribendi, we be* lieve that letter-writing is generally looked upon as a duty rather than a pleasure; and it does not follow, when the expense of postage is reduced, that the occasions for writing letters are proportionally increased. The period since the new system was introduced is much too short to allow of any fair estimate being formed of its results ; though we believe that, in so far as the experiment has been tried, it has not realised the anticipations of its more sanguine advocates. The following statement of the probable results of the new system was drawn up before it was commenced. Perhaps it will turn out not to be very wide of the mark. The total gross receipt of the Post-office revenue of the United Kingdom, deducting over- charges and returned letters, amounted, in 1837, to 2,339,739/. : the expenses of the esta- blishment for the same year amounted to 081,259/., leaving a nttt revenue of 1,658,480/. It is almost needless to say that there is no probability whatever that the expenses of the Post-office will be lessened by the rate of postage being reduced to \d. On the contrary, it is all but certain, from the greatly increased number of letters, that these expenses wili be v< ry materially increased. Supposing, however, that the Post-office expenses remain constant, it will require the enormous number of 163,502,160 penny letters annually to pass through the Post-office to defray the cost of the establishment; and no fewer than 561,537,360 such letters would be required to prevent any loss of revenue. But though the number of letters passing through the Post-office under the penny rate may be fairly expected to exceed the first of these amounts, it is probable that a pretty long period will elapse before it comes up to half the second. Taking the return published by the Postage Committee, of the number of letters passing through the Post-office in the week ending with the 22d of January, 1838, for a basis, it appears that, in the course of a yjar, the General post letters in Great Britain and Ireland amounted, under the old system, to ...._. 48,945,624 Penny post letters ...... 7,320,093 London twopenny and threepenny letters .... 12,058,800 Franked or privileged letters ..... 6,390,204 Total letters - - - 74,714,720 Now the question is, what will be the annual increase in the number of letters sent by post, under the new or penny rate? All answers to this question must, of course, be nearly hypothetical ; and the following is precisely of this description : — Old System. New System. General post .... 48,945,021 letters per annum. Add for probable amount of those sent ),,„,. „_,. clandestinely - I 11 ' 054 ' 3 ' 6 Total - - - 60,000,000 { Su PP° s r fj n t ^f_ on S en _ eral P°f } 150,000,000 Penny post letters - - - 7,320.092 - - - say 10,000,000 London twopenny and threepenny letters 12,058,800 Supposed increase 2£ times - 30,000,000 Privileged letters and packets same as at present ---.-_ 7,000,000 New classes of advertisers, circular letters, &c. Supposed ... - 60.000,000 Increase in commercial travellers' letters .-....- 10,000,000 207,000,000 Which, at Id. per letter, would produce a gross revenue of 1,112,500/.; from which de- ducting 680,000/. for expenses, there remains a nett revenue of 432,000/., being more than 1,200,000/. under its late amount. But it is material to observe that the falling off in the revenue will not be so great as this, inasmuch as a very considerable number of letters exceed ^ oz. weight. The facility, undet the new system, of transmitting small parcels by post, instead of, as formerly, by mail, has made great numbers of them be so conveyed ; and their postage will, in so far, contribute to increase the amount of revenue. It appears from the parliamentary papers, No. 129, session 1840, that the total number of letters passing through the Post-office in the United Kingdom during the week ending the 24th of November, 1839, when the old system was in force, was 1,585,973 ; and that the number passing through the Post-office in the week ending the Vol. II.— 2 F 43 338 POSTAGE AND POST-OFFICE. 23d of February, 1S40, under the new system, was 3,199,637, being an increase, of about double. But, as already stated, the new system has been too recently introduced to allow of its being subjected to the test of experience. 'Six months will be necessary, even after the country has been saturated with envelopes and stamps, to enable a fair experimental esti- mate to be formed of its merits. It may, also, be certainly anticipated, whatever be the amount of the Post-office revenue under the new system at the outset, that it will increase with the rapidly increasing commerce, wealth, education, and population of the country. But that does not show that the new plan has any peculiar merit; the revenue would have increased under any reasonably well-contrived system. All taxes on articles in general use are sure, provided they be not excessive, to increase with every increase of population and wealth. Had there been a surplus revenue of one or two millions, the loss that will be occasioned by the adoption of the new postage system would have been of less importance ; though, if we estimate the loss at a million, it may be matter of doubt whether it would not have been more advantageous to have repealed those duties that bear hard on the great branches of national industry, as those on glass, raw cotton, &c. But the reduction has been forced upon the government, when the revenue is unequal to the expenditure, and when, conse- quently*, the deficiency that it will occasion must be otherwise provided for. We, however, incline to think that by a judicious reduction and modification of some of the more oppres- sive and impolitic duties that still continue to disgrace our tariff", the whole, or, at all events, the greater part of the existing deficiency in the revenue may be made good without the im- position of any new tax, and without adding any thing to any one of the existing taxes. Any proposal for a new tax to meet the deficiency occasioned by the falling off in the Post- office revenue, will not tend much to increase the popularity of the uniform penny system. The abolition of franking is a very great improvement. Franked letters were generally addressed to those who could best afford the expense of postage, and who thus escaped a burden that fell with its full weight on their less opulent and less known neighbours. — Sup.) United States. — We subjoin an account of the number of post-offices, the extent of post roads, the rates of postage, &.c. in the United States. Post-offices and Postage. Post-offices in 1790 75 ; extent of post roads in miles _ 1800 903 — — 1SI0 2,300 — — 1820 4,500 — — 1829 8,004 — Rata of Postage. For Single Letters, composed of One Piece of Paper— Any distance not exceeding 30 miles, 6 cents. Over 30, and not exceed " ' 1,875 20,817 36,406 72,492 115,000 BO 150 — 400 — 12 1-2 — 18 3-4 — 25 — Double letters, or those composed of 2 pieces of paper, are charged with double the above rates. Triple letters, or those composed of 3 pieces of paper, are charged with triple the above rates. Quadruple letters, or those composed of 4 pieces of paper, are charged with quadruple the above rates. All letli i s v. . ighing I ounce avoirdupois, or more, are charged at the rate of single postage for each 1-4 of an ounce, or quadruple postage for each ounce, according to their weight ; and no letter can Account of the Postage received at the Post-offices of some of the principal Towns of the United States, during the Year ended the 31st of March, 1832. be charged with more than quadruple postage, unless its weight ex- i m-e avoirdupois. The postage on ship letters, if delivered at tin- office when the ves- sel arrives, is 6 cents ; if conveyed by post, 2 cents in addition to the oiilii;ary postage. />< m/aper Postage. — For each newspaper, not carried out of the Stale in which it is published, or if carried out of the Slate, but not carried over 100 miles, 1 cent. Over 100 miles, and out of the State in which it is published 1 1-2 cent. Magazines and Pamphlets.— If published periodically, distauce not exceeding 100 miles, 1 1-2 cent per she* t. — over 100 — 2 1-2 — If not pub. period, distance not exceeding 10' miles, 4 cts. per sheet. — over 100—6 — Small pamphlets, containing not more than a 1-2 sheet royal, are charged with 1-2 the above rates. Eight pages quarto are rated as one sheet, and all other sizes in the san The number of sheets in a pamphlet sent by mail must be printed or written on one of the outer pages. When the number of sheets is not truly stated, double postage is < h Every thing not coming under the denomination of newspapers or pamphlets is charged with letter postage. Towns. Dollars. Towns. Dollars. New York .... Philadelphia .... Boston .... Baltimore . . . - Nrw Orleans- • Charleston .... 160,203 10t>,930 62,270 64,923 27,2«8 26.423 Richmond .... Cincinnati .... Savannah .... Pittsburgh ---. Albany .... Augusta .... 18,715 1 a.899 1-1,278 13.798 13.003 11,444 The post-master general of the United States stated, in a letter to a committee of Senate, 19th of May, 1833, that n was almost of daily occurrence, that a ton weight of newspapers was carried in one mail for hundreds of miles together. The total post-office revenue of the t nited Slates, in the year ended the 31st of March, 1832, amounted to 1,471,371 dollars ; of u hich the newspaper postage made about 254,000 dollars. — (American Mmanac for 1834.) [The number of Post-offices in the United States, on the 1st of Stay, 1840, was 13,370. The revenue of the Post-oflice department for the year ending the 30th June, l^SS, was $4,235,077 , 97 The expenditures were _...--.-- 4,021,83716 Excess of expenditures, ....-.- This excess was made up by surplus funds of preceding years. The revenue of the year ending on the 30th of June last, was The engagements and liabilities of the department for the same year, were Excess cf engagements and liabilities, - 386,759 19 - $1,476,638-56 - 4,021,1 17 66 147,47930 POST-ENTRY, POSTING. 339 Table of Mail Service for the 1st of July, 1838, and the Finances of the Post-Office Department for the Year ending the 30th of June, 1838. States and Territories. Mail Service.* Finances of the Post-Office Department. Length Routes. Annual Transportation. Newspa- pers and Pamphlets. Compensa- tion of Postmasters. Nett Amount of POSI '-,■-. Sulkey. Stage and Coach. Steamboat and Railroad. Total. Letter Postage. Maine- 3,420 216,164 687,088 903,2.2 li. 99,169-27 C.19,573-3;l D. 33,570-26 D. 67,855-77 New Hampshire 2,561 124.121 782,756 906,880 46,520 11 8,472-04 19 6 ! 33 2.5-DI - 2,3sS 66,1 :_' 950,716 60,955.90 10,107-11 37,0 15-54 setti 4,443 84,864 1,(59.2*0 274,664 1,918,748 31,939-55 60.499-89 217,885-44 i - 279 11,2 ■ ' 6 -,092 79,924 33,477-65 4,344-21 7,169-21 2 0,2 69 at - 2,134 101,62.1 611,416 29.120 90,977-35 14,063-53 - 12,416 95 1 ,600 3,151/24 1,645,784 828,691-92 77,720-98 165,517-50 New Jersey - 2.150 31S,I36 42S.324 166,344 912,804 53 145-09 7,376-92 17,461-49 41,9ll<82 Pennsylvania - 10,61)3 9S1.418 2,059,412 176,472 3,247.332 391,797-20 53.1t!- 1 77,482-58 331,380-44 Delaware 607 27.14 1 140,712 24,232 192.088 11,153-47 2,250-55 5,010-32 s, 227-07 Maryland 1,708 268,372 273,46S 136,968 678,608 131,061-21 13,501-41 21,099-82 111.788-48 District of Columbia - 40,755-15 2,7 17-23 5,454-11 12,81! .! Ohio - 10,154 922,272 1,411,603 32,032 2.368,912 244,139-19 41,394-86 78,830-59 185 557-72 - 10,253 943,384 113,30s 1,963,572 181,270-05 2H.543-33 I38,t l-ll North Carolina 6375 808,496 1,416,740 68,563-35 11,642 12 28,24746 49,354-58 South Carolina 4,147 42-1,724 607,984 92,924 1,126,632 111,007-93 10,263-85 22,353-55 til.02 1-31 Georgia 6,250 688,276 778,128 1,366,404 157,412-14 18,373-52 36,991-35 122,684-69 Florida 2,764 53,'00 84,916 100.301 247,520 23,025-38 l,«6l-00 7,232-75 18,000-91 Michigan 3,(71 277,368 327,704 23,296 628,368 62,444-34 9,427-99 21,078-66 41,078-95 Indiana 6,897 581,048 7 1 9,0 '.6 1,300,104 77.713-12 12,357-76 30,910-19 63,256-81 Illinois 6,578 386,014 1,151,072 37,908 1,574,994 81,017-80 10,792-27 28,544-11 59.642-94 Wisconsin 1,577 136,448 115, ISO 251,628 13,312-32 1,4 12-15 4,565-26 B,860-78 Missouri 4,532 373,360 314,168 687,528 58,199-81 6,675-84 14,588-26 41,136-91 Kentucky 7,009 646,516 752,804 230, P80 1,630,200 114,80109 14,346-75 32,270-47 85,189-56 . 6,915 689.416 769,548 66,141 1,525,109 101,872-31 33,699-95 73,618-57 - 6,268 69", 112 636.81S 58,341 1,422,301 151,057-33 32,992-06 lis. 713-66 - 4,726 568,776 313,76s 188,240 1,070,781 81,884-32 8,399-96 22,652-74 62,690-15 Arkansas 2,737 331,968 162,672 484,640 IS,30S-5( 1,773-07 5,146-sO 9,469-11 Louisiana 1,517 207,376 15,340 1 10,552 333,268 153,138-70 4,341-65 10,938-79 131,511-49 Iowa - 370-56 49 19 131-46 288-20 Canada Total Compensation - " - 1 • • - 44,814-13 4,827-34 10,494-19 3S,845-44 134,818 11,573,918 20,593,192 2,4 13,092 '34,5:0,202 3,776,125-24 458,737-73 933,948-11 2,966,823-49 D. 831,028 1.889,792 4I0,4Sb| 3,131,308 * Exclusive of the conveyance of letters and newspapers by steamboats on Long Island Sound, and Likes Erie, Huron, and" Michigan, under the 5th and 6th sections of the act of 182.0, the aggregate length of which is about 1,229 miles, and the amount paid for which is about .§16,000 for the year pre- ceding the 1st of July, 1838.— Am. Ed.] POST ENTRY. When goods are weighed or measured, and the merchant has got an account thereof at the Custom-house, and finds his entry, already made, too small, he must make a post or additional entry for the surplusage, in the same manner as the first was done. As a merchant is always in time, prior to the clearing of the vessel, to make his post, he should take care not to over-enter, to avoid as well the advance, as the trouble of getting back the overplus. However, if this be the case, and an over-entry has been made, and more paid or bonded for customs than the goods really landed amount to, the land-waiter and surveyor must signify the same, upon oath made, and subscribed by the person so over en- tered, that neither he nor any other person, to his knowledge, had any of the said goods over-entered on board the said ship, or anywhere landed the same without payment of cus- tom ; which oath must be attested by the collector or comptroller, or their deputies, who then compute the duties, and set down on the back of the certificate, first in words at length, and then in figures, the several sums to be paid. POSTING, travelling along the public road with hired horses, and with or without hired carriages. Duties are charged upon the horses and carriages so hired. — (For the duties on the latter, see vol. i. p. 351.) The duties on post horses are regulated by the 4 Geo. 4. c. 62. / ti - —Every post-master to pay 5s. annually for a licence. For every horse, mare, or gelding, let for hire by the mile, H - 232.651 2 4 Year ending 1st of Jan. 1830 - 252,772 2 8 1827 - 239,375 19 5 1831 - 220,357 12 10 1828 - 225,864 5 1832 - 231,863 3 4 1829 - 238,858 4 1833 - 245,068 16 5 £ s. d. £ s. d. Canada, pot. 1st . - 1 4 6 to pearl, 1st . - 1 5 6 — United States, pot, bd. - - — £ .1. d. £ 8. d. 1 4 toO 1 3 - 1 5 POTASH (Du. Pota&ke ,- Fr. Potasse ,■ Ger. Pottasche ,■ It. Potassa ,• Pol. Potasz ,- Rus. Pulasch). If vegetables be burned, the ashes lixivated, and the solution boiled to dry- ness in iron vessels, the mass left behind is the potash of commerce — the impure carbonate of potass of chemists. It is intensely alkaline, solid, and coloured brown by the admixture of a small portion of vegetable inflammable matter, which generally becomes moist. When potash is calcined in a reverberatory furnace, the colouring matter is destroyed, it assumes a spongy texture, and a whitish pearly lustre ; whence it is denominated pearl-ash. The lat- ter generally contains from 60 to 83 or 84 per cent, of pure carbonate of potass. — (See vol.i. The ashes of those vegetables only which grow at a distance from the sea, are employed in the manufacture of potash. Herbaceous plants yield the largest portion, and shrubs more than trees. It is principally manufactured in America, Russia, and Poland, the vast forests of which furnish an inexhaustible supply of ashes. Potash is of great importance in the arts, being largely employed in the manufacture of flint glass and soft soap, the rectification of spirits, bleaching, making alum, scouring wool, &c. At an average of 1831 and 1832, the entries of pot and pearl ashes, for home con- sumption, amounted to 188,477 cwt. a year. Of 228,757 cwt. imported in 1831, 169,891 cwt. were brought from the British possessions in North America ; 15,835 from the United States ; the remainder being almost entirely furnished by Russia. The ashes of the United States are the purest, and bring the highest price. The prices of pot and pearl-ash in the London market, in December, 1833, were a3 under : — £ s. d. £ s. d. United States, pearl, bd.- Uussia, do. do. Ashes from Canada are duty free ; those from Russia and the United States pay a duty of 6s. a cwt. POTATOES (Ger. Kartoffeln ,■ Du. Aardappelen ,■ Fr. Pommes de terre ,■ It. Pafa/e, Pomi di terra ; Sp. Patatas manchegas ; Rus. Jabloki semleniie) the roots of the Solatium tubero am, of innumerable varieties, and too well known to require any description. 1. Historical Notice. — The potato, which is at present to be met with everywhere in Eu- rope, and forms the principal part of the food of a large proportion of its inhabitants, was en- tirely unknown in this quarter of the world till the latter part of the 16th century. It is a native of America, but whether of both divisions of that continent is doubtful. — {Humboldt, Nouvelle Espagne, liv. iv. c. 9.) Some authors affirm that it was first introduced into Europe by Sir John Hawkins, in 1545 ; others, that it was introduced by Sir Francis Drake, in 1573 ; and others, again, that it was for the first time brought to England from Virginia, by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1586. But this discrepancy seems to have arisen from confound- ing the common, or Virginian potato (the Solarium tuberosum of Linnaeus), with the sweet potato (Convolvulus but tutus). The latter was introduced into Europe long before the former, and it seems most probable that it was the species brought from New Granada by Hawkins. Sweet potatoes require a warm climate, and do not succeed in this country ; they were, however, imported in considerable quantities, during the 10th century, from Spain and the Canaries, and were supposed to have some rather peculiar properties. The kissing comfits of Falstaff, and such like confections, were principally made of battatas and eiingo roots. On the whole, we are inclined to think that we are really indebted for the potato (as well as for tobacco) to Sir Walter Raleigh, or the colonists he had planted in Virginia. Grerarde, an old English botanist, mentions, in his Herbal, published in 1597, that he had planted the potato in bis garden at London about 1590; and that it succeeded there as well as in its native soil, Virginia, whence he had received it. Potatoes were at first cultivated by a very few, and were looked upon as a great delicacy. In a manuscript account of tho POTATOES. 341 household expenses of Queen Anne, wife of James I., who died in 1618, and which is sup- posed to have been written in 1013, the purchase of a very small quantity of potatoes is mentioned at the price of 2s. a pound. The Royal Society, in 1663, recommended the extension of their cultivation, as a means of preventing famine. Previously, however, to 1684, they were raised only in the gardens of the nobility and gentry; but in that year they were planted, for the first time, in the open fields in Lancashire, — a county in which they have long been very extensively cultivated. Potatoes, it is commonly thought, were not introduced into Ireland till 1610, when a small quantity was sent by Sir Walter Raleigh to be planted in a garden in his estate in the vicinity of Youghal. Their cultivation extended far more rapidly than in England ; and have long furnished from | to -\ of the entire food of the people of Ireland ! Potatoes were not raised in Scotland, except in gardens, till 1728, when they were planted in the open fields by a person of the name of Prentice, a day labourer at Kilsyth, who died at Edinburgh in 1792. The extension of the potato cultivation has been particularly rapid during the last 40 years. The quantity that is now raised in Scotland is supposed to be from 10 to 12 times as great as the quantity raised in it at the end of the American war ; and though the increase in England has not been nearly so great as in Scotland, it has been greater than during any previous period of equal duration. The increase on the Continent has been similar. Potatoes are now very largely cultivated in France, Italy, and Germany ; and with the exception of the Irish, the Swiss have become their greatest consumers. They were introduced into India some 60 or 70 years ago ; and are now successfully cultivated in Bengal, and have been introduced into the Madras provinces, Java, the Philippines, and China. But the common potato does not thrive within the tropics unless it be raised at an elevation of 3,000 or 4,000 feet above the level of the sea, so that it can never come into very general use in these regions. This, however, is not the case with the sweet potato, which has also been introduced into tropical Asia; and with such success, that it already forms a considerable portion of the food of the people of Java, and some other countries. 'So rapid an extension. of the taste for, and the cultivation of, an exotic, has no parallel in the history of industry; it has had, and will continue to have, the most powerful influence on the condition of man- kind. — (For further details with respect to the history of the potato, see Sir F. M. Eden on the State of the Poor, vol. i. p. 508. ; Humboldt, Essai sur la Nouvclle Espagne, tome iii. pp. 460 — 465. 2d ed. ; Sir Joseph Bonks on the Introduction of the Potato,- Phillips's History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. ii. art. Potato.) 2. Influence of the Cultivation of the Potato on the Number and Condition of the People. — There is a considerable discrepancy in the statements of the best authors as to the number of individuals that might be supported on an acre of land planted with potatoes, as compared with those that might be supported on an acre sown with wheat; some stating the proportion as high as six to one, and others at only two to one. According to Mr. Arthur Young, 1 lb. of wheat is about equal in nutritive power to 5 lbs. of potatoes. But Mr. Newenham, who has carefully investigated this subject, states that " 3 lbs. of good mealy potatoes are, undoubtedly, more than equivalent to 1 lb. of bread," — {Newenham on the Population of Ireland, p. 340.) ; and his estimate is rather above Mr. Wakefield's. Sup- posing, however, that I lb. weight of wheat is fully equal to four pounds of potatoes, still the ditlerence in favour of the superior quantity of food derived from a given quantity of land planted with the latter is very great. According to Mr. Young, the average produce of potatoes in Ireland may be taken at 82 barrels the Irish acre ; which, at 20 stone the barrel, is equal to 22,960 lbs. ; and this being divided by four, to bring it to the same standard, in point of nutritive power, as wheat, gives 5,740 lbs. Mr. Young further estimates the average produce of wheat, by the Irish acre, at 4 quarters ; which, supposing the quarter to weigh 480 lbs., gives in all 1,920 lbs., or about 5 part of the solid nourishment afforded by an acre of potatoes. — {Tour in Ireland, Appen. pp. 12. 24. &c. 4to ed.) This estimate must, however, be somewhat modified when applied to Great Britain ; the soil of which, while it is better adapted to the growth of wheat, is generally supposed not to be quite so suitable for the potato as that of Ireland. But it notwithstanding admits of demonstration, that even here, "an acre of potatoes will feed double the number of individuals that can be fed fwm an acre of wheat." — (General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 57) .) It is clear, therefore, on the most moderate estimate, that the population of a potato feed • ing country may become, other things being about equal, from 2 to 3 times as dense as it could have been, had the inhabitants fed wholly on corn. But it is exceedingly doubtful whether an increase of population, brought about by a substitution of the potato for wheat, be desirable. Its use as a subordinate or subsidiary species of food is attended with the best effects — producing both an increase of comfort and security ; but there are certain circum- stances inseparable from it, which would seem to oppose the most formidable obstacles to its advantageous use as a prime article of subsistence. The discussion of this subject can hardly be said properly to belong to a work of this sort; but its importance may, perhaps, excuse us for making a few observations with respect to it. 2f 2 342 POTATOES. It is admitted on all hands, that the rate of wages is principally determined by the species of food made use of in a country. Now, as potatoes form that species which is produced at the very least expense, it may be fairly presumed, on general grounds, that wages will be reduced to a minimum wherever the labouring classes are mainly dependent on potatoes; and the example of Ireland shows that this conclusion is as consistent with fact as with principle. It is clear, however, that when the crop of potatoes happens to be deficient in a country thus situated, the condition of its inhabitants must be in the last degree unfortunate. During a period of scarcity men cannot go from a low to a high level : if they would elude its pressure, they must leave the dearer and resort to cheaper species of food. But to those who subsist on potatoes this is not possible ; they have already reached the lowest point in the descending scale. Their wages being determined by the price of the least expensive sort of food, they cannot, when it fails, buy that which is dearer; so that it is hardly possible for them to avoid falling a sacrifice to absolute want. The history of Ireland abounds, un- fortunately, in examples of this sort. Nothing is more common than to see the price of potatoes in Dublin, Limerick, &c. rise, because of a scarcity, to 5 or 6 times their ordinary price, and the people to be involved in the extreme of Buffering; and yet it rarely happens, upon such occasions, that the price of corn is materially affected, or that any less quantity than usual is exported to England. It may be said, perhaps, that, had potatoes not been introduced, wheat, or barley, or oats, would have been the lowest species of food ; and that, whenever they happened to fail, the population would have been as destitute as if they had been subsisting on potatoes. It must, however, be observed, that the proportion which the price of wheat, or any species of grain, bears to the price of butcher's meat, tea, beer, &c. is always decidedly greater than the proportion which the price of potatoes bears to these articles: and it therefore follows, that a people who have adopted wheat, or any species of corn, for the principal part of their food, are much better able to make occasional purchases of butcher's meat, &c. ; and will, consequently, be more likely to have their habits elevated, so as to consider the consumption of a certain quantity of animal food, &c. as indispensable to existence. And hence it appears reasonable to conclude, that a people who chiefly subsist on corn would, in most cases, subsist partially on butcher's meat, and would enjoy a greater or less quantity of other articles ; so that it would be possible for them, in a period of scarcity, to make such retrench- ments as would enable them to elude the severity of its pressure. But, though the population in corn-feeding countries were dependent on the cheapest species of grain, not for a part only, but for the whole, of their food, their situation would, notwithstanding, be less hazardous than that of a population subsisting wholly on potatoes. In the first place, owing to the impossibility, as to all practical purposes at least, of pre- serving potatoes, the surplus produce of a luxuriant crop cannot be stored up or reserved as a stock to meet any subsequent scarcity. The whole crop must necessarily be exhausted in a single year; so that, when the inhabitants have the misfortune to be overtaken by a scarcity, its pressure cannot be alleviated, as is almost uniformly the case in coru-feeding countries, by bringing the reserves of former harvests to market. Every year is thus left to provide subsistence for itself. When, on the one hand, the crop is luxuriant, the surplus is of comparatively little use, and is wasted unprofitably ; and when, on the other hand, it is deficient, famine and disease necessarily prevail. In the second place, the general opinion seems to be, that the variations in the quantities of produce obtained from land planted with potatoes, are greater than the variations in the quantities of produce obtained from land on which wheat, or any other species of grain, is raised. And lastly, owing to the great bulk and weight of potatoes, and the difficulty of preserv- ing them on shipboard, the expense of conveying them from one country to another is so very great, that a scarcity can never be materially relieved by importing them from abroad. In consequence, those who chiefly depend on potatoes are practically excluded from partici- pating in the benevolent provision made by nature for equalizing the variations in the har- vests of particular countries by means of commerce, and are thrown almost wholly on their own resources. We should, therefore, be warranted in concluding, even though we were not possessed of any direct evidence on the subject, from the circumstances of the potato being a crop that cannot be kept on hand, from its natural fickleness, and from the incapacity of import- ing it when deficient, or of exporting it when in excess, that the oscillations in its price must be greater than in the price of wheat; and such, in point of fact, is the case. The oscillation in wheat is thought great when its price is doubled ; but in a scarce year the potato is not unfrequently six times as dear as in a plentiful one ! — (Minutes of Evidence taken before the Agricultural Committee of 1821, p. 212.) And the comparatively fre- quent recurrence of scarcities in Ireland, and the destitution and misery in which they involve the population, afford but too convincing proofs of the accuracy of what has now been stated. It is, therefore, of the utmost consequence to the well-being of every people, and to their POUND— PRECIOUS METALS. 3-13 protection in years of scarcity, that they should not subsist principally on the potato. In this country, the pressure of a scarcity is evaded by resorting to inferior species of food, such as potatoes, and a lower standard of comfort; but if our people were habitually fed cm the potato, this would be impracticable. The chances of famine would thus be vastly increased ; while, owing to the low value of the potato as compared with most oilier things, the labourers would have less chance of preserving or acquiring a taste for animal food, or other necessaries and luxuries; and, consequently, of changing, at any future period, their actual condition for a better. It is not easy to form any very accurate estimate of the profit and loss attending the cul- tivation of potatoes to the farmer, as compared with other crops. This is a point as to which the statements of those best qualified to give an opinion differ very considerably. Mr. Loudon says, "they require a great deal of manure from the fanner; while, generally speaking, little is returned by them; they are a bulky, unhandy article, troublesome m the lifting and carrying processes, and interfering with the seed season of wheat, — the most important one to the farmer. After all, from particular circumstances, they cannot be vended unless when raised in the vicinity of large towns ; hence they are in most respects an unprofitable article to the agriculturist. To him, the real criterion is the profit which potatoes will return in feeding beasts; and here we apprehend the result will be altogether in favour of turnips and rutabaga, as the most profitable articles for that purpose." It seems difficult to reconcile this statement with the rapid progress of the potato cul- tivation : but those who assent to what has been previously advanced with respect to the mischievous consequences that arise from the mass of the population becoming dependent on the potato as a principal article of food, will not regret though it should turn out to be accurate. Dr. Colquhoun estimated the entire value of the potatoes annually consumed in Great Britain and Ireland at the end of the late war at sixteen millions sterling. But it is needless to say that there are no materials by which to form an estimate of this sort with any pre- tensions to accuracy. The one in question has been suspected, like most of those put forth by the same learned person, of exaggeration : and we incline to think that, had he estimated the value of the yearly produce of potatoes in the empire at twelve millions, he would have been nearer the mark. But on a point of this sort it is not possible to speak with any thing like confidence. POUND, the name given to a weight used as a standard to determine the gravity and quantity of bodies. — (See Weights and Measures.) POUND, a money of account, = 20s. POWDER, GUN. See Gunpowder. PRECIOUS METALS, a designation frequently applied to gold and silver. We have given, under the articles Gold, and Silver, a short account of each metal ; and we now propose laying before the reader a few details with respect to their supply and con- sumption. To enter fully into this interesting and difficult subject would require a long essay, or rather a large volume. Mr. Jacob has recently published an " Historical Inquiry into the Introduction and Consumption of the Precious Metals," in which he takes up the subject at the earliest period, and continues it to the present day. This work, though neither so complete nor satisfactory as might have been expected, contains a good deal of valuable information, and deserves the attention of all who take an interest in such inquiries. We confess, however, that several of the learned author's statements and conclusions seem to us to be not a little wide of the mark. We shall notice one or two of them in the course of this article. 1. Supply of the Precious Metals. — Since the discovery of America, the far greater part of the supplies of gold and silver have been derived from that continent. Previously to the publication of Humboldt's great work, Essai Politique sur la Nouvelle Espagne, several estimates, some of them framed by individuals of great intelligence, were in circulation, of the quantities of gold and silver imported from America. They, however, differed widely from each other, and were all framed from comparatively limited sources of information.* But these have been wholly superseded by the more extensive and laborious investigations of M. Humboldt. This illustrious traveller, besides being acquainted with all that had been written on the subject, and having ready access to official sources of information unknown to the writers already alluded to, was well versed in the theory and practice of mining, and * Humboldt has brought these estimates together as follows :— Author!. Epochs. Dollars. Authors. Epoclts. Dollars. Ustariz - - 1492—1724 - 3,536,000,000 Gerboux - - - 1724—1800 - 1,600,000,000 Solorzano - 1492—1628 . 1,500,000,000 The Author of the ~\ Moncaila - 1492—1595 - 2,000,000,000 Summer 7 AnistT 1492— 1775 " 5.072,000,000 Navarele - 1519—1617 . 1,530,000,000 Raynal - - 1492—1780 - 5,154,000,000 1779.'" r J Robertson - 1492—1775 - 8.800,000,000 (Essai sur la Nouvelle Espagne, tome .51. Necker - - 1763—1777 - '304,000,000 p. 412.) 344 PRECIOUS METALS. critically examinee! several of the most celebrated mines. He was, therefore, incomparably better qualified for forming correct conclusions as to the past and present productiveness of the mines, than any of those who had hitherto speculated on the subject. His statements have, indeed, been accused of exaggeration; and we incline to think that there are grounds for believing that this charge is, in some measure, well founded, particularly as respects the accounts of the profits made by mining, and of the extent to which the supplies of the pre- cious metals may be increased. But this criticism applies, if at all, in a very inferior degree, to the accounts M. Humboldt has given of the total produce of the mines, and the exports to Europe. And, making every allowance for the imperfection inseparable from such investigations, it is still true that the statements in question, and the inquiries on which they are founded, are among the most valuable contributions that have ever been made to statistical science. According to M. Humboldt, the supplies of the precious metals derived from America have been as follows : — From 1402 to 1500 — 1500 — 1545 — 1515 — 1C00 250.000 3,000, i 11,000,000 From 1600 to 1700 — 1700 — 1750 — 1750—1803 Dollars a Tear at an Average. - 10.000,000 - 22,500,000 - 35.300,000 (Essai sur la JVouvelle Espagne, tome iii. p. 428. 2d ed.) The following is M. Humboldt's estimate of the annual produce of the mines of the New World, at the beginning of the present century : — Annual Produce of the Mines of America at the Commencement of the Nineteenth Century. Political Divisions. Gold. Silver. Value of the Gold and Silver in Dollars. Marcs of Castile. Kilogs. Marcs of Castile. Kilogs. Vice-royalty of New Spain Vice-royalty of Peru - Captain-generalship of Chili Vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres - Vice-royalty of New Granada Total - 7,000 3,100 12,212 2.200 20,505 29,900 1,609 782 2,807 506 4.711 6,873 2,338,220 611,090 29,700 481,830 537,512 140,478 6,827 110,704 23,000,000 6,240,000 2,000,000 4,850,000 2,990,000 4,360,000 75,217 17,291 3,460,840 795 581 43,500,000 Taking the dollar at 4s. '.id., this would give 9,243,750/. as the total annual produce of the American mines. M. Humboldt further estimated the annual produce of the European mines of Hungary, Saxony, &c, and those of Northern Asia, at the same period, at about 1,000,000/. more. The quantity of gold produced in America at the beginning of the century, was to the quantity of silver as 1 to 46 ; in Europe, the proportions were as 1 to 40. The value of equal quantities of gold and silver were then in the proportion of 15 or 15^ to 1. Latterly, the quantity of gold produced has increased, as compared with the quantity of silver. From 1800 to 1810, the produce of the American mines was considerably increased ; but in the last-mentioned year the contest began, which terminated in the dissolution of the connection between Spain and the South American colonies. The convulsions and inse- curity arising out of this struggle ; the proscription of the old Spanish families, to whom the mines principally belonged, who repaired, with the wrecks of their fortunes, some to Cuba, some to Spain, and some to Bordeaux and the south of France ; have caused the abandon- ment of several of the mines, and an extraordinary falling off in the amount of their produce. There arc no means of accurately estimating the precise extent of this decline ; but accord- ing to Mr. Jacob, who collected and compared all the existing information on the subject, the total average produce of the American mines, inclusive of Brazil, during the 20 years ending with 1829, may be estimated at 4,036,838/. a year; being less considerably than j of their produce at the beginning of the century ! — {Jacob, vol. ii. p. 267.) Since the publication of Mr. Jacob's work, some further light has been thrown on this subject, by the publication of returns obtained by the British consuls in South America, of the produce of the mines at different periods. They differ considerably from those given by Mr. Jacob. The following is an abstract of their results, comparing the 20 years ending with 1809 with the 20 years ending with 1829 : — Minet. 1790 to 1809. ISlOto 1829. Gold. Silver. Total. Gold. Silver. Total. Mexico Panama ... Chili .... Buenoi Ayres - Total of America > Z. L. 4, r >23,378 223,518 863,974 1,862,955 94,429,303 944,736 19,286,831 L. 9F,9>2,681 223,518 1,M>S,710 21,149,786 L. 1,913,075 23,603 1,904,514 2,161,940 L. 45,388,729 878,188 7,S95,842 L. 47,301,804 23,603 2,782,702 10,0J7,782 7,473,825 114,660,870 122,131,695 L. 6 003,132 3,703,743 54,162,759 1,502,981 60,165,891 5,206,724 9,706.875 55,6G5,740 65,372,615 PRECIOUS METALS. 315 There are so many sources of error attached to all investigations of this sort, that Iheso results, though deduced from wh.it may In- reckoned good authority, cannot be altogether depended upon. The consular returns contain no account of the produce of the Peruvian mines, except in so far as they come under the head of Buenos Ayres ; and in this respect they differ very widely from the statements given hy Mr. Jacob, who estimates the produce of the mines of Peru and Buenos Ayres, during the 20 years ending with 1821), at about 18,500,000/.! We also incline to think that the mines and washings in Colombia are not quite so neglected as they are said to be by the consul. It will be observed, too, that the above account does not include the produce of the Brazilian mines. They arc supposed to have yielded, since 1810, about 1,500,000 dollars a year; but this is not more than adequate for the wants of the country. The produce of the Russian mines were compara- tively trilling till 1810 ; but it has since increased, and is continuing to increase with consi- derable rapidity. Adding to the produce of the American, that of the Russian mines, and separating the gold from the silver, their total produce, according to the consular returns, during each of the 4 decennial periods ending with 1829, has been about — Ten years ending 1799 ... [809 . 1819 1829 Gold. Silver. Both. L. 3,295.010 4,180,0 3,955,000 5,752,000 /.. 69, '■■0,000 ft',,:i . ' 29. 53,000 25,712,000 /.. 62 ■ ,.m0 3 1,9 , ''i 31,464 This gives 3,146,000/. for the average annual supply of the American and Russian mines during the 10 years ending with 1829. But the returns show that the produce of the Mexican mines had begun materially to increase in the latter years of this period; and we have to add to the above the produce of the Hungarian and Saxon mines. Hence, allowing for the increase that has taken place since 1829 in the productiveness of the Mexican and South American mines, exclusive o£ Brazil, and adding to their produce that of the Russian and other European mines, we may safely estimate (assuming the consuls not to have under-rated the American returns) the present annual supply of gold and silver from these sources at considerably more than 4,000,000/. Exclusive of the sources now mentioned, the United States have recently begun to afford considerable quantities of gold. It was first discovered in North Carolina, in 1804; and from that period till 1829, about 109,000 dollars had been found. It has since been disco- vered in other States. The following Table exhibits the value of the gold annually produced in the United States since 1829. — {American Almanac for 1834.) Stales. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. Virginia .... North Carolina South Carolina - Georgia .... Alabama .... Temie:>see .... Total . Dollars. 2,500 134,000 3,500 - Dollars. 24,000 201,000 26,000 212,000 Dollars. 26,000 29-1.000 22.000 176,000 1,000 1,000 Ji illars. 34,000 4 - - 2 8j" 2 6 2 8 2 6 6 3 6 1 10 11 1 6 2 00 4 6 - - 1 2 4 - -2 6) - - 2 8 j 2 6 2 8 2 6 6 2 3 9 1 7 74 10 9 1 6 2 00 4 6 - - 1 1 5 - - 2 61 - .2 8} 2 6 2 8 2 6 6 10 4 1 8 7* 11 1 8 2 00 4 44 - - 1 1 6 -.26) - - 2 85" 2 6 2 8 2 6 6 6 4 1 12 8 12 1 8 2 00 4 44 - - 1 1 --26) - -28]" 2 4 2 8 3 6 2 4 1 12 44 11 3 1 8 2 60 4 6 - - 1 1 6 - - 2 6 ( - - 2 8J" 2 4 2 8 3 6 10} 4 1 9 H 11 1 6 2 60 4 6 - - 1 5 - -26) - - 2 85 2 4 2 10 3 6 3 3 10 1 10 Hi 10 6 1 4 2 20 5 44 - - 19 11 --26) - - 2 83 2 4 2 10 3 6 94 3 114 1 17 s; 12 1 6 2 20 5 44 - - 19 5 - - 2 6? - - 2 65 2 4 2 10 3 3 6 6 3 6 1 14 24 11 1 6 2 40 5 44 - - 1 3 - - 2 el - - 2 10/ 2 4 2 10 3 3 7 9 3 Hi 1 14 4? 14 1 6 2 6 5 44 - - 1 8 - - 2 6} - - 2 10 3 3 2 10 3 3 9 2 4 1 19 9 15 1 6 2 3 6 6 - - 1 2 - - 2 10 I - - 3 2i 4 6 3 4 10 2 10 5 3 3 4 6 10 4 10 7 5 8 5 9 2 11 2 11 7 8J 15 17 1 2 6 2 2 3 3 6 6 8 9 - 1 1 1 10 4 6 4 8 5 4 6 10 3 5 9 2 13 4 17 2 2 3 8 9 - - 1 1 10 5 4 8 5 4 6 9 10 5 2 14 17 2 2 3 8 9 - - 1 1 6 5 5 5 4 6 13 24 5 2 15 9f 17 2 2 3 8 9 - - 1 1 4 5 4 5 1 5 1 5 3 14 54 5 6 3 9* 17 2 2 3 8 9 - - 1 1 4 5 8 5 2 5 3 5 9 12 5 6 3 8 17 2 2 3 8 9 - - 1 1 4 5 6 5 5 5 9 5 9 10 9f 4 11 3 1 6 17 2 2 3 8 9 - - 1 2 2 5 6 5 5 5 9 5 9 12 6 4 11 2 16 1 17 2 6 3 8 9 - - 1 2 2 5 6 5 5 5 9 5 9 14 2 4 8 2 16 74 18 2 6 3 8 9 - - 1 2 2 5 6 5 5 5 9 5 9 14 6 4 8 3 2 24 1 10 3 3 3 11 6 - - 1 4 6 5 6 5 1 5 9 5 9 11 7 4 7 2 15 6f 1 10 3 3 3 11 3 - - 1 4 9 5 2 5 1 5 3 5 5 9 3 4 7 2 9 64 I 10 2 9 3 9 44 - - 1 4 9 5 2 5 1 5 3 5 9 9 10 3 10 2 6 7 1 10 2 9 3 9 44 . _ 1 7 Each. Suits. 5 3 5 1 5 3 5 9 11 543 10 2 8 6 2 6 2 10 3 2 19 104 2 1 04 1 1 7 5 3 5 1 5 3 5 9 8 6±4 2$ 2 6 8 2 6 2 11 3 2 19 104 2 1 74 1 1 104 5 3 5 1 5 3 5 9 8 2J4 4} 2 5 9 1 104 2 94 3 2 19 104 2 3 34 1 2 7 5 3 5 1 5 3 5 9 7 H 4 3 2 6 6 1 4* 2 8 3 2 19 10| 2 1 9 1 1 11 5 li 5 5 li 5 74 6 ]i 4 24 2 4 64 1 34 2 5 3 2 19 104 2 2i 1 1 3 5 4 10 5 5 6 5 6 4 7} 2 6 7 1 2 2 2 3 2 19 104 1 19 114 1 1 14 5 1 10 5 5 6 5 6 4 9-i 2 3 8 1 14 2 H 3 2 19 104 1 19 114 1 1 2 5 4 10 5 5 6 6 4 6 2 3 2 1 24 2 14 3 2 19 104 2 84 1 1 8 5 9 4 10 5 6 5 6 5 94 4 5 2 4 1 H 2 04 3 2 19 104 2 1 64 1 2 2 5 9 4 10 5 6 5 9 5 10 4 3i 2 1 54 1 li l 104 3 2 8 3 1 19 10i 1 1 4 5 84 4 10 5 6 5 9 5 10i 4 3 2 83 1 2 1 94 3 2 5 9 1 18 1 1 7 5 8 4 10 5 6 5 5 5 6± 3 9} 1 16 7 1 li 1 94 3 2 5 9 1 18 6i 5 6 4 9 5 5 5 6 5 34 3 6 1 12 11 in; 1 64 3 1 17 10J 1 18 6i ■a 5 5 do. do. do. 5 3 5 3 5 6 5 6 6 5 2i 3 6 3 6 1 7 Per Ton. 1 4 3 o m 1 8 N 16 17 a T"2 L S 3 3 1 17 10i 1 19 34 2 1144 2 3 4 O.00 do. do. do. 5 5 5 2J 3 4i 15 11 do 1 7 ao. do. 2 3 $i <=.s do. do. do. do. 5 6 do. 14 11 do 1 8f do. do. 2 7 24 & m do. ' do. do. do. 5 2 3 3} 16 8 do 1 94 d 3. do. 2 6 1 2 g2 contracted for in suit* ; and it is bo stated in the account. It is alio necessary to remark, that of a quality very inferior to the ancient pattern. A fj 354 PRICES. fall, perhaps far below the cost of production, as soon as supplies begin to be poured in by different merchants. Whatever, therefore, may he the success of those who originate a spe- culation, those who enter into it at an advanced period are almost sure to lose. To have been preceded by others ought not. in such matters, to inspire confidence; on the contrary, it ought, unless there be something special in the case, to induce every considerate person to decline interfering with it. The maintenance of the freedom of intercourse between different countries, and the more general ditfusion of sound instruction, seem to be the only means by which those miscalcula- tions, that are often productive of great national as well as private loss, can be either obviated or mitigated. The effects consequent to such improvident speculations being always far more injurious to the parties engaged in them than to any other class, the presumption is that they will diminish, both in frequency and force, according as the true principles of com- merce come to be better understood. But, whatever inconvenience may occasionally flow from them, it is abundantly plain, that instead of being lessened, it would be very much in- creased, were any restraints imposed on the freedom of adventure. When the attention of many individuals is directed to the same line of speculation ; when they prosecute it as a business, and are responsible in their own private fortunes for any errors they may commit; they acquire a knowledge of the various circumstances influencing prices, and give by their combinations a steadiness to them, which it is easy to see could not be attained by any other means. It is material, too, to bear in mind, as was previously stated, that many, perhaps it might be said most, of those who press so eagerly into the market, when any new chan- nel of commerce is opened, or when any considerable rise of price is anticipated, are not merchants, but persons engaged in other businesses, or living, perhaps, on fixed incomes, who speculate in the hope of suddenly increasing their fortune. This tendency to gambling seldom fails to break out upon such occasions ; but, fortunately, these are only of compara- tively rare occurrence ; and in the ordinary course of affairs, mercantile speculations are left to be conducted by those who are familiar with business, and who, in exerting themselves to equalise the variations of price caused by variations of climate and of seasons, and to distri- bute the supply of produce proportionally to the effective demand, and with so much provi- dence that it may not at any time be wholly exhausted, perform functions that are in the highest degree important and beneficial. They are, it is true, actuated only by a desire to advance their own interests ; but the results of their operations arc not less advantageous than those of the agriculturist who gives greater fertility to the soil, or of the mechanist who invents new and more powerful machines. 7. Tables of Prices. — It is superfluous, perhaps, to observe, that the precious metals are liable to all the variations of value already alluded to. Not only, therefore, are prices, as was already remarked, affected by variations in the cost and supply of commodities, but they are also affected by changes in the cost and supply of gold and silver, whether arising from the exhaustion of old, or the discovery of new mines, improvements in the art of mining, changes of fashion, &c. Hence it is, that Tables of the prices of commodities, extending for a considerable period, communicate far less solid information than is generally supposed, and, unless the necessary allowances be made, may lead to the most unfounded conclusions. The real value of any commodity depends on the quantity of labour required for its produc- tion ; but supposing that we were to set about inferring this real value, or the ultimate sacrifice required to obtain the commodity, from its price, it might happen, (had the quantity of labour required for its production declined, but in a less degree than the quantity required to produce gold and silver), that its value would appear to rise, when it had really been diminished. When, however, the rate of wages, as well as the prices of commodities, is given upon authentic data, a Table of prices is valuable, inasmuch as it shows the extent of the command over the necessaries and conveniences of life enjoyed by the bulk of the community during the period through which it extends. The preceding Table (pp. 352, 353.) of the prices of various commodities, and of the wages paid to different descriptions of tradesmen, at Greenwich Hospital, for the last 100 years, is the most complete of the sort that has been published ; and is one of the few that is founded upon data, the accuracy of which cannot be questioned. Unfortunately, it applies only to a small part of the country. But many important conclusions may, notwithstanding, be deduced from it. The reader will find, under the more important articles described in this work, pretty ample accounts of their prices. Sometimes, as in the case of corn, these accounts go back to a very distant period. Those desirous of detailed information as to the prices of commodities in Great Britain, in remoter ages, may consult the elaborate Tables in the 3d volume of Sir F. M. Eden's work on the Poor; and the 4th volume of Macpherson's Annals of Commerce. Arbuth- noCs Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, Measures, Prices, <$■<:., are well known ; but the statements are not much to be depended upon. The Traile de Mctrologie of M. Paucton, 4to, Paris, 1780, is the best work on this curious and difficult subject. PRICE CURRENT— PRINTS. 355 [Ilighest Wholesale Prices at Boston, Massachusetts, of It articles of the best quality, from 1795 to 1831 inclusive, from a Table l>y Mr. John Hayward. Year. «, 1 Corn, H "" r - North. Rye. Barley. Rio fork, . 1 I Fiih, Coil. Mer. Upland. i - , Y:i. I.. permission of such princes or states, or their commanders or governors in chief Of such pi ici I. Art. II. Captttres to be brought into Port.— The commanders of the ships and vessels so authorised as aforesaid, shall bring all ships, vessels, anil goods, which they shall seize and take, into such porl ol England, or some other port of our dominions, as shall be most con- venienl for them, iu order to have die same legally adjudged by our irt of Admiralty of England, or before* the judge of any other admiralty court, lawfully authorised, within our dominions. Art. III. Conduct of the Captors after the Capture is brought into Port — Afler such ships, vessels, and goods shall he taken and brought into any port, the taker, or one of his chief officers, or some Other person present at the capture, shall he obliged to bring or send, as soon as possibly may he, 3 or 4 of the principal of the company (whereof the master, supercargo, mate, or boatswain, to be always St) of every ship or vessel so brought into port, before the judge of our Huh Court of Admiralty of England, or his surrogate, or hef re the judge of such other admiralty court within our dominions, law. fully authorised as aforesaid, or such as shall he lawfully commis- sioned in that behalf, tn be sworn and examined upon such mter- as shall tend to the discovery of the truth, concerning the interest or property of such ship or ships, vessel or vessels, and of the goods, merchandises, and other effects found therein; and the laker shall be Further obliged, at the time he produceth the company to he ind before any monition shall be issued, to bring in and deliver into the hands of the judge of the High Court of Admiralty of England, his surrogate, or the judge of such other admiralty court within our dominions, lawfully authorised, or others commissioned ill such papers, passes, sea-brieft, charterparties, bills of la Img cockels, letters, and other documents an I writings, as shall be delivered up or found on board any ship ; the taker, oi one ol his chief officers, or some other person who shall bepn capture, and saw the said papers and writings delivered up, or otherwise found on board at Ihe time of ihe capture, making oath raid papers and writings are brought and delivei d in as they were received and taken, without anj fraud, add n, subdue- lion, or embezzlement whatever, or otherwise to account for the same upon oath, to the satisfaction of the court. Art. IV. Xot to break Bulk before Judgment. —The ships, vessels, goods, Avan . m I ctlrefs, taken hv vntm >)' h*"iTs <■[' id reprisals as aforesaid, shall be kept and preserved and them shall be sold, spoiled, wasted, or diminished, and the bulk thereof shall not be broken, before judgment he given in the High Court of Admiralty of England, or some other court of ad- miralty, lawfully authorised in that behalf, that the ships, goods, or merchandises are lawful prize. Art. V. Privateers to assist Ships in Distress*— U Any ship nr vessel belonging to-us or nur subjects, shall befoufid in distress by being hi tight >et upon or taken by the enemy, or by n I other acci lent, the commanders, officers, and company of such mer- chant ships or vessels as shall hive letters of marque and reprisals as aforesaid, shall use their best endeavours togiveaid and succour to all sudi ship and ships, and shall, to the utmost of their power, la- bour to free Ihe same from the enemy or any other distress. Ar'. VI. Application to the Admiralty for Eaters of Marque.— The commanders or owners of such ships and vessels, before the taking out letters of marque and reprisals, shall make application in writing, subset ibed with Hieir hands, to our high admiral of Great Britain, nr our commissioners for executing th it oilier I-., tin time being, or the lieutenant or judse of the said High Court of Admi- ralty, or his surrogate, and shall therein set forth a particular, true, and exact descripiion of the ship or vessel for which such letter of marque and reprisals is requested, specifying the bur- den of such ship or vessel, and Ihe number and nature of the guns, and what oilier warlike furniture and ammunition are on b«urd the same, to what place (he ship belongs, and the name or names of ihe principal owner or owners of such ship or vessel, and the numbei of men intended to be put on board Ihe same, and for what lime they are victualled ; also the names of the commanders and officers. Arf. VII. Correspondence with the Admiralty. — The commanders of ships and vessels having letters of marque and reprisals as afore- said shall hold and keep, and ate hereby enjoined to hold and keep, ■ I \ nienci , an I upon all iccasions, with out high. admiral oi threat 2n*tfain,orour commissi men I ■ that office for the time rel iry, - i is from time to time to render or give him or them, not only an au count or intelligence of tl eii captures and proceedings by virtueol such commissi m, oul also ol whatever else shall seem unto them, oi md declared to them, or found out by Ehi on, or by I lamination of, or conference with, any marines or passengers of or in the ships or vessels taken, or by any oilier ways or means whatsoever, touching or concerning the designs of the enemy, or any of their fleets, ships, vessels, or par- lies, and of the stations, sea-ports, and places, and of their intents then in | and what ships or vessels of the enemy bound nut or home, or where cruising, as they shall hear of j and of what else material in these eases nay arrive at their knowledge; to ihe end such course may be thereon taken, an I such orders given, as may be requisite. Art. VIII. IVhat Colours a Privateer is to wear,— No commander of any ship or vessel having letters of marque and repi isals as afore- said, shall presume, as they will answer it at their peril, to wear any jack, pendant, or other ensign or colours usually borne by our ships ; but, besides the colours usually borne by merchants' ships, they shall wear a red jack, with the Union jack described in the canton, at the upper corner thereof, near the staff. Art. IX. Not to ransom any Capture.— No commander of any ship or vessel, having a letter of marque and reprisal as aforesaid, shall ransom, nr agree to ransom, or quit or set at liberty, any ship or vessel, or their cargoes, which shall be seized and taken. Ait. \. To deliver their Prisoners to the proper Commissioners. — AM captains or commanding officers of ships having letters of marque and reprisals shall send an account of, and deliver over, what pri- soners shall be taken on board any prizes, to the commissioners ap- pointed, or lo be appointed, tor the exchange of prisoners of war, or the persons appointed in the sea port towns to take charge of pri- soners; and such prisoners shall be subject only to the orders, regu- lations, arid directions of the sail iv-miuissinners ; and nocH.nnnnder or othet offic r of any ship, having a letter of marque nr reprisal as aforesaid, shall presume, upon any pretence whatsoever] tu ransom any prisoner. Art, XI. Commission forfeited for acting contrary hereto.— la case the commander of any slop, having a letter of marque and re- prisal as aforesaid, shall net contrary to these instructions, or any such further insfructioi s of which he shall have due notice, he shall forfeit his commission to all intents and purposes, and shall, tngeiher with hisbail.be proceeded against according to law, and be con- demned tn costs and i Art. XII. Copies ol Journals*— All commanders of ships and ves» sels having lelters of marque and reprints shall, by every opportu- nity, send exact copies of their journals to the secreiary of the admi- ral iy, and proceed to t lie condemnation of the prizes as suon as may be, and without delay. Art. XIII. To observe all Orders.— Commanders of ships and ves- sels having lelters of marque and reprisals shall, upon due notice being given to them, observe all such other instructions and orders as we shall think tit to direct from time to time, for the better carrying on this service. Art. XIV. Violating these Instructions.— AU persons who shall violate these, or any other of our instructions, shall be severely pu- nished, and also required to make full reparation to persons injured contrary to our instructions, for all d images they shall sustain by any capture, embezzlement, demurrage, or otherwise* Art. XV. Bait to be giv tt.— Before any letter of marque nr reprisal for the purposes aforesaid shall issue under seal, bail shall be given with sureties, before the lieutenant and judge of our High Court of Admiralty of England, or his surrogate, m ihe Bum 1 1 ■ ,01 Oi. sterl- ing, if the ship carries above lot) men ; and if a less number, in the sum of 1,500/.; which bail shall be to Ihe effect and in the form fol- lowing :— Which day time and place, personally appeared an I who, submitting themselves to the jurisdiction of the High Court of Admi- Miiy ol England, obliged themselves, their heirs, executors, and ad- ministrators, unto our Sovereign Lord the King, in the sum of pounds of lawful money of Great Britain, to this effect ; that is In say, that « bf.n is di:iy authorised by letters of marque and reprisals, with the ship called the of the burden of about tons, whereof he the said goelfc master, by force of arms to attack, surprise, seize, and take, all ships and vessels, goods, wares, and merchandises, chattels and effects, belonging to Ihe French re- public, or to any persons beiDg subjects of the French republic, ■ 358 PROMISSORY NOTES— PRUSSIA cause to he paid, to bis Majesty, or the customers or officers ap inhabitine within anv of the territories of the French republic; ex- cepting only within ihe harbours or roads within shot ot the cannon of princes and states in amity with his Majesty. And whereas he the said hath a copy of certain ir.strurtinns, approved of and passed by bis Majesty id council, as by the tenour of the said letters of marque and repri- sals, and instructions thereto relating, more at large appeareth; if therefore nothing be done by the said or any of his officers, mariners, or company, contrary to the true meaning i f (be -aid instructions, and of all other iustruc- tious which n. -t\ be issued in like manner hereafter, and whereof due notice shall Le given him ; but that such letters of marque aud re- prisals aforesaid, and the said instructions, shall in all particulars he well and duly u! served and performed, as far as they shall the sail sliij', master, and company, any way concern ; and if Ihey shall give full satisfaction for any damage or injury which shall be done by them or any of them to any of his Majesty's subjects, or of foreign states in amity with bis Majesty, and also shall duly aud truly pay, Eointed to'receive the same for his Majesty, the usual customs due to is Majesty, of and for all ships and goods so as aforesaid taken and adjudged as prize ; and moreover if the said shall not take any ship or vessel, or any goods or merchandise, belonging to the enemy, or otherwise liable u> confiscation, through consent or clandestinely, or by collusion, by virtue, colour, or pretence of bis said let'ers of marque and repi isalB, that then th s bail shall be void and of none effect ; and unless they shall so do, they do all hereby severally consent that execution issue forth against them, their heirs, executors, and administrators, goods and chattels, wheresoever the same may be found, to the value of the sum of pounds before im ntiont-d ; and in testimony of the truth thereof they have hereunto subscribed their names. By his Majesty's command, (Signed) PELHAM. PROMISSORY NOTES. See Banks and Banking. PROTECTION, in mercantile navigation, a privilege granted to certain descriptions of seamen, by which they are protected from impressment. — (See Impressment.) PRUNES and PRUNELLOES, a species of dried plums, of which there are many varieties. The finest are imported from France, in the south of which this fruit is very abundant. The best prunes are packed in hampers or baskets made of white osiers, weigh- ing from 6 io 10 lbs. each; the second quality in quarters, and the third in puncheons. The entries of prunes for home consumption, in 1831 and 1832, amounted, at an average, to 6,285 cwt. a year. The duty is 1/. 7s. 6c?. a cwt., being more than 50 per cent, upon the price of the inferior qualities. There cannot be a doubt that it would be more productive were it reduced to 10s. or 12s. Prunes, tlie produce of Europe, may not he imported for home consumption except in British ships, or ships of the country of which they are the produce, or from which they are exported, on penalty of the forfeiture thereof "and of 100/. by the master of the ship.— (3 &. 4 Will. 4. c. 52. $ $2. 22.) (PRUSSIA. — Trade of England with Prussia. — A superficial observer may be disposed to feel surprise that the intercourse between Great Britain and Prussia should be so very limited, as our Custom-house accounts represent it to be. In point of fact, however, these accounts apply only to that portion of our trade with Prussia which is directly carried on through her ports on the Baltic, and which is quite insignificant, compared with that which is indirectly carried on through the channels of the Elbe, the Weser, the Rhine, &c., or by way of Hamburg, Bremen, the Netherlands, &c. Corn, timber, linseed and linseed oil, iron, flax and hemp, bristles, and other raw and bulky products of the northern provinces of Prussia, are principally exported from Kcinigsberg, Memel, Dautzic, Stettin, and the other ports of the Baltic ; but her more valuable products, as the linens of Silesia, the cloths and other manufactured products of Saxony and the Rhenish provinces, the wools sold at the Breslaw and Frankfort fairs, and so forth, are all, or mostly all, exported from Ham- burg, Bremen, and the ports on the Rhine and the Scheldt; while the sugar, coffee, and other colonial products, the dye-woods, cotton stuffs and yarn, hardware, earthenware, &c. supplied to her by England, are mostly all imported through the ports in question ; as is the raw cotton and other raw articles furnished to her by the United States, with the greater part of the wines supplied by France, &c. But neither Hamburg, Bremen, Rotterdam, nor the Scheldt, belongs to Prussia. All of them are independent of her ; and hence it is that nine tenths of the trade which we carry on with the Prussian dominions is set down in our Custom-house accounts under the head of the trade with Germany, and with the Nether- lands and Belgium. There are no means by which to determine the exact portion of the aggregate amount of the exports from England to the whole of the Germanic countries, including Holland and Belgium, that falls to the share of each ; but we shall not be far wrong if we suppose that they are divided proportionately to the population of the countries among which they ate distributed. On this hypothesis, and taking the entire population of Germany, exclusive of Austria*, but inclusive of the Netherlands and Belgium, at 36 millions, Prussia will have about 14 of this number ; so that about i-£, or T 7 ,, of all the trade we carry on with Germany, the Netherlands, &c. must be set down to the account of Prussia. Now, at an average of the six years ending with 1835, our exports to Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Prussia, amounted to 7,410,133/. a year, T 7 8 ths of which, or 2,881, 7 18/., may be taken as the average amount of our exports to Prussia during that period ! — {Ante, p. 29.) This statement shows the real value of the trade with this flourishing monarchy, and the importance of keeping up and extending our intercourse with her. Prussian Commercial League. — Next to the efforts of the Prussian government to diffuse the blessings of education, their efforts to induce a free commercial system into Germany constitute their best claim to the gratitude and esteem of their own subjects, and of the world. Germany, as every one knows, is divided into a vast number of independent, and mostly petty, states. Until a very recent period, every one of these states had its own custom-houses, and its own tariff and revenue laws ; which frequently * We say exclusive of Austria, because almost all the Enclish products made use of in the Austrian states arc imported by way of Trieste. Switzerland is supplied through Genoa. PRUSSIA. 359 differed very widely indeed from those of its neighbours. The internal trade of the country was, in consequence, subjected to all those vexatious and ruinous restrictions that are Usually laid on the intercourse between distant and independent states. Each petty state endeavoured either to procure a revenue for itself, or to advance its own industry, by taxing or prohibiting the productions of those by which it was surrounded ; and customs' officers and lines of custom houses were spread all over the country ! Instead of being reciprocal and dependent, every thing was separate, independent, and hostile: the i dities admitted into Hesse were prohibited in Baden, and those prohibited in Wirtemberg were admitted into Bavaria. It is admitted on all hands that nothing has contributed so much to the growth of industry and wealth in Great Britain, as the perfect freedom of internal industry we have so long enjoyed, and that intimate correspondence among the various parts of the empire, which has rendered each the best market for the products of the other. How different would have been our present condition had each county been an independent state, jealous of those around it, and anxious to exalt itself at their expense ! But, until within these few years, this was the exact condition of Germany ; and, considering the extraordinary obstacles such a state of things opposes to the progress of manufactures, commerce, and civilization, the wonder is, not that they are comparatively backward in that country, but that they should be so far advanced as they really are. But, thanks to the intelligence and perseverance of Prussia, this selfish anti-social system has been well nigh suppressed ; and the most perfect freedom of commerce is how established among the great bulk of the Germanic nations. The disadvantages of the old system has long been seen and deplored by well-informed men ; but so many interests have grown up under its protection, and so many deep rooted prejudices were enlisted in its favour, that its overthrow seemed to be hopeless, or, at all events, exceedingly distant. The address and resolution of the Prussian government have, however, triumphed over every obstacle. Being fully impressed with a strong sense of the many advantages that would result to Prussia and Germany from the introduction of a free system of in- ternal intercourse, they pursued the measures necessary to bring it about with an earnestness that produced conviction, and with a determination, mute, qui coute, to carry their point. The first treaties in furtherance of this object were negotiated by Prussia with the principalities of Schwarzburg Sondershausen and Schwarzburg Rudolstadt, in 1818 and 1819, on the principle that there should be a perfect freedom of commerce between these countries and Prussia; that the duties on importation, exportation, and transit, in Prussia and the principalities, should be identical; that these should be charged along the frontier of the dominions of the contracting parties; and that each should participate in the produce of such duties, in proportion to its population. All the treaties subsequently entered into have been founded on this fair and equitable principle ; the only exceptions to the perfect freedom of trade in all the countries comprised within the league or tariff* alli- ance being confined, 1st, to articles constituting state monopolies, as salt and cards, in Prussia; 2d, to articles of native produce, burdened with a different rate of duty on con- sumption in one state from what they pay in another; and, 3d, to articles produced under patents, conferring on the patentees certain privileges in the dominions of the states granting the patents. With these exceptions, which are not very important, and are daily decreasing, the most perfect freedom of commerce exists among the allied states. Since 1818, when the foundations of the alliance were laid, it has progressively extended, till it now comprises more than three fourths of the Germanic states, exclusive of Austria. Ducal Hesse joined the alliance in 1828, and Electoral Hesse in 1831 : the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, and Wirtemberg, joined it afterwards, as have Baden, Nassau, and almost all the smaller states by which it had not been previously joined, with the exception of Mecklenburg Schwerin, Mecklenburg Strelitz, Oldenburg, and Brunswick. Hanover is not included within the league. At the commencement of 1836, the tariff alliance comprised Prussia, without Neufchatel, but inclusive of the small parcels of her terri- tory surrounded by other states ...... Bavaria and her detached territories ------ Saxony (kingdom of) -------- Wirtemberg and Hohenzollern Sigmaringen - - - - - Hesse (Electoral) ----.-._ Hesse (Duchy of) and Homburg --.-.. The Thuringian States <■-----.- Baden (duchy of) and part of Hohenzollern - Nassau -----..-_. Frankfort ---------. Totals ... German Sq. Mile*. Population. 5,157 13,800,126 1,477 4.252,813 272 l,595,fi68 385 1,0:11,779 182 7(10,327 17!) 769,691 2.13 908,478 280 1,232,185 83 373,601 4 60,000 8,252 23,321,668 Throughout the whole extent of this immense country, from Aix-la-Chapelle, on the confines of the Netherlands, eastward to Tilsit, on the confines of Russia, and from Stettin 360 PRUSSIA. and Dantzic southward to Switzerland and Bohemia, there is nothing to interrupt the freedom of commerce. A commodity, whether for consumption or transit, that has once passed the frontier of the league, may he subsequently conveyed, without let or hinderance, throughout its whole extent. Instead of being confined within the narrow precincts of their own territories, the products of each separate country of the alliance may now be sent to every one else ; each will, in consequence, apply itself, in preference, to those departments in which it has some natural or acquired advantage ; and each will have to depend for its success, not on the miserable resource of customs' regulations, but on its skill and industry. The competition thence arising will be most salutary ; and, should the peace of Europe be preserved, we run little risk in saying, that all sorts of industry will make more progress among the states comprised within the tariff alliance, during the next ten years, than they have done during the previous half century. An assembly of representatives from the allied states meet annually, to hear complaints, adjust difficulties, and make such new enactments as may seem to be required. The Prussian tariff has been adopted, with certain modifications, and is now the only one in force. The duties are received into a common treasury, and are apportioned according to the population of each of the allied states. In addition to its other advantages, the new system has reduced the cost of collecting the duties to a mere trifle, compared with its former amount ; and has enabled hundreds of custom-houses, and thousands of customs' officers, to be employed in the different departments of industry. The existing discrepancy in the weights and measures used in different parts of Germany occasions considerable inconvenience; and we are glad to observe that the equalisation of weights and measures and their reduction to a common standard in all the allied states, is declared to be one of the objects of the league. It is also expressly provided that the tolls, or other charges in lieu thereof, shall, in all cases, whether they belong to the public, or to private individuals, be limited to the sums required to keep the roads in a praper state of 7-epair ,- and that the tolls existing in Prussia shall be considered as the highest that are to be levied, and shall not in any case be exceeded. It was at first supposed by many persons in this country, and the opinion is not yet entirely abandoned, that the Prussian league was in some degree directed against us, and that, at all events, it threatened to be very injurious to our trade with Germany ; we do not, however, believe that there is any foundation whatever for either of these opinions. The alliance was planned, and brought to its present advanced state, in the view, and with the intention, of putting down the galling and innumerable restraints by which the intercourse of the German states with each other was formerly interrupted ; and not with the intention of throwing any obstacles in the way of the trade of the alliance with foreign countries : it is, indeed, quite absurd to suppose that it should have this effect. The freedom of internal commerce will do ten times more to promote the industry and prosperity of the allied states than any other measure, or system of measures, that their governments could have adopted ; and, as population increases, and the inhabitants become more industrious and wealth}', there will, no doubt, be an augmented demand for foreign products. The league is now no new thing. It was formed several years since, and has been progressively augumented ; but, hitherto, it has not had the slightest influence in diminishing our intercourse with Germany ; our exports to it, including Holland and Belgium, being greater at present than at any other former period ! (See ante, p. 29.) Generally speaking the duties on imports are reasonable ; at least, on all the finer de- scriptions of goods. It never, in fact, can be the policy of the alliance to make them oppressive ; for, though certain states might erroneously suppose that their interests would be promoted by such means, others would undoubtedly be of a different opinion, and would resist any attempt to carry them beyond a reasonable amount. It is a mistake to sup- pose that Prussia has an overwhelming influence in the assembly. She must conciliate the other states, and carry them along with her ; and this can only be done by acting on liberal principles, and with a view to the common interest of the alliance. Besides, if any of the existing duties be exorbitant, or if any of them, that are at present moderate, should be subsequently raised to an exorbitant pitch ; does any one suppose that the over-taxed articles would not be immediately smuggled into all parts of the league 1 We, who occupy an island, and have revenue cruisers and coast guards on all the seas and shores most accessible to the smuggler, know from experience that it is not possible to hinder over-taxed commodities from making their way, in immense quantities, into our markets. But the facilities for smuggling into the territories of the league are incomparably greater. It has a land frontier of several thousand miles; and though the whole Prussian army were employed for that purpose, it would be found that it was utterly impotent to prevent the territories of the league from being deluged with such over-taxed commodities as were in demand by the inhabitants. It must be admitted that we have done not a little to provoke Prussia, and that we had no reason to be surprised had she manifested symptoms of irritation. She has only three PRUSSIAN LEAGUE. 301 great staple articles of. export — corn, timber, and wool. Now, of these, we admit only the last on any thing like fair terms; in ordinary years we entirely exclude corn, and we lay a duty of no less than 55s. a load on Prussian timber, while we admit the inferior timber of North America on payment of a duty of 10*. ! Had, therefore, the Prussian tarill* been levelled against us, we should have had but slender grounds for complaint; but such is not really the case. It may, indeed, be fairly inferred that, by agreeing to lower the oppressive duties on timber and corn, we might prevail on Prussia to use her influence to get the alliance duties on cotton stuffs, hardware, &e. abated ; but, till we consent to moderate our duties on the articles in question, it is not to be su-pposed that Prussia will pay much attention to the exceptions we may take to any of the duties. We are glad to be able to strengthen our view of the influence and objects of the Prussian commercial league, by laying before the reader the following extract from a work printed by order of the House of Representatives of the American States. " Prussia," it is there said, "has evidently taken the lead in this wise and important measure, to which the smallest states have gradually acceded. The whole commercial policy of this enlightened power has been distinguished for its liberality, being founded on the desire of placing her intercourse with all nations on the basis of reciprocity. The commercial league of Germany is intended to carry out this principle, and not to be directed, as has been supposed, against any particular nation ; as it is well known that Prussia, in her treaties with maritime powers, has invariably adopted the system of reciprocity, to whatever extent those with whom she negotiates are willing to carry it. The establish- ment of this community of commercial interest forms a part of the fundamental compact, by which the new Germanic confederation was created, after the dissolution of the Con- federation of the Rhine ; to be subsequently adopted, however, at the option of such of the co-states as should choose to accede to it. Its effects cannot fail to promote commerce, and every other branch of industry, as it removes all those vexatious and endless difficulties which previously obstructed the freedom of intercourse. Navigable rivers and highways are now open to the unfettered use of the German people ; the customs' and toll house-. with their officers and barriers, have been withdrawn from the interior, and the whole intercommunication resembles that of the subjects of any one of the states within its own territories. To these benefits may be added the assured prospect of improvement in the finances of the great and smaller sovereignties composing the league. This advan- tage will grow out of the simplicity or unity of the new system, a saving in the cost of collection, and from the increased consumption which renovated industry and progressive prosperity so invariably cause." — (Digest of Customs' Laws, vol. iii. p. 227.) Prussian Duty on Cottons. — The duty on cotton goods being that in which we are most interested, we have taken some pains to ascertain its real influence. This duty amounts (see post) to 50 rix-dollars per Prussian quintal on all cotton goods, without respect to quality or price; and, taking the quintal at 113 lbs. avoirdupois, and the rix- dollar at 3s., it is equal to 7/. 10s. per 113 lbs. Now, we have learned from state- ments obligingly furnished to us by a large wholesale house in the city, — 1st. That a quintal (113 lbs) of coarse shirting, worth id. per yard, contains 107 yards j it conse- quently costs 8/. 6s., and the Prussian or tariff alliance duty of 11. 10s. on it is, therefore, equivalent to an ud valorem duty of 90 per cent. 2d. That a quintal of superior shirting, worth Is. a yard, contains 45765 yards ; it consequently costs 22/. 17s. ~d., making the Prussian duty on such goods 32S- per cent. _3d. That a quintal of printed cottons, worth Is. 6rf. a yard, contains 633 yards; it consequently costs 47/. Vs., making the Prussian duty on such goods 15} per cent. 4th. That a quintal of fine printed cottons, worth 2s. 6d. a yard, contains 678 yards ; it consequently costs 61/. 15s., making the Prussian duty on such goods 8} per cent. It is plain, therefore, that, except on the coarsest and cheapest species of goods, the Prussian or tariff alliance duty is very far from being oppressive ; and, as the value of coarse goods is principally dependent on the cost of the raw cotton and the wages of labour, being but little influenced by superiority of machinery, it is not very probable that we should export them largely to Prussia, even were the duty materially reduced. No doubt, however, it would conduce greatly to the interests of the people comprised within the league, though we do not know that it would sensibly affect us, were the duty assessed on an ad valorem principle, and made 20 or 30 per cent, on all goods ; and we should think that this might be done without any material difficulty. The subjoined translation of the more important clauses of the customs' treaty of the 22d of March, 1833, sets the principles on which the alliance is founded in the clearest point of view. Customs' Treaty, concluded the 22d March, 1833, between the Kings of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, on the one part; and the King of Prussia, the Prince Electoral Co-regent of Hesse, and the Grand Duke of Hesse, on the other part. I. The existing customs' unions between the states above named shall henceforth constitute a general Union, united by a common system of customs and commerce, embracing all the countries comprised therein. II. In this general re-union are also comprised the states which have already adhered, either for the Vol. II.— 2 H 46 362 PRUSSIAN LEAGUE. whole of their territory, or for a part, to the system of customs and commerce of one or other of the contracting states, having regard to their special relations, founded upon the conventions of adhesion concluded with the states which have intervened. III. But there will remain excluded from the general re-union the parts separated from the coun- , tries of the contracting states which, because of their situation, are not yet included either in the re- union of the Bavarian or Wirtemberg customs, nor in those of Prussia and Hesse. Nevertheless, tl.e regulations now in force to facilitate the commerce of these territories witli the principal country will be maintained. Other favours of this kind cannot be accorded without the unanimous consent of the contracting states. IV. In the contracting states there shall be established uniform laws for the duties of import, of ex- port, and of transit, except such modifications as. without injury to the common object, result neces- sarily from the particular legislation of each contracting state, or from local interests. Thus, exceptions and modifications to the common tariff may take place, as to rates of duties of entry, of export, and of transit, (according as the direction of the routes of commerce may require,) established upon articles recognised as of minor consequence in extensive commerce ; provided al- ways, that these modifications be preferred by separate slates, and that they shall not be disadvanta- geous to the general interests of tlte Association. The administration of the duties of import, export, and transit, as will as the organisation of the authorities which are engaged therein, in all the states of the Association, shall be established upon a uniform footing, having regard, however, to the particular relations existing in those countries. The laws and ordinances which, according to those principles, ought to be uniform in the contracting states, and which are to constitute the law of the tariff and the regulations of the customs, shall be considered as an integral part of the present treaty, and shall be published at the same time. V. There can neither be alterations, or additions, or exceptions, to the acts above mentioned (Art. IV.), but by the unanimous consent of all the contracting parties, and in the form required for the making (confection) of the laws. The preceding applies equally to all the ordinances which would establish, for the administration of the customs, dispositions entirely different. VI. Liberty of commerce, and community of the receipts of customs, as regulated by the following article, will commence simultaneously with the operation of the present treaty. VII. Dating from this epoch, all duties of import, of export, and of transit shall cease on the common frontier of the Bavaro-Wirtemberg and Prusso-Hessian customs' re-unions. All articles of free com- merce in one of those territories may be imported freely and without duty into all the others, except only as follows : A. Articles monopolized by the states (playing cards and salt) conformably to Articles IX. and X. B. Indigenous articles, now subject in the interior of the contracting states to different duties, or excepted from all duty in one state, and imported into another, and which according to Article II. ought consequently to be subject to a duly of compensation. Finally, C. Articles which, without prejudice to patent rights or conceded privileges in one of the contracting states, cannot be imitated or imported, and ought consequently to be excluded during the existence of the patents and privileges from importation into the stale which has granted them. VIII. Notwithstanding the freedom of commerce, and the exemption from duties, established by Article VII., the transport of articles of commerce, subject by the common tariff to duties of import or export on the frontiers of the Association, cannot take place between the states of Bavaria and Wirt- emberg, and the states of Prussia, of Electoral Hesse, or of Grand Ducal Hesse, and reciprocally, ex- cept by the public roads, military routes, and navigable rivers. For this purpose there shall be es- tablished, on the interior frontiers, common bureaus of verification, to which the conductors of mer- chandise must, on exhibiting their licences, declare what are the articles which they are employed to transport from one territory to another. This disposition will not be applicable to retail commerce in raw materials, nor to the petty com- merce of the frontiers or the fairs, nor to the effects of travellers. Process for the verification of merchandise will go no farther than is required for security of the duties of compensuiion. — iSee Art. VII. B.) XIII. The contracting parties reciprocally renew their adhesion to the principle, that the tolls, or other charges in lieu thereof, shall only be sufficient to defray the expense of maintenance and re- pairs of the roads ; whether the tax be for the state or for private rights. It was thus that has been approved the supplement to the duty of customs, created in Bavaria and Wirtemberg, to replace the duty of tolls, paving, causeways, bridges, and generally of all analogous taxes. The tolls, &c. now existing in Prussia, according to the general tai iff of 1828, shall be considered as the highest rates, and shall not be exceeded in any of the contracting states. In accordance with the principle thus announced, the individual duly for closing the gates of cities shall be abolished ; as also the duty of paving of causeways, where it still exists ; and all paved roads will be considered as causeways of a description liable only to the duty on causeways established by the general tariff. XIV. The contracting governments agree to unite their efforts to introduce into the states a uniform system of coins, weights, and measures ; to commence immediately the requisite negotiations for this purpose; and, subsequently, to direct their efforts towards the adoption of uniform custom-house weights. The contracting states, in the impossibility of establishing this uniformity before this treaty goes into operation, agree, for facilitating the forwarding of merchandise where it has nol already been done, to revise their tariff as to weights and measures, assuming for a h.isis the tariffs of the other contracting states. They will cause such modifications to be published, for ihe government of the public and of their custom-house bureaus. The common tariff (Art. IV.) shall be divided into two principal divisions, according to the system of weights, measures, and monies of Bavaria, and that of Prussia. The declaration of the weights and measures of articles subject to duty shall, in Prussia, be according to Prussian weights and measures ; in Bavaria and Wirtemberg, according to those of Bavaria; and in the two I [esses, according to the weights and measures the re legally established. In expediting custom-house acts, the quantity of merchandise must be expressed according to the two principal divisions of the common tariff. Until the contracting states agree upon a system of common money, the payment of duties in each State shall be made in the same currency as is in use for payment of its other taxes. But, from the present time, the gold and silver coins of all the contracting states, with the exception of small money (sheidemume), shall be received in all the bureaus of receipt of the Association ; and for this purpose, tables of value shall be published. XV. The duties of navigation upon the rivers, comprising therein those which apply to vessels, shall always be mutually acquitted according to the acts of the Congress of Vienna, or of special con- ventions, upon all the rivers to which these regulations apply, unless other determinations be adopted in this respect. The contracting states .agree to enter, without delay, into negotiations for that which particularly iegards the navigation upon the Ilhine and the neighbouring streams, in order to effect an arrange- PRUSSIAN LEAGUE. 3G3 ment by which the import, export, and transit of the productions of all the states of the Union upon said streams shall lie, if not absnlnti-ly free, at least relieved as far as possible from duties of naviga- tion, under the reserve of charges of reconnoissance All the advantages granted by one state of the Union to its subjects, in the exercise of the naviga- tion upon said streams, si Kill extend equally to the navigation of the other associated states. * IF pon the other streams to which neither the acts of the Congress of Vienna, nor any nth it treaties apply, the duties of navigation shall be according to the special regulations'of the governments in- terested. Nevertheless, the subjects of the contracting states, their merchandise and vessels, shall throughout, be treated on those streams with perfect equality. XVI. Dating from the day on which the general custom-house regulations of the Union shall come into operation, the duties of public stores ((tapes), and of trans-shipments (uiMchlagnechie), which still exists in the territories belonging to the Association, shall cease, no one shall be liable to forced delay, >ior in the discharging and storage of his merchandise, except in cases authorised by the common regulations of the customs or navigation. XVII. No duties shall be claimed for canals, locks, bridges, ferries, cranes, weighing and storage ; and the establishments destined to facilitate commerce shall not be allowed rent, except when actually used. Charges cannot be increased; and the subjects of the other contracting states shall be on a perfect equality with the subjects of the country having those establishments. [f the establishments for weighing, and cranes are only used by the custom-houses, no charge shall be made, if the articles have been previously weighed at a custom-house. XVIII. The contracting states engage to continue their common efforts for the encouragement of industry by the adoption of uniform regulations, so that the subjects of each state may enjoy, as ex- tensively as possible, the privilege of seeking work and occupation in every other state. From the coming into operation of the present treaty, the subjects of any one of the contracting States, trading or seeking employ in the territory of any other of those states, shall not be subject to any impost which does not equally affect the native similarly employed. Manufacturers and mer- chants who are only "making pun bases for their trade, or travellers who have not goods with tlieni, but simply patterns for the purpose of soliciting commissions, shall not, when thus employed, have any duty to pay in another state, if authorised to carry on such commerce in the state where they have their domicile ; or if employed in the service of native manufacturers or merchants. When trading in the markets and fairs, or when they are selling the produce of the soil and fabrics, in any one of the states of the Association, the subjects of the other contracting states shall be treated in all respects as subjects of the same states. XIX. The seaports of Prussia shall be open for commerce to all the subjects of the states of the Union, on payment of the same duties as are paid by Prussian subjects, and the consuls of the several states in the seaports or places of the foreign commerce, shall be bound, in cases of need, to assist with their advice and support the subjects of the other contracting states. XX. To protect against contraband their common custom-house system, and to insure the regular payment of the duty of consumption in the interior, the contracting states have concluded a recipro- cal cartel, which shall be enforced as soon as possible, but, at the farthest, at the same time with the present treaty. XXI. The community of receipts of the contracting states, stipulated by the present treaty, shall comprehend the product of duties of entry, of export, and of transit, in the Prussian states, the king- doms of Bavaria, and Wirtemberg, the Electorate, and the Grand Duchy of Hesse, comprising therein those countries which have down to the present time acceded to the custom-house system of the con- tracting states. The following are excluded from the community of receipts, and remain preserved for the particular benefit of the respective governments : — 1. The imposts collected in the interior of each state on indigenous products, comprising therein the compensatory duties reserved in Article XI. 2. The toll on rivers, to which are applicable the regulations of the acts of the Congress of Vienna, or special conventions. (Article XV.) 3. Duties of paving, of causeways, of bridges, of ferries, of canals, of locks and ports, charges of weighing and storage, as well as similar receipts, whatever may be their name. 4. The fines and confiscations which, beyond the part allowed to informers, remain the property of each government throughout its territory. XXII. The produce of the duties received into the common treasury shall be divided among the states of the Association, in proportion to the population which may be found in the Union, subject to deduction, 1st, of the expenses specified in Article XXX.; 2d, of the restitution of erroneous receipts; 3d, of the restoration of duties and diminutions made in consequence of special common conven- tions. The population of every state which has entered or may enter into the Association, by treaty with one or other of the contracting states, under the engagement made by the latter, to make an annual contribution, for the participation of the former to the common revenue of the customs, shall be added to the population of the states which make this contribution. There shall be made every three years, dating from a period to be hereafter fixed, an exact enume- ration of the population of the associated states ; the states shall reciprocally communicate the results thereof. XXIII. All restitutions of duties not authorised by the legislation of the customs, shall remain I to the treasury of the government which shall have granted it. Conventions, hereafter to be concluded, will regulate in what cases similar restitutions may be accorded. XXIV. In conformity with the object of this association of customs tending to facilitate a freer and more natural commercial intercourse, the favours accorded for the payment of custom-house duties at certain places in which fairs are held, especially the privileges of abatement (rabat privilegien), cannot be extended to those states of the Association where they do not exist ; on the contrary, they shall be restricted and abolished as far as possible, regard being had to the means of subsistence of the places heretofore favoured, and to the commercial relations which they have with foreigners; but others can, on no account, be granted without the general consent of the contracting patties. XXXIII. There shall every year, on the 1st day of June, be an assembly of plenipotentiaries of the governments of the Union empowered generally to deliberate ; and each state may send thither a duly authorised representative. The plenipotentiaries will choose from among themselves a president, who, however, shall have no pre-eminence over the other members. The first assembly shall be held at Munich. At the close of each annual assembly, the place ofnext meetingwill be determined, having reference to the nature of those subjects which will then come under discussion. XXXIV. The assembly of plenipotentiaries will have under its consideration the following sub- jects :— A. To consider the complaints which may have arisen in any of the states of the Association, con- cerning the execution of the general treaty, of special conventions, of the law, and of custom-house 364 PRUSSIAN LEAGUE. regulations ; also of the tariff, when these shall not have been adjusted during the year by correspond- ence between the different ministers. B. The definitive reparation among the states of the Union of the total common receipts, based upon the observations made by the superior authorities, and verified by the central bureau, as may be ren- dered necessary by the common interest. C. To deliberate upon propositions and suggestions made by the governments for the perfection of the administration. D. Discussions upon alterations demanded by any of the contracting states, in the laws, tariffs, and custom-house regulations, as well as in the organisation of the administration, and in general upon the development and perfection of the general system of customs and commerce. XXXV. If, in the course of the year, when the plenipotentiaries are not in session, extraordinary incidents should occur, which require prompt decision on the part of the states of the Union, the con- tracting parties will consult upon th.ese through their diplomatic agents, or they will order an extra sitting of their plenipotentiaries. Royal Tariff of the Prussian States, and of the German Customs' Union. To be in force from the 1st January, 1840, to the Z\st December, 18-12. I. Articles not liable to any Ditty. --. . | ; stones, hewn mid rough, chalk, slate, tiles and bricks, mill bee-hives with live bees- ai|,i t > rin ist0 " es transported by land, and not destined for shipping; ' - stnw, chaff, cut straw; all kinds of animals for which no duty is mentioned in the tariff; turf and charcoal ; husks of grain and oi grapes. H. Articles which are Habit to Duty on Importation or Exportation. Fifteen silver groschen, or half a dollar, is the general duty on importation for one quintal (bun I rossian gross weight ; and no further tax on consumption is levied in tie counlry, nor then when the article is exported. Exceptions, however, occur with at! articles, which either, ac- cording to the preceding regulations, are entirely exempt from duty, or, according to the follow-in* sections, are liable to duty ; as— Articles subject to a higher or lower import duty than half a dollar for one quintal ; or, Articles subject to a duty on exportation. The following are those articles on which the affixed duties are levied : — ees for transplantation, and vines; bee-hives, with live bees; of slaughtered cattle, both in a liquid and dry state ; gas of ulimal and other sorts of manure ; egEBrClay Trees for transplantation, and Wood ' brandy and ore, not specifically charged with duty, as bolus, puniicestone, bloodstone. I lofl clay, &c ; agricultural pro- duce, and cattle of an estate separated by the frontier ; fresh fish and crabs; grass, fodder, and hay ; fresh garden produce,— as. flowers, vegetables, succory (not dried), potatoes and turnips, eatable roots, &C.; poultry, an i small game Of every kind; potters' ore (alquifoux); gold and silver, coined, in bars and fragments, excluding foreign small coin of silver; furniture and effects, worn clothes and linen, tools that have been used by individuals settling in the country; al-o, by particular permission, new clothes, linen, and effects, if they be- long to persons settling in the country through marriage ; wood (both for fuel and timber), if transported by land and not destined for ship- ping; copse wood and brooms, and willow for baskets; travellers' and seamen's clothes and linen, and travellers' carriages, waggons, and boats for transporting persons and goods, furniture of vessels, and provisions used for travelling ; instruments, and patterns carried by travellers for their own use only ; peat and tan for fuel ; milk ; fresh fruit ; paper clippings and written papers (deeds, waste paper, &c); seeds of forest trees, shave grass, reeds for rooffing, &c. ; refuse [We subjoin a note of the duties imposed ( articles of import.*] i some of the principal S .: Duty on Reduction for Tare on the °8l Duty on Reduction for Tare on the Import- Export- Import- Export- Names of the Articles. $£ ation. ation. Quintal, gross Weight. Names of the Articles.' |l ation. R. o ation. Weight. R. R. Ip R. | Doi. Doi. £ Doi. c Doi. - Qd. Qtl. Beer of all sorts • 1 2 15 (25 lbs. in boxes, IS in ■{ baskets, 7 permission), may be im- ported on paying the ge- neral importation duly. Brandy, rum, and arrack • 1 8 Wrought, rolled, and cast" t lbs. in dou- copper and brass, for ble casks. utensils, &c; also cop- fl3 lbs. in C 22 lbs. in per kettles as they came | barrels and I barrels and from under the hammer, 6 . ^ chests, 6 lbs. | in baskets, 4 Cocoa, ground, chocolate, } and chocolate succory - J 11 J cases, U lbs. brass plates, common ] in baskets, and plated wire, with I. lbs. in bales. 1 7 lbs. in polished, rolled, and ^bags. plated tables, and plates, f 14 lbs. bar- Manufactured goods; as,' 1 rels of oak kettles, pans, &c. &c.; | and other all other articles of cop- Cacao - . . > Coffee and coffee 6uccory - 3 1 6 20 | hard woods, ^ 10 lbs. bar- rels of soft per and brass, candle- sticks, bells, brass-work for harness, fcc, pin*, it" 1 KJ f 13 lbs. in libs, in bales. wood, and | in baskets, 4 they are not combined with the precious me- \\bs. bags. tals; also painte 1 Cheese 1 3 20 ( 12 lbs. in I casks. ned copper and brass wares - • -J Coal 1 i« Fancy art iclesfRirmingham* in 1 cotton goods:— ware, auincaUh i Raw cotton 1 Free 15 nufactured wholly or Cotton yarn, while, un- partly of gold, silver, pla- t jrarn,& wadding Doubled, twisted thread (thread, knitting yarn), 1 2 ) 18 lbs. in 1 barrels and r boxes, 7 lbs. 1 in bales. , admixtures of precious metals, inlaid « i and all sorts of dyed . ■ r - ■ ' ■. yarn-also bleaching yarn 1 8 mother of pearl, coral and Cotton staffs, and cotton" precioui and linen goods, with- in connection with ala- out any admixture of baster. silk and wool ; stock- whalebone, plaster of ire, buttons, and (20 lbs. in ] barrels and Paris, glass, wood, horn, [ ncy ■" lit lei ; 50 bone, cm k pie, varnish, and gal ; cb< its, S lbs. tin bales. r, marble, Turkish Of cotton and li« n*n.witfi"v.t any admix- metals, tortoisesht [l and ture of silk ; wool, iron, false stones, kc. &c; per- gh*Vvood,1cather,brass, ■ um i"i instru- (20 lbs. in steel, & other materials . ments, &c, watches, 1 clocks, and pen lulums, | 50 1 1 brass:— ' < casks and ( chests. Brass and copper in pigs, lustres of brouzi crude or black copper, with gold or silver; mi- | pure (or iwe) copper, perfine wares of metals ' old pieces of copper and brass, as also filings of japanni ■ i i copper and brass, bell !.!■-. |.' metal. - ficial flowers, plumes of small com for melting (the latter on especial . ■ ■ ■ . ! Jtc.&c. In fine, all kinds Prussian dollar, of 30 silver grmchen, is equal to shout 2s. 11 l-2t < el J for instance, capaof cloth, and other stud's, coin bined with leather, hut- tons, tassels, &C, common metals; as, line cast iron wares, cutlery, needles and pins, scis- Bors, edged tools, iworda Jfcc. : as also japanned iron wares, and all kinds of fire arms Herrings - Horses Iron and steel : — Bar and bolt iron, not ma- nufactured, and iron ore of every kind; old iron, iron filings, hammer- ings, &c. Note,— Iron ore is ex- empted from exportation duty in the western pro- vinces. 2 ii 2 Qtl. f 25 lbs. I casks : { chests, I lbs. in t I kets. (-22 lbs. i j casks an j chests, I Lin baskets. < 14 lbs. i ( casks. Names of the Articles. aua I (- 10 lbs, j casks \ chests. 6 bas kets, ^ bales. (20 lbs. in ] ca-ks and ! chests, 13 I baskets, 9 L bales. fcZ Cast iron; as, bar, scrolled, slat, rolled, or hammer' ed, hoop, locks, &c. &c.j as also blistered and sol- dering steel, cast and l steel, also rails for railways Exceptions: — Unmanufactured steel, im- ported exclusively from the Russian frontiers to the mouth of the Vistu- la, is subject only to the genrral importation duty. Hammered iron, which'} has been manufactured into finer sorts under the stretch and cut works, | as also black iron sheet- ing and iron plates White iron sheeting, as also iron wire, anchors, and anchor chains Lead :— Lead, unwrought, in blocks - Coarse articles of lead,) as, kettles, pipes, shot, > plates, &c &c. - -) Fine articles of lead ; as,') toys, &c. wholly or ! partly of lead ; also ja- f panned articles of lead -J Molasses - Paper and articles of paste- board :— Grey blotting and packing paper, general importa- tion duty is paid. Flimsy or thin printing paper, coarse( white and coloured) packing pa- per, and pasteboard All other sorts of paper - Note.— Paper which is lithographed, printed, or ruled (to be used in this state for accounts, labels, invoices, &c. &c.) belongs to those sorts of papers itioned above. Paper tapestry Bookbinders' work of pa-*} per and pasteboard, also | coarse japanned wares "^ out of such prime mate- j rials (matters) - -J Pepper, pimento, saffron, > vanilla, cinnamon -j Duty on Quintal, rrosi Potters' clay and potters' wares : — Potters' clay for china manufactures * Common potters' floor stones and crucibles (Single) coloured or white crockery ware, earthen pipes - Painted, printed, gilded or silvered crockery Coloured china, and also"! white, with coloured 1 stripes, painted or ( gilded - - -J Crockery and other earth--\ enware,audwhitechina { and enamel, connected f with the baser metals J The same connected with! gold, silver, platina, si- milar and other admix- [ tures of fine metals, as also all other china ware combined with fine or common metals Silk and silk goods: — Dyed and white or floret silk (twisted and i twisted), also thread raw silk or floret") and uu-( thread off 1 1 3 1 4 1 Qtl. 2 1 10 1 5 1 1 1 5 1 10 1 10 ' 6 1 Free 1 5 , 10 1 10 1 25 1 10 1 50 Qtl. 1 S '11 in casks | and chests, 7 | in baskets, L4 inhales. J 7 in casks ( and chests. f 22 in casks ) and chests, '18 lbs. chests, 7 lbs. L in bales. fit 3 I kets, 7 lbs. Lin bales. r 18 in chests, 14 bas. ) kets, 7 [bales. (•20 lbs. | chests.lalhs. barrels j 14 baskets, Land 4 bales. 25 lbs. ! chests, fibs, in bas- kets. (22 lbs. .;< h. v-, i nil*. basket 366 PRUSSIAN BLUE, PUBLICANS. Prussian Tariff— continued. Names of the Articles. j£Z Duty on Reduction for Tare on the Quintal, gross Weight. Names of the Articles. s! Duty on Reduction for Tare on the Quintal, gross Weight Import- ation. Eiport- ation. Import- Export- ation. R. a R. £ >& R. o K. a Dol. 5 Dol. a Dol. o Dol. a Silk stuffs and stockings,^ qti. Tin and articles of tin:— Qtl. cloth shawls, riban Is, Coarse tin wares; as,~\ lace, blond lace, gauze, dishes, plates, spoons, ( . 2 pi in chests, buttons, &c, needle- kettles, pots, and other r J 7 in baskets. work, and milliners' vessels, pipes, and plates.) ( 22 in chests anicles; wovensilkand Fine and japanned tin } 1 to galoon, mixed with me- tal thread, unconnected f Lbs. 1 1 < 22 in chests, I 13 in bales. wares, toys, &c. &c. - J Tiole. — Tin in blocks, ibets. with iron, glass, wood, and old tin, pays the gene- leather, brass, or steel ; ral importation duty. finally, all the above f 12 lbs. in wares made of floret silk, (haurrede soie) or Tobacco leaves - • I 1 5 15 j casks, lOlbs. 1 in baskets, 7 silk ^lbl. in bales. All the above articles ^ j 16 lbs. in mixed wilholher w "Veu materials exclusive of [ silk ; as, wool, or other f 15 J 22 in chests, Manufactured • - I 1 11 J barrels, 13 1 in baskets, (J I in bales. \ 12 in bales. hair of animals, cotlou, Wool and woollen goods:— and linen Raw sheep's wool White threefold ormani-") 1 Free 2 (17 lbs. in J casks and | chests. 7 lbs. Lin bales. Tea - - - ? Qtl. J 23 lbs. in t cheats, fU lbs. id fold twisted woollen and f Sugar - - 5 11 camel yarn, and all other f sorls of dyed yarn -J Woollen stuffs and hose,~ i oaken bar- ! rels, 10 lbs. 1 in other dit- | to, 13 lbs. in I. chests. &c., clo'hs, shawls, Refined and brown sugar > 1 10 handkerchiefs, and felt goods; fringe, and but- ton manufactures, not connected with iron, Raw sugar for inland") sugar houses, under f s f7lbs.in bales Bibs. in baa. kets, 14 lbs. glass, wood, leather, bras?, or steel ; further, 1 the same sort of articles 1 :-,.i (20 lbs. in -j chests, 7 lbs. ( in bales. control of the proper 1 officers • - -J ■ -J in oaken manufactured from the 1 casks, 10 !bs. hair or wool of other t in casks of animals; finally, wares l^soft wood. of the above description (16 lbs. in made in connection chests of 8 With other woven mate- Raw sogar, and farina I and sugar meal - j 9 [ quintals and -J above, 13 1 lbs. in chests under S (.quintals. rials, exclusive of silk J Carpets of wool and other } animals' hair, mixed > with linen - -) Note.— Oil cloihs made of horse hair pay the gene- I 20 (20 lbs. :n ■ chests, 7 (be ( in bales. 1 neral importation duty. N. B.— The duty on wheat, beans, and peas imported into Prussia from Poland by the Vistula and the Niemen,and exported by Dantzic, &c., has recently been raised to 3 silver gros. per scheffel ; do. on rye, barley, and oats, 2 silver do. Formerly it wis only half as much. This in- crease of duy, intended to operate as a retaliation on Russia, shows pretty conclusively that in commercial affairs Russian iutluence does not go for much in Prussia. — Sup.) PRUSSIAN BLUE, or PRUSSIATE OF IRON (Ger. Berlinerblau ,■ Fr. Bleu de Prus.sr ; It. Azurro Prussiano ,■ Sp. Azul de Prussia,- Rus. Lasor Bexlinskaja), a beautiful deep blue powder, accidently discovered at Berlin in 1710. It is of considerable importance in the arts, being extensively used by painters; it is manufactured in this country. Many attempts have been made to render Prussian blue available for the dyeing of broad cloths, but without much success. The difficulty is to diffuse the colour equally over the surface; for, from its extraordinary vivacity and lustre, the slightest inequalities strike and offend the eye. Prussian blue resists the air and sun extremely well ; but it cannot be used in the dyeing of cottons, or any sort of stuff that is to be washed with soap, as the alkali contained in the soap readily dissolves and separates the colouring matter. — {Bancroft on Colours, vol. ii. pp. 60 — 94.) Blue is a favourite colour with the Chinese, and in 1810-11, the imports of Prussian blue into Can- ton from England amounted to 1,899 piculs, or 253,200 lbs. But, for some years past, the Chinese have not imported a single pound weight. The cause of the cessation of the trade deserves to be men- tioned. A common Chinese sailor, who came to England in an East Indiaman, having frequented a manufactory where the drug was prepared, learned the art of making it ; and on his return to ( hina, he established a similar work there, with such success that the whole empire is now amply supplied with native Prussian blue ! The West has derived many important arts from the East ; but we incline to think that this is the first well authenticated instance of any art having ever been carried from the West to the East, by a native of the latter. But, in all that respects industry, ingenuity, and Inven- tion, the Chinese are incomparably superior to every other people to the east of the Indus. PUBLICANS, are persons authorised by licence to retail beer, spirits, or wines. Under the term publicans are comprised innkeepers, hotel keepers, alehouse keepers, keepers of wine vaults, &c. An inn differs from an alehouse in this, — that the former is a place intended for the lodging as well as the entertainment of guests, whereas the latter is intended for their entertainment only. If, however, ale or beer be commonly sold in an inn, as is almost invariably the case, it is also an alehouse ; and if travellers be furnished with beds, lodged, and entertained in an alehouse, it also is an inn. It is not material to the character of an innkeeper that he should have any sign over his door ; it is sufficient that he makes it his business to entertain passengers and travellers, providing them with edging! and other accommodations. PUBLICANS. 367 1. Licensing of Publicans. — The provisions with respect to the licensing of public houses are embodied in the 9 Geo. 4. c. 61., of which we subjoin an abstract. General Meetings.— There shall lie annually holden in comity divisions, cities, and towns, a special session of just lies, to lie called the "General Annual Licensing M< eting," lor the purpose of pi mting licenses to persons keeping or .-1110111 to keep inns, alehouses, &c. ; Bitch meetings to he held, in Middle- Bex and surrey, within the tirst 10 days of the month of March ; and in every other place between the 2Utli of August and the I Ith of September, both inclusive. JVulice of General Meeting— Within every division, 21 days before the annual licensing meeting, a petty session injustices tohe held, a majority of whom shall fix the day and hour for holding the gene- ral annual meeting ; and shall direct a precept to the high constable, requiring him, within 5 days after the receipt thereof, to order the petty constables to affix on the door of the church, chapel, or other public place, a notice of such annual meeting, and give or leave at the dwelling-house of each justice acting for the division, and of each person keeping an inn, or who shall have given notice of his inten- tion to apply for a licence to keep an inn, a copy of such notice. — } 2. The annual meeting may he adjourned, hut the adjourned meeting is not to be held on any of the 5 days immediately following the adjournment; and every adjournment to he held in the month of March in Middlesex and Surrey, and in August or September in every other county. — $ 3. Sessions for Transfer of Licences. — At the annual meeting, justices to appoint not less than 4 nor more than 8 special sessions, to be held as near as possible at equidistant periods, for the purpose of transferring licences. — { 4. Notice of holding any adjourned meetings, or of any special session for the transfer of licences, to be given in the same manner and to the same parties as mentioned above. — $ 5. Justices disqualified.— No justice who is a common brewer, distiller, maker of malt for sale, or retailer of malt or any exciseable liquor, shall act or he present at any annual licensing meeting, or adjournment, or special session for transferring licences, or take part in the adjudication upon any application for a licence, or upon an appeal ; nor in the case of licensing any house of which he is owner, or agent of the owner, or of any house belonging to any common brewer, maker of malt, &c. to whom he shall be, either by blood or marriage, the father, son, or brother, or with whom he shall be partner in ami other trade ; in any of these cases knowinaly or wilfully to act, subjects to a penalty of 10tl/. But disqualification does not arise, where a justice, having no beneficial interest in a house licensed or about to be licensed, holds only the legal estate therein as trustee or for a charitable or puhlic use. — #6. When in any liberty, city, or town, 2 qualified justices do not attend, the county justices may act. — $7. The power given to county justices not to extend to the Cinque Ports. — {8. Questions respecting licenses to be determined, and licences to be signed, by a majority of the justices present. — }9. Application for a Licence. — Persons intending to apply for a licence to a house not. before licensed, to affix a notice on the door of such house, and on the door of the church or chapel of the parish, and, where there shall be no church or chapel, on some other conspicuous place within the parish, on three several Sundays, between the 1st of January and the last day of February in the counties of Middlesex and Surrey, and elsewhere between the 1st of June and the last day of July, at some lime between the hours of 10 in the forenoon and 4 in the afternoon, and shall serve a copy of such notice upon one of the overseers of the poor, and upon one of the constables or peace-officers of the parish, within the month of February in the counties of Middlesex and Surrey, and elsewhere within the month of July, prior to the annual meeting ; such notice to be in a legible hand, or printed, and signed by the appli- cant. The application must state the Christian and surname of the party, with the place of his resi- dence, and his trade or calling during the 6 months previous to the serving of the notice — # 10. JVutirc to transfer Licence. — Persons desirous of transferring a licence, and intending to apply to the next special sessions, must, 5 days previously, serve a notice upon one of the overseers and one of the constables of the parish. Persons hindered, by sickness or other reasonable cause, from attending any licensing meeting, and proof thereof adduced on oath, may authorise another person to attend for them.— $ 12. Licences to be in force, in Middlesex and Surrey, from the 5th of April ; elsewhere from the 10th of October, for one whole year. — $ 13. Provision for Death orother Contingency. — If any person licensed shall die, or become incapable, ora bankrupt or insolvent, or if he, or his heirs, executors, or assigns, shall remove, or neglect to apply for a continuation of his licence, the justices at special session may grant a licence to the heirs, executors, or assigns of such party, or to any new tenant; or if any man's house should he, or be about to be, pulled down for a public purpose, or rendered, by fire, tempest, or other unforeseen calamity, unfit for the purposes of an inn, licence may be granted to the occupier, if he intend to open another house as an inn. Such transferred licences shall continue only in force to the end of the year ; and in case of removal to another house, notice must be given on some Sunday, within 6 weeks before the special session, in the manner and form before described. — $ 14. Fees for Licences. — The clerk of the justices may lawfully receive from every person to whom a licence is granted, for trouble and all expenses, the following sums : — s. d. For constable or officer serving notices - - - - - - -10 For clerk of justices for licence - - - - - - - -50 For precept to the high constable, and notices to be delivered by the petty constable 1 6 Clerks demanding or receiving more than these fees, to forfeit 51.— $ 15. No sheriff's officer, or officer executing the process of any court of justice, qualified to hold or use any licence under this act. — $ 16. Excise Licences. — No licence for the sale of any exciseable liquors, to be consumed on the premises, shall be granted by the excise to any person, unless such person be previously licensed under this act.— $ IT. Penalties. — Any person without, a licence selling or exchanging, or for valuable consideration dispos- ing of, any exciseable liquor by retail, to be consumed in his premises ; or tcith a licence, and so sell- ing in premises other than those specified in his licence, shall, for every offence, on conviction before 1 justice, forfeit not exceeding 20/. nor less than 51. with costs ; but the penalty not to attach in case of death or insolvency, and sale by the heir or assigns, prior to the next special sessions. — $ 18. Every licensed person shall, if required, sell all liquors by retail (except in quantities less than a J pint) by the gallon, quart, pint, or i pint, sized according to the standard ; in default thereof to forfeit the illegal measure, and pay not exceeding 40s. with costs, to be recovered within 30 days before 1 justice. — } 19. In case of riot, or probability of riot, houses licensed in the neighbourhood maybe closed by the order of 2 justices. — $ 20. Any person convicted of a first offence, before 2 justices, against the tenour of his licence, to forfeit not exceeding 51. with costs; guilty of a second offence within 3 years of the first, to forfeit not exceed- 368 PUBLICANS. ing 10Z. with costs ; and guilty of a third nffcitcc within 3 years, to forfeit not exceeding 50Z. with costs: or the case in the last instance may be adjourned to the petty sessions, or the annual meeting, or the general quarter sessions; and if the offender is found guilty by a jury, he may be fined 100/., or ad- judged to forfeit his licence, or both, and rendered incapable of selling any exciseable liquor in any inn kept by him for 3 years. — J 21. Proceedings at the session in certain cases, may be directed by the justices to be carried on by the constable, and the expenses defrayed out of tiie county rates. — $22. Witnesses refusing to attend without lawful excuse, may be fined not more than \0l— $23. Penalties against justices may be sued for in any court in Westminster ; a moiety to the king, and a moiety to the party suing.— $24. Penalties adjudged by justices may be recovered by distress, or the party imprisoned 1, 3, or 6 calen- dar months. — $ 25. The next sections relate to the mode of prosecuting actions. The last section of the act bears that the word •'■ inn" shall include any inn, alehouse, or victualling house, in which is sold by retail any exciseable liquor, to be drunk or consumed on the premises ; and the words exciseable liquor are to include all such fermented or spirituous liquors as may now or hereafter be charged with any customs or excise duty. — $37. The act does not affect the two Universities, nor the privileges of the Vintners' Company, except those freemen who have obtained their freedom by redemption ; and it does not alter the time of granting licences in the city of London. Innkeepers are bound, by the tenour of their licence, to keep order in their houses, to prevent drunkenness and disorderly conduct, and gambling. If they fail in these respects, they forfeit their licence, and subject themselves to the penalties mentioned before. Allowing seditious or immoral books to be read in an inn, also forfeits the licence, and subjects to penalties. — (39 Qeo. 3. c. 79. $ 31.) 2. Duties of Innkeepers. — Innkeepers are bound by law to receive guests coming to their inns, and they are also bound to protect their property when there. They have no option to reject or refuse a guest, unless their house be already full, or they are able to assign some other reasonable and sufficient cause. Neither can they impose unreasonable terms on such as frequent their houses : if they do, they may be fined, and their inns indicted and suppressed. An innkeeper who has stables attached to his premises, may be compelled to receive a horse, although the owner does not reside in his house ; but he cannot, under such circumstances, be compelled to receive a trunk or other dead thing. By the annual Mutiny Act, constables, or, in their default, justices of the peace, may quarter soldiers in inns, livery-stables, alehouses, &c, under the conditions and regulations set forth in the statute. 3. Responsibilities of Innkeepers. — An innkeeper is bound to keep safely whatever things his guests deposit in his inn, or in his custody as innkeeper ; and he is civilly liable for all losses, except those arising from irresistible force, or what is usually termed the act of God and the king's ememies. " It has long been holden," says Sir William Jones, " that an innkeeper is bound to restitution, if the trunks or parcels of his guests, committed to him either personally or through one of his agents, be damaged in his inn, or stolen out of it by any person whatever (except the servant or companion of the guest) ; nor shall he discharge himself of this responsibility by a refusal to take any care of the goods, because there are suspected persons in the house, for whose conduct he cannot be answerable : it is otherwise, indeed, if he refuse admission to a traveller because he really has no room for him, and the traveller, nevertheless, insist upon entering, and place his baggage in a chamber without the keeper's consent. Add to this, that if he fail to provide honest servants and honest inmates, according to the confidence reposed in him by the public, his negligence in that respect is highly culpable, and he ought to answer civilly for their acts, even if they should rob the guests that sleep in their chambers. Eigorous as this law may seem, and hard as it may actually be in one or two particular instances, it is founded on the great principle of public utility, to which all private considerations ought to yield ; for travellers, who must be numerous in a rich and commercial country, are obliged to rely almost implicitly on the good faith of innholders, whose education and morals are usually none of the best, and who might have frequent opportunities of associating with ruffians or pilferers, while the injured guest could never obtain legal proof of such combinations, or even of their negligence, if no actual fraud had been committed by them. Hence the prastor declared, according to Pomponius, his desire of securing the public from the dishonesty of such men; and by his edict gave an action against them, if the goods of travellers or passengers were lost or hurt by any means except by inevitable accident (damno fatuli) : and Ulpian intimates, that even this severity could not restrain them from knavish practices or suspicious neglect." — (Essay on the Law of Bailments, 2d ed. pp. 95, 96.) Even if an innkeeper bid the guest take the key of his chamber and lock the door, telling him that he cannot undertake the charge of the goods, still, if they be stolen, he is held to be responsible. In all such cases it is not competent to the innkeeper to plead that he took ordinary care, or that the force which occasioned the loss was truly irresistible. A guest is not bound to deliver the goods in special custody to the innkeeper, nor, indeed, to acquaint him that he has any. If he have property with him, or about his person, the innkeeper must be responsible for it without communication. But the innkeeper may require that the property of his guest be delivered into his hands, in order that it may be put into a secure place ; and if the guest refuse, the innkeeper is not liable for its safety. The guest exonerates the innkeeper from liability, when he takes upon himself the exclusive custody of the goods, so as to deprive the innkeeper of having any care over them : PUBLICANS— PUTCHOCK. 369 thus, if a guest demand and have exclusive possession of a room, for the purpose of a shop or warehouse, he exonerates the landlord from any loss he may sustain in the property which he keeps in that apartment ; but it is otherwise if he have not the exclusive possession of Ihr room. The innkeeper cannot oblige the guest to take charge of his own goods ; for this, in effect, would be a refusal to admit them into the inn. And it is no excuse for an innkeeper to say that he delivered the key of the chamber whence the property was stolen to the guest, who left the door open. A case of this sort occurred very recently, at Brighton. — A lady having left the door of her bed-room, of which she had the key, open for a few minutes, 50/. were abstracted from her reticule. The innkeeper contended that the plaintitV, by selecting particular apartments, and taking the key, had exonerated him from his liability. The jury found for the plaintiff; and upon a motion for a new trial, Lord Tenterden said, — " By the common law of this country, and also by the civil law, the principle of the liabilities of innkeepers was founded on two reasons ; first, to compel the landlord to take care that no improper company was admitted into his house ; and, secondly, to prevent collusion. — The principle, as stated in the civil law, was this — 'Ne, quisquam putet graviter hoc in eos consilium esse ,• nam est in ipsorum arbitrio nequeni recipient ,• et nisi hoc esset statutum, materia daretur cum furibus, adversus eos quos recipiunt, coeundi : cum ne nunc quidem abstinent hujusmodi fraudibus.' It was true that, in the present state of society, it was very difficult to prevent the intrusion of improper company into inns. But still the principle was such as he had stated it to be, and it would be dangerous to relax it; and he did not think that the taking rooms in this way was sufficient to discharge the landlord. Then, as to the objection that the cases did not extend to money, it was elear that money was as much within the principle as goods, and that no substantial distinction could be made. He was therefore of opinion that the verdict was right." — Rule refused. A landlord may exempt himself from liability, if he can show that the loss was occa- sioned by the misconduct of the guest ; as, if his goods are stolen by his own servant or companion. It has been decided that a man is a guest at an inn, if he leave his horse at it, though he has not gone into it himself. If a man come to an inn, and make a contract for lodging for a set time, and do not eat or drink there, he is no guest, but a lodger, and, as such, not under the innkeeper's protection ; but if he eat and drink, or pay for his diet there, it is otherwise. Any innkeeper or alehouse keeper, knowingly receiving and harbouring any person convicted of an offence against the revenue laws, for which he has been in prison, or for which he has fled, shall forfeit 100/. and have no licence for the future. 4. Remedy of an Innkeeper against his Quest. — An innkeeper may, without any agreement to that effect, detain the person of a guest who has eaten in his house, until payment; and he may do the same by the horses in his stable. An innkeeper is not entitled to recover for spirits supplied to his guests, of the value of 20s. and up- wards, unless supplied or contracted for at one time. — (23 Geo. 2. c. 40.) By the custom of London and Exeter, if a man commit a horse to an hostler, and the expense of his keep become equivalent to his price, the hostler may appropriate the horse to himself upon the ap- prai si meat of four of his neighbours, or may have him sold. But innkeepers in other parts of the country have no power lo self horses detained by them. A horse committed to an innkeeper cannot be detained as a security for the board of his master. It is enacted by 11 & 12 Will. 3. c. 15. that innkeepers, alehouse keepers, Sec. refusing to specify in an account the number of pints or quarts for which demand is made, or selling in unmarked measures, shall have no power to detain any goods or other things belonging to the person from whom demand is made, but shall bit left to their action for recovery of the same. [In the United States, the system of licensing public houses has been adopted by the several states. For the details of the system the reader may consult Purdon's Digest of tin- haws if Pennsylvania, the Revised Statutes of New York, &c. — Am. Ed.] PUMICE STONE (Ger. Bimstein ,■ Fr. Pierre pouce ,■ It. Pietra pomice ,■ Sp. Piedra potnez ; Lat. Pumrx,) a light, spongy, vitreous stone, found usually in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. It is used for polishing metals and marble, and smoothing the surface of wood and pasteboard. It is said to form a good glaze for pottery. The lighter pumice stones swim on water, their specific gravity not exceeding -914. The island of Lipari, in tho Mediterranean, is chiefly formed of pumice stone, and may be said to be the magazine whence all Europe is supplied with this useful article. There are several species of pumice stones; but those only that are light and spongy are exported. The price varies in the London market from 8/. to 10/. a ton. PUTCHOCK. An article of this name is imported in considerable quantities from the north-west coast of India into China, and is regularly quoted in the Canton price currents. It is the root of a plant that grows abundantly in Sinde. When burned, it yields a fine smoke, and a grateful and diffusive smell. The Chinese beat it into a fine powder, which they burn as incense in the temples of their gods. — (Hamilton's New Account of the East Indies, vol. i. p. 126.) 47 370 QUARANTINE. Q. QUARANTINE, a regulation by wnich all communication with individuals, ships, or goods, arriving from places infected with the plague, or other contagious disease, or sup- posed to be peculiarly liable to such infection, is interdicted for a certain definite period. The term is derived from the Italian quaranta, forty ; it being generally supposed, that if no infectious disease break out within 40 days, or 6 weeks, no danger need be apprehended from the free admission of the individuals under quarantine. During this period, too, all the goods, clothes, &c. that might be supposed capable of retaining the infection, are sub- jected to a process of purification. This last operation, which is a most important part of the quarantine system, is performed either on board ship, or in establishments denominated hza '■> ttns. — (See post.) Policy of Quarantine. — The regulations as to quarantine are entirely precautionary: they have their origin in the belief that various diseases, but especially the plague, are conta- gious ; and supposing such to be the case, the propriety of subjecting those coming from an infected or suspected place to a probation is obvious. Indeed, no government could, until the belief in question be proved to be ill founded, abstain from enforcing precautionary measures, without rendering itself liable to the charge of having culpably neglected one of its most important duties, — that of providing, by every means in its power, for the safety of its subjects. Latterly, however, it has been contended that the plague is never imported; that it is always indigenous ; originating in some peculiar state of the atmosphere, or in something peculiar in the condition of the people ; and that, consequently, quarantine regu- lations me^ly impose a heavy burden on commerce, without being of any real utility. But though there does not seem to be any reason for doubting that infectious diseases have ori- ginated in the way described, the fact that they have, in innumerable instances, been carried from one place to another, seems to be established beyond all question. Even if the evidence as to the importation of infectious diseases were less decisive than it is, or the opinions of medical men more divided, it would not warrant the repeal of the restraints on the inter- course with suspected ports. This is not a matter in which innovations should be rashly introduced ; wherever there is doubt, it is proper to incline to the side of security. In some cases, perhaps, quarantine regulations have been carried to a needless extent ; but they have more frequently, we believe, been improperly relaxed. Institution of Quarantine. — The notion that the plague was imported from the East into Europe, seems to have prevailed in all ages. But it would appear that the Venetians were the first who endeavoured to guard against its introduction from abroad, by obliging ships and individuals from suspected places to perform quarantine. The regulations upon this subject were, it is most probable, issued for the first time in 1484. — (Beckmann, Hist. of Invent, vol. ii. art. Quarantine.) They have since been gradually adopted in every other country. Their introduction into England was comparatively late. Various preven- tive regulations had been previously enacted ; but quarantine was not systematically enforced till after the alarm occasioned by the dreadful plague at Marseilles in 1720. The regulations then adopted were made conformably to the suggestions of the celebrated Dr. Mead, in his famous " Discourse concerning Pestilential Contagion." Lazarettos or Pest-houses, are establishments constructed to facilitate the performance of quarantine, and particularly the purification of goods. They have usually a port in which ships from a suspected place may anchor; and, when perfect, are provided with lodgings for the crews and passengers, where the sick may be separated from the healthy ; and with warehouses where the goods may be deposited ; all intercourse between the lazaretto and the surrounding country being, of course, interdicted, except by permission of the authorities. The lazarettos at Leghorn, Genoa, and Marseilles, are the most com- plete of any in Europe. The facilities they afford to navigation are very great; for, as ships from suspected places may discharge their cargoes in the lazaretto, they are not detained longer than they would be were there no quarantine regulations. The goods deposited in the lazaretto, being inspected by the proper officers, and purified, are then admitted into the market. Compared with these, the quarantine establishments in this country are exceedingly defective. There is not, even in the Thames, a lazaretto where a ship from a suspected place may discharge her cargo and refit: so that she is detained frequently at an enormous expense, during the whole period of quarantine; while, if she have perishable goods on board, they may be very materially injured. It is singular that nothing should hitherto have been done to obviate such grievances. The complaints as to the oppressiveness of quarantine regulations are almost wholly occasioned by the want of proper facilities for its performance. Were these afforded, the burdens it imposes would be rendered compara- tively light; and we do not know that many more important services could be rendered to QUARANTINE. 371 the commerce of the country, than by constructing a proper quarantine establishment on the Thames. Bills of Health. — The period of quarantine varies, an respects ships coming from the same place, according to the nature of their bills of health. These are documents, or certi- ficates, signed by the consul or other competent authority in the place which the ship has left, describing its state of health at the time of her clearing out. A clean bill imports that, at the time of her sailing, no infectious disorder was known to exist. A suspect d, or, as it is more commonly called, a touched hill, imports that rumours were afloat of an infectious disorder, hut that it had not actually appeared. A foul hill, or the ab ena of cl -in lull*, import that the place was infected when the vessel sailed. — (See Bills ok Hi.w.tii.) The duration of the quarantine is regulated by the nature of these instruments. They seem to have been first issued in the Mediterranean ports in 16b5, and are obviously of great im- portance. Quarantine Regulations. — The existing quarantine regulations are embodied in the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 78., and the different orders in council issued under its authority. These orders specify what vessels are liable to perform quarantine ; the places at which it is to be performed ; and the various formalities and regulations to be complied with. The publica- tion in the Gazette of any order in council with respect to quarantine is deemed sufficient notice to all concerned; and no excuse of ignorance is admitted for any infringement of the regulations. To obviate, as far as possible, any foundation for such plea, it is ordered that vessels clearing out for any port or place with respect to which there shall be at the time any order in council subjecting vessels from it to quarantine, are to be furnished with an abstract of the quarantine regulations ; and are In furnish themselves with quarantine signal flags and lanterns, and with materials and instruments for fumigating and immersing goods. The following are the clauses in the act as to signals : — Every commander, master, or other person having the charge of any vessel liable to quarantine, shall, at all times, when such vessel shall meet with any other vessei at sea, or shall be within '2 leagues of the coast of the United Kingdom, or the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Aldemey, Sark, or Man, hoist a signal to denote that his vessel is liable to quarantine ; which signal shall in the day time, if the vessel shall have a clean bill of health, be a large yellow flag, of breadths of hunting, at the main topmast-head ; and if such vessel shall not have a clean bill of health, then a like yellow flag, with a circular mark or hall, entirely black, in the middle thereof, whose diameter shall he equal to 2 breadths of bunting ; and in the night time, the signal shall in both cases he a large signal lantern with a light therein (such as is used on board his Majesty's ships of war), at the same mast-head : and such commander, master, or other person, shall keep such signals hoisted during such time as the said vessel shall continue within sight of such other vessels, or within 2 leagues of the said coast or islands and while so in sight, or within such distance, until such vessel so liable to quarantine shall have ar- rived at the port where it is to perform quarantine, and until it shall have been legally discharged from the performance thereof; on failure whereof, such commander, master, or other person, shall forfeit 1(10/.— $ 8. Every commander, master, or other person having the charge of any vessel on hoard whereof the plague or other infectious disease highly dangerous to the health of his Majesty's subjects shall actu- ally he, shall at all times, when such vessel shall meet with any other vessel at. sea, or shall be withjn 2 leagues of the coast of the United Kingdom, or the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man, hoist a signal, to denote that a vessel has the plague or other infectious disease ; which signal shall he in the daytime a flag of yellow and black, borne quarterly, of 8 breadths of bunting, at Hi" main topmast-head ; and in the night time, the signal shall be - large signal lanterns, commonly used on hoard ships of war, one over the other, at the same mast head : and such commander, master, or other person, shall keep such signal hoisted during such time as the said vessel shall continue with- in si^'lil of such other vessel, or within 2 leagues of the coast or islands, aforesaid, while so in sight, or \\ ithin such distance, until such vessel shall have arrived at the port where it is to perforin quar- antine, and until it shall have been legally discharged from the performance thereof; on failure there- of, such commander, master, or other person, shall forfeit 100/. — $ 9. If any commander, master, or other person, knowing that the same is not liable to the performance of quarantine, shall hoist such signal, by day or night, such commander or other person shall forfeit 50/.—$ 10. But, instead of printing the act, and the various orders in council that have grown out of it, it will be sufficient to lay the following abstract of thein before the reader. This abstract has been prepared by the Custom-house; and contains a distinct summary of the various rules and regulations to be complied with. Abstract of Quarantine Regulations. It is in the first place to be observed, that all persons are presumed to know, and are bound to take notice, not only of the quarantine regulations established by act of parliament (as they are of any other public act), but likewise of every order in council made for the performance of quarantine, and published in the London Gazette ; and as it is easily in their power to inform themselves of such regu- lations, and particular care is taken by this and other means to promulgate such of them as apply to their respective situations, previously to their being actually put under quarantine, when they will re- ceive directions for their guidance from the quarantine officers, no plea of ignorance will be admitted as an excuse for any neglect, breach, or violation thereof; but for the sake of example, and for the security of the public health, the pains, penalties, and punishments of the law will be enforced with the utmost severity. Duty of Commanders and Masters of Vessels. Upon arrival off the coast of the United Kingdom, or the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Aldemey, Sark, or Man, To deliver to the pilot who shall go on board, a written paper, containing a true account of the name of the place at which his ship loaded, and of all the places at which he touched on the home- ward voyage. Neglecting or refusing to deliver such papers, or making any false representation or wilful omission therein, subjects him to a penalty of 500/. 372 QUARANTINE. Upon entering or attempting to enter any port, and being spoke by any quarantine officers, To give a true answer in writing or otherwise, and upon oath or not upon oath (according as he shall be required), to the preliminary questions put to him by such quarantine officer, fur the pur- pose of ascertaining whether his vessel is oris not liable to quarantine. Neglecting or refusing 10 bring his vessel to as soon as it can be done with safety, in obedience to the requisition of the quarantine officer, subjects him to the penalty of 2007. Refusing lo answer such questions, or giving any false answer thereto (if not upon oath), subjects him td the penalty of 2002. If upon oath, to the punishment for wilful and corrupt perjury. If any infectious disease shall appear on board, the master is to repair to such place as his Majesty shall direct, and make known his case to the officer of customs, and he is to remain at that place until directions are given by the Lords of the Privy Council. He is not to permit any of the crew or pas- sengers on board to go on shore, and he, his crew, and passengers, are to obey such directions as are received from the Lords of the Privy Council. Not acting in conformity to the regulations herein directed, or acting in disobedience to such direc- tions as shall be received from the Privy Council, he incurs the penalty of 100/. If informed by the pilot that his vessel has* become liable to quarantine, by reason of any proclama- tion made subsequent to his departure, to hoist and keep hoisted a like signal, under the same penalty of 100/. To give to the pilot coming on board a written paper containing a true account of the different arti- cles composing his cargo. Neglecting or refusing to do so, or making a false representation or wilful omission, subjects him to a penalty of 50/. Masters of vessels liable to quarantine, and other persons on board them or having communication With them, are to repair to the appointed quarantine stations, and may be compelled to do so by force. The master of any vessel having disease on board, on meeting with any other vessel at sea, or with- in 2 leagues of the coast of the United Kingdom, or the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man, is to hoist a signal to denote that his vessel has such disease on board, and is to keep such sig- nal hoisted during such time as he shall continue within sight of such vessels, or within 2 leagues of the coast or islands aforesaid, while so in sight or within such distance, until the vessel shall arrive at the port where she is to perform quarantine, and until she shall be legally discharged from the per- formance thereof. Failing herein, the master incurs the penalty of 100/. If he shall refuse or omit to disclose the circumstances of such infection prevailing either at any place at which lie has been, or on board his vessel, in his answers to the preliminary questions put to him by the quarantine officer, or if he shall wilfully omit to hoist, and to keep hoisted, the proper quarantine signal to denote that his ship is liable to quarantine, he incurs the penalty of 300/. Upon attempting to enter any port, which is not the port at which he ought to perform quarantine, he may be compelled to desist therefrom, in order that he may proceed to the proper quarantine ports, by guns being fired upon the ship, or any other kind of force being used that may be necessary for the attainment of that object. Quitting or knowingly suffering any seamen or passenger to quit his ship, by going on shore, or by going on board any other vessel or boat, before discharged from quarantine, or, Not repairing to the proper quarantine station within a convenient time after due notice given, in- curs a penalty of 100/. To repair in all cases to the proper quarantine port, as herein-after stated in the Appendix, accord- ing as he shall or shall not be furnished with a clean bill of health, and according to the port or place to which he shall be bound,^s herein stated. But if through ignorance, or by stress of weather, damage, loss, or accidents of the seas, he shall have passed the proper quarantine port, he may (having a clean bill of health on board, and upon giving satisfactory proof thereof upon oath, and by the oath of the pilot, if any on board, and that the same was not wilfully or intentionally done or occasioned) be permitted to proceed to some other quarantine port, in the discretion of the quarantine officer, keeping the proper quarantine siL'nal hoisted dining the whole time. Upon his arrival at the proper quarantine port, to give true answers upon oath to all the quarantine questions, and to make oath to the truth of his log-book, and the times at which the entries were therein made : failing herein, he incurs the penalty of wilful and corrupt perjury. He is also to repair to the particular station which shall be appointed by the quarantine officer for the said ship or vessel. To deliver up to the quarantine officer his bill of health, manifest, log-book, and journal. Willfully refusing or neglecting so to do, subjects him to a penalty of 100/. If not bound to any port of the United Kingdom, or the islands aforesaid, and attempting to enter any port thereof (except to wait for orders, or in consequence of stress of weather or accidents of the seas), he shall give satisfactory proof thereof to the quarantine officers, and give true answers upon oath to the preliminary questions, and strictly conform to all such directions as he shall receive from the quarantine officer, touching his continuance at such port, or departure from thence, or repairing to any other ; and also with respect to all other quarantine regulations ; in default of which, he may be compelled to proceed to sea by any means or by any kind of force that shall be necessary for that purpose. Having performed quarantine in any foreign lazaret, the vessel is to be put under quarantine at some of the purls herein-after appointed, until the master shall produce to the quarantine officer the proper documents in proof thereof j upon production whereof the said vessel shall not be obliged to perform quarantine, but shall remain at such station until released by order in council. Unshipping, or moving in order to unship, any guods from on board any vessel liable to quarantine Subjects lo a penalty of 500/. Clandestinely conveying, or secreting or concealing for the purpose of conveying, any letter, goods, or other articles, from any vessel actually performing quarantine, subjects to a penalty of 100/. JVotc— Every commander or master of any vessel clearing out or about lo sail for any port or place in the Mediterranean, or in the West Barbary on the Atlantic Ocean, or for any port or place respect- ing which there shall at the time be any order of his Majesty in council in force, subjecting vessels coming from thence to quarantine, is to receive from the principal officer of the customs at such port or place, this printed Abstract of the Quarantine Regulations, which such commander or master is to cause to be affixed on some convenient and conspicuous part of his said vessel, and to remain so affixed until his return with his said vessel to some port or place in the United Kingdom or the islands aforesaid. And every such commander and master is likewise to provide and take on board 1 at least of each of the proper quarantine signal flags and lanterns, and likewise materials and instruments for fumi- gation, and immersion, and to keep the same on board, to be used upon his return to the United Kingdom or the islands aforesaid. Duty of Pilots. Pilots are slrictly to observe the following directions : — To receive an account in writing from every commander or master of any vessel coming from QUARANTINE. 373 foreign parts, of the places at which his vessel loaded, and at which he touched on his said home- ward voyage. To give notice to such commander or master of any proclamation, or order in council, made after the departure ' ! from the United King. I or the islands aforesaid, and then in force, by Which vessels i ing from any place mentioned m such account shall lie liable to quarantine. Neg- lecting or omitting to give Buch notice subjects them to a penally of 10(M. To give a like notii e of any proclamation then in force, by which vessels having on hoard .any of the articles ntioned in the master's account shall he liable to quarantine. Neglecting or omitting to give such notice subjects them to penalty of 100/. To remain on board in the same manner as any of the officers, crew, or passengers, and not to quit the said vessel before or after the arrival, either by going on shore, or by going on board any othei vessel or boat with intent to go onshore, until she is regularly discharged from quarantine ; and they may be compelled by any persons whatsoever, and by any kind of necessary force, to return on board the same. If they offend herein they incur a penalty of 300/. and 6 months' imprisonment. Not to bring any such vessel into any port or place other than the port or place appointed for the reception of vessels so liable to quarantine, as stated in the Appendix, unless compelled by stress of weather, adverse winds, or accidents of the seas, of which the pilot, as well as the commander or master of the vessel, is to give satisfactory proof upon oath. If they offend herein they incur a penalty of 2007. To bring the ship to, as soon as it can be done with safety in obedience to the requisition of the quarantine officer. Failing herein subjects them to a penalty of 100/. Duty of other Persons. When any infectious disease actually appears on board any vessel, all persons on board are to obey the direction of the privy council, under a penalty of 100/. Not to quit such vessel, either by going on shore, or by going on hoard any other vessel or boat with intent to go on shore, until regularly discharged from quarantine; and if they quit the ship they may be compelled by any person whatsoever, and by any kind of necessary force, to return on board the same ; and are also liable to a penalty of 300/. and G months' imprisonment. Whether liable to quarantine, or actually performing quarantine, or having had any intercourse or communication with any such persons so liable to or under quarantine, all persons are to obey all such orders as they shall receive from the quarantine officer, and to repair to the lazaret, vessel, or place appointed for the performance of quarantine. Wilfully refusing or neglecting to repair forthwith. when required so to do by such officers, or escaping from or out of such lazaret, vessel, or place, may be c pelled to repair or return thereto bv any kind of necessary force, and are subject lo a penally of 200/. Landing or unshipping, or moving in order to the landing or unshipping, of any goods, packets, pack- ages, baggage, wearing apparel, books, letters, or any other articles whatever, from vessels liable to quarantine, are liable to a penalty of 500/. Clandestinely conveying, or secreting or concealing for the purpose of conveying, any goods, letters, or other articles as aforesaid, from any vessel actually performing quarantine, or from the lazaret or other place where such goods or other articles shall be performing quarantine, are liable to a penalty of 100/. Having quitted or come on shore from any vessel liable to or under quarantine, or having escaped from any lazaret or other place appointed in that behalf, may he seized and apprehended by any con- stable or other peace officer, or by any other person whatever, and carried before a justice of the peace, who may grant his warrant for conveying such person to the vessel, lazaret, or other place from which he shall have escaped, or for confining him in any place of safe custody (not being a public gaol) until directions can be obtained from the privy council. Knowingly and wilfully forging or counterfeiting, interlining, erasing, or altering, or procuring to be forged, &c, any certificate directed by any order in council touching quarantine, or publishing the same as true, or uttering any such certificate with intent to obtain the effect of a true certificate, knowing its contents to be false, are guilty of felony. What Vessels are liable to Quarantine. All vessels (as well ships of war as all others) with or without clean hills of health, coming — From or having touched at any place in the Mediterranean, or the West liarbary on the Atlantic ocean. From any other place from which his Majesty shall from time to time adjudge it probable (and shall so declare by proclamation or order in council) that the plague, or any other infectious disease or distemper highly dangerous to the health of his Majesty's subjects, may be brought. JVo/e. — They are considered as liable to quarantine from the time of their leaving any of the said places. All vessels having communication with any of the before-mentioned ships or vessels, or receiving — Any person whatever from or out of such vessel, whether such person shall have come from any of the said places, or shall have gone on board of such vessel, either in the course of her voyage, or upon her arrival off the coast of the United Kingdom, &c. — Or, Any goods, wares, or merchandise, packets, packages, baggage, wearing apparel, goods, letters, or any other articles whatever, from or out of such ship or vessel. JVrt/e. — They are liable to quarantine from the time of their receiving any such persons or goods. All vessels coming from any port or place in Europe without the Straits of Gibraltar, or on the continent of America, and having on board — Any of the articles enumerated (a list of which articles see in the Appendix) ; And not producing a declaration upon oath, made by the owner, proprietor, shipper, or consignee. stating either that such articles are not the growth, produce, or manufacture of Turkey, or of any place in Africa within the Straits of Gibraltar, or in the West Barbary on the Atlantic Ocean, oi stating of what place they are the growth, produce, or manufacture. All vessels and boats receiving — Any of the said goods, wares, or merchandise, or other articles enumerated. Signals. For vessels with the plague or other highly infectious disease actually on board- In the day time— A flag of yellow and black, borne quarterly, of 8 breadths of bunting, at the main topmast-head. In the night time— Two large signal lanterns, with a light therein, such as are commonly used on board his Majesty's ships of war, one over the other, at the same mast-head. For vessels with clean bills of health — In the day time — A large yellow flag, of 6 breadths of bunting, at the main-topmast-head. In the night time — A large signal lantern, with a light therein, such as is commonly used on board his Majesty's ships of war, at the same mast-head. For vessels without clean bills of health — Vol. II.— 2 I 374 QUARANTINE. In the day time— A large yellow flag, with a circular mark or ball, entirely black, in the middle thereof, whose diameter shall be equal to 2 breadths of bunting, at the main topmast head. In the night time — Same as for vessels with clean bills of health. Note. — Every commander or master of a vessel about to sail for the Mediterranean, or for anyplace respecting which an order in council shall be in force, subjecting vessels coining from thence to a qua- rantine, to be provided with the quarantine signals above mentioned, and to keep the same on board, to be used on his return to the United Kingdom. Any commander or master hoisting either of the said quarantine signals, by day or night, knowing that his vessel is not liable to quarantine, incurs the penalty of 50/. Appendix. — A List of Articles enumerated considered as most liable to Infection. Platting of bast, chip, cane, si Apparel of all kinds Artificial flowers Bast, or any articles made thereof Beads, bracelet-?, or necklaces in strings Beds and bed ticks Books Brooms of all sorts Brushes of all sorts Burdets Camlets Canvass Carmenia wool Carpets Cordage not tarred Cotton wool Cotton yarn Cotton thread All article-* wholly made of or mixed cotton, silk, wool, thread, or yarn Dow Feathers Flax Furriers' waste Goats' hair Gold or silver on thread, cotton, hair, wool, or silk, or any other substance herein-before mentioned Grogram Hats, caps, or bonnets of straw, chip, cane, or any other materia] He Quarantine Ports. Quills Ran Sails and sail cloths Silk, viz.— crapes and tiffanies, bosks and knubs, raw silk, (brown and or^anzine silk, waste silk, wrought silk Skins, hides, and furs, and parts or pieces of skins, hides, and furs, whether undressed, or in part or wholly tanned, tawel, or dressed Sponges Straw, or any article made or mired with straw Stockings of all sorts Thread, tow, vellum, whisks, wool, whether raw or anywise wrought Yarn of all sorts And all other goods whatsoever, if they shall have arrived in or with packages consist- ing wholly or in part of any of the said articles. For Vessels liable to Quarantine not coming from any Place actually infected, nor having- any Infection actually on Board. All ships and vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at MUford Huvea:— St. Ives Pad?tow Hoofs Horn and horn tips Hair ol all sorts Leather Linen Lute strings, bathings, or harp strings Maps Mattresses Mats and matting Mohair yarn Nets, new or old Paper Packthread Parchment Pelts r, or horse Without dean Bills of Health. All vessels, ships of war, Sec as herein-after specified, to perform quarantine at Standgate Creek or MUford Haven. Ships of war, transports, or other ships in the actual service of government, under the command of a commissioned officer in the rervice of his Majesty's navy, whithersoever bound, to perform qua- rantine at the Mvtherbankj near Portsmouth, at a place marked out with yellow buoys. With clean Bills of Health. All ships and vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at Standgate Creek;— London, Rochestei, Favcrsham, or any creeks or places belonging to or within anv or either of the above ports. All ships and vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at IVhitebooth Road, between Hull and Grimsby:— Wisbeach Boston Grimsby Hull Bridlington Scarborough Whitby Stockton Sunderland Newcastle Berwick Leigh Ma Id on Colchester Harwich Ipswich Woodbridge Aid bo rough South wold Yarmouth Blackney and Clay Wells Lynn And any creeks or places belonging to or within any or either of the above ports. All ships and vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at Bamboro 1 Pool, near Liverpool, or MUford Haven :— Carlisle Whitehaven Lancaster Pres'on And any creeks or places belonging to or within any or either of the above ports. All ships and vessel* bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at the Mothcrbank, near Portsnvmth;— indel Chichester Portsmouth Southampton Cowes Llanelly Pembroke Bideford Milford tapte Cardigan Ilfracombe Aberystwith Or any creeks or places belonging to or within any or either of the above ports. All ships and vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at the Muthrrbank, near Portsmouth, or St. JusVs Pool, within the mouth of the harbour of Falmouth : — Jersey Sark Guernsey Alderney Or either of them, or any part of either of them. All ships and vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at Jnverkeithing Bay : The eastern coasts of Scotland, comprehending the ports of Leith Borrowstoness Alloa Dunbar Anstruther Prestonpins Dundee Perth Montrose Aberdeen Kirkaldy Or any member, creek, cr other place belonging to or within any or either of the above ports. All ships and vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at Holy Loch, in the Frith of Clyde :—* The western coast of Scotland, comprehending the ports of Campbell Town Oban Or any member, creek, Sandwich Deal Dover Rye fcewhavei Sborehain And any creeks or places belonging to or within any or cither of the above ports. All ships and vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at St. Just's Pool, within the mouth of the harbour of Falmouth;— Poole Fowcy Wry mouth Falmouth Lyme GweeK Exeter Penryn Dartmouth Truro l'U mouth Penzance Looe Scilly And any creeks or places belonging to or " above ports. All ships and vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at King Road and Portshute Pill:— Brideewater Chepstow Mn.ehead Cardiff Bristol Swansea Gloucester And any creeks or places belonging to or within any or either of the above ports. within any or either of the Rotbsay Fort William Ayr Port Patrick Stranraer Wigtown ace belonging to or within any or Iher of the above ports. All ships aud vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at Invcrkcithing Bay: — The northern ports of Scotland, Orkney comprehending the ports of Caithness Inverness. Stornaway Zetland Or any member, creek, or other place belonging to or within any or either of the above ports. All ships and vessels bound to the following places, to perform quarantine at Holy Loch, in the Frith of Clyde;— The southwest ports of Scotland, comprehending the ports of Dumfries and Kirkcudbright, or any member, creek, or other place belonging to or within any or either of the abovt Bound to any port of Ireland, between Missen Head and Tuskard, to perform quarantine at the Bay of Bali Hounl brtwci-n Tuskard and Kalhlin, to pei form quarantine at Lough Lorn and the Bay of Carlingford, near KUlowcen Point, opposite to the town of Cartingford. Bound to lt.it hi in and Tory Island, to perform quarantine at Bah lymostoher Bay or Red Castle Road, near Londonderry. Bound to Tory Island and Blacksod Bay, to perform quarantine at the harbour of Kitiy Begs. Bound to Loop Head and Missen Head, to perform quarantine at Scattery Bay, in the river of Limerick, Bound to any place on the coasts of the United Kingdom, not within any of the ports or limits herein-before mentioned or described, to perform quarantine at such places herein-before appointed for per- formance of quarantine, as stall be nearest to the port or place to which such vessels respectively shall be so bound. Preliminary Questions. 1. What is the name of the vessel, and the name of the commander or master? 2. Are you the commander or master? Where does she belong? . 3. From whence do you come? I 4. To what place are you bound ? QUARANTINE, QUASSIA. 375 5 At whit ports hive you touched since you left the port of your 6. What v rcourae or communication with on your , - lid they come? 7. Did thi ease or distemper pre- vail in fi you sailed on placet at which you ■ fi I when. Are any persons on board your ship suffering under any infectious e any p* i died or been ill of a thai nati and if any, what num- tn i \i i ii their oyed? [If the vi w 1 tnall have sailed from any port in Europe without the Sti nu, or on the continent of Aim i ic 1. 1 8. Ha v. hi. i iti I in thil list? I' "i ell I.ltr I. I If you have, s] [whether Iheyare of the growth, fimnufaclurc of Turkey, or of any place in Africa within he Straits of Gibraltar, or in the West Barbary on the Atlantic Ocean, nr of what other place? Have you any declaration to prove of what place they are the growth, produce, or manufacture? [If the vessel conies from the Mediterranean, or from any other place resj there is any order in council in force concerning quarantine.] 9. Have you any, and n bat bill of health ? 10. What number of officers, mariners, and passengers have you on board ? [And in cases of vessels coming from or having touched at any port or place on the continent of America, or the islands adjacent ■ having touched at any ports ; questions are to be put, iu addition to thereto, nr coming fi West Indies, the follow » the aforesaid questions:] 11. In the course of your voyage, have any persons on board suffered from sickness of any kind? Whit was the nature of such sickness ? and when did it prevail ? How many persons were I by it ? and have any of them died in the course of the voyage ? 12. How long after sailing from your port of lading, or having touched at any porl of the continent of America or the islands of the ports in the West Indies, was the first appearance of disease observed ? 13. How had the persons attacked been employed before they came on board ? 14. Had they been employed in loading or unloading the vessel before she left the port? 15. Had the place which they inhabited before they sailed, the repu- tation of being healthy; or was it subject particularly to the fever incident to the country? 16. Had the lever been frequent in the place before the vessel sailed ? 17. Did the persons who were ill on board your vessel fall sick nearly about the same time, or within a few days of each Other? Or, did the disorder spread successively from one to another, and increase considerably? Or, did it abate gradu- ally, and cease to multiply as the d'istance from the ports you sailed from or touched at as aforesaid increased ? 18. What waa the greatest number of persons ill at the most sickly period of your voyage ? 19. What was the whole number of persons on board your vessel when you sailed? 20. What isthe whnlenumberof personsnow ill on board your ves?el? 21. Can you state what were the symptoms of illness "with which your crew were first attacked; and what was the daily suc- ud change in them till their death ? 22. Whether any and what medicines have been used? and what methods have been adopted to prevent its spreading among the ci 23. Whether attention has been paid to cleanliness and ventilation on board your vessel ? 24. When did you sail from the port or place from whence you took on board your outward cargo? and at what place did you tnu. h before you arrived at the port or place where you took in your present cargo ? 25. Did you carry any bili of health with you to the port or place where you took in the cargo you have now on board ? From what place? Were the saij bills clean, unclean, or suspected? Quarantine Questions. 1. What is the name of the vessel, and the name of her commander or master? 2. Are you the commander or master ? 3. To what port or place does she belong? 4. When did you sail from the port or place from whence you took on board your outward cargo? and at what places did you touch before you arrived at the port or place where you took in your present cargo ? 5. Did you carry any bill or bills of health with you to the port or place where yon took in the cargo you have now on board? From what places? Were the said bills of health clean, un- clean, or suspected ? 6. From what port or place does she now come? When did you sail from such port or place? and at what place or places have you touched in the course of the voyage ? 7. Have you any bill or bills of health on board? From what place or places ? Are the same clean, unclean, or suspected ? Pro- duce them. [If the vessel shall have sailed from any port or place in Europe without the Straits, or on the continent of America.] 8. Of what articles does your cargo consist? Have you on board enumerated in this list ? [Handing up a list of articles enumerated.] If you have, specify the same, and whether they are of the growth, produce, nr manufacture of Turkey, or of any place ju Africa, within the Straits of Gibraltar, or in the West Bar- baryon the Atlantic Ocean, or of what other place. Have you any declatation to prove of what place they are the growth, produce, or manufacture ? 9. At what place or places was the car^o or any part thereof taken on board On what lay did you arrive at the place or places i i any and what p i cargo? And on what day did you tail from such place or An I n bat |i >it of your cargo was taken in at each pi ice, sod when } 0. Did the plague or any othei inli ctious disease or distent] er pre vail in any degree at the places from whence 3 iu sailed, or at any of the places al which your cargo was taken on board, or at which you touched ? If at any, say at which, an 1 when. 1. Did you hi it ol at ] report, or are yon aware of anj plague or any other infectious disease prev tiled at the place from whence you sailed, or at any other place in (he Mediterranean (or In America or the W may he) ? 2. What number of oti , passengers, or other persons i 1 rou on board ? Describe the number of each. 3. At what port did you take on I ird j iui pat engers? 1. Were they residents at that place, or had thi j been embarked ax passenger* on board any other vessel from any other places? and from what places and at what time ? 5. Do the said officers, mat 1 md other persons, consist of the same individuals aa were on board at the port from which you sailed upon your homeward voyage ? If any other persons have been taken on board, or if any of your officers, crew, or passengers have quitted your vessel since you sailed from such port, or before your arrival at this place, or if any other alterations in that respect have taken place, spe- cify the same, the causes and the time or times of such altera- tions. i. What number of persons (if any) have died on board during the voyage outwards and homewards, or at any port at which you have touched? When, and in what part of the voyage did such person or persons die? Of what disease or disti I L Have any of your officers, mariners, or other persons of your crew, who sailed with you on your outward voyage, died or left the v 3. In the course of your voyage outwards or homewards, or at any port at which yon have touched, have any persons on board suffered from sickness of any kind ? What was the nature of such sickness? When did it prevail? How many persons were affected by it? Are there any convalescents on board? Or, are all persons on board at present in good health ? ). Were any of those who died, or who have been sick in tho course of the voyage, or any port at which you have touched, affected, or suspected to have been affected, by any infectious disease or distemper ? Were the bedding and "clothes of such deceased and sick persons destroyed ? If so, when and in what manner were any of the persons immediately employed about the sick afterwards taken ill ? If so, of what disease ? and in how many days after having been so employed ? I. At what precise time did such deaths happen? In how many days after being indisposed did the sick die ? What were the most obvious appearances of the disease ? . Hive you spoken to or otherwise had any communication with any vessels at sea, during the voyage ? What were the names of such vessels? and to what country, port, or place did they belong? From what ports or places were they coming, or at what ports or places had they touched on their voyage ? and to what country, ports, or places were they bound ? What was the nature of the communication held ? What do you know respectii^g the state of health on hoard such vessels ? I. Have there been any letters, parcels, or other articles delivered out of or received into your vessel, from any vessel or boat met with on the voyage, or before or since your arrival at this place? And what were such letters, parcels, or articles? And where were the same delivered or received ? and into or out of what vessel or boat ? t. Have you any packages or parcels which you have taken charge of ? If so, w hat are their contents ? and when and where did you take them on board ? 1. What pilots or other persons from the shores of the United King- dom, or from the islands of Scilly, Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man, have been or are now on board your vessel, or have had any communication whatever with the ship's com- pany, or any of the passengers, during the voyage homewards, or before or since your arrival at this place ? If any such pilots or other persons have come on hoard, and have after* wards quitted your vessel, specify the names of such persons, and the time, manner, and circumstances of their so quitting your vessel. ''. Did you leave any British vessels at any of the ports you sailed from ? If you did, mention their names and the* names of their commanders. !. Were such vessels loading ? were they near their departure ? and whither were they bound ? '. Did you meet with any British vessels at any of the places you touched at ? If you did, say when, where, and what were the names and destinations of such vessels j and to what ports or places did they belong ? . Do you know whether any foreign vessels loading at the port from which you sailed, were bound beyond the straits of Gib- raltar? And if so, what were they? and whither were they bound ? . Do you know whether any person whatever employed in loading your vessel, or in bringing any articles into it, or having any communications on board thereof, was taken ill during such employment or communication ? or whether, by the absence of such person or persons in the course of such employment, any suspicion was entertained of their having been ill ? If so, of what disease ? . Do you know whether or not your cargo, or any part thereof, had been long in warehouse before its being taken on board ? If you do, say how long. Have you any knowledge of its being p icke I or handled on shore, < r conveyed from shore, or Stovi edi :ted with the plague or any other infectii rdiste [For information concerning the quarantine regulations of the United States, the reader is referred to the statutes of the several states on the seaboard. — Am. Ed.] QUASSIA (Ger. Quassienkolz ,- Fr. Bois de r/uassie; Sp. Leno de quassia), a beautiful tall tree (Quassia amara), growing in North and South America, and the West Indies. The wood is of a pale yellow colour, and inodorous ; it, as well as the fruit and bark of the 376 QUEBEC. tree, has a place in the materia medica. Its taste is intensely bitter. It fs said to have been sometimes used by the brewers in the preparation of beer, instead of hops : but the use of it for this purpose is prohibited, under severe penalties. — (See Ale and Beek.) The price of quassia in bond varies from 1/. 4s. to 1/. 6s. a cwt. The duty is 8l. 17s. 6d. ; it is of course intended to be prohibitory ; and is one of the few imposed for such a purpose, against which no good objection can be urged. QUEBEC, the capital of Canada, and of the British possessions in North America, on the north-west bank of the river St. Lawrence, about 340 miles from its mouth, in lat. 46° 48' 49" N., Ion. 71° 10' 45" W. Population in 1831, 27,562. Quebec is situated on a ridge, or promontory, formed by the St. Lawrence on the S. and W., and the river St. Charles on the E. The extremity of this headland, called Cape Diamond, is about 345 feet above the level of the water, and on it the citadel is built. The town extends from the citadel, principally in a north-east direction, down to the water; and is, from the difference of elevation, divided into the upper and lower towns. The fortifica- tions, which are very strong, extend across the peninsula ; the circuit within them being about 2^ miles. From their situation, many of the streets are uneven ; they are also, for the most part, narrow; but they are either well paved or Macadamised. The greater num- ber of the houses are built of stone, with shingle roofs. Some of the public buildings are elegant, and well adapted for their purposes. The harbour, or basin, lies between the town and the island of Orleans. It is safe and commodious: the water is about 28 fathoms deep, with a tide rising from 17 to 18 feet; and at springs from 23 to 25 ditto. Quebec was founded by the French in 1608. In 1629, it was taken by the English ; but was restored in 1632. It was again taken by the English under General Wolfe, who fell in the engage- ment, in 1759 ; and was finally ceded to us by the treaty of Paris in 1763. The rapid increase of population in Upper Canada has occasioned a proportional increase of intercourse between Quebec, Montreal, &c. The first steam boat that plied on the St. Lawrence was launched in 1812. There are now above a dozen steam boats, 1 of them of 600 tons burden, employed in the conveyance of goods and passengers between Quebec and Montreal ; and a steam ship of from 700 to 800 tons burden is engaged in the trade between Quebec and Halifax in Nova Scotia. Thus is formed a line of steam communication from the Atlantic to Amherstburgh, one of the remote settlements of Upper Canada, — a distance of more than 1,500 miles; which we ma}' soon expect to see extended to the head of lake Huron, and eventually to the western extremity of lake Superior, about 700 miles l>eyond Amherstburgh ; giving to Quebec a command of internal navigation inferior only to that of New Orleans. The navigation at Quebec closes at the end of November or beginning of December, and opens in ApriL Below Quebec the river is seldom frozen over; but the masses of floating ice, kept in constant agitation by the flux and reflux of the tide, render n&vifration impracticable. The waters of the St. Lawrence are very pure ; and in point of depth and magnitude it is one of the noblest rivers in the world. — (Bouchelte's British Do- minions in America, vol. i. p. 272.) Quebec is a free warehousing port. We have already given (see vol. i. p. 425.) an account of the aggregate value and amount of the trade and navigation of Canada, and our other possessions in North America, for three different periods; viz. 1806, 1825, and 1831. The act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 59., regu- lating the colonial trade, and the duties upon the different articles imported into Canada and the other colonies, is given vol. i. pp. 426 — 434. But the following statements illustrate some of these points in detail, while others refer particularly to the trade, charges, &c. pecu- liar to Quebec and the St. Lawrence. Monies. — Table of Coins in Circulation. English, Portuguese, American, Weight. Halifax Old English, Portuguese, American, Weight. I Halifax Old Spanish, and French Coins. Currency. Currency. Spanish, and French Coins. Currency. Currency. Diet. gr. L. t. d. Liv. soli. SiJuer. Divt. %r. L. ». d. Liv. toll. A guinea • 5 6 1 3 4 2S A crown - 6 6 6 12 i - 5 3 1 2 3 26 14 Englilb shilling n 1 1 1 6 Half guinea 2 15 Oil RJ 14 0! Spanish and American dollar 5 6 Third of a guinea • 1 18 7 9 9 6 . 1 1 4 - 18 4 96 French crown, coined before Half ditlo - 9 2 48 1793 5 6 6 12 Moidore • 6 18 1 10 ?6 Fpnch piece, of 4 liv. lOsols Eajle 11 6 2 10 60 , 4 2 5 Half ditto • 5 15 1 6 30 French piece of 6 francs, since n 17 3 14 6 89 8 1:92 5 6 Half ditto . 8 12 1 17 3 44 14 French piece of 5 francs, do. 4 8 Louis d'or, coined before 1793 5 4 1 2 8 27 4 Pistole do. 4 4 18 3 21 18 The 40 francs.coined since 1792 8 6 1 16 2 The twenty francs, ditto 4 3 18 1 Deducting 1-I0th from (he currency value of thi Paper Currency. — There is no established government bank in the i d1 there are private chartered banks, which have the ollowing sums of paper currency in circulation, viz. Quebec Bank • Montreal Bank • CftOftdft Hank « ■ 23,393 - St", 143 5 I (2 10 L. 125,369 15 will give their sterling value. N. B.— No notes or other paper money a the province. : issued on. the credit of Accounts kept in Halifax currency. M't - 'land. Measures.— Standard wine gallon, liquid measure of the province. The Canada minot for all trrain, kc. except where specially agreed i mtrary ; ami m. ■ i . ; ■ Winchester I ;l»h Winchester bushel, whi agreed fjr. The Paris foal. 1 01 .-'■■■ QUEBEC. 377 »ious to the conquest, and all measures of length, except an agTce- uiiriit is in l 1( li the , iiliuv. 'I'll'* Kii^IMj ■ lands granted since the conquest, and wherever specially agreed upun. The standard English yard for measuring all cloths or ttufl id- yard or measure of length. The English ell, when specially agreed upoD. Trade of Canada, in 1832. Imports. Brandy - Inn an I whisky Sugar, refined Tea, hyson bohea green gallons 411,201 at 1,089465 • 183,277 - 61,954 - lbs. 1,061,812 — 6,756,172 — 174,899 — 63,000 — 91,092 — 627,031 Salt • barrels 260,227 Playing cards - - packs 33,900 - 1 Tobacco, leaf - ■ lbs. 121,213 - manufactured — 147,109 • Cigars - - - — 635-5 Merchandise, British manufactures, paying 2^ per cent, ad valorem duty - I . 87,019 Hi.. M 15,489 J>..J'»i 95.918 8,745 11,182 9.109 103,378 13,017 2,431 2,070 4.903 134 324,125 130,959 123,670 22,555 1,338,S74 1,940,183 Exports. Valued at. Exports. Valued at. L. 149,876 67,587 704,834 8,521 37,893 205,241 30,900 16459 23,616 Ij 127, 363 New ships 10 Masts and spars • 3,125 Oak tons 20,804 Red pine - - ■ — 38,723 Fellow do. - - - — 133,C2S Ash - - — 1,432 Elm - - — 18,658 Birch, kc. ■ ■ - — 936 Staves, heading, fed - - — 4,910,249 Deals .... pieces 1,031,404 Boards and plank- - - — 584,176 Deal ends, oars, battens, handspikes, lathwood, pun- cheon snooks, treenails, shingles, shipping poles - /.. 28,000 8,810 41,608 61,631 135,628 1,611 24,870 599 68,733 86,512 23,641 17,255 Potash .... cwt. 113.116 Pearl-ash - - - • — 49,146 Total produce of the forest • L. Fish, oil, seal, skins - Pork, beef, butter, lard, live stock, hides, castoreum, capillaire, natural curiosities, &c. - Wheat, Indian corn, barley, &c. Furs, &c. - Exports from New-Carlisle ... Do. from Gaspe" .... Total exports, the produce of the Canadas - L. The remaining exports consist of British fabrics, West India produce, and teas re-exported. Nine tenths of this trade is carried on from Quebec. A great proportion of the imports is, however, con- sumed in Upper Canada ; and it also supplies a very large share of the exports ; but it is impossible, owing to the inaccuracy of the returns, to discriminate the imports and exports on account of each province. An Account of Arrivals at Quebec in the Years 1831 and 1832. Ireland - Do. - Jersey - • Gibraltar Netherlands - Sweden Spain - Portugnl British N. A. colonies Do. - British West Indies I)o. • U.S. (British)- Do. do. with cargoes in ballast with cargoes in ballast nth cargoes in ballast pith cargoes in ballast vith cargoes in ballast Vessels. Tons. Men. 278 80,333 3,755 305 97,598 4,146 73 21.554 974 146 35,523 1,609 1 111 8 3 431 22 3 974 43 1 158 9 2 358 19 4 879 37 117 10,316 562 29 5,317 254 56 7,512 423 1 425 18 3 449 20 I 373 17 Colombia (British) Do. (foreign) - r.r.v/il r.ritish - in ballast with cargoes Total arrivals in Canada, in 1831 Do. departures from do. Of the latter, 9 were built dur- ing the year, of the burden of 3,386 tons. Arrivals in Canada, in 1832 - Do. departures in do. • Ships built in do. 6,670 7,651 1,111 1,101 1,0*4 1,098 287,727 2LtJ,(N6 2,800 Men. 12,716 12,S00 235 JV. B — We are indebted for these details to the valuable work of Mr. M'Oregor on British America 2<1 edit. vol. ii. pp. 504 — 515. Population.— According to the latest census, the population of Lower Canada amounted to 539,822. Raits of Pilotage for the River St. Lawrence. From Bic to Quebec (153 miles distance) — From the 2d to the 30th April, inclusive From the 1st May to the 10th Nov., inclusive • From the I Ith to the ISth November, inclusive • From the 19th Nov. to the 1st March, inclusive . From Quebec to Bic — From the 2d tn the 30th April, inclusive • From the 1st May to the 10th November, inclusi From the 1 1th to'the 18th November, inclusive - . to the 1st March, inclusive - From the 19th No 18 15 9 1 9 Rates of pilot water and poundage on pilot money are payable at the Naval Office, by masters and commanders of vessels, viz.— For every foot of waler for which masters or commanders of ves- sels are bound to pay their pilots, from Bic to Quebec, and from Que- bec to Bic, 2s. 6J. currency per foot — For vessels going to Three Rivers or Montreal, Of 100 to 150 tons, inclusive - . . L. 2 currency. Of 151 to 200 tons, inclusive - . 3 — Of 201 to 250 tons, inclusive - . 4 — Of 251 tons and upwards - • - 5 — On settling with pilots, masters or commanders of vessels, or the consignees of such vessels, are to deduct Is. in the pound for the amount of the sums to be paid for pilotage, which will be exacted by 2i 2 the naval officer at clearing out; the same being funded by law under the direction of the Trinity House, for the relief of decayed pilots, their widows and children. Regulations for the Payment of Pilotage above Bic to Quebec. At or above the anchorage of the Brandv Pots, 2-3ds of the present rate for a full pilotage. Above the point of St. Roc, l-3d do. Above ihe Point aux Pins, on the Ileaux Grues, and below Patrick's Hole, 1 4th do. X. «. d. At and above Patrick's Hole - . ■ -13 4 For shifting a vessel from one wharf to another, between Rrehaut's wharf and Point a Carcis ; or from or to the stream, from or to any of ihe above wharfs - - 11 S For shifting a vessel from the stream, or from either of the above wharfs to St. Patrick's Hole, or to the basin of Montmorency, or to the ballast-ground, the basin of the Chaudiere, Wolfe's Cove, and as far as the River Cap Rouge. • - - • . - 1 3 4 Rates above the Harbour of Quebec For vessels of regis- 1 ~ rt . t tered measurement 1 T " .«'™' From Quebec to ( " f,4/.cur-^ Port Neuf, • rency. icicu iiicaiiiiiciiit'iii l n . »i r rtf i -. not exceeding 200 T Port Neuf, 2(. 10j. s 1 cnrrt'tirv. 6 . j If above 200 and not J * I exceeding 250 tons - 6;. If above 250 Ions 48 — 3t I0». — 4fc 378 QUERCITRON BARK, QUILLS. To Three Rivers, or ) Vnv „« eiil . .»»*» P^r. vl,f (For vessel? above Fort Neuf, 6/. currency ing 200 Ions To Montreal above Thr< vers, lit currency exceed- ( From Three Rivers < and above Fori t Neuf, 4i.currency. If above 200 tons and 1 not exceeding 250 > — 41. 10.. tons - - - ) If above 250 tons — 51. \0s. From Montreal, and above Three Ri- ' r ing 200 tons - "j vers, V. 10s. cur- ' J I rency. 1 \ For vessels not exceed- J To Montreal, nnd above Three Ri- vers, 13/. cur- rency If above 200 tons and f From MoDtreaJ,awI not exceeding 250-J above Three Ri- tons . • °. . vers > *■ »*■ cur- V. reDCy. — 101. I3». 161. If above 250 Ions Pilots are at liberty to leave vessels 4S lionrs after they arrive at the place of their destination. Quebec Almanac, for 1833. Exports to British America. Quantity and Declared Value of the different Articles of British and Irish Produce and Manufacture exported to the North American Colonies in 1831. —(Pari. Paper, No. 550. Sess. 1833.) Articles. Apparel, slops, &c. • Arms and ammunition Bacon and hams Beef and pork Beer and ale Books, printed Brass and copper manufactures Butter and cheese - Coals, culm, and cinders - Cordage - Cotton manufactures Hosiery, lace, &c • Cotton twist and yarn Earthenware Fish Glass at value Hardwares and cutlery - - — Ha's, beaver and felt - - dozen Iron & steel, wrought & unwrought tons Lead and shot - • - — Leather, wrought and unwrought - cwt. - barrels tuns - cwt tons - cwt. - yards - lbs. ■ pieces - barrels • cwt. lbs. 8,534 272 446 MS8 2,572 31,134 20,138 15,618,106 307,997 2,253,": 51 62 17,883 29,4<-2 7,465 12.100 320 429,236 16S.752 16,941 128 24.092 4.9 4 9,?07 8.W2 9,330 15, 29 45,116 413.737 25.536 10,376 2 J, 3 9 66 81,819 I,3S0 127,318 26,734 133,527 5,511 66.021 Saddlery and harness Linen ijnriutactures - - yards Thread, tapes, &c. ... Machinery and mill work Painters' colours .... Plate, plated ware, jewellery, & watches Salt Silk mmufac'ures Soap and can lies - J of all sorts Sugar, refined Tin, unwrought • Do. and pewter wares - Wool, sheep's and lambs 7 Woollen anJ worsted yarn bushels Do. i.ficlu entered by the piece - do. by the yard - Hosiery and small wares- All other articles - Total declared valu Quantities. 3,309,165 1,559,684 1,267,683 16,513 39 11,337 5,553 5.339 117,333 5,116 4,290 12,987 7,694 25,422 93,013 32,139 35,285 34,V77 147 12,570 Immigrants. — The number of immigrants arrived at Quebec, in 1829, was 15.945 ; in 1830, 28,000; in 1831, 50,254 ; in 1S32. 51,746; [in 1833, 22,002 ; in 1S34, 30,217 ; in 1835, 30,017 ; in 1836, 27,513; in 1837, 21,855; in 1833, 2,950; and in 1S39, 7,413.— Am. Ed.'] Montreal, the second town of Canada, is situated on the south side of an island of the same name, in the St. Lawrence, about 180 miles above Quebec, in lat. 45° 31' N., Ion. 73° 35' W. Population 27,000. The harbour is not large, but it is safe and commodious; the facilities for navigation afforded by the noble river on which it is situated being such, that vessels of600tons burden may ascend thus far with- out difficulty. The North American fur trade principally centres in Montreal; which also enjoys the principal share of the commerce between Canada and the United States. It is increasing faster than Quebec, or than any city in British America. Imports and exports included in those of Quebec. (Quebec. — A comparative Statement, for the Seven Years ending with 1835, of the Tonnage and Seamen employed in the Export Trade of the Province of Canada, distinguishing the Proportions thereof cleared in each Year for the United Kingdom from those of other Ports ; the Tonnage cleared for the United Kingdom with Wood and other Goods separately ; together with the Value of the Exports under each Head. — (Customs' Return.) Tears. Cleared for the United Kingdom. Cleared for other Ports. Fish, ,&c. Laden with Wood. Lader with other Goods. Laden with WooJ Flour, Provision' Total cleared. No. of Ships. Tons. Men. No of Ships. Tons. Men. No of Ships. Tons. Men. No. of Ships. Tons. Men. 1829 745 220,066 9,611 54 13,302 678 206 20,624 i,:20 1,005 253.962 11,449 1830 718 210,221 9,135 99 24,281 1,236 284 22,630 1.296 4,051 2.57,2 1 11,677 1831 713 213,325 9,255 168 41,763 2,070 222 21.4S9 1,246 1,103 276,582 12,571 1832 805 235,505 10,261 199 25,610 1,321 163 19,465 1,155 1,077 280,578 12,737 1833 812 240,520 10,259 101 24,323 1,219 244 22,575 1,290 1,157 1 287,418 12,810 1834 970 288.613 12,237 69 17,942 909 250 22,976 1,357 1,289 I 329,441 14.503 1835 967 305.571 12,973 56 15,015 743 243 20.630 1.545 1,266 341,216 14,866 Tears. Cargoes laden for tl e United I Cingdom. Cargoes laden for other Ports. Total Elports. Tons of Value Tons c 1 Value Tons of Wood Value Tons. Value Wool. Sterling. other Go ods. Sterling. & other GooJs. Sterling. Sterling. L. L. /.. L. 1829 34S.439 648,365 21,05 i 244,463 32,650 1 83,878 402,147 97ti,7C6 1830 332,857 148,823 38,45 5 52I,S73 35,927 193,600 417.239 1831 317.76J 465,074 66,12 786,114 34,026 160,3 G 433,925 1.411.493 1832 372,880 465.966 40,54 ) 415,668 30.819 145,669 444,247 1, ('27.303 1833 380,821 486,455 38,51 2 I2-.21I 35,742 181,977 1834 456,970 676,586 28,4( 7 295,325 36,381 194,949 521.758 1,166,860 1833 4VS.H9 611,164 23,77 z 232,202 32,663 193,902 '■ 037,278 Noli.— The Returns from Gaspe have only been received to the 5lh July last, and from New Carlisle to the 101b of October, 1835.— Sup.) QUERCITRON BARK, the bark of a species of oak growing in many parts of North America. It is used in dyeing yellow colours. — (See Baiik.) QUILLS (Fr. Plumes a ecr ire ; Ger. Posen,- Federkiel ; It. Penne da scrivere ,■ Rus. Stivoli ,• Sp. Canones para escribir), the hard and strong feathers of the wings of geese, ostriches, swans, turkeys, crows, &c. used in writing. They are classified according to the order in which they are fixed in the wing; the second and third quills being the best. Crow quills are chiefly used for drawing. The goodness of quills is judged partly by the size of the barrels, but more by the weight ; hence the denomination of quills of 14, 15, &c •oths, per milk, each mille consisting of 1,200 quills. The duty on goose quills produced, RAGS. 379 in 1832, 4,202/. lis.; which, as the duty is at the rate of 2s. 6d. the 1,000, shows that the number of quills entered fur home consumption that year must have amounted to 33,668,000. Quills are principally imported from the Netherlands and Germany ; but those from Riga are the finest. The price of Riga quills in London, in February, 1831, duty paid, was as under : — £ s. d. £ s. d. I £ e. d. £ s. d. Quills, eoose, 17 loth per mille Quills, goose, 13 loth per mille 13 to 14 9 b 16 - - - 2 15 0to3 12 - - - 9 5-0 10 15 - - - 1 12 0—1 15 11 - - - 6 — 12 14- - -12 0— 1 4 | Pinions - - - -056 — 066 Hamburgh quills are about 40 per cent, lower. R. RAGS (Du. Lompen, Vodden ,• Fr. Chiffes, Chiffons, Drapeaux, Drilles ,- Ger. Lumpen; It. Strasci, Strazze ,■ Rus. Trepje ,■ Sp. Tropos, Harapos), shreds or fragments of (generally decayed) linen, woollen, or cotton cloth. Though commonly held in little estimation, rags are of great importance in the arts, being used for various purposes, but especially in the manufacture of paper, most of which is entirely prepared from them. As the mode in which British rags are collected must be well known to every one, the following statements apply only to the trade in foreign rags. Woollen Rags. — Woollen and linen rags are imported in considerable quantities from the continent of Europe, and from Sicily. The woollen rags are chiefly used for manure, espe- cially in the culture of hops ; but rags of loose texture, and not too much worn or decayed, are unravelled and mixed up with fresh wool in the making of yarn ; a practice more favourable to the cheapness than to the strength and durability of the fabrics into which this old woo] is introduced. Woollen rags are also used for making flocks or stuffing for beds, &c. : this process is performed chiefly by the aid of the same kind of engines that prepare pulp for paper ; these wash the rags thoroughly, at the same time that they grind and tear them out into separate threads and fibres. The chief importation of woollen rags is from Hamburgh and Bremen ; and there are some got from Rostock, but the quantity is trifling. The total average importation varies from 300 to 500 tons, and the price ranges from 61. to 111. per ton, duty (7s. 6c?.) and freight paid on such as are used for manure ; and from 13/. to 15/. for coloured woollens of loose texture, and 18/. to 20/. for white of the same description. Linen Rags are principally imported from Rostock, Bremen, Hamburgh, Leghorn, Ancona, Messina, Palermo, and Trieste. Their export from Holland, Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal, is strictly prohibited. The imports usually amount to about 10,000 tons; worth, at an average, from 21/. to 22/. per ton, duty (5s.) and freight included. Exclusive of the very large quantity collected at home, all the rags imported were, until very recently, employed in the manufacture of paper ; but the Americans, who have for some years been large importers from the Mediterranean and Hamburgh, have lately come into the London market, and purchased several cargoes : a circumstance sufficiently indica- tive of the languid state of the paper manufacture in this country, occasioned by the op- pressive amount of the duties with which it is burdened, and of the duty on advertisements. — (See Papku.) The imported rags are coarser and inferior in appearance to the English ; but, being almost exclusively linen, they are stronger, and bear a price disproportioned to the apparent difference in quality : this disproportion has been materially augmented since the introduc- tion of the process of boiling the rags in ley, and afterwards bleaching them with chlorine, has rendered foreign rags fit for making fine paper, and, indeed, in some respects preferable for that purpose, by their affording greater strength of texture combined with equal whiteness of colour. There is considerable variety in the appearance of rags from different ports; but, in general, those from the north of Europe are darker and stronger than those from the Medi- terranean ports. The latter are chiefly the remains of outer garments, and have become whitened by exposure to the sun and air ; but since the improvements in bleaching, this does not much enhance their value in the British market. The rags shipped from Trieste are chiefly collected in Hungary. It is only within these few years that we have brought rags from this port, which now furnishes us with considerable supplies. Most part of the rags collected in the Tuscan states, to the extent of 10,000 or 12,000 bags a year, goes to America. Freights are, at an average, about — Hamburgh and Bremen, linen 20s. per ton, woollen, 25s. ; Ros- tock, 40s. ; Ancona and Leghorn, 38s. to 40s. ; Trieste and Sicily, 45s. to 46s. Linen rags are almost all selected and assorted previously to their shipment from the foreign port. Their distinguishing marks and prices per cwt. in the London market, January, 1832, were as follow : viz. 380 RAIL-ROAD. S p F F S P F - F X or F M - F B .... Rostock. Hamburgh. Bremen. Trieste. £ 1 1 1 s. d. 15 10 6 17 6 17 £ s. d. 1 12 6 1 8 1 3 6 17 17 £ s. d. 1 12 1 7 6 1 3 17 17 £ s. 1 9 1 5 I 2 16 15 d. £ s. d. Otol 13 0-1 8 0-1 5 0-0 19 0-0 18 RAIL-ROAD, TRAM or WAGON ROAD, a species of road having tracks or ways formed of iron, stone, or other solid material, on which the wheels of the carriages passing along it run. The object in constructing such roads is, by diminishing the friction, to make a less amount of power adequate either to impel a carriage with a greater velocity, or to urge forward a greater load. Construction of Rail-roads. — The friction on a perfectly level rail-road, properly con- structed, is estimated to amount to from y 5 th to !th only of the friction on an ordinary level road ; so that supposing the same force to be applied in both cases, it would move a weight from 10 to 7 times as great on the former as on the latter. But if there be a very moderate ascent, such as 1 foot in 50, which in an ordinary road would hardly be perceived, a great increase of power on the rail-road is required to overcome the resistance that is thus occasioned. The reason is, that the ordinary load on a level rail-road is about seven times as great as on a common turnpike road ; so that when the force of gravity is brought into operation by an ascending plane, its opposing power, being proportioned to the load, is 7 times as great as on a common road. Hence the vast importance of having rail-roads either level, or as nearly so as possible. It is also of great importance that rail-roads should be straight, or, at least, free from any abrupt curves. Carriages being kept on the road by flanges on the wheels, it is obvi- ous, that where the curves are quick, the friction on the sides of the rails, and consequent retardation, must be very great. In the Manchester and Liverpool rail-road, the curves form segments of a circle which, if extended, would embrace a circumference of 15 miles. Iron rail-roads, the kind now generally used, are of 2 descriptions. The flat rail, oi tram road, consists of cast-iron plates about 3 feet long, 4 inches broad, and 5 an inch 01 1 inch thick, with a flaunch, or turned up edge, on the inside, to guide the wheels of the carriage. The plates rest at each end on stone sleepers of 3 or 4 cwt. sunk into the earth, and they are joined to each other so as to form a continuous horizontal pathway. They are, of course, double; and the distance between the opposite rails is from 3 to 4j feet, according to the breadth of the carriage or wagon to be employed. The edge, rail, which is found to be superior to the tram rail, is made either of wrought or cast iron ; if the latter be used, the rails are about 3 feet long, 3 or 4 inches broad, and from 1 to 2 inches thick, being joined at the ends by cast metal sockets attached to the sleepers. The upper edge ot the rail is generally made with a convex surface, to which the wheel of the carriage is attached by a groove made somewhat wider. When wrought iron is used, which is in many respects preferable, the bars are made of a smaller size, of a wedge shape, and from 12 to 18 feet long; but they are supported by sleepers, at the distance of every 3 feet. In the Liverpool rail-road the bars are 15 feet long, and weigh 35 lbs. per lineal yard. The wagons in common use run upon 4 wheels of from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. Rail-roads are either made double, 1 for going and 1 for returning; or they are made with sidings, where the carriages may pass each other. — (See the able and original Essays on Hail-roads, by Charles Macluren, Esq., in the Scotsman for 1824, Nos. 511, 512. and 514.; see also Mr. Booth's Pamphlet on the Liverpool and Manchester Rail-road.) Speed of Carriages on Rail-roudr, <$c. — The effect of rail-roads in diminishing friction is familiar to every one ; and they have long been used in various places of this and other countries, particularly in the vicinity of mines, for facilitating the transport of heavy loads. But it is only since the application of locomotive engines as a moving power, that they have begun to attract the public attention, and to be regarded as of the highest national import- ance. These engines were first brought into use on the Darlington and Stockton rail-road, opened on the 27th of December, 1825. But the rail-road between Liverpool and Man- chester is by far the greatest undertaking of this sort that has hitherto been completed. This splendid work, which is executed in the most approved manner, cost between 800,000/. and 900,000/. ; and, as far as speed is concerned, has completely verified, and, indeed, far surpassed, the most sanguine anticipations. The road has the advantage of being nearly level ; for, with the exception of a short space at Rainhill, where it is inclined at the rate of I foot in 96, there is no greater inclination than in the ratio of 1 foot in 880. The length of the rail-road is 31 miles; and it is usual to perform this journey in handsome carriages attached to the locomotive engines, in an hour and a half, and sometimes less! So wonderful a result has gone far to strike space and time out of the calculations of the traveller : it has brought, in so far, at least, as respects the facility of passing from the one to the other, Liverpool as near to Manchester as the western part of London is to the eastern part ! RAIL-ROAD. 381 The extraordinary speed of carriages on rail-roads depends on the fact, that the friction, which on a perfectly level rail-road is the only resistance to be overcome, is the same for all velocities ,- so that, abstracting from the resistance of the air, which is so trifling as not to require to be taken into account, we have merely, in order to double or treble the velocity, to double or treble the power. But in vessels at sea, or in canals, which have to make their way through a comparatively dense medium, the resistance to be overcome increases as the square of the velocity ,■ so that, to double the speed, the power must be multiplied by 4, and to treble it, it must be multiplied by 9, and so on. Comparative Advantages of Rail-roads and Canals. — Astonishing, however, as are the results of the performances on the Manchester and Liverpool rail-road, we doubt much whether there be many more situations in the kingdom where it would be prudent to establish one. That carriages with passengers may be safely impelled along a perfectly level rail-road at a speed of 20 or 30 miles an hour, is a fact that is now proved experiment- ally ; but before deciding as to the expediency of opening such a mode of communication between any two places, it is necessary to look carefully into the expense attending the formation of a rail-road with a suitable establishment of carriages, at the expense of keeping it and them in repair, and at the probable returns. The outlay, judging from what has taken place between Liverpool and Manchester, is quite enormous ; the wear and tear of the engines, which is great under all circumstances, is increased in an extraordinary degree with every considerable increase of speed. We do not, therefore, consider the success that has hitherto attended the Liverpool and Manchester rail-road as at all warranting the construc- tion of similar roads in most other places. The great size of these two towns, and still more their intimate connection, — Liverpool being, in fact, the port of Manchester and of the entire cotton district — occasions a very great intercourse between them: the number of passengers and the quantity of goods that are always in the course of being conveyed from the one to the other, is far greater than between any two equally distant places in the empire. If a rail-road had not succeeded in such a situation, it would have been madness to attempt the formation of one, at least as a mercantile speculation, anywhere else: and the fact that the dividend upon this very road has never hitherto exceeded 83 per cent., affords but a slender presumption in favour of the success of several of the rail-road projects now afloat. No general estimate can be formed of the comparative cost of canals and rail-roads ; as it must, in every given instance, depend on special circumstances. It is, however, certain, that the cost of rail-roads, and particularly of keeping up the locomotive engines, is far greater than it was supposed it would be a short time since. It is reasonable, indeed, inasmuch as these engines are only in their infancy, to suppose that they will be gradually improved, and that ultimately their expense will be materially reduced; but at present it is a heavy draw- back from the other advantages of rail-roads. In as far as respects the conveyance of heavy goods, we believe that, even between Man- chester and Liverpool, canals are generally preferred. It is not very material whether a ton of lime, or coal, or of manure, be moved with a velocity of 3 to 10 miles an hour; at least, the advantage of superior speed would, in such a case, be effectually overbalanced by a small additional charge. The wonderful performances of the engines between Liverpool and Manchester struck, in the first instance, every one with astonishment, and led to the most extravagant speculations. It was supposed that the whole country would be forthwith intersected by rail-roads ; that locomotive engines would be as common as stage coaches; and that the only way in which the canal proprietors could escape ruin, would be by converting canals into rail-roads! Soberer and sounder views are now entertained. The price of canal stock has recovered from the depression which it suffered in 1826. And it seems to be admitted by every one not expecting to profit by the prosecution of some scheme, that rail-roads between distant places, at least where a canal has already been constructed, must depend for returns chiefly on the conveyance of passengers and light goods ; and that it would not be prudent to undertake their construction, except between places that have a very extensive intercourse together. Steam Carriages on Common Roads. — A late committee of the House of Commons Collected a good deal of evidence as to the probability of advantageously using locomotive engines or steam carriages on common roads. Most of the witnesses seem to have been very sanguine in their expectations. Mr. Farcy, a very eminent practical engineer, declares that " what has been done proves to his satisfaction the practicability of impelling stage coaches by steam on good common roads, in tolerably level parts of the country, without horses, at a speed of 8 or 10 miles an hour." Mr. Farey further states, that he believes " that steam coaches will, very soon after their first establishment, be run for one third of the cost of the present stage coaches." We suspect that the latter part of this statement is a good deal more problematical than the first; but since there is nothing better than conjec- ture on which to found an opinion, it would be useless to indulge in further speculations. We may, however, remark, that though 3 years have elapsed since this evidence was given, 382 RAIL-ROAD. there does not appear to be any material progress made towards realising the anticipations of the witnesses. The subjoined list of the principal existing and projected rail-roads, showing the number and amount of the shares in each, the sum paid up, the selling price of the shares, &c. is taken from the Share List, for the 12th of October, 1833, published by Mr. Edmunds, Broker, No. 9 Exchange Alley, Cornhill. Nn. nf Shares. Railways. Shares. Amount laid. Sale price. Dividends. Time- of Payment £ £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 5,100 Liverpool and Manchester 100 100 210 8 8 Jan. July. 1,000 Cromford and High Peak - 100 100 20 500 Canterbury --•«.■- 50 50 36 350 Cheltenham - 100 . - 78 ■ 1,0(10 Croydon ----- 65 _ - - - - July. 1,000 Surrey ----- 60 - - - - - July. 3,762 Severn and Wye - 50 . - 16 16 Mar. Sept. 2,500 Forest of Dean - - - - 50 50 21 1 6 June, Dec. 1,000 Stockton and Darlington - 100 100 295 8 May, Nov. 553 50 - - - - Ap.'l.Oct. 1. 2,0li() Clarance (Durham) - 100 100 113 1,500 Leicester and Swannington 50 50 57 Newcastle-upon-Tyne & Carlisle 100 100 - - C60 Bolton and Leigh - 100 - - 107 10 19 Greenwich - - - - 20 1 1 2 6 25,000 London and Birmingham - Bolton, Bury, &x. ... 100 100 5 15 8 15 (The railway from London to Birmingham, and from the latter to Manchester, which had only been commenced at the date of the publication of our last Supplement, is now com- pleted. This is at once the longest and by far the most important railway in the empire. It has cost an immense sum; but the magnitude of the places which it connects, and the vast intercourse carried on between them, will no doubt render it one of the principal thoroughfares in the kingdom. Hence, notwithstanding the great outlay upon it, shares in both divisions of the road, but especially in that between London and Birmingham, are eagerly sought after, and bring a very high premium. The work is admirably executed, and does credit, not to the proprietors only, but to the nation. Projects are now on foot for extending the London, Birmingham, and Manchester line as far as Glasgow. It has, in fact, been already carried to Preston ; and, though the difficulties to be encountered in the more northerly part of the road are of a very formidable description, it seems most probable that it will be completed in its whole extent. Should this be accomplished, the journey from London to Glasgow will be performed in eighteen or twenty hours ! Besides this great line, railways have been projected, and are now (January 1840) nearly completed, between London and Bristol ; London and Southampton ; Carlisle and New- castle, &c. Numbers have also been, or are in the course of being, made in other parts of the country. In 1834, 1835, and 1836, a vast number of acts for railways were passed; but it is doubtful whether several of them will ever be carried into effect. It would be pre- mature to speculate as to the chances of their success ; but the probability seems to be that, like canals, some of them will be exceedingly profitable; while others, and probably the greater number, will yield a very inadequate return. No doubt it may be fairly anticipated that great improvements will be made in the construction of railways, and especially of loco- motive engines ; and in consequence, even comparatively unfavourable lines may come, in the end, to yield large profits. But taking the chances as they now stand, and abstracting from future contingencies, railways promise to be, at the outset, quite as advantageous for the public as for their proprietors. The most eligible lines for railways in Ireland have been surveyed, and an able report upon the subject drawn up by commissioners appointed by government. There seems, however, but little probability that any of these lines will be executed by private asso- ciations; and the proposal for executing them at the public expense, is of a very ques- tionable description. It may perhaps be expedient, under the peculiar circumstances of Ireland, for government to co-operate in the formation of a few great lines of railway, somewhat on the plan that it has followed as respects the formation of roads in the Highlands; that is, by assisting individuals and companies: but we doubt whether govern- ment can go further without opening a door to all sorts of abuse. Railway Legislation. — Our legislation as to railways, and most other descriptions of public works, appears to be as defective as can well be imagined. It is, it must be admitted, no easy matter to decide how far interference should be carried in such cases, and where it should stop. But still it seems sufficiently obvious, that in this case the public interests have been too little protected ; or rather, that they have been sacrificed in a way not very creditable to parliament. At present the practice is for a railway act to authorise the com- pany in whose favour it is granted to charge certain specified rates of toll on the passengers and goods to be conveyed by their road, not for 15, 20, or even 50 years, but in all time to RAIL-ROAD. 383 come.' Now, as it appears to us, tins is a singularly injudicious arrangement on the part of the public. There is, between any two or more places that may !>c named a certain railway line that is preferable to any oilier that can be pointed out The probability is that this line will he the iirst to he selected; and the act that gives it up to a company confers* on the hitter a virtual and substantial monopoly. The rates of charge imposed by the act are calculated to remunerate the projectors, supposing every thing to remain on the presi u foot- ing. But the prohability is that manufactures and population, in the plac< - communicating by most lines of railway, will continue to increase in time to come, as they have dune in time past; and it is all hut certain that great improvements will be effected in the construction of roads and engines. Whatever, therefore, may he the chances of success at the outset, the fair presumption is, that most great lines of road will in the end he exceedingly produc- tive. But, if we continue to abide by the present system, the puhlic will he ell'ectually excluded from all participation in these prospective advantages; and a few private associa- tions willhe able to make enormous profits, by monopolising improvements, and keeping up the expense of transit at an exorbitantly high level. It is idle to trust to competition to remedy a grievance of this sort. There may only he one practicable line of railway between two places; and if so, no other can, of course, come into competition with it. But though this were not the case, a company in possession of the best line might, if an opposition were threatened, reduce its rates till the opposition was defeated, and then raise them to the old level. Supposing, however, that a second road is made, its managers would most likely come to an understanding with the first, so that the tolls, instead of being reduced by the instrumentality of the new road, may he raised; and, were it otherwise, the question is, was the second road really necessary 1 Could not the first road have sufficed for the whole traffic to be carried on by both lines! If this he the case, it is clear the second road has been merely resorted to as a device for reducing the tolls charged on the first; as a means, in fact, for doing that, by an outlay of some hundreds of thousands, or it may ho millions, of pounds, which might have been quite as effectually done by limiting the duration of the act authorising the first road, or by inserting a clause in it providing for the periodical revi- sion of the tolls. We are clear, indeed, that no act, authorising a private association to construct a railway or canal, to lay down gas pipes, to convey water into a town, or for any such purpose, ought ever to be passed without reserving to parliament power periodically to revise the tolls granted under it. Such revision would secure to the public a participation in future improvements, not in the contemplation of the parties when the project was entered upon; and it would do this without in any degree clogging the spirit of enterprise. Undertakings of this sort are not engaged in because there is a vague expectation, or even a considerable probability, of their yielding 20 or 30 per cent, of profit some 30 or 40 years hence; but because it is believed that they will immediately, or in the course of a few years, yield a reasonable profit; that is, a return of 8, 10, or 12 per cent. The chances of realising more than this at the distance of 20 or 25 years are rarely taken into account, and are worth very little indeed. This, however, is all that would be taken away by the revision in question ; and, while a reservation of this sort would not stand in the way of any legitimate enterprise, the history of some of our existing companies shows that it may come to be of essential ser- vice to the public. We are therefore glad to have to state that, though late, the question respecting the propriety of reserving power to make periodical revisions of tolls on railways has been submitted to the consideration of parliament.* Some of the inconveniences that may arise out of the existing system as to railways, have already been experienced in the arrangements as to the conveyance of mails, and parliament has been obliged to interfere. But if parliament be short-sighted enough to concede certain rights and privileges to indi- viduals or associations, without qualification or reservation, it has no right, on, discovering its error, to endeavour to repair it by enacting new regulations to the detriment of the interests it has created. Its act has established rights in certain parties which cannot be taken away by any new act, so long, at least, as any respect is entertained for the law of property, without granting the parties full compensation. To this, they have an indisputable right; and should any disagreement take place, the question as to the amount of compensa- tion should always be left to the decision of a jury. Though we should be the last.to propose throwing any obstacles in the way of new im- provements or contrivances, still we do not see any good reason for promoting them by treat- ing other parties unfairly. This, however, has been done to an enormous extent in the case of railways. We do not presume to say whether it is expedient that passengers and goods conveyed by railway should be subjected to any tax. But if one of the most desirable modes of conveyance be exempted from taxation, on what pretence do we justify the impo- sition of taxes on other modes'! If passengers by mail or post coaches impelled by horses be obliged to pay a certain duty, why are passengers by mail or post coaches impelled by *By Mr. Morrison, who brought it before the House of Commons in the course of 18.10. in a speech containing a luminous exposition of the principles which justify the interference of the legislature in cases of this sort. 384 RAIL-ROADS. steam not subjected to the same duty ? If it be meant by laying a comparatively heavy duty on the former to discourage the use of horses, and to make the various railway monopolies as complete as possible, the existing system is judiciously contrived, and will most likely be effectual to its object; but it is needless to say that in such matters competition cannot be carried to excess, and that it is the only security against irregularities, imposition, and inso- lence. And yet, by a singular contradiction, our legislation seems as if it proceeded on the assumption that competition is an evil, and that it cannot be too much discouraged. We subjoin a — Statement of the Number of Railway Acts passed annually since 1801. Tears. Acts. Years. Acts. Years. Acts. Years. Acts. 1801 i 1310 1 1819 1 1829 11 1802 2 1811 3 1820 1829 9 1803 1 1812 2 1821 1 1630 8 1804 1 1813 1822 1831 9 1805 1814 1 ' 1823 1 1833 8 1806 1815 1 1824 2 1833 11 1807 1816 1 1825 5 1834 14 1808 1 1817 1 1826 6 1^35 18 1809 2 1818 1 1827 6 1836 35 There is a very good account of the principal British railways in the Companion to the Almanack for 1837 ; and a statement of the number and amount of the shares in each, of the portions thereof that are paid up, and their selling price on the 25th of January, 1839, will be found in the article Shares in this Dictionary. American Railroads. — Rapid as has been the growth of railroads in this country, it is really insignificant, compared with their extension in America. Their progress there has been quite extraordinary. Several of those that have been completed in different parts of the Union, as well as several of those that are now in progress, are state undertakings ; but the great majority have been set on foot and carried on by private associations. The first rail- way constructed in the United States was completed in 1825 ; and Mr. Pitkin states that, on the 1st of January, 1835, the railways that had either been or would very speedily be completed in different parts of the Union, amounted to about 1,600 miles in length; having cost, in the aggregate, about 30,000,000 of dollars! — {Statistical View of the United States, p. 574. ed. 1835.) During the last two years their progress has been more rapid than ever. In the course of last session (1836) the legislature of the state of New York incorporated no fewer than 42 railway companies: and in other parts of the Union their extension is hardly less wonderful. The New York and Erie railroad, commenced in 1835, is one of the great- est works of the kind that has ever been projected. It will be upwards of 500 miles in length ! The Baltimore and Ohio railroad, 360 miles in length, has already been completed as far as Harper's Ferry, a distance of 86 miles; and in 1836 the legislature of Maryland voted 3,000,000 dollars to assist in its completion. Various railroads of equal importance have either been, or are about to be commenced in other states. Every where, indeed, throughout the Union, all sorts of public improvements, and especially canals and railways, are prosecuted with unparalleled alacrity and perseverance; and undertakings are every day entered upon and completed that might a priori have been concluded, even by the most san- guine projectors, as far beyond the means of so young a country. — (See American Almanack for 1 837, passim.) — Sup.) [See art. Roads. — Am. Ed.] RAISINS (Fr. Raisins sees, ou passes,- Ger. Rosinen ,■ It. Uve passe,- Por. Passas ,- Rus. Issum ,■ Sp. Fasas), the dried fruit of the vine. They are produced from various species of vines ; deriving their names partly from the place where they grow, as S my mas, Valencies, &c. ; and partly from the species of grape of which they are made, as muscatels, blooms, sultanas, &c. Their quality appears, however, to depend more on the method of their cure than on any thing else. The finest raisins are cured in two methods ; — either by cutting the stalk of the bunches half through, when the grapes are nearly ripe, and leaving them suspended on the vine till the watery part be evaporated, and the sun dries and candies them; or by gathering the grapes when they are fully ripe, and dipping them in a ley made of the ashes of the burnt tendrils ; after which they are exposed to the sun to dry. Those cured in the first way are most esteemed, and are denominated raisins of the sun. The inferior sorts are very often dried in ovens. — (Thomson's Dispensatory,) Raisins are imported in casks, barrels, boxes, and jars. The finest come in jars and y boxes weigh- ing about 2"j Ihs. Some of the inferior sorts are brought to us in mats. Of216,283 cwt. of raisins imported in 1831, 105,000 came from Spain, 100,458 from Turkey, and 7,036 from Italy. Malaga raisins arc in the highest estimation. The muscatels from Malaga fetch fully a third more than any other description of raisins. The Smyrna black is the cheapest variety, and may average from 32*. to 35s. a cwt., duty included ; muscatels vary from 80s. to 130s., duty included. But the price depends much on the season, and the period of the year. — (See Malaoa.) The duty on raisins varies, according to the species, from 20s. to 42s. tid. a cwt. ; that is, it varies from about 130 per cent, on the cheapest sorts, to from 50 to 35 per cent, on the dearest. This exorbi- tant duty has confined the demand for raisins within very narrow limits, the entries for home consump- tion being, at an average of 1(531 and 1832, only 150,254 cwt. a year. The fact is, that raisins are, at present, a luxury thai can be enjoyed only by the rich : but were the duty reduced, as it ought to be, RANGOON. 385 to 5s. a cwt. on the cheapest sorts, mid 10s. or 12s. on the dearest, we are well assured that Ihey would be very largely consumed by t lie middle classes ; and that they would nol (infrequently be used e\ i n by the low er. Nothing but the magnitude oft lie duties prevent them from becoming of very considerable importance as an article of food ; anil it is really quite monstrous, that t lie public should be debarred from the use of a desirable article, on the stale anil stupid pretence of its being necessary, iii order to keep up the revenue, that it should be loaded with an oppressive duty. We admit the importance of keeping up the revenue ; but so far from exorbitant duties having such an effect, they contribute more than any thing else to its reduction. They either limit the consumption of the articles on which they are laid to the very richest classes, or they cause them to he clandestinely supplied ; reducing the revenue as well as the consumption far below the level to which it would attain were the duties mo- derate, lint it is needless to reason speculatively on such a point. Have we not seen the revenue derived from spirits increased, by reducing the duty from 5s. 6d. a gallon to 2s. Gd. ? and the revenue derived from coffee trebled, by reducing the duty from Is. Id. per lb. to 6 be seized by any officer or officers of his Majesty's customs : provided always, that nothing in thia act shall extend or be construed to extend to affect the privileges of any ship or vessel which shall, prior to the com- mencement Of this act, have been registered by virtue of an act passed in the 6th year of the reign of his late Majesty George IV., intituled "An Act for the registering of British Vessels."—} 4. What Skips are entitled to be registered. — No ship or vessel shall be registered, or having been regis- tered shall be deemed to be duly registered, hy virtue of this act, except BUCfa as are wholly of the built of tbi' saiil United Kingdom, or of the Isle of Man, or of the islands of Guernsey or Jersey, or of some of the colonies, plantations, islands, or territories in Asia, Africa, or America, or of Malta, Gib- raltar, or Heligoland, which belong to his Majesty, his heirs or successors, at the time of the building Of such ships or vessels, or such ships or vessels as shall have been condemned in any court of admi- ralty as prize of war, or such ships or vessels as shall have been condemned in any competent court as forfeited for the breach of the laws made for the prevention of the slave trade, and which shall wholly belong and continue wholly to belong to his Majesty's subjects duly entitled to be owners of ships or vessels registered by virtue of this act. — } 5. Mediterranean Pass maybe issued at Malta or Gibraltar for certain Ships only. — No Mediterranean pass shall be issued for the use of any ship, as being a ship belonging to Malta or Gibraltar, except such as he duly registered at those places respectively, or such as, not being entitled to be so register- ed, shall have wholly belonged, before the Kith day of October, 1827, and shall have continued wholly to belong, to persons actually residing at those places respectively, as inhabitants thereof, and entitled to be owners of British ships there registered, or who, not being so entitled, shall have so resided up- wards of 15 years prior to the said 10th day of October, 1827.— } 6. Foreign Repairs nut to exceed 20s. per Tun. — No ship or vessel shall continue to enjoy the privileges of a British ship after the same shall have been repaired in a foreign country, if such repairs shall ex- ceed the sum of 20a-. for every ton of the burden of the said ship or vessel, unless such repairs shall have been necessary by reason of extraordinary damage sustained by such ship or vessel during her absence from his Majesty's dominions, to enable her to perform the voyage in which she shall have been engaged, and to return to some port or place in the said dominions; and whenever any ship or vessel which has been so repaired in a foreign country shall arrive at any port in his Majesty's do- minions as a British registered ship or vessel, the master or other person having the command or charge of the same shall, upon the first entry thereof, report to the collector and comptroller of his Majesty's customs at such port that such ship or vessel has been so repaired, under penalty of 20s. for every ton of the burden if such ship or vessel, according to the admeasurement thereof; and if it shall be proved to the satisfaction of the commissioners of his Majesty's customs that such ship or vessel was seaworthy at the time when she last departed from any port or place in his Majesty's dominions, and that no greater quantity of such repairs have been done to the said vessel than was necessary as aforesaid, it shall be lawful for the said commissioners, upon a full consideration of all the circumstances, to direct the collector and comptroller of the port where such ship or vessel shall have arrived, or where she shall then be, to certify on the certificate of the registry of such ship or vessel that it has been proved to the satisfaction of the commissioners of his Majesty's customs that the privileges of the said ship or vessel have not been forfeited, notwithstanding the repairs which have been done to the same in a foreign country.—} 7. Ships declared unseaworthy to be deemed Ships lost or broken up. — If any ship or vessel registered un- der the authority of this or any other act shall be deemed or declared to be stranded or unseaworthy, and incapable of being recovered or repaired to the advantage of the owners thereof, and shall for such reasons be sold by order or decree of any competent court for the benefit of the owners of such ship or vessel, or other persons interested therein, the same shall be taken and deemed to be a ship or vessel lost or broken up to all intents and purposes within the meaning of this act, and shall never again be entitled to the privileges of a British built ship for any purposes of trade or navigation. — }8. British Ships captured not to be again entitled to Registry, <$•<;. — No British ship or vessel which has been or shall hereafter be captured by and become prize to an enemy or sold to foreigners shall again be entitled to the privileges of a British ship : provided that nothing contained in this act shall extend to prevent the registering of any ship or vessel whatever which shall afterwards be condemned in any court of admiralty as prize of war, or in any competent court, for breach of laws made for the preven- tion of the slave trade. — } 9. Ships shall be registered at the port to which they belong. — No such registry shall hereafter be made, or certificate thereof granted, by any person or persons herein-before authorised to make such regis- try and grant such certificate, in any other port or place than the port or place to which such ship or vessel shall properly belong, except so far as relates to such ships or vessels as shall be condemned as prizes in any of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, or Man, which ships or vessels shall be registered in manner herein-after directed ; but that all and every registry and certificate made and granted in any port or place to which any such ship or vessel does not properly belong shall be utterly null and void to all intents and purposes, unless the officers aforesaid shall be specially authorised and empowered to make such registry and grant such certificate in any other port by an order in writing under the hands of the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, which order the said commissioners are hereby authorised and empowered to issue, if they shall see fit ; and at every port where registry shall he made in pursuance of this act, a book shall he kept by the collector and comptroller, in which all the particu- lars contained in the form of the certificate of the registry herein-before directed to he used shall be duly entered ; and every registry shall be numbered in progression, beginning such progressive nume- ration at the commencement of each and every year ; and such collector and comptroller shall forth- with, or within 1 month at the farthest, transmit to the commissioners of his Majesty's customs a true and exact copy, together with the number, of every certificate which shall be by them so grant- ed.—} 10. Port to irhich Vessels shall be deemed to belong. — Every ship or vessel shall be deemed to belong to some port at or near to which some or one of the owners, who shall make and subscribe the declara- tion required by this act before registry be made, shall reside ; and whenever such owner or owners shall have transferred all his or their share or shares in such ship or vessel, the same shall be regis- tered de novo before such ship or vessel shall sail or depart from the port to which she shall then be- long, or from any other port which shall be in the same part of the United Kingdom, or the same colo- ny, plantation, island, or territory as the said port shall be in : provided always, that if the owner or owners of such ship or vessel cannot in sufficient time comply with the requisites of this act, bo that registry may be made before it shall be necessary for such ship or vessel to sail or depart upon an- other voyage, it shall be lawful for the collector and comptroller of the port where such ship or vessel 2k2 390 REGISTRY. may then be to certify upon the back of the existing certificate of registry of such ship or vessel, that the same is to remain in force for the voyage upon which the said ship or vessel is then about to sail or depart : provided also, that if any ship or vessel shall be built in any of the colonies, plantations, islands, or territories in Asia, Africa, or America, to his Majesty belonging, for owners residing in the United Kingdom, and the master of such ship or vessel, or the agent for the owner or owners thereof, shall have produced to the collector and comptroller of the port at or near to which such ship or vessel was built, the certificate of the builder required by this act, and shall have made and subscribed a de- claration before such collector and comptroller of the names and descriptions of the principal owners of such ship or vessel, and that she is the identical ship or vessel mentioned in such certificate of the builder, and that no foreigner, to the best of his knowledge and belief, has any interest therein ; the collector and comptroller of such port shall cause such ship or vessel to be surveyed and measured in like manner as is directed for the purpose of registering any ship or vessel, and shall give the master of such ship or vessel a certificate under their hands and seals, purporting to be under the authority of this act, and stating when and where and by whom such ship or vessel was built, the description, tonnage, and other particulars required on registry of any ship or vessel, and such certificate shall have all the force and virtue of a certificate of registry under this act, during the term of 2 years, un- less such ship shall sooner arrive at some place in the United Kingdom ; and such collector and comp- troller shall transmit a copy of such certificate to the commissioners of his Majesty's customs. — $ 11. Person* residing in foreign Countries may nut be Owners. — No person who has taken the oath of alle- giance to any foreign state, except under the terms of some capitulation, unless he shall afterwards become a denizen or naturalised subject of the United Kingdom by his Majesty's letters patent or by act of parliament, nor any person usually residing in any country not under the dominion of his Ma- jesty, iiis heirs and successors, unless he be a member of some British factory, or agent for or partner in any house or copartnership actually carrying on trade in Great Britain or Ireland, shall be enti- tled to lie the owner, in whole or in part, directly or indirectly, of any ship or vessel required and au- thorised to be registered by virtue of this act : save and except that it shall be lawful for any person who was a member of the company of merchants trading to the Levant seas at the time of its dissolu- tion, and who was a resident at any of the factories of the said company, to continue to hold any share or shares in any British registered ship of which at the time of such residence he was an owner or part owner, although such person shall continue to reside at any of the places where such factories had existed prior to the dissolution of the said company.—} 12. Declaration to be made by subscribhig Owners previous to Registry.— No registry shall henceforth be made or certificate granted until the following declaration be made and subscribed, before the person or persons herein-before authorised to make such registry, and grant such certificate respectively, by the owner of such ship or vessel if such ship or vessel is owned by or belongs to 1 person only, or in case there shall be 2 joint owners, then by both of such joint owners if both shall be resident within 20 miles of the port or place where such registry is required, or by 1 of such owners if 1 or both of thetn shall be resident at a greater distance from such port or place ; or if the number of such owners or proprietors shall exceed 2, then by the greater part of the number of such owners or proprietors if the greater number of them shall be resident within 20 miles of such port or place as aforesaid, not in any case exceeding 3 of such owners or proprietors, unless a greater number shall be desirous to join in making and subscribing the said declaration, or by 1 of such owners if all, or all except 1, shall be resident at a greater distance : " I A. B. of ['place of residence and occupation] do truly declare, that the ship or vessel [name] of [port or place], whereof [master's nam*] is at present master, bring [kind of built, burden, fyc. as de- icribed in the certificate of the surveying officer], was [when and Where built, or, if prize or forfeited, 'capture and condemnation as tuch], and that I the said A. B. [and the other owners' names and occupations, if any, and where they respectively reside, viz. town, place, or parish, and county, or if member of and resident in any factory in foreign parts, or in any foreign town or city, l-etng an agent for or partner in any huuie or copartnership actually carry. ing on trade in Great Britain or Ireland, the name of such factory, foreign (own, or city, and the names of such h r juse and copartner- ship] am [or are] sole owner [or owners] of the said vessel, and that no other person or persons whatever hath or have any ri^ht, title, interest, share or property therein or thereto ; and that I the said A. B. [and the said other owners, if any], am [or are] truly and bona Provided always, that if it shall become necessary to register any ship or vessel belonging to any cor- porate body in the United Kinedom, the followin?; declaration, in lieu of the declaration herein-before directed, shall be taken and subscribed by the secretary, or other proper officer of such corporate body; (that is to say,) " I A. B. secretary or officer of [name of company or corpora- I was [when and where built, or, if prize or forfeited, capture and tion] do trulv declare, that the ship or vessel [?io><«] of [port] condemnation as such], and that the sane doth wholly and truly be- whereof [master's name] is at present mas'er, being [kind of Imill, long to [name of company or corporation]. " — Sect. 13. burden, \-c. as described in the certificate of the surveying officer], I Addition to Declaration in case the required JVmnber of Owners do not attend. — In case the required number of joint owners or proprietors of any ship or vessel shall not personally attend to make and subscribe the declaration herein-before directed to be made anil subscribed, then and in such case such owner or owners, proprietor or proprietors, as shall personally attend and make and subscribe the declaration aforesaid, shall further declare that the part owner or part owners of such ship or ves- sel then absent is or are not resident within 20 miles of such port or place, and hath or have not, to the best of his or their knowledge or belief, wilfully absented himself or themselves in order to avoid the making the declaration herein-before directed to be made and subscribed, or is or are prevented by illness from attending to make and subscribe the said declaration.— J 14. Vessels to be surveyed previous to Registry.— Previous to the registering or granting of any certificate of registry as aforesaid, some one or more person or persons appointed by the commissioners of cus- toms (taking to his or their assistance, if he or they shall judge it necessary, one or more person or persons skilled in the building and admeasurement of ships) shall co on board Df every such ship or vessel as is to be registered, and shall strictly and accurately examine and admeasure every such ship or vessel as to all and every particular contained in the form of the certificate herein-before directed, in the presence of the master, or of any other person who shall be appointed for that purpose on the part of the owner or owners, or in his or their absence by the said master ; and shall deliver a true and just account in writing of all such particulars of the built, description, and admeasurement of every such ship or vessel as are specified in the form of the certificate above recited to the collector and comptroller authorised as aforesaid to make such registry and grant such certificate of regisiry ; and the said master or other person attending on the part of the owner or owners is hereby required to sign his name also to the certificate of such surveying or examining officer, in testimony of the truth thereof, provided such master or other person shall consent and agree to the several particulars set forth and described therein. — $ 15. Mode of Jldmcasurement to ascertain Tonnage.— Tor the purpose of ascertaining the tonnage of ships or vessels, the rule for admeasurement shall be as follows; (that is to say,) the length shall be taken fide a subject [or subjects] of Great Britain ; and that I the said A. B. have not [nor have any of the oilier owners^ to the bist of my knowledge and belief] taken the oath of allegiance to any foreign state whatever [except under the terms of some capdulation, de- >cnLin:' the particulars thereof], or that since my taking [or his or their taking] ttie oath of allegiance to [naming the foreign stales re- spectively to which he or any if the said owners shall have taken the same] I nave [or he or they hath or have] become a denizen [or de- nizens, or naturalised subject or subjects, as the case may be] of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland by bis Majesty's letters patent or by an act of parliament [naming the times when such let- ters of denization have been granted respectively, or the year or years in which such act or acts for naturalisation have passed re- spectively]', and that no foreigner, directly or indirectly, hath any share or part interest in the said ship or vessel." REGISTRY. 391 oil a straight line along the rabbit of the keel, from the bach of the main stern-post to a perpendiculai Due from the fore part of the main stem under the bowsprit, from which subtracting 3-5ths of the breadth, the remainder shall be esteemed the just length of the keel to find the tonnage; and ilio breadth shall be taken from the outside of the outside plank In the broadest part of the ship, whether that shall be above or below the main wales, exclusive of all manner of doubling planks that may be wrought upon the sides of the ship ; then multiplying the length of the keel by the breadth so taken, and that product by J the breadth, and dividing the whole by 'Jl, the quotient shall be deemed the true contents of the tonnage. — } 16. Mode of ascertaining Tonnage when Vessels are afloat. — In cases where it may be necessary to ascer- tain the tonnage of any ship or vessel when afloat, according to the foregoing rule, the following method shall be observed ; (that is to say,) drop a plumb line over the stern of the ship, and measure the distance between such line and the after part of the stern-post at the load water-mark, then mea- sure from the top of the plumb line, in a parallel direction with the water, to a perpendicular point im- mediately over the load water-mark at the forepart of the main stem, subtracting from such measure- ment the above distance, the remainder will be the ship's extreme, from which is to be deducted 3 inches for every foot of the load draught of water for the rake abaft, also 3-5ths of the ship's breadth for the rake forward, the remainder shall be esteemed the just length of the keel to find the tonnage ; and the breadth shall be taken from outside to outside of the plank in the broadest part of the ship, whether that shall be above or below the main wales, exclusive of all manner of sheathing or doubling that may be wrought on the side of the ship; then multiplying the length of the keel for tonnage by the breadth so taken, and that product by £ the breadth, and dividing by 91, the quotient shall be deemed the true contents of the tonnage. — $ 17. Engine-room in Steam Vessels to be deducted. — In each of the several rules herein-before prescribed, When used for the purpose of ascertaining the tonnage of any ship or vessel propelled by steam, the length of the engine room shall be deducted from the whole length of such ship or vessel, and the re- mainder shall, for such purpose, be deemed the whole length of the same. — } 18. Tonnage when so ascertained to be ever after deemed the Tonnage. — Whenever the tonnage of any ship or vessel shall have been ascertained according to the rule herein prescribed (except in the case of ships or vessels which have been admeasured afloat), such account of tonnage shall ever after be deemed the tonnage of such ship or vessel, and shall be repeated in every subsequent registry of such ship or vessel, unless it shall happen that any alteration has been made in the form and burden of such ship or vessel, or il shall be discovered that the tonnage of such ship or vessel had been erroneously taken and computed. — J 19. Btmd in be given at the time of Registry. — At the time of the obtaining of the certificate of registry as aforesaid, sufficient security by bond shall be given to his majesty, his heirs and successors, by the master and such of the owners as shall personally attend, as is herein-before required, such security to be approved of and taken by the person or persons herein-before authorised to make such registry and grant such certificate of registry at the port or place in which such certificate shall be granted, in the penalties following; (that is to say,) if such ship or vessel shall be a decked vessel, or be above the burden of 15 tons, and not exceeding 50 tons, then in the penalty of 100/. ; if exceeding the burden of 50 tons and not exceeding 100 tons, then in the penalty of 300?. ; if exceeding the burden of 100 tons and not exceeding 200 tons, then in the penalty of 500/. ; if exceeding the burden of 200 tons and not exceeding 300 tons, then in the penalty of 800/.; and if exceeding the burden of 300 tons, then m the penalty of 1,000/. ; and the condition of every such bond shall be, that such certificate shall not be sold, lent, or otherwise disposed of to any person or persons whatever, and that the same shall be solely made use of for the service of the ship or vessel for which it is granted ; and that in case such ship or vessel shall be lost, or taken by the enemy, burnt, or broken up, or otherwise prevented from return- ing to the port to which she belongs, or shall on any account have lost and forfeited the privileges of a British ship, or shall have been seized and legally condemned for illicit trading, or shall have been taken in execution for debt, and sold by due process of law, or shall have been sold to the Crown, or shall under any circumstances have been registered de novo, the certificate, if preserved, shall be deli- vered up, within 1 month after the arrival of the master in any port or place in his Majesty's domi- nions, to the collector and comptroller of some port in Great Britain or of the Isle of Man, or of I he Bri- tish plantations, or to the governor, lieutenant-governor, or commander-in-chief for the time being of the islands of Guernsey or Jersey ; and that if any foreigner, or any person or persons for the use and benefit of any foreigner, shall purchase or otherwise become entitled to the whole or to any part or share of or any interest in such ship or vessel, and the same shall be within the limits of any port of Great Britain, or of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, or Man, or of the British colonies, plantations, islands, or territories aforesaid, then and in such case the certificate of registry shall, within 7 days after such purchase or transfer of property in such ship or vessel, be delivered up to the person or persons herein-before authorised to make registry and grant certificate of registry at such port or place respectively as aforesaid ; and if such ship or vessel shall be in any foreign port when such purchase or transfer of property shall take place, then that the certificate shall be delivered up to the British consul or other chief British officer resident at or nearest to such foreign port ; or if such ship or vessel shall be at sea, when such purchase or transfer of property shall take place, then that the certificate shall be deliver- ed up to the Hritish consul or other chief British officer at the foreign port or place in or at which the master or other person having or taking the charge or command of such ship or vessel shall first arrive after such purchase or transfer of property at sea, immediately after his arrival at such foreign port ; but if such master or other person who had the command thereof at the time of such purchase or transfer of property at sea shall not arrive at a foreign port, but shall arrive at some port of Great Britain, or of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, or Man, or of his Majesty's said colonies, plantations, islands, or ter- ritories, then that the certificate shall be delivered up, in manner aforesaid, within 14 days after the arrival of such ship or vessel, or of the person who had the command thereof, in any port of Great Britain, or of the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, or Man, or of any of his Majesty's said colonies, planta- tions, islands, or territories: provided always, that if it shall happen that at the time of registry of any ship or vessel the same shall be at any other port than the port to which she belongs, so that the master of such ship or vessel cannot attend at the port of registry to join with the owner or owners in such bond as aforesaid, it shall be lawful for him to give a separate bond, to the like etfect, at the port where such ship or vessel may then be, and the collector and comptroller of such other port shall transmit such bond to the collector and comptroller of the port where such ship or vessel is to be re- gistered, and such bond, and the bond also given by the owner or owners, shall together be of the same etfect against the master and owner or owners, or either of them, as if they had bound them- selves jointly and severally in one bond. — } 20. When Master is changed, new Master to give similar Bond. — When and so often as the master or other person having or taking the charge or command of any ship or vessel registered in manner herein directed shall be changed, the master or owner of such ship or vessel shall deliver to the person or persons herein authorised to make such registry and grant such certificates of registry at the port where such change shall take place the certificate of registry beloneing to such ship or vessel, who shall thereupon indorse and subscribe a memorandum of such change", and shall forthwith give notice of the same to the proper officer of the port or place where such ship or vessel was last registered pur- 392 REGISTRY. 8Uant to this act, wlio shall likewise make a memorandum of the same in the book of registers, which is herebj* directed and required to be kept, and shall forthwith give notice thereof to the commission- ers of his Majesty's customs : provided always, that before the name of such new master shall be in- dorsed on the certificate of registry he shall be required to give and shall give a bond in the like penal- ties and under the same conditions as are contained in the bond herein-before required to be given at the time of registry of any ship or vessel. — if 21. Bonds liable to sume Duties or Stamps as Bonds for Customs. — All bonds required by this act shall be liable to the same duties of stamps as bonds given for or in respect of the duties of customs are or shall be liable to under any act for the time being in force for granting duties of stamps. — $ 22. Certificate of Registry to be given up by all Persons, as directed by the Bond. — If any person whatever shall at any time have possession of and wilfully detain any certificate of registry granted under this or any other act, which ousht to be delivered up to be cancelled according to any of the conditions of the bond herein-before required to be given upon the registry of any ship or vessel, such person is hereby required and enjoined to deliver up such certificate of registry in manner directed by the con- ditions of such bond in the respective cases and under the respective penalties therein provided. —$ 23. Name of Vessel ichich has been registered never afterwards to be changed. — It shall not be lawful for any owner or owners of any ship or vessel to give any name to such ship or vessel other than that by which she was first registered in pursuance of this or any other act ; and the owner or owners of all and every ship or vessel which shall be so registered shall, before such ship or vessel, after such regis- try, shall begin to take in any cargo, paint or cause to be painted, in white or yellow letters, of a length of not less than 4 inches, upon a black ground, on some conspicuous part of the stern, the name by which such ship or vessel shall have been registered pursuant to this act, and the port to which she belongs, in a distinct and legible manner, and shall so keep and preserve the same ; and if such owner or owners or master or other person having or taking the charge or command of such ship or vessel shall permit such ship or vessel to begin to take in any cargo before the name of such ship or vessel has been so painted as aforesaid, or shall wilfully alter, erase, obliterate, or in anywise hide or conceal, or cause or procure or permit the same to be done (unless in the case of square-rigged ves- sels in time of war), or shall in any written or printed paper, or other document, describe such ship or vessel by any other name than that by which she was first registered pursuant to this act, or shall ver- bally describe, or cause or procure or permit such ship or vessel to be described, by any other name to any officer or officers of his Majesty's revenue in the due execution of his or their duty, then and in every such case such owner or owners or master or other person having or taking the charge or com- mand of such ship or vessel shall forfeit the sum of 100/. — $ 24. Builder's Certificate of Particulars of Ship.— All and every person and persons who shall apply for a certificate of the registry of any ship or vessel shall and they are hereby required to produce to the person or persons authorised to grant such certificate a true and full account, under the hand of the builder of such ship or vessel, of the proper denomination, and of the time when and the place where such ship or vessel was built, and also an exact account of the tonnage of such ship or vessel, together with the name of the first purchaser or purchasers thereof (which account such builder is hereby directed and required to give under his hand on the same being demanded by such person or persons so applying fur a certificate as aforesaid), and shall also make and subscribe a declaration before the person or persons herein-before authorised to grant such certificate that the ship or vessel for which such certificate is required is the same with that which is so described by the builder as afore- said.—? 25. Certificate of Registry lost or mislaid. — If the certificate of registry of any ship or vessel shall be lost or mislaid, sn thaf the same cannot be found or obtained for the use of such ship or vessel when needful, and proof thereof shall be made to the satisfaction of the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, such commissioners shall and may permit such ship or vessel to be registered de novo, and a certificate thereof to be granted: provided always, that if such ship or vessel be absent and far distant from the port to which she belongs, or by reason of the absence of the owner or owners, or of any other impediment, registry of the same cannot then be made in sufficient time, such commission- ers shall and may grant a licence for the present use of such ship or vessel, which licence shall, for the time and to the extent specified therein, and no longer, be of the same force and virtue as a certificate of registry granted under this act : provided always, that before such registry de novo be made, the owner or owners and master shall give bond to the commissioners aforesaid, in such sum as to them 6hal! seem fit, with a condition that if the certificate of registry shall at any time afterwards be found, the same shall be forthwith delivered to the proper officers of his Majesty's customs to be cancelled, and that no illegal use has been or shall be made thereof with his or their privity or knowledge ; and further, that before any such licence shall be granted as aforesaid, the master of such ship or vessel shall also make and subscribe a declaration that the same has been registered as a British ship, nam- ing the port where and tin; time when such registry was made, and all the particulars contained in the certificate thereof, to the best of his knowledge and belief, and shall also give such bond and with the same condition as is before mentioned : provided also, that before any such licence shall be grant- ed, such ship or vessel shall be surveyed in like manner as if a registry de novo were about to be made thereof; and the certificate of such survey shall be preserved by the collector and comptroller of the port to which such ship or vessel shall belong; and in virtue thereof it shall be lawful for the said commissioners and they are hereby required to permit such ship or vessel to be registered after her departure, whenever the owner or owners shall personally attend to take and subscribe the declara- tion required by this act before registry be made, and shall also comply with all other requisites of this act, except so far as relates to the bond to be given by the master of such ship or vessel ; which certifi- cate of registry the said commissioners shall and may transmit to the collector and comptroller of any other port, to be by them given to the master of such ship or vessel, upon his giving such bond, and delivering up the licence which had been granted for the then present use of such shipor vessel. — $ 26. Persons detaining Certificate of Registry to forfeit 100/. — In case any person who shall have received or obtained by any means, or for any person whatever, the certificate of the registry of any ship or vessel (whether such person shall claim to be the master or to he the owner or one of the owners of such ship or vessel, or not), shall wilfully detain and refuse to deliver Dp the same to the proper officers of customs, for the purposes of such ship or vessel, as occasion shall require, or to the person or persons having the actual command, possession, and management of such shipor vessel as the ostensible and reputed master, or as the ostensible and reputed owner or owners thereof, it may and shall be lawful to and for any such last-mentioned person to make complaint on oath of such detainer and refusal to any justice of the peace residing near to the place where such detainer and refusal shall be, in Great Britain or Ireland, or to any member of the supreme court of justice or any justice of the peace in the islands of Jersey, Guernsey, or Man, or in any colony, plantation, island, or territory to his Majesty belonging in Asia, Africa, or America, or in Malta, Gibraltar, or Heligoland, where such detainer and re- fusal shall he in any of the places last mentioned ; and on such complaint the said justice or other ma- gistrate shall and is hereby required, by warrant under his hand and seal, to cause the person so com- plained against to be brought before him to be examined touching such detainer and refusal ; and if it shall appear to the said justice or other magistrate, on examination of such person or otherwise, that the REGISTRY. 393 said certificate of registry is not lost or mislaid, but is wilfully detained by the said person, sucli per- son shall be thereof convirti'd, and shall forfeit and pay the sum of 100/., and on failure of payment thereof he shall be committed to the common gaol, there to remain without ball or mainprize for such time as the said justice or other magistrate shall in his discretion deem proper, not being less than 3 months nor more than 19 months; and the said justice or other magistrate shall and he is hereby re- quired to certify the aforesaid detainer, refusal, and conviction to the person or persons who granted BUCh certificate of registry for such ship or vessel, who shall, on the terms and conditions of law being com pi ied with, make registry of such ship or vessel tie novo, and grant a cert ilicate thereof conformably to law, notifying on the back of such certificate the ground upon which the ship or vessel was so registered de novo ; and if the person who shall have detained and refused to deliver up such certificate of registry as aforesaid, or shall he verily believed to have detained the same, shall have absconded, so that the said warrant of the justice or other magistrate cannot be executed upon him, and proof thereof shall be made to the satisfaction of the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, it shall be lawful for the said commissioners to permit such ship or vessel to be registered de novo, or otherwise, in their discretion, to giant a licence for the present use of such ship or vessel in like manner as is herein-before provided in the case wherein the certificate of registry is not lost or mislaid. — { 27. Ship altered ire certain Manner to be registered de novo. — If any ship or vessel, after she shall have been registered pursuant to the directions of this act, shall in aiiy manner whatever be altered so as not to correspond with all the particulars contained in the certificate of her registry, in such case such ship or vessel shall be registered de novo, in manner herein-before required, as soon as she returns to the port to which she belongs, or to any other port which shall be in the same part of the United King- dom, or in the same colony, plantation, island, or territory as the said port shall be in, on failure whereof such ship or vessel shall, to all intents and purposes, be considered and deemed and taken to be a ship or vessel not duly registered. — } 28. Vessels condemned as P rr.e, t yc— The owner or owners of all such ships and vessels as shall be taken by any of his Majesty's ships or vessels of war, or by any private or other ship or vessel, and con- demned as lawful prize in any court of admiralty, or of such ships or vessels as shall be condemned in any competent court as forfeited for breach of the laws for the prevention of the slave trade, shall, for the purpose of registering any such ship or vessel, produce to the collector and comptroller of customs a certificate of the condemnation of such ship or vessel, under the hand and seal of the judge of the court in which such ship or vessel shall have been condemned (which certificate such judge is hereby authorised and required to grant), and also a true and exact account in writing of all the particulars contained in the certificate herein-before set forth, to be made and subscribed by one or more skilful person or persons to be appointed by the court then and there to survey such ship or vessel, and shall also make and subscribe a declaration before the collector and comptroller that such ship or vessel is the same vessel which is mentioned in the certificate of the judge aforesaid.— $ 29. Prize Vessels not to be registered at Guernsey, Jersey, or Man. — No ship or vessel which shall be taken and condemned as prize or forfeiture as aforesaid shall be registered in the islands of Guernsey, Jer- sey, or Man, although belonging to his Majesty's subjects residing in those islands, or in some one or other of them ; but the same shall be registered either at Southampton, Weymouth, Exeter, Ply- mouth, Falmouth, Liverpool, or Whitehaven, by the collector and comptroller, at such ports respect- ively, who are hereby authorised and required to register such ship or vessel, and to grant a certifi- cate thereof in the form and under the regulations and restrictions in this act contained.— Q 30. Transfers of Interest to be made by Bill of Sale.— When and so often as the property in any ship or vessel, or any part thereof, belonging to any of his Majesty's subjects, shall, after registry thereof, be sold to any other or others of his Majesty's subjects, the same shall be transferred by bill of sale or other instrument in writing, containing a recital of the certificate of registry of such ship or vessel, or the principal contents thereof, otherwise such transfer shall not be valid or effectual for any purpose whatever, either in law or in equity : provided always, that no bill of sale shall be deemed void by ot any error in such recital, or by the recital of any former certificate of registry instead of the existing certificate, provided the identity of the ship or vessel intended in the recital be effectually proved thereby.— $ 31. Property in Ships to be divided into Sixty-four Parts or Shares. — The property in every ship or vessel of which there are more than one owner shall he taken and considered to be divided into 64 equal parts or shares, and the proportion held by each owner shall be described in the registry as being a certain number of 64th parts or shares ; and no person shall be entitled to be registered as an owner of any ship or vessel in respect of any proportion of such ship or vessel which shall not be an integral 64th part or share of the same ; and upon the first registry of any ship or vessel, the owner or owners who shall take and subscribe the declaration required by this act, before registry be made, shall also de- clare the number of such parts or shares then held by each owner, and the same shall be so registered accordingly: provided always, that if it shall at any time happen that the property of any owner or owners in any ship or vessel cannot be reduced by division into any number of integral tilth parts or shares, it shall and may he lawful for the owner or owners of such fractional parts as shall be over and above such number of integral 64th parts or shares into which such property in any ship or vessel can be reduced by division to transfer the same one to another, or jointly to any new owner, by memo- randum upon their respective bills of sale, or by fresh bill of sale, without such transfer being liable to any stamp duty : provided also, that the right of any owner or owners to any such fractional parts shall not be affected by reason of the same not having been registered : provided also, that it shall be lawful for any number of such owners, named and described in such registry, being partners in any house or copartnership actually carrying on trade in any part of his Majesty's dominions, to hold any ship or vessel, or any share or shares of any ship or vessel, in the name of such house or copartnership, as joint owners thereof, without distinguishing the proportionate interest of each of such owners, and that such ship or vessel, or the share or shares thereof so held in copartnership, shall be deemed and taken to be partnership property to all intents and purposes, and shall be governed by the same rules, both in law and equity, as relate to and govern all other partnership property in any other goods, chattels, and effects whatsoever. — } 32. Only Thirty-two Persons to be Owners of any Ship at One Time. — No greater number than 32 persons shall be entitled to be legal owners at one and the same time of any ship or vessel, as tenants in com- mon, or to he registered as such : provided always, that nothing herein contained shall affect the equitable title of minors, heirs, legatees, creditors, or others, exceeding that number, duly represented by or holding from any of the persons within the said number, registered as legal owners of any share or shares of such ship or vessel : provided also, that if it shall be proved to the satisfaction of the commissioners of customs that any number of persons have associated themselves as a joint slock company, for the purpose of owning any ship or vessel, or any number of ships or vessels, as the joint property of such company, and that such company have duly elected or appointed any number, not less than 3, of the members of the same to be trustees of the property in such ship or vessel or ships or vessels so owned by such company, it shall be lawful for such trustees or any 3 of tin in. with the permission of such commissioners, to make and subscribe the declaration required by this act be- fore registry be made, except that, instead of stating therein the names and descriptions of the other 50 394 REGISTRY. owners, they shall state the name and description of the company to which such ship or vessel or ships or vessels shall in such manner belong. — $ 33. Bills of Sate not effectual until produced to Officers of Customs. — No bill of sale or other instrument in writing shall be valid and effectual to pass the property in any ship or vessel, or in any share thereof, or for any other purpose, until such bill of sale or other instrument in writing shall have been pro- duced to the collector and comptroller of the port at which such ship or vessrl is already registered, or to the collector and comptroller of any other port at which she is about to be registered de novo, as the case may be, nor until such collector and comptroller respectively shall have entered in the book of such last registry, in the one case, or in the book of such registry de novo, after all tlie requisites of law for such registry de novo shall have been duly complied with, in the other case (and which they are respectively hereby required to do upon the production of the bill of sale or other instrument for that purpose), the name, residence, and description of the vendor or mortgagor, or of each vendor or mortgagor, if more than 1, the number of shares transferred, the name, residence, and description of the purchaser or mortgagee, or of each purchaser or mortgagee, if more than 1, and the date of the bill of sale or other instrument, and of the production of it ; and further, if such ship or vessel is not about to be registered de novo, the collector and comptroller of the port where such ship is registered shall and they are hereby required to indorse the aforesaid particulars of such bill of sale or other instru- ment on the certificate of registry of the said ship or vessel, when the same shall be produced to them for that purpose, in manner and to the effect following : — " Cuslom-house [port and date: name, residence, and description of vendor or mortgagor] has transferred by [bill oj sale or other instrument] dated [date; number of shares] to [nayne, residence, and description of ir an extract or extracts thereof respectively ; and the copy and copies of any such oath or declaration, register or entry, shall, upon being proved to he a true copy or copies thereof respectively, be allowed and received as evidence upon every trial at law, without the production of the original or originals, and without the testimony or attendance of any collector or comptroller, or oilier person or persons acting for them respectively, in all cases,.as fully and to all intents and purposes as such ori- ginal or originals, if produced by any collector or collectors, comptroller or comptrollers, or other per- son or persons acting for them, could or might legally he admitted or received in evidence. — { -10. Vessels or Shares sold in the Absence uf Owners without formal powers.— If the ship or vessel, or the share or shares of any owner thereof who may be out of the kingdom, shall he sold in bis absence by his known agent or correspondent, under his directions either expressed or implied, and acting for his interest in that behalf, and such asrent or correspondent who shall have executed a hill of sale to tie: purchaser of the whole of such ship or vessel, or of any share or shares thereof, shall not have re- ceived a legal power to execute the same, it shall he lawful for the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, upon application made to them, and proof to their satisfaction of the fair dealings of the par- ties, to permit such transfer to be registered, if registry de novo be necessary, or to be recorded ami in- dorsed, as the case may be, in manner directed by this act, as if such legal power had been produced ; and also, if it shall happen that any hill of sale cannot be produced, or if, by reason of distance of time, or the absence or death of parties concerned, it cannot be proved that a hill of sale for any share or shares in any ship or vessel had been executed, and registry de novo of such ship or vessel shall have become necessary, it shall he lawful for the commissioners of his Majesty's customs, upon proof to their satisfaction of'the fair dealings of the parties, to permit such ship or vessi I to he registered de novo in like manner as if a bill of sale for the transfer of such share or shares had been produced : provided always, that in any of the cases herein mentioned, good and sufficient security shall be given to produce a legal power or bill of sale within a reasonable lime, or to abide the future claims of the absent owner, his heirs and successors, as the case may he ; and at the future request of the party whose [property has been so transferred, without the production of a bill of sale from him or from his law lul attorney, such bond shall be available for the protection of his interest, in addition to any pow- ers or rights which he may have in law or equity against the ship or vessel, or against the parlies concerned, until he shall have received full indemnity for any loss or injury sustained by him.— $ 11 Transfer ba way of Mortgage— When any transfer of any ship or vessel, or of any shine or shares thereof, shall' be made only as a security for the payment of a debt or debts, either by way of mortgage, or of assignment to a trustee or trustees for the purpose of selling the same for the payment of any debt or debts, then and in every such case the collector and comptroller of the port where the ship or i- registered shall, in the entry in the book of registry, and also in the indorsement on the cer- tificate of registry, in manner herein-before directed, state and express that such transfer was made only as a security for the payment of a debt or debts, or by way of mortgage, or to that ell i t ; and the person or persons to whom such transfer shall be made, or any other person or persons claiming under him or them as a mortgagee or mortgagees, or a trustee or trustees only, shall not by reason thereof he deemed to he the owner or owners of such ship or vessel, share or shares thereof, nor shall the person or persons making such transfer be deemed by reason thereof to have ceased to be an owner or owners of such ship or vessel, any more than if no such transfer had been made, except so far as may be necessary for the purpose of rendering the ship or vessel, share or shares, so transfer- red, available by sale or otherwise for the payment of the debt or debts for securing the payment of which such transfer shall have been made. — $ 42. Transfers of Ships for Security. — When any transfer of any ship or vessel, or of any share or share* thereof, shall have been made as a security for the payment of any debt or debts, either by way of mortgage or of assignment as aforesaid, and such transfer shall have been duly registered according to the provisions of this act, the right or interest of the mortgagee or other assignee as aforesaid shall not be in any manner affected by any act or acts of bankruptcy committed by such mortgagor or as- signor, mortgagors or assignors, after the time when such mortgage or assignment shall have been so registered as aforesaid, notwithstanding such mortgagor or assignor, mortgagors or assignors, at the time he or they shall so become bankrupt as aforesaid, shall have in his or their possession, order, and disposition, and shall be the reputed owner or owners of the said ship or vessel, or the share or shares thereof, so by him or them mortgaged or assigned as aforesaid, but such mortgage or assignment shall take place of and be preferred to any right, claim, or interest which may belong to the assignee or as- signees of such bankrupt or bankrupts in such ship or vessel, share or shares thereof, any law or sta- tute to the contrary thereof notwithstanding. — } 43. Oovernors of Colonies, Sec. may cause Proceedings in Suits to be stayed.— ll shall and may he lawful for any governor, lieutenant-governor, or commander-in-chief of any of his Majesty's colonies, planta- tions, islands, or territories, and they are hereby respectively authorised and required, if any suit, in- formation, libel, or other prosecution or proceeding of any nature or kind whatever shall have beer. 396 REGISTRY. commenced or shall hereafter he commenced in any court whatever in any of the said colonies, plan- tations, islands, or territories respectively, touching the force and effect of any register granted to any ship or vessel, upon a representation made to any such governor, lieutenant-governor, or commander- in-chief, to cause all proceedings thereon to be stayed, if he shall see just cause so to do, until his Majesty's pleasure shall be known and certified to him by his Majesty, by and with the advice of his Majesty's privy council; and such governor, lieutenant-governor, or commander-in-chief is hereby required to transmit to one of his Majesty's principal secretaries of state, to be laid before his Majesty in council, an authenticated copy of the proceedings in every such case, together with bis reasons for causing the same to be stayed, and such documents (properly verified) as he may judge necessary for the information of his Majesty. — } 44. Penally of 5001. on Persons making false Declaration, or falsifying any Document. — If any person or persons shall falsely make declaration to any of the matters herein-before required to be verified by declaration, or if any person or persons shall counterfeit, erase, alter, or falsify any certificate or other instrument in writing required or directed to be obtained, granted, or produced by this act, or shall knowingly or wilfully make use of any certificate or other instrument so counterfeited, erased, altered, or falsified, or shall wilfully grant such certificate or other instrument in writing, knowing it to be false, such person or persons shall for every such offence forfeit the sum of 5001. — $ 45. How Penalties are to be recovered. — All the penalties and forfeitures inflicted and incurred by this act shall and may be sued for, prosecuted, recovered, and disposed of in such manner, and by such ways, means, and methods, as any penalties or forfeitures inflicted or which may be incurred for any offences committed against any law relating to the customs may now legally be sued for, prosecuted, recover- ed, ami disposed of ; and the officer or officers concerned in seizures or prosecutions under tins act shall be entitled to and receive the same share of the produce arising from such seizures as in the case of seizures for unlawful importation, and to such share of the produce arising from any pecuniary fine or penalty for any offence against this act as any officer or officers is or are now by any law or regulation entitled to upon prosecutions for pecuniary penalties. — $ 46. [The government of the United States has followed the example of England in confer- ring peculiar privileges on their own ships ; and no vessel is considered to be a vessel of the United States, unless registered, as well as owned and commanded by a citizen of the United States. The following are the principal regulations respecting the registry of American vessels. Act of Congress of the 3\st December, 1792.—$ 1. That ships or vessels which shall have heen re- gistered by virtue of the act, entitled " An act for registering and clearing vessels, regulating the coasting trade, and for other purposes," and those which, after the last day of March next, shall be registered pursuant to the act, and no other, (except such as shall be duly qualified, according to law, for carrying on the coasting trade and fisheries, or one of them,) shall be denominated and deemed ships or vessels of the United States, entitled to the benefits and privileges appertaining to such ships or vessels : Provided, That they shall not continue to enjoy the same longer than they shall continue to be wholly owned, and to be commanded by, a citizen or citizens of the said states. $ 2. That ships or vessels built within the United States, whether before, or after, the fourth of July, one thousand seven hundred and seventy-six, and belonging wholly to a ^itizen or citizens thereof, or not built within the said states, but, on the sixteenth day of May, in the year one thou- sand seven hundred and eighty-nine, belonging, and thenceforth continuing to belong, to a citizen or citizens thereof, and ships or vessels which may hereafter be captured in war, by such citizen or citi- zens, and lawfully condemned as prize, or which have been or may be, adjudged to be forfeited for a breach of the laws of the United States, being wholly owned by a citizen or citizens thereof, and no other, may be registered as hereinafter directed : Provided, That no such ship or vessel shall be enti- tled to be so registered, or, if registered, to the benefits thereof, if owned in whole, or in part, by any citizen of the United States, who usually resides in a foreign country, during the continuance of such residence, unless such citizen be in the capacity of a consul of the United States, or an agent for, and a partner in, some house of trade or copartnership, consisting of citizens of the said states, actually carrying on trade within the said states: And provided further, That no ship or vessel built within the United States, prior to the said sixteenth day of May, which was not then owned wholly, *or in part, by a citizen or citizens of the United States, shall be capable of being registered, by virtue of any transfer to a citizen or citizens, which may hereafter be made, unless by way of prize or forfeit- ure : Provided, nevertheless, That this shall not be construed to prevent the registering anew of any ship or vessel which was before registered, pursuant to the act before mentioned. $ 3. That every ship or vessel, hereafter to be registered, (except as is hereinafter provided,) shall he registered by the collector of the district in which shall be comprehended the port to which such ship or vessel shall belong at the time of her registry, which port shall be deemed to be that, at or nearest to which the owner, if there be but one, or if more than one, the husband, or acting and managing owner of such ship or vessel usually resides. And the name of the said ship or vessel, and the port to which Bhe shall so belong, shall he painted on her stern, on a black ground, in white letters, of not less than three inches in length. And if any ship or vessel of the United States shall be found with- out having her name, and the name of the port to which she belongs, painted in manner aforesaid, the owner or owners shall forfeit fifty dollars; one half to the person giving the information thereof, the other half to the use of the United States. J 4. That, in order to the registry of any ship or vessel, an oath or affirmation shall be taken and subscribed by the owner, or by one of the owners, thereof, before the officer authorized to make such registry, who is hereby empowered to administer the same, declaring, according to the best of the knowledge and belief of the person so swearing or affirming, the name of such ship or vessel, her bur- then, the place where she was built, if built within the United States, and the year in which she was built ; and if built within the United States before the said sixteenth day of May, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine, that she was then owned, wholly or in part, by a citizen or citizens of the United Slates; and, if not built within the said States, that she was, on the said sixteenth day of May, and ever since hath continued to be, the entire properly of a citizen or citizens of the United States ; or tint she was, at some time posterior to the time when this act shall take effect, (specifying the said time,) captured in war by a citizen or citizens of the said states, and lawfully condemned as prize, (producing a copy of the sentence of condemnation, authenticated in the usual forms,) orthat she has been adjudged to be forfeited for a breach of the laws of the United States, (producing a like copy of the sentence whereby she shall have been so adjudged,) and declaring his or her name, and place of abode, mid, if he or she be the sole owner of the said ship or vessel, that such is the case ; or, if there be another owner or other owners, that there is or are such other owner or owners, specifying his, her, or their, name or names, and place or places of abode, and that he, she, or they, as the case may be, so swearing or affirming, is or are citizens of the United States; and where an owner resides in a foreign country, in the capacity of a consul of the United States, or as an agent for, and a partner in, a house or copartnership consisting of citizens of the United Slates, and actually carrying on trade REGISTRY. 397 within the United States, thai BUch is the case, and that there i= no subject or citizen of any foreign prince or state, directly or indirectly, by way of trust, confidence, or otherwise, interested ship or vessel, or in the profits or issues thereof; and thai the master or commander thereof, is a citi- zen, naming the said master or commander, and statin" the means whereby, nr manner In which, he is so a citizen. And in case any of the matters of tact in the Baid oath or affirmation alleged, which shall he within the knowledge of the party so swearing or affirming, shall not he true, there .-hall be a forfeiture of the ship or vessel, together with her tackle, furniture, and apparel, in respect to which the same shall have been made, or of the value thereof, to he recovered with costs of suit, of the per- son by w -horn such oath 01 affirmation shall have been made : Provided always, That if the master, or person having the charge or command of such ship or vessel, shall be within the district aforesaid when application shall he made for registering the same, he shall, himself, make oath or affirmation, instead of the said owner, touching his being a citizen, and the means whereby, or manner in which, lie is so a citizen ; in which case, if what the said master, or person having the said charge or com- mand, shall so swear or affirm shall not be true, the forfeiture aforesaid shall not he incurred, but he shall, himself, forfeit and pay, by reason thereof, the sum of one thousand dollars : Jlnd provided fur- ther, That in the case of a ship or vessel, built within the United States prior to the sixteenth day of May aforesaid, which was not then owned by a citizen or citizens of the United States, but which, by virtue of a transfer to such citizen or citizens, shall have been registered, pursuant to the act before- mentioned, the oath or affirmation, hereby required, shall and may be varied according to the truth of the case, as often as it shall be requisite to grant a new register for such ship or v< Bsel. $6. That before any ship or vessel shall he registered, she shall be measured by a surveyor, if there be one, or by the person he shall appoint, at the port or place where the said ship or vessel may be, and if there be none, by such person as the collector of the district, within which she may be, shall appoint, according to the rule prescribed by the forty-third section of the act, entitled "An act to pro- vide more effectually for the collection of the duties imposed by law on goods, wares, and merchan- dise, imported into the United States, and on the tonnage of ships or vessels." And the officer, or person by whom such admeasurement shall be made, shall, for the information of, and as a voucher to, the officer by whom the registry is to be made, grant a certificate, specifying the built of such ship or vessel, her number of decks and masts, her length, breadth, depth, the number of tons she mea- sures, and such other particulars as are usually descriptive of the identity of a ship or vessel ; and that her name, .and the place to which she belongs, are painted on her stem, in manner required by the third section of this act ; which certificate shall be countersigned bj an owner, or by the master of such ship or vessel, or by some other person who shall attend her admeasurement on behalf of her owner or owners, in testimony of the truth of the particulars therein contained ; without which the said certificate shall not be valid. Hut, in all cast's where a ship or vessel has before been registered, as a ship or vessel of the United States, it shall not be necessary to measure her anew, for the purpose of obtaining another register ; except such ship or vessel shall "have undergone some alteration, as to her burthen, subsequent to the time of her former registry. { 7. That, previous to the registry of any ship or vessel, the husband, or acting and managing owner, together with the master thereof, and one or more sureties, to the satisfaction of the collector of the district, whose duty it is to make such registry, shall become bound to the United States, if such ship or vessel shall be of burthen not exceeding fifty tons, in the sum of fur hundred dollars : if of burthen above fifty tons and not exceeding one hundred, in the sum of eight hundred dollars ; if of burthen above one hundred tons and not exceeding two hundred, in the sum of twelve hundred dollars ; if of burthen above two hundred tons and not exceeding three hundred, in the sum of sixteen hundred dollars ; and if of burthen exceeding three hundred tons, in the sum of two thousand dol- lars ; with condition, in each case, that the certificate of such registry shall be solely used for the ship or vessel for which it is granted, and shall not be sold, lent, or otherwise disposed of, to any person or persons whomsoever ; and that, in case such ship or vessel shall be lost or taken by an enemy, burnt, or broken up, or shall be otherwise prevented from returning to the port to which siie may belong, tie said certificate, if preserved, shall be delivered up, within eight days after the arrival of the master, or person having the charge or command of such ship or vessel, within any district of tin' United States, to the collector of such district : and that, if any foreigner, or any person or persons for the use and benefit of such foreigner, shall purchase, or otherwise become entitled to, the whole, or any part or share of, or interest in, such ship or vessel, the same being within a district of the United States, the said certificate shall, in such case, within seven days after such purchase, change, or transfer of property, be delivered up to the collector of the said district ; and that if any such pur- chase, change, or transfer of property, shall happen when such ship or vessel shall be at any foreign port or place, or at sea, then the said master, or person having the charge or command thereof, shall, within eight days after his arrival within any district of the United Slates, deliver up the said certifi- cate to the collector of such district ; and every such certificate, so delivered up, shall be forthwith transmitted to the register of the treasury, to be cancelled, who, if the same shall have been delivered up to a collector other than of the district in which it was granted, shall cause notice of such delivery to be given to the collector of the said district. $ 8. That, in order to the registry of any ship or vessel which, after the last day of March next, shall be built within the United States, it shall be necessary to produce a certilicate, under the hand of the principal or master carpenter, by whom, or under whose direction, the said ship or vessel shall have been built, testifying that she was built by him, or under his direction, ami specifying the place where, the time when, and the person or persons for whom, and describing her built, number of decks and masts, length, breadth, depth, tonnage, and such other circumstances as are usually descriptive of the identity of a ship or vessel ; which certificate shall be sufficient to authorize the removal of a new vessel from the district where she may he built, to another district in the same, or an adjoining state, where the owner or owners actually reside, provided it be with ballast only. J 9. That the several matters herein-before required, having been complied with, in order to the registering of any ship or vessel, the collector of the district comprehending the port to which she shall belong, shall make, and keep, in some proper hook, a record or registry thereof, nnd shall grant an abstract or certificate of such record or registry, as nearly as may be in the form following : "In pursuance of an act of the congress of the United States of America, entitled 'An act con- cerning the registering and recording of ships or vessels,' [inserting here the name, occupation, and place of abode of the person by whom the oath or affirmation aforesaid shall have been made] having taken or subscribed the oath (or affirmation) required by the said act, and having sworn (or affirmed) that he (or she, and if more than one owner, adding the words, 'together with,' and the name or names, occupation or occupations, place or places of abode, of the other owner or owners; is iur are) the only owner (or owners) of the ship or vessel, railed the [inserting here her name] of [inserting here the port to which she may belong] whereof [inserting here the name of the master] is at pre- sent master, and is a citizen of the United States, and that the said ship or vessel was [inserting here, when and where built] and [inserting here, the name and office, if any, of the person by whom she shall have been surveyed or admeasured] having certified that the said ship or vessel has [insert- ing here, the number of decks] and [inserting here, the number of masts] and that her length is [inserting here, the number of feet] her breadth [inserting here, the number of feet] her depth Vol. II.— 2 L 398 REGISTRY. [inserting here, the number of feet] and that she measures [inserting here, her number of tons] that she is [describing here, the particular kind of vessel, whether ship, brigantine, snow, schooner, sloop, or whatever else, together with her built, and specif) ing whether she has any, or no, gallery or head.] And the said [naming the owner, or the master, or other person acting in behalf of the owner or own- ers, liy whom the certificate of admeasurement shall have been countersigned, as aforesaid] having agreed to the description and admeasurement above specified, and sufficient security having been given, according to the said act, the said ship or vessel has been duly registered at the port of [naming the port where registered.] Given under my hand and seal, at. [naming the said port] this [inserting the particular day] day of [naming the month] in the year [specifying the number of I lie year, in words at length:"] Provided, That if the master, or person having the charge or command of such ship or vessel, shall, himself, have made oath or affirmation touching his being a citizen, the wording of the said certificate shall be varied so as to be conformable to the truth of the case : And provided, That where a new certificate of registry is granted, in consequence of any transfer of a ship or vessel, the words shall be so varied as to refer to the firmer certificate of registry for her admeasurement. $ 11. That where any citizen or citizens of the United States shall purchase, or become owner or owners of, any ship or vessel, entitled to he registered by virtue of this act, such ship or vessel, being within any district, other than the one in which he or they usually reside, such ship or vessel shall be entitled to be registered by the collector of the district where such ship or vessel may be, at the time of his or their becoming owner or owners thereof, upon his or their complying with the provisions herein-before prescribed, in order to the registry of ships or vessels: And the oath or affirmation which is required to be taken, may, at the option of such owner or owners, be taken, either before the collector of the district, comprehending the port to which such ship or vessel may belong, or before the collector of the district within which such ship or vessel may be, either of whom is hereby em- powered to administer the same: Provided, nevertheless, That whenever such ship or vessel shall arrive within the district, comprehending the port to which such ship or vessel shall lit long, the cer- tificate of registry, which shall have been obtained as aforesaid, shall be delivered up to the collector of such district, who, upon the requisites of this act, in order to the registry of E Is. being complied with, shall grant a new one, in lieu of the first ; and the certificate, so delivered up, shall forthwith be returned, by the collector who shall receive the same, to the collector who shall have granted it : and if the said first mentioned certificate of registry shall not be delivered up, as above directed, the owner or owners, and the master of such ship or vessel, at the time of her said arrival within the district comprehending the port to which such ship or vessel may belong, shall, severally, forfeit the sum of one hundred dollars, to be recovered, with costs of suit ; and the said certificate of registry shall be thenceforth void. And, in case any of the matters of fact in the said oath* or affirma- tion alleged, which shall be within the knowledge of the party so swearing or atiirming, shall not be true, there shall be a forfeiture of the ship or vessel, together with her tackle, furniture, and apparel, in respect to which the same shall have been made, or of the value thereof, to be recovered, with costs of suit, of the person by whom such oath or affirmation shall have been made : Provided ahcuys, That if the master, or person having the charge or command of such ship or vessel, shall be within the dis- trict aforesaid when application shall be made for registering the same, he shall, himself, make oath or affirmation, instead of the said owner, touching his being a citizen, and the means v. hereby, or manner in which, he is so a citizen ; in which case, if what the said master, or person having the said charge or command, shall so swear or affirm, shall not be true, the forfeiture afores id shall not be in- curred, but he shall, himself, forfeit and pay, by reason thereof, the sum of one thousand dollars. J 12. That when any ship or vessel, entitled to be registered pursuant to this act, shall be purchased by an agent or attorney for, or on account of, a citizen or citizens of the United States, such ship or vessel, being in a district of the United States more than fifty miles distant, taking the nearest usual route by land, from the one comprehending the port to which, by virtue of such purchase, and by force of this act. such ship or vessel ought to be deemed to belong, it shall be lawful for the collector of the district, where such ship or vessel may be, and he is hereby required, upon the application of such agent or attorney, to proceed to the registering of the said ship or vessel, the said agent or attorney first complying, on behalf, and in the stead of, the owner or owners thereof, with the requisites pre- scribed by this act, in order to the registry of ships or vessels, except that in the oath or affirmation which shall be taken by the said agent or attorney, instead of swearing or affirming that he is owner, or an owner of such ship or vessel, he shall swear or affirm that he is agent or attorney for the owner or owners thereof, and that he hath bona fide purchased the said ship or vessel, for the person or per- sons whom he shall name and describe as the owner cr owners thereof. Prori'Ud. iti vertheless, That whenever such ship or vessel shall arrive within the district comprehending the port to which such ship or vessel shall belong, the certificate of registry which shall have been obtained as afore- said, shall be delivered up to the collector of such district, who, upon the requisites of this act, in order to the registry of ships or vessels, being complied with, shall grant a new one, in lien of the first ; and the certificate, so delivered up, shall forthwith be returned by the collector, who shall transmit the same to the collector who shall have granted it. And if the said first mentioned certificate of registry shall not be delivered up, as above directed, the owner or owners, and the master of such ship or ves- sel at the time of her said arrival within the district comprehending the port to v% hich she may belong, shall, several!}', forfeit the sum of one hundred dollars, to be recovered, with costs of suit, and the said certificate of registry shall be thenceforth void. And in case any of the matters of fact in the said oath or affirmation alleged, which shall be within the knowledge of the party so swearing or affirm- ing, shall not be true, there shall be a forfeiture of the ship or vessel, together with her tackle, furni- ture, and apparel, in respect to which the same shall have been made, or of the value thereof, to be recovered, with costs of suit, of the person by whom such oath or affirmation shall have been made : Provided always, That if the master, or person having the charge or command of such ship or vessel, shall be within the district aforesaid, when application shall be made for registering the same, he shall, himself, make oath or affirmation, instead of the said agent or attorney, torn lung his being a citizen, and the means whereby, or manner in which, he is so a citizen ; in which case, if what the said master, or person having the said charge or command, shall so swear or affirm, shall not be true, the forfeiture aforesaid shall not be incurred, but he shall, himself, forfeit and pay, by reason thereof, the sum of one thousand dollars. J 13. That if the certificate of the registry of any ship or vessel shall be lost, or destroyed, or mis- laid, the master, or other person having the charge or command thereof, may make oath or affirma- tion, before the collector of the district where such ship or vessel shall first be after such loss, destruc- tion, or mislaying, who is hereby authorized to administer the same, which oath or affirmation shall be of the form following : " / [inserting here the name of the person swearing or affirming] bcinrr master (or hating tke charge or command) of the ship or vessel, called the [inserting the name of the vessel] do swear (or affirm) thai the said ship or vessel hath been, as I verily believe, registered, according- to law, by the nam' of [inserting again the name of the vessel] and that a certificate tht reof was granted by the collector of the district of [naming the district where registered] which certijicate has been lost, (or destroyed, or *«- intentionally end by mtre accident mhlaid, as the case may be,) and (except, where the certificate is al- leged to have been destroyed) that the same, if found again, and within my power, shall be delivered vp to the collector of the district m which it was granted ;" which oath or affirmation shall be subscribed by REGISTRY. 399 the party making the same; and upon such oath or affirmation being made, and the other requi- sites ot" this act, in order to the registry of ships or vessels, being complied with, it shall be lawful for the collector of the district, before whom such oath or affirmation is made, to grant a new register, in- serting therein that the same is issued in the room of the one lost or destroyed. Hut in all cases « here a regi>ter >h ill be cranted. in lieu of the one h'st or destroyed, by any other than the a Hector of the district tii which the ship ot vessel actually belongs, such register shall, within ten days after her first arrival within the district to which she belongs, he delivered up to the collector of said district, who Shall, thereupon, grant a new register in lieu thereof. And in case the master or commander shall neglect to deliver up such register, within the time aforesaid, he shall forfeit one hundred dollars ; and the fur;. - I ill become null and void. ( 14. That when any ship or vessel, which shall have been registered pursuant to this act. or the act hereby, in part, repealed, shall, in whole or in part, be sold, or transferred to a citizen or citizens of tbi >hall be altered in form, or burthen, by being lengthened, or built upon, or from one denomination to another, by the mode or method of rigging or fitting, in every such case the said ship or \ • Bsel shall be registered anew, by her former name, according to the directions herein- before itherwise she shall cease to be deemed a ship or vessel of the United States,) and her former certificate of registry shall be delivered up to the collector to whom application tor such new I be made, at the time that the same shall be made, to be by him transmitted to the register of the treasury, \\ ho shall cause the same to be cancelled. And in every such case of sale or transfer, there shall be some instrument of writing, in the nature of a bill of sale, which shall recite, at leu.'! mficate, otherwise the said ship or vessel shall be incapable of being so registered anew. An,! in every case, in which a ship or vessel is hereby required to be registered anew, if she shall not I, , anew, she shall not be entitled to any of the privileges or benefits of a ship or .-: it< 9 V ii J further, if her said former certificate of registry shall not be deliver- ed up. as aforesaid, except where the same may have been destroyed, lost, or unintentionally mislaid, and an oath or affirmation thereof shall have been made, as aforesaid, the owner or owners of such ship or vessel Bhall forfeit and pay the sum of five hundred dollars, to be recovered, with costs of suit. J 15. That when the master, or person having the charge or command of a ship or vessel, registered pursuant to this act, or the act hereby in part repealed, shall be changed, the owner, or one of the owners, or the new master of such ship or vessel, shall report such change to the collector of the dis- trict where the same shall happen, or where the said ship or vessel shall first be, after the same shall have happened, and shall produce to him the certificate of registry of such ship or vessel, and shall make oath or affirmation, showing that such new master is a citizen of the United States, and the manner in which, or means whereby, he is so a citizen ; whereupon the said collector shall endorse upon the said certificate of registry a memorandum of such change, specifying the name of such new master, and shall subscribe the said memorandum with his name ; and, if other than the collector of the district bv whom the said certificate of registry shall have been granted, shall transmit a copy of the said memorandum to him. with notice of the particular ship or vessel to which it shall relate ; and the collector of the district by whom the said certificate shall have been granted, shall make a like memorandum of such change 'in his book of registers, and shall transmit a copy thereof to the register of the treasury. And if the said change shall not be reported, or if the said oath or affirmation shall not be taken, as above directed, the registry of such ship or vessel shall be void, and the said master, or person having the charge or command of her, shall forfeit and pay the sum of one hundred dollars. $ 16. That if any ship or vessel heretofore registered, or which shall hereafter be registered, as a ship or vessel of the United States, shall be sold or transferred, in whole or in part, by way of trust, •confidence, or otherwise, to a subject or citizen of any foreign prince or state, and such sale or trans- fer shall not be made known, in manner hereinbefore directed, such ship or vessel, together with her tackle, apparel, and furniture, shall be forfeited : Provided, That if such ship or vessel shall be owned in part only, and it shall be made appear to the jury, before whom the trial for such forfeiture shall be had. that any other owner of such ship or vessel, being a citizen of the United States, was wholly ignorant of the sale or transfer to. or ownership of, such foreign subject or citizen, the share or in'.erest of such citizen of the United States shall not be subject to such forfeiture ; and the residue only shall be so forfeited. Act of the 1S(A of February, 1793.— J 1. That ships or vessels, enrolled by virtue of "An act for regis- tering and clearing vessels, regulating the coasting trade, and for other purposes," and those of twenty tons and upwards, which shall be enrolled, after the last day of May next, in pursuance of this act, and having a license in force, or, if less than twenty tons, not being enrolled, shall have a license in force, as is hereinafter required, and no others shall be deemed ships or vessels of the United States, entitled to the privileges of shi - mployed in the coasting trade or fisheries. J 2. That from and after the last day of May next, in order for the enrolment of any ship or vessel, she shall possess the same qualifications, and the same requisites, in all respects, shall be complied with, as are made necessary! : rum • ) British - L. 1,462.573 1,496,156 5,503,477 L. L. 1,399,868 1,432,929 5,015,071 L. L. 1,339,371 1,411,067 5,467,201 Malt • 6,848,950 3,252,410 4,932,080 Hops • 402,290 344,364 302,906 Wine - 1,794,033 1,687,201 1,846,057 Sugar and molasses 4,479,809 5,026,8S8 4,893,684 Tea ... 4,674,535 3,223,840 3,362,035 Coffee - 691,606 696,644 634,979 Tobacco and snuff Butter - 3,397,108 29,750,53 3,417,663 n 7,496,878 3,561,812 27,S51,192 238,306 265,563 251,665 Cheese - 105,087 120,034 113,907 Currants and Raisins 311,916 307,938 300,828 Corn - - 149,661 583,721 186,760 [ Cotton wool and sheeps* imported - 622,293 571,080 725,445 Silk - 24,768 218,375 254,874 Hides and skins ... 67,171 52,856 61,478 Paper .... 712,119 554,497 541,788 Soap .... 756,138 730,788 810,813 Candles and tallow 207,788 203,977 133,669 Coals, sea borne ... 8,667 8,910 7,632 i Glass .... 652,225 637,947 688,837 Bricks, tiles, and slates 474,921 439,264 418,335 Timber .... 1,537,463 1,369,381 1,572,618 Auctions 294,803 274,264 285,186 Excise licences • 1,018,002 1,019,431 1,023,202 Miscellaneous duties of Customs \ and Excise - . } Total Customs and Excise 1,633,221 9,014,554 1,501,173 3,858,799 1,596,366 9,023,403 - 33,765,09 3 6,355,677 36,^74,595 Stamps. Deeds and other instruments 1,621,741 1,603,207 1,663,720 Probate and legacies 2,042,528 2,185,890 2,192,231 Insurance { ™ J 252,712 831,367 260,512 824,133 251,856 891,704 Bills of exchange, bankers' notes - 739,957 714,703 734,109 Newspapers and advertisements 466,701 323,661 341,974 Stage coaches ... 614,628 498,943 494,284 Post horses ... 226,049 240,283 241,266 Receipts • 172,093 172,2S0 173,825 Other stamp duties disused and Land Taxes. Land taxes ... 482,601 7,350,37 436,506 7,265,127 468,784 7,453,753 1,199,609 1,192,635 1,1S4,830 Windows . 1,254,325 1,257,878 1,262,561 Servants .... 207,311 201,044 201,018 Horses .... 390,222 380,593 377,477 Carriages ... 449,792 441,173 442,757 Dogs .... 158,190 155,931 156,200 Other assessed taxes 162,056 3,921,50£ 260,892 3,390,146 278,212 3,903,085 Po». office ... 2,350,60; . 2,339,739 2,346,278 Crown lands ... 361,59: - 419,780 388,642 Other ordinary revenues and other ) resources J Total income - 146.13C - 322,188 312,575 62,895,29! 6 3,592,653 61,278,928 Excess of expenditure over Income • 726,460 441,819 62,395,29 5 ,319,113 1 51,720.747 iUEVEMJE AND EXPENDITURE. 403 Account of the Public Expenditure of the United Kingdom in the Years 1830, 1837, 1836. Heads of Expenditure. Reven ue— Charges of Collection : Civil J Customs Department I Excise Stamps • Assessed taxes (Mlur ordinary revenues • ' Superannuation and other allowances • Total charge of collection Interest of permanent debt Terminable annuities Management Interest on Exchequer bills • Total debt Civil Government. Civil List. Privy Purse. Salaries of the household, tradesmen's bills The allowances to the several branches of the Family, and to his Royal Highness Leopold Prince of Coburg (now King of the Belgians) - The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland's establishment The salaries and expenses of the Houses of Par- liament (including printing) Civil departments, including superannuation al- low Other annuities, pensions and superannuation allowances on the consolidated fund and on the gross revenue - Pensions civil list - Total civil government Justice. Courts of justice - Police and criminal prosecutions Correction - Diplomatic Foreign ministers' salaries and pensions » lines and superannuation allowances Disbursements, outfit, &c. Total diplomatic Forces. fEffective \*gg««** J uf.tT of men Army Navy Ordnance \Non.effee,iveJ»°f Total array f Effective ( Non-effective Total navy Effectiv ( Number of men J Charge ( Number of men ( Charge C Number of men I Charge - Non-effective { «-: — Total ordnance Total forces Army and ordnance, insurrection in Canada Bounties, kc. for promoting fisheries • .ks - . M >ut of the revenue of crown lands, for improvements and various public services - Post office ; charges of collection and other pay- ments - Quarantine and warehousing establishments - Miscellaneous services not classed under the foregoing heads - Total expenditure Surplus Memorandum — The amount of terminable An- nuities on 5th January was • In corresponding perpetuities, as estimated by Mr. Finlaison - Difference 24,156,664 4,224,427 126,953 28,508,019 726,824 411.S0O 806,000 33,345 137,731 366,932 325,664 75,000 390,837 329,520 289,827 198,301 91,f20 22,515 (80,557) 3.829,803 (-7.122, 2,b43,380 6,473,1! ; (29,076) 2.6I6.S29 ,21 ,,227) l.".-V-'>7 (8,327) 1,274.4 (1,403) 159,6 1,434,059 1,516,329 562,219 2,117--. VI- 159,394 176,211 47,637 389,435 2,S51,225 29,234,873 1,556,472 1,010,184 315,436 12,112,96S 15,683 316,841 327,458 712,304 111,563 1,819,305 1,075,993 4,220,817 1,928,155 635.842 662,080 24,215,779 4,195,745 132,482 391,972 278,877 31,953 157,820 466,202 322,641 71,5S9 404,952 492,772 428,711 188,142 99,950 23,840 (78,080) 3.941,996 (85,965) 2,579,719 6,521,715 (3'\995) 3,216,075 (25,329) 1,534,5S4 4,750,659 (8,652) 1,290,358 (1,513) 154,165 1,444,523 1,497,922 561,096 2,069,018 159,055 165,130 49,427 681,162 2,813,792 29,4S0,694 1,721,034 1,326,435 316,932 12,716,897 12,466 304,896 324,451 688.704 121,700 1,491,112 24,212,580 4,183,966 133,566 371,800 308.000 33,869 142,195 460.C64 454,502 562,191 466,666 182.028 148,606 62,198 (82.746) 4,263,641 (90,914) 2,552,100 6,815,641 (30,399) 3,046,367 (24,530) 1,473,561 4,520,428 (9,012) 1,219.1,33 (622) 165,048 1,384 681 1,488,341 570,129 2,058,470 154,213 2 9,203 62,213 374,401 2,848,600 29,251,040 1,452,359 12,720,750 500,000 13,454 322,539 144,731 676,835 134,634 1,559,048 51,720,747 4,202,012 1,870,745 4,292,173 1,830,634 404 REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. [Revenue and Expenditure of the United States for 1838 and 1839, as reported by the Secretary of the Treasury. Receipts or means in 1838. Amount. Balance on the 1st of January, 1838, $37,166,251 98 Receipts from customs, --..------ 17,478,770-56 Receipts from lands, ---------- 3,136,82^54 Miscellaneous, ---------- 253,431-85 Treasury notes issued, --------- 12,716,820b6 Second and third bonds of United States Bank of Pennsylvania, ... 4,542,102-22 $75,294,20601 Expenditures in 1S38. Civil and miscellaneous, first three quarters, Military, first three quarters, - Naval, first three quarters, - - - - Estimate of above expenditures for the fourth quarter Public debt for the year, - Redemption of Treasury notes for the year, Balance on the 31st of December, 1838, Total, Unavailable Funds in 1838. Deposites with the States, ------- Due from insolvent banks before 1837, - - - - - Due from banks that suspended payment in 1837, and not payable till 1839, Part of money in the mint, - - . . - _ Total, From balance on the 31st December, 1838, being - Deduct total unavailable as above, $1,029,67413 15,731,323-62 4,325,563-21 8,249,000 00 2,217-08 8,089,41064 34,866,987-33 $75,294,206-01 - $28,101,644-97 1,100,000-00 2,400,00000 500,00000 $32,101,644 97 - $34,806,987-33 - 32,101,64497 Available balanee remaining, Revenue and Means for 1339, exclusive of Trusts and the Post-office. The balance in the Treasury on the 1st of January, 1839, which could be considered available for general purposes, was ------- The receipts from customs, the first three quarters, as appearing on the Register's books, are ----------- This includes about two millions and three-fourths collected last year in Treasury notes, but not carried on his books till 1839. From this cause, the actual receipts in this year will, to that extent, appear larger than they ought. Receipts from Lands the first three quarters, including also some collected last year in Treasury notes ---------- Miscellaneous receipts --------- Estimated receipts for the fourth quarter from all those sources - Receipts on some of the debts against banks not available, on 1st January, 1839, but since paid ----------- From the third issue of Treasury notes under the act of March 2d, 1839 Aggregate means, Expenditures for 1S39, exclusive of the Post-office and Trusts. Civil, foreign, and miscellaneous for the first three quarters Military, for the first three quarters Naval, for the first three quarters - - - - Estimate for all during the fourth quarter Funded debt for the year - - - - - Redemption of Treasury notes in the first three quarters, interest as well as prin- cipal ----------- This includes two millions and three-fourths paid in for duties and lands last year, but not carried on the Register's books till 1839. From this cause, the expendi- tures on that account will appear larger by that amount than they actually have been within those quarters. Estimated amount of notes redeemed in the fourth quarter, - - - - Aggregate payments Leaving an available balance of money in the Treasury, on the 31st of December, 1839, of - - - - $ 2,765,342-36 $2,466,961-95 18,328,393-50 5,417,286-31 125,208-78 5,700,00000 1,322,686-00 3,857,276-21 - $37,217,812-75 $3,649,508-23 10,791,79921 4,713,701-57 5,600,00000 14,658-98 24,769,667-99 9,891,759 83 1,000,000 00 35,661,428-72 1,556,384-93 $37,217,812-75 Statement of the Annual Expenditures, exclusive of the Public Debt, from the commencement of the Government to the 31st of December, 1837 : as reported by the Secretary of the Treasury. Tears. Dollars. Tears. Dollars. Tears. Dollars. Tears. Dollars. March 4, 1789 For 1802 3,737,080 For 1814 30,127,687 For 1826 13.062,316 to Dec. 31, 1791 1,919,690 1803 4,002,824 1815 26,953,571 1827 12,653,095 For 1792 1,877,904 1804 4,452,859 1316 23,373,433 1828 13,296,041 1793 1,710,070 1805 6,357,225 1617 15,454,610 1829 12,660.460 1794 3, =.00,546 1806 6,081,109 1818 13,80S,674 1830 13,229,533 1795 4,330,658 1807 4,984,572 1819 16,300,273 1831 13,864,057 1796 2.531,930 1808 6,504,339 1820 13,134,530 1832 16,516.388 1797 2,833,591 1809 7,414,672 1821 10,723,479 1833 22,713,755 1798 4,l,il,223 1810 6,311,082 1822 9,827,643 1834 18,425,417 1799 6,480,167 1811 6,592,604 l.s23 9,784,154 1835 17,514,950 1800 7,411,370 1812 17,829,499 1824 15,330,144 1836 30,"tiSl6l 1*0! 4,981,669 1813 28,082,397 1825 11,490,459 1837 39,164,745 Am. Ed.\ RHUBARB— RIGA. 405 RHTTBARB (Du. Rhubarber ,■ Fr. Rhubarbe, Rubarbe ,• It. Rabarbaro, Reo-barbaro ,• Sp. Ruibarbo ,• Rus. Rewen ,• Arab. Rawcnd,- Chin. Ta-hwung), the root of a plant, a na- tive of China and Tartary. Three varieties of rhubarb are known in the shops ; viz. Russian, Turkey, and East Indian or Chinese rhubarb. The first two resemble each other in every respect. They are, in fact, the same article, being both derived from Tartary. The portion destined for the Petersburgh market being selected and sorted at Kiachta, acquires the name of Russian rhubarb; while the portion that is sent from Tartary to Smyrna and other places in Turkey, is called Turkey rhubarb. The best pieces only are sent to Petersburgh ; and according to the contract with the government, on whose account it is bought, all that is rejected must be burnt ; and that which is approved undergoes a second cleaning before being finally packed up for Petersburgh. The best pieces of Russian and Turkey rhubarb are roundish and perforated with a large hole, of a reddish or yellow colour on the outside, and when cut or broken exhibit a mottled texture, and alternate streaks of red and grey. Its odour is peculiar ; and its taste nauseous, bitter, and astringent. It should not be porous, but rather compact and heavy. East Indian or Chinese rhubarb is in oblong flat pieces, seldom perforated ; has a stronger odour, and is more nauseous to the taste than the other ; it is heavier, more compact, breaks smoother, and affords a powder of a redder shade. — (Tkom- son's Dispensatory ,■ Ainslie's Mat. Indica,