O RT PACKING Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/exportpackingguiOOmartrich OTHER BOOKS OF THE SAME PUBLISHERS FRACTICAIi EXPORTING By B. Olnky Horoii. 539 pp., 39 documentary forms. 6x9. Cloth. Tells how to get and handle export trade, written especially for the manufacturer, the exporter and, the student, by an authority on the subject In general. A most practical book on all matters of office and shipping practice. EXPORTER'S GAZETTEER OF FOREIGN MARKETS 789 pp., maps and charts. 6x9. Cloth. Compiled and edited by Lloyd R. Morris, Research Editor, American Exporter. A condensed survev of the world's markets and Industries published for the use of manu- facturers, exporters, bankers, shipping and allied trades. Presents in readily accessible form detailed and statistical information about every foreign market. EXPORT TRADE DIRECTORY Published' annually. 6x9. Cloth. A complete list of the export commission houses, foreign buyers, manufacturers' export agents, foreign exchange banks and bankers, marine insurance companies, export truckmen, foreign freight forwarders, etc., in all the prin- cipal United States ports ; also foreign Consu- lates in the United States, American Consulates abroad, etc. EXPORT PACKING A Guide to the Methods Employed by Successful Shippers By C. C. MARTIN WITH CHAPTERS BY D. T. ABERCROMBIE, FORMERLY LT.-COL. QUARTERMASTER CORPS, U. S. ARMY; H. N. KNOWLTON, FORMERLY CAPTAIN ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT, u. 8. army; m. c. fitz gerald, manager of TRANS- POBTATION, GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY AMERICAN EXPORTER THE JOHNSTON EXPORT PUBLISHING CO. PENN TERMINAL BUILDING 370 SEVENTH AVENUE NEW YORK CITY Boston, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, San Francisco 1921 V •J / Copyright, 1921, By the JOHNSTON EXPORT PUBLISHING CO. PENN TERMINAL BUILDING 370 Seventh Avenue, New York City u. s. A. Press of J. J. Little & Ives Company New York, U. S. A. TO HARRISON C. LEWIS WITH FRIENDSHIP AND ESTEEM CONTENTS PAGE Preface 1 CHAPTER I The Problem 3 CHAPTER II What Export Merchants Say About Packing . . 19 CHAPTER III The Construction of Boxes, Crates and Bales . . 48 By H. N. Knowlton CHAPTER IV Practical Notes on Export Shipping . . . .85. By M. C. FiTZ Gerald CHAPTER V Official Specifications — Expert Instructions . . 115 CHAPTER VI Baling Versus Casing 162 By David T. Abercrombie CHAPTER VII The Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin 178 CHAPTER VIII Climate and Port Facilities Affecting Manner of Packing 201 432 J 77 CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER IX Pilfering . . 219 CHAPTER X Customs Regulations as Affecting Packing . . . 231 CHAPTER XI The Packing of Automobiles and Motor Trucks . . 304 CHAPTER XII Shrinking the Package 324 CHAPTER XIII The Packing of Machinery . . . . . . 332 CHAPTER XIV Packing of Agricultural Machinery .... 369 CHAPTER XV The Packing of Hardware, Tools, Automobile Acces- sories, Small Apparatus 406 CHAPTER XVI Export Packing of Glass, Glassware and Exceptionally Fragile Goods 433 CHAPTER XVII Export Packing of Textiles and Apparel . . . 470 CHAPTER XVIII Packing Furniture . . . . . . . . 489 CHAPTER XIX Packing of Tinned Goods 519 CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER XX Export Packing of Goods in Cartons .... 546 CHAPTER XXI Export Shipments in Barrels 562 CHAPTER XXII Export Shipments in Bags, Bundles and without Packing 593 CHAPTER XXIII Export Shipments in Drums and Carboys . . . 613 CHAPTER XXIV Export Shipping op Bulky Articles . . " . . 627 CHAPTER XXV Packing Practices in Exporting Sundry Commodities . 643 CHAPTER XXVI Foreign Parcel Post Shipments 681 ui PREFACE THE plan has been consistently followed throughout this book of having the men who are practically and intimately in touch with packing problems tell the story, whether these men be of national, even inter- national reputation, such as Lieut. Colonel David T. Abercrombie, Mr. M. C. Fitz Gerald or Captain H. N. Knowlton, who have contributed special chapters, or whether they be those who are daily in touch with the problem in the great and small manufacturing establish- ments throughout the land. To a large extent my own work has been restricted to that of editor and has con- sisted in arranging and assembling the material at hand, and I am convinced that any book on packing to be of value must necessarily be written in this way. My thanks therefore are not alone due to the gentle- men who have been good enough to contribute signed chapters to this volume, and who have done so, let it be said, in a spirit of generous desire to assist foreign trade ; my obligation is equally great to those public spir- ited men and organizations who have placed freely at my disposal not alone a wealth of photographic mate- rial, but have also given me the benefit of their best critical judgment both in reference to the packing prob- lem in general and to their own individual work in par- ticular. There is a great deal of material that might have been included in this volume which I have been compelled to omit because of mere physical limitations, for it would not have been at all difficult to have collected sufficient data to make two books of this size. However, such ad- ditional material would have been in certain instances a repetition of what we have, and I do not believe that any essential phase of the problem has been omitted. At the same time in addition to the experimental and 1 2 PREFACE other work mentioned here, recognition should be given of the developments that are taking place through the efforts of such organizations as the National Canners' Association, the National Association of Egg Case and Egg Case Filler Manufacturers, the National Associa- tion of Box Manufacturers, the Mellon Institute of In- dustrial Kesearch of the University of Pittsburgh, the Glass Container Association of America, the American Society for Testing Materials, The Container Club and other groups. In a number of cases, however, the in- vestigations have to do purely with containers for do- mestic shipment, with which this volume does not con- cern itself, while inclusion of more matter referring to export would have made this book exceed all reasonable bounds. Attention should be called to the fact that in a number of instances the exigencies of good bookmaking as well as the number of photographs in relation to the quantity of texty have made it impossible to place photographs facing corresponding descriptive text matter. This is notably the case with the photographs illustrating Mr. Fitz Gerald's article, and it has been further necessary to place a number of these photographs toward the front of the book. However, as page references appear in all cases it is not believed that this is a material consid- eration. C. C. Martin. New York, December 1, 1920. EXPORT PACKING CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM THERE are a good many of our exporters, un- fortunately too many, who are inclined to look upon the problems of export packing in that smug fashion which reduces them to the position of no problems at all. Indeed it seems to be a habit nowadays to con- 7\ sider the export packing situation as something that has been well solved, leaving us free to move along to the dis- cussion of more pressing and more profitable subjects. Export packing, in other w^ords, sometimes seems to be regarded as a difficulty that no longer exists and one that no longer requires study or consideration. The statement in the foregoing paragraph is not an exaggeration. To mention export packing to a large, and, it seems, constantly increasing number of exporters, is to mention a subject that has been worn threadbare; that belongs to the kindergarten of exporting, and that should give way to more constructive and fundamental problems. However, without in any way attempting to be radical or even original, I believe that export packing is one of the most fundamental of export problems. It may even be put in a category with export banking and export selling in point of importance. Why There is a Problem. — It is true that the man in some other part of the world than our own is interested in terms of credits. He is interested in the quality of goods, conditions of delivery and the many other factors that go to make good service and good exporting. But it appears that in a sense all of these things rest on the character of the export package. The foregoing factors 3 tC 4 EXPORT PACKING lose their importance and value if the goods received are not received in good shape. A machine may be the mar- velous machine; it may effect economies of all sorts; it may be just the machine indicated in the particular case. But if it arrives broken ; if it is necessary to wait months for new parts, much of the good will of the cus- tomer is going to be lost. However, this is merely one phase of the packing situation ; for packing must not only be good packing, it must be economical packing; it must conform to the peculiar custom-house conditions ; it must be adapted to a wide variety of special factors which are too frequently either ignored or unknown on the part of many of the export fraternity. Purpose of this Book. — The purpose of this book is not to solve all the problems of export packing. That would not be a purpose ; it would be a presumption. The pur- pose is to discuss the fundamental principles of export packing; to suggest certain rules which if observed will produce the proper export package, and to present a suf- ficient number of concrete examples to serve as guides both in the administrative office and in the actual packing shop. The writer does not mean here to suggest that our export packing in general is bad. He does not mean to suggest that a large percentage of it is bad. American export packing is generally good, although much of it is not the packing produced either by the English, French or Belgians, and I do believe that in a good many in- stances our export packing could be greatly improved. Evidence from New York.— For the curious in this matter a trip around the docks of New York is illuminat- ing. Not so long ago the writer saw two large export packages being hauled along Fulton Street, the destina- tion marks showing Amsterdam. These cases were about 4x5x4 feet in size and weighed approximately 800 kilos each. The wood used was three-quarter inch stuff and there was no strapping of any description on either case. One of the boards on the top of one of the cases had loosened even before being put aboard ship, and was flap- THE PROBLEM 5 ping from side to side with the movement of the truck. We can well imagine how these goods reached Amster- dam, even if re-coopered before loading on steamer, and we may also believe that the manufacturer of these goods thought he was providing an adequate case. At least it may be assumed that he did. But whatever the belief on the part of the manufacturer, the fact is that he was not fair to his customer, he was not fair to him- self, and most important of all he was not fair to that national prestige which it should be the aim and desire of every exporter to foment and develop. A New Spirit Abroad. — Fortunately, there is a new spirit abroad in this question of export packing. To- day the man who is considering constructive export work is also considering constructive export packing. The late war had much to do with this new viewpoint. The prob- lem of the government in its overseas work was not only colossal, it was also one of extreme urgency. On one side we had millions of fighting men who had to be fed and clothed and provisioned in the smallest possible space of time. On the other we had a vast quantity of goods to be shipped in a relatively small number of vessels. This condition developed remarkable skill and resource in designing and constructing the export package ; and it concentrated attention on packing, as such, as had never been the case before. The result was that really re- markable things were done, not only in the sense of ade- quate packing, but also in that of economical packing. With this as a start, packing research as an integral part of export technique is rapidly being developed. The men in control of new combinations of capital or products see that the transportation of goods is as important as the production of goods. Space saved is money saved; goods that arrive in the same shape as they left the fac- tory are an extremely valuable business asset. This new development is one of the most encouraging signs of the times in exporting. It promises to remove a very large and important obstacle to the progress of export trade. It is to be hoped that by the very force 6 EXPORT PACKING of competition it will also lead certain very well satis- fied manufacturers and exporters to mend their ways, and that it will force them to send packages abroad that are a credit both to the contents of the packages and to the country of origin. The Export Problem is Special.— The experience a shipper has gained in packing for the domestic market will not always serve him in the foreign field. At home we are dealing with conditions of astonishing simplicity compared to those abroad. Indeed a man who is working for foreign trade should, in a measure, wipe off his domestic experience slate. What are some of the con- siderations that should enter into the equation? Let Us Follow the Goods. — Let us take one portion of the world, for example, the Argentine. If I had a first order to be shipped to the Argentine and it was my in- tention to go into the export business seriously, I should do a great many things before I let that first shipment be packed. I should get first of all a good atlas and I would see where this country of the Argentine is located. I would make inquiries and determine just what route or routes these goods of mine, that bore my name or my factory imprint, were going to take. I should consider carefully the name of the city in which the consignee lived. Is it a port, or is it a point in the interior? If a port, how are the goods taken off the ship? Are they landed directly on the dock or are they transhipped by lighter? If an interior point, how do my goods get to this interior point? Are they shipped and handled by modem methods, over modern railroads, or are they transported over mountains and along rivers through primitive countries by primitive men, with only the simplest means for transporting available ? I would give considerable study to this question, and only after I had thoroughly informed myself would I proceed to take up another point. This second point might well be the climatic conditions to which my goods would be exposed. I know fairly well domestic conditions, but what I need to do is to discover what these conditions are abroad. THE PROBLEM 7 And so I watch these goods in fancy as they are loaded on the boat in New York, and I see them pass down the Atlantic on their long voyage to the Argentine. I consult books and obtain information, and I learn that my goods pass through the tropics; that they may be stowed close to boilers; and that consequently they should be protected against heat, in case they are sensi- tive to this influence. Likewise my goods must be pro- tected against moisture, for the holds of vessels are none too dry, and an open hatch may let in a good portion of ocean brine. Special Instructions. — On this first order I receive, I notice that the specification of the packing of the goods is different, in its arrangement, from that I am accus- tomed to follow for my domestic trade. I am also told in this order to limit the size and weight of the package and to specify the gross, tare and net weight in kilos. I am also given certain instructions with reference to invoices and other papers. This is novel, but after careful in- vestigation I find that every one of the instructions has an intimate relation to the conditions in the Argentine, and that if I fail to follow any one of them it will mean loss of money or inconvenience to my client. This is a simple statement of a situation which con- fronts every exporter during each working day. The writer does not wish to convey the impression that ex- port business is beset with difficulties that more than bal- ance the advantages of export trade. But what he does wish to urge is that export business is a special business which should be treated conscientiously. We have at the present time the greatest opportunity that has ever been presented any nation. With little or no effort on our part unavoidable necessity has brought the world to our doors, and by proper conduct we can develop and main- tain a great export business that will be of vast impor- tance in the future history of our country. But at the present time we are being tried and we are most certainly being tested. Let us hope that the good behavior con- tinues that is noticeable in certain quarters. 8 EXPORT PACKING The New Viewpoint in Trade. — During the last few years there has taken place a radical change in the view- point of the average manufacturer and merchant. It is no longer a question of merely selling goods ; it is prin- cipally important to keep the goods sold, once they are sold, and to sell more goods. The predatory merchant or manufacturer is rapidly passing away. Into his room there is stepping the man who builds his organization on service, and this word in its broad and, let it be said, modem acceptation, is the foundation of modern business. In this connection I cannot do better than quote a portion of the admirable monthly bulletin, published by The National City Bank of New York, and written by Mr. George E. Koberts. In the issue of February, 1919, Mr. Roberts cogently remarks : * * No investment is worth anything, or can have stand- ing in any financial market, unless it is based upon a value arising from public service. It must be shown to meet a social need in a manner that will secure at least a share of the popular patronage, and every new business is expected to justify itself by showing that it can render a new or superior service. Old investments lose their value if new ones render better service, and there is the familiar spectacle of long-established business houses passing into decay and oblivion because unable to keep up in service with younger houses in the field. The study of every business organization and every individual en- titled to any position in the business world is how to im- prove the service it is rendering to the public. Any man who has a new idea of practical usefulness to the public has a career assured. Emerson said that if any man could make a mouse-trap better than all others the world would make a beaten track to his door.'' Export Packing is Export Service.— Good export packing is nothing more than an extension of service, and ->i as Mr. Roberts points out, the house that gives the best service is the one which will succeed. For proper pack- ing means nothing more than conscientious consideration TEE PROBLEM 9 of the interests of the ultimate customer, with an equal admixture of consideration for the interests of the man- ufacturer who is trying to win the good-will and the trade of this ultimate customer. There are too many shippers whose effort seems to be to spend as little money ^Z and time as possible on the packing of their goods, while ^^ in point of fact they should try to see how much money and time they can profitably spend on the protecting en- velope of the goods in question. There can be no doubt that a vast amount of valuable export business is lost by careless packing, a condition which at once convinces the customer that the shipper either is not interested in the goods, or has not taken to heart in the least the interests of the purchaser. A Common Impression.— As far as possible the writer wishes to avoid in this book any suggestion of unmerited criticism, but throughout the world there seems to be an impression that the American manufacturer is always willing to take an order, but that he does not concern himself unduly as to when he is going to ship the goods or as to the condition in which they are going to arrive at their ultimate destination. To offset this impression the first consideration on receiving an order from abroad, and after its due ac\^ proved anything but a false economy. The foreign man- ufacturer, in general, has apparently adopted as a prin- 10 EXPORT PACKING ciple that of making his package as good as his product, while in the effort to constantly lower costs the American does not neglect to take a slice off his packing. But it should never be lost sight of that the foreign buyer is not interested in this false economy, for he will not hesi- tate to pay for good packing. The writer has known in- stances in which this has been insisted on because of lack of confidence in the ordinary packing of the average manufacturer. When a foreign house gives special in- structions in reference to packing, it is not caprice nor any rare geometrical or artistic sense that originates these instructions. The importer knows what the condi- tions in his country are, and his packing instructions are gauged entirely by these conditions. Every set of in- structions for the packing of export goods should be followed by the manufacturer absolutely to the letter; and if the instructions are not given, it is the duty of our exporters to inform themselves of the conditions at the foreign point and adapt the packing to those con- ditions. The Export Packing Triangle.— The export packing problem is frequently complicated by virtue of the fact that the manufacturer does not always pack his own goods for export. This condition usually arises when the manufacturer has his goods packed at seaboard by a house making a specialty of this business, or when the I manufacturer is not the actual consignor of the goods. ^ In the first instance, the decision to have the goods packed by other than the producing organization, may be due to the fact that some other concern has a better equipment for packing, or it may be that the manufac- turer does not wish to be bothered with the details of export packing. It is entirely proper under such condi- tions to have the work done by some other house, and there are a number of concerns which are well equipped to give good service. The second instance comprises that large export busi- ness which is handled by a second party. It may be a \ commission house, it may be a purchasing agent or it may Vrntrtesy of General tSlectric Co. (1) Casing a Large Induction Motor. A large motor with extended base and beariny. Note lining of cotton covered, waterproof paper, bolting to skid, blocking longitudinally and laterally, bracing and slotting fnr skids as fully explained in text. Note also ventilating holes covered with wire screens. Courtesy of General Electric Co. (2) Completed Case for Large Induction Motor. Note ventilating holes provided to prevent accumulation of moisture by con- densation and relieve air pressure on inside of case. These holes are covered on the inside by wire screen. Photograph taken before case was marked. 11 Courtesy oj General Electric Co. (3) Skidding Stator Element of Synchronous Converter. Note that skid is lined with cotton covered waterproof paper. Note that bearing part of skid having contact with finished part of machine is coated with rust preventative. Courtesy of General Electric Co, (4) Stator Element Partially Boxed. Note comer posts as support against collapsing. Eyelets at top are for convenience in lifting and are removed before final closing of case and fastened to inside of case. 12 THE PROBLEM 13 be any one of the many different organizations or in- dividuals acting in this or that capacity. But right here > is where originates a great deal of our faulty packing, X and there is no doubt that vastly more comes into exist- ence at this point than in the case of a manufacturer dealing direct with a foreign customer and packing the goods in the factory of origin. Perils of the Triangle. — It may be that the manufac- turer is doing his very best to branch out in foreign trade. He may be packing his goods suitably for ship- ment to seaboard, but it frequently happens that these domestic packages are not changed in the least by the actual exporter, and there is consequent loss both for the ultimate purchaser and the^ manufacturer himself. On the other hand the exporter of the goods may have a carefully prepared order form on which is described in detail the export package. The goods are shipped by the manufacturer, but absolutely no attention is paid to the instructions in regard to packing. When the goods come to the port of shipment they are not repacked and are sent abroad in their fragile domestic coverings. This is not a difficult problem to solve ; it is merely a question of having an agreement in reference to respon- sibility. Any purchasing agent or commission house should have a definite understanding with their sources of supply as to who is going to do the packing. If the manu- facturer, well and good ; if the commission house, then an organization must be built up which can take care of this packing problem. This is no exceptional situation, as there are a number of commission houses in New York, not to mention other ports, that have very efficient and able packing departments. To these departments all their goods are brought and repacked for export. To be sure there is always going to be defective pack- ing, and the foregoing paragraph has indicated where most of this defective packing will originate. There will always be the intervention of the third party, and it is probable that in many cases this third party will be more interested in the cash against documents than he is in 14 EXPORT PACKING how the goods are packed. But be this as it may, there is still a wide field for improvement in direct shipments from the factory. Pilfering. — Pilfering is a common hazard to which shipments are liable in transport, and many ingenious methods have been adopted to protect goods that are ex- posed to this danger. But still it continues to exist and many a foreign importer, be he branch manager of an export house or native of the country, has received cases apparently in good condition only to find up'bn ex- amination that all or a portion of the contents have dis- appeared. The goods particularly exposed to pilfering are merchandise the units of which are small, such as canned goods of every kin(J, wines, liquors, boots and shoes, articles of clothing for men and women, stationery of all kinds, toilet articles, hardware, hats, and so on. Many schemes have been tried to meet the evil ; tongued and grooved lumber, iron straps, safety clips of various kinds, etc. The use of a wire drawn tightly about the middle of a box and securely fastened into the body of the box has been recommended, but it frequently hap- pens that wood not thoroughly dry is used for the cases and when the wood shrinks naturally the wire loosens. This is a problem that may be difficult of perfect solu- tion. Individual ingenuity will, in many cases, however, accomplish much, and it is probable that each exporter can find a remedy applicable to his especial needs. Proper Marking of Great Importance. — Proper mark- ing of a shipment is of as much importance as proper packing. If the marking is indistinct, easily obliterated, or improperly placed it may cause great trouble and an- noyance, without considering the possibility of loss and months of delay in receipt of the shipment. In fact, it may be stated generally that improper marking or in- correct marking causes just as much loss as improper packing, and this occurs even in instances where consid- erable care is used in marking and checking cases. The writer knows several fairly prominent export houses that would give a good deal to be absolutely sure that there TEE PROBLEM 15 was never a mistake made in the marking of their cases. The first requisite for any class of marking is legibil- ity and permanency under all conditions to which the package may be subjected. This does not alone refer to the paint used in making the mark, but also to the place on the package where the mark is put. There is a great deal of complaint on this score in the matter of baled J goods, and with this class of shipments the mark should ' never be placed on the bagging nor on a tag tied to the bag. Obviously both of these methods are insecure, and the marking should be done by using a plate of metal which in turn is secured to the iron bands around the bale. This will insure permanency, considering this word from every angle. Assuming that there is legible and permanent mark- ing, the difficulty is by no means overcome, as a great opportunity for trouble due to incorrect or improper marking still exists. Errors of this sort may be made in a great variety of ways. For example, it is very common in export shipments to find one or more letters enclosed in some geometrical figure such as a diamond or a circle. In this instance it would be a most decided error to leave off the geometrical device, just as serious as to leave off the letters themselves. In other instances we find errors in the letters themselves. For example, the letters may be **C-M**, but on the case they are made to appear ^^M-0**. Frequently one letter should appear over another letter and in the marks we find the position of the two letters reversed. Then again the marks may be legible when viewed close up but indistinct when seen at a distance be- cause of the small size of the characters. It also happens, with too great frequency, that the mark is surrounded by other marks or even by advertising matter to such an extent that it is very difficult to sort out the shipment. Marking Small Shipments. — In shipping small pack- ages it is frequently the practice to tie a number of boxes together by iron straps, strips of wood or some other material and then to mark the top box, but this is most decidedly ill-advised. These composite shipments fre- tL X V 16 EXPORT PACKING quently come apart, and of a lot of six boxes one only may have the mark and the other five lack any sign what- ever of identification. Errors also frequently take place in the numbering of the various parts of a shipment, and great care must be observed in this numbering. Often there is duplica- tion, and in at least one country, Salvador, goods bearing duplicate numbers are considered contraband and are liable to a fine of 25 per cent of the duties. Incorrect marking is no subject of levity to the importer. In every instance he may be subject to fines and in almost all in- stances he will be subject to delay in the receipt of his goods, and he is fortunate if he does not lose his goods altogether. Stencil not Brush Should be Used. — Marks and num- bers on a case should always be stenciled and never put on with a brush. The importance of this recommenda- tion lies in the fact that a stenciled mark or number is well made and legible, whereas the average brush artist in factory or packing room is not remarkable for the work he does. It should also be remembered that caution marks on a case are of no value if they are not in the language of the country of destination, and it is much better to keep the case clean than to cover it with all sorts of useless decoration. The same applies to adver- tising matter, for not only does this in many instances conceal the important marks and numbers, but it also gives a very valuable guide to thieves on the boat, wharf, or in the custom house. A case which cries to the world through advertising pasters that it contains good things to eat, shoes, or articles of a similar kind, does not have to be opened by the pilferer to discover the character of the contents. He is saved all this preliminary trouble and can proceed to go to work without the least delay. Where to Put the Marks. — If possible, a case should have marks on all four sides, top and bottom. This would not be a waste of time, either, but in the majority of in- stances this is not possible. When it cannot be done, then put the marks on as many sides of the package as possible TEE PROBLEM 17 and be careful to place the whole of the mark together instead of scattering parts of it all over the side of the package. The marks on a case are checked by the dock employees; the customs manifest must show them, and so must the bill of lading, and it may be necessary to inspect them at other times. The value, therefore, of having the marks grouped compactly so that they can be seen at a glance and without difficulty is obvious, and so v/ doing entails no more work than putting them on dif- '^ ferent parts of the case. There is one last thought, and that is, do not use second-hand material for your export packages. The saving is practically nil and in many instances second-hand cases contain old numbers and marks of various kinds, and even with care it is fre- quently impossible to obliterate them all. Consequently by using this class of material we are not only saving little, but are running considerable risk of trouble of all sorts for the customer, especially in view of the fact that as a rule the resistance has been long since taken out of second-hand stuff. Many Factors to be Considered. — There are a number of factors to be considered in the problem of packing, factors which in a sense are fundamental. First is that of methods of transportation. Generally it may be stated that domestic packing is satisfactory for shipments to / Canada, but that market almost exhausts the list. The a^ chief danger to goods, however, comes in transhipment, and wherever goods are transhipped it may be taken for granted that unless the packing is adequate there is going to be trouble. We come back therefore to the suggestion that the manufacturer study the map of the country to which his goods are going, and thus guard against what might otherwise be termed the inevitable. Climatic conditions may materially aifect the char- acter of the package, and this observation affords an- other opportunity to insist upon a thorough study of / geography. Conditions at foreign ports may be quite 7— - unlike port conditions in the home country and should receive study. These questions will be dealt with in the 18 EXPORT PACKING following pages and in a special chapter. Another chap- ter, too, will deal with the important question of packing goods so as to minimize import customs duties in foreign countries, and this again brings us to the point of packing according to customers' instruction, for both this, and packing to facilitate entry through the custom-house, amount to the same thing: consideration of the custom- er's interests. If the consignee asks that machinery be shipped knocked down and in compact form, it is because there is some condition of transportation or other im- portant consideration that has to be met. If the con- signee asks that goods be sent in a series of cases and that the shipping documents show what part of the mer- chandise is contained in each case, there is no doubt that this request is made with good reason. CHAPTEE II WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY ABOUT PACKING REPLIES to a questionnaire on the subject of ex- periences with the packing of American goods for export, addressed while this volume was in prep- aration to several hundred export merchants, shipping companies and foreign freight forwarders in this country, that is to say, companies and firms engaged solely and professionally in the export business, resulted in scores of replies containing much food for reflection along with some serious criticism which, of course, was to be ex- pected. An examination and analysis of replies received disclosed not a few valuable hints as to desirable prac- tices, improvements in present methods and advice of real constructive value. They may be accepted as repre- sentative of replies which would have been received from foreign importers, had time permitted enquiries of them. It is believed that excerpts from some of these letters will be found of interest and value if reprinted at this point, so far as the letters from these export merchants and others are couched in general terms. Other excerpts have been used elsewhere, notably in chapters referring to proper export packing of certain commodities, when the letters related specifically to such stated subjects. Exporters' Comments on Packing Practices The Export Packing Department.— One of the largest export merchants shipping to the West Coast of South America declares that there is a general lack of geo- graphical knowledge among manufacturers who seek export business. This merchant believes that the average manufacturer is not conversant even with 19 20 EXPORT PACKING the location of the principal ports and cities, or, if it happens that his geographical knowledge ex- tends so far, then he does not understand or appreciate the physical conditions governing the transportation of goods. This merchant therefore urges that any manu- facturer who desires to have his goods properly packed for export must organize a thoroughly trained packing staff, which must in the first place be taught the rudi- ments of geography, where cities and ports are located, the means of transportation to foreign ports and of in- terior transportation in country of destination, and finally educated in methods of packing which will mini- mize so far as possible likelihood of damage from all causes. An exporter of iron and steel products urges that manufacturers and export shippers must find means of impressing upon the minds of their packing staff the con- ditions under which goods are handled in shipping to various destinations. He believes that even a visit to steamship docks will go far towards showing the treat- ment to which cases are subjected in handling from truck or lighter or railway car to the steamer. The packer must know whether goods find their way to ultimate des- tination by muleback, or by what other means of trans- portation, and must be taught that packages are handled by manual labor at many foreign ports and at others dis- charged from steamer to lighter or surf boat and then re-handled. Another large export house shipping to the West Coast of South America urges that manufacturers be impressed with the fact that before dispatching ship- ments for foreign ports information should be secured as to shipping conditions, both in relation to the handling of the goods by the steamship companies and as to dis- charging conditions at port of destination. This house points out that shipments to major ports of Chile and Peru can be easily forwarded from New York on steamers sailing directly to such ports, whereas, if such shipments are forwarded by steamer to Panama, transhipment Courtesy of General Electric Co. (5) Completed Case for Stator Element. Note marking on case tohere aling cables should be applied. Courtesy oj General Electric Co. (6) Crating the Yoke of a Converter. Note that bracing provides protection if crate is thrown on aide or end. 21 Courtesy of General Electric Co. (7) Completed Crate Containing Yoke. Crate affords a visual survey of cofitents and provides reasonable protection for semi-fragile material not subject to pilfering. Courtesy of General Electric Co. (8) Packing of 25 HP Motor. Shmcs method of guarding against shifting of machinery in case. Note blocking to prevent side strain and blocking of shaft at ends. Note also bracing of top of motor frame. 22 WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 23 of a strenuous character is necessitated, entailing a con- siderable amount of extra handling which never con- tributes to the improvement of export packages when arriving at destination. This house further calls atten- tion to the fact that a method of packing which might be entirely satisfactory for one market, might be just as unsatisfactory for another market and that, therefore, manufacturers must so standardize their export packing as to make it suitable for the most trjdng conditions. The New York office of one of the largest importing houses in South America, places the blame for poor ex- port packing not on the lack of intelligence among manu- facturers but on pure lack of attention and consideration. This office states that a common reply from manufac- turers who have been asked to supply special packing for export is, that the manufacturer does not see why packing that is good enough for goods shipped to Brook- lyn should not also be good enough for goods intended for Constantinople, and that it is quite impossible to upset the regular packing routine of the factory. When, as not infrequently happens, complaint is received about the condition of goods on arrival at destination, manufac- turers almost always place the blame on the transporta- tion companies. A New Orleans export merchant shipping largely to Central America, criticizes the men employed to do the packing for manufacturers, who have not sufficient inter- est even to inquire what export packing means, nor the slightest knowledge of the correct meaning of gross, legal and net weights, and, furthermore, know nothing about and pay less attention to the packing of cases in such a way as to reduce the import duties in certain parts of Latin America, where such duties are levied on gross weight; and no importer in those countries is particu- larly delighted at having to pay duties on heavy lumber cases. Per contra, this exporter declares that he has received goods from manufacturers in a great many dif- ferent states, ordered for export, which have arrived packed in paper cartons or veneer board crates, a ridicu- 24 EXPORT PACKING lous proceeding involving repacking and considerable extra expense. The engagement of intelligent and re- liable men in a manufacturer's export packing depart- ment, men who will take an interest in their work, study carefully every angle of export packing, is advised as a highly profitable investment. A member of a firm in Manila, recently visiting New York, declared that losses incurred by Philippine im- porters because of improper packing or marking of pack- ages are insignificant in the case of goods shipped from England, and formerly from Germany, as compared with the immense loss sustained on shipments from the United States because, in his opinion, European shippers realize better than American shippers that Manila is more than 10,000 miles distant. Fear Cost of Export Packing.— The same Manila merchant referred to in the preceding paragraph, declares that importers will gladly pay extra for goods which they know will arrive in perfect condition. It would appear that there is a great deal too much diffidence among American manufacturers, in general, in regard to making sufficiently liberal quotations to cover the additional cost of special packing and protection for export shipments when there is extra expense on this score. This is illus- trated in a letter from a prominent exporter to India and the Orient in general. He is of the opinion that while American manufacturers have adopted a distinctly better policy than their English and some other European com- petitors, in quoting prices which include all packing charges, instead of quoting ''packing extra,'' yet the force of competition here in the United States has led manufacturers to cheapen their packing in order to reduce their quotations on commodities. The result, he thinks, is that they fancy they must name equally as low prices for export, and in such prices they consider that they have not a sufficiently large margin for the superior ex- port packing and protection which perhaps they realize is necessary. The result is that in .some cases the ordinary domestic packing is made to do duty for export WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 25 shipping, quite too often with disastrous results. It would be much better, this exporter advises, if manufac- turers would frankly advance their prices and make them to cQver thoroughly good export packing. This he thinks would be better even if a domestic price list is used, which may be modified to rea(J to the following effect : * * 5 per cent, additional charged on all export shipments to cover increased expense for especially careful and thorough boxing and protection.*' In any event, proper export packing must be supplied and, if it costs extra, customers may easily be persuaded of the desirability of paying the extra charge in order that the merchandise on arrival will be intact and in saleable condition. The same subject is referred to by a firm of large shippers to China and Japan, which states that it never has any trouble about packing with large manufacturers of experience in exporting, but its troubles invariably lie with small manufacturers or those who have never done any export business, who too often underestimate the cost of proper packing and therefore use skeleton crates when solid boxes ought to be employed, or use lumber too light to hold the w^eight of the contents, or cases that are badly designed without corner posts or diagonal bracing. Extra Costs Versus Economies Effected. — A company engaged in exporting to Australasia calls attention to the desirability of making a careful comparison as to the expense of unusual, very heavy or very costly packing with the possible losses which may be incurred in shipping in less costly packages. This company urges caution in making such a comparison and above all in adopting any doubtful practices without a thorough preliminary and mutual understanding with customers. None the less, it is believed by this company that in some instances it may be discovered that losses through frail or very cheap packing may not exceed 1 per cent on the value of the contents, whereas, what might be considered substantial and worthy packing cases might cost 2 per cent or 3 per cent on the value. This, of course, can only be deter- mined in actual and long continued practice. No manu- 26 EXPORT PACKING facturer must jump at conclusions and attempt any pack- ing which he is not absolutely sure will meet the approval of his customer. Similarly, this company declares, a comparison of the cost of bales versus cases, or cost of barrels versus shipping goods naked — all as compared with probable losses from damage on arrival at foreig-n port — should be very carefully and scientifically studied. A steel exporter suggests that excess of zeal for sub- stantial packages should be restrained by the knowledge that on bulky goods, which are freighted at rates per cubic foot, an inch or two of extra dimension costs the freight rate on another cubic foot of space, so that in packing such goods it is necessary to study economy of space by cutting down so far as can safely be done on the extreme outside dimensions, which may be considerably increased by unnecessarily heavy scantling or bracing. Merchants shipping to Latin America observe that some manufacturers reenforce their cases by wooden cleats on all the edges. These merchants frequently find that not only do these cleats not render the cases suf- ficiently strong, but that this method of reenforcement makes necessary an additional ocean freight charge when- ever rates are figured on the measurement basis. Another firm of exporters to Australia urges the pack- ing of cases to economize space so far as possible, because of the reduction thus secured in ocean freights and the increased profit and satisfaction thus obtained by the importer. The warning is given, however, that at the same time all due care must be exercised to see that goods are packed so as to insure arrival in satisfactory condition, which is the essential thing in all export trade and must be accomplished even when additional cubic measurement entails extra expense. The American purchasing agent for a number of important enterprises in Central America declares that in spite of specific instructions which he has issued as to the packing of certain goods, some manufacturers have assumed the liberty of shipping those goods without any packing whatever. For example, heavy steel pulleys WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 27 have thus been shipped, the manufacturer believing them strong enough to stand the journey and wishing to save the expense of packing, with the result, however, that in a good many cases pulleys and other material thus shipped have arrived in perfectly useless condition. Packing to Satisfy Customers. — The satisfaction of the customer is obviously the first principle in modem business, yet disregard of this principle in the case of foreign shipments is the subject for innumerable com- plaints among the letters from export merchants, ship- ping companies and freight forwarders, to which this chapter is devoted. There are too many of these com- plaints to warrant reprinting here, but the fact is notable that the critics attribute the difficulties which they have expressed not to any lack of intelligence among manu- facturers, but rather to forgetfulness of or indifference to the fact, that the customer in China or the customer in Chile is just the same kind of a customer as he who lives and thrives in Indiana. The safe and sound arrival of goods, says a New York house engaged in exporting to South Africa, is the criterion by which shall be judged the future success of a manufacturer in the South African markets. The manufacturer who ships out goods badly packed, which arrive partly lost and partly damaged be- cause insufficiently protected against the many risks of ocean voyaging, may or may not receive a repeat order for his goods. If he does and if a second shipment arrives in similar condition, the manufacturer may as well retire from that trade, for conservative South African im- porters will want nothing more to do with him. Further- more, it should be understood that safe and sound arrival of goods may very often mean a good deal more than the mere arrival intact of the merchandise. The term may also involve the arrival of packages or cartons in clean and presentable condition which will make a good appear- ance on the shelves of dealers, this in itself helping to dispose of the goods and increase sales. White paper cartons should not be stowed next to heavily oiled case lining paper. If they are, the cartons will inevitably be 28 EXPORT PACKING stained and very likely so unsightly that they cannot be displayed. A little thought as to the natural desires and likes of the retail merchant, ought often to be a good guide to the manufacturer in determining how he must pack his goods so that they will arrive in the retailer ^s shop in condition to please him, sell the more readily and induce more frequent repeat orders. An exporter dealing with Latin America emphasizes the same point and urges the desirability of always con- sulting customers, very especially in Central and South America, as to the special packing which those customers may desire. This exporter is of the opinion that manu- facturers should do this when they quote prices and urge orders. The prospective customer should be asked to give definite instructions as to just what style of packing will best suit him, and the manufacturer may make a strong selling point in so doing because he may thus con- vince his prospective customer that the latter is quite sure to receive his goods just as he wants them. More- over, the manufacturer should always fully understand that his customer knows what he wants, and the customer should be informed that if all goods of a certain class have to be packed together and all goods of another class packed separately, this can only be done when precise instructions have been received by the manufacturer, and in the absence of such instructions the manufacturer can do no more than use his judgment based on whatever in- formation he may be able to secure in this country. Co- operation with the customer in this respect is advocated by this exporter as tending to the better satisfaction of the customer and the increase in trade, also as one of the strongest and most effective sales arguments which the manufacturer can use. Advantages Secured Through Good Packing. — Ad- vantages in ocean freight rates inay sometimes, although perhaps not frequently, be secured when export cases are of the highest type possible. Thus, a San Francisco house exporting largely canned goods and dried fruits declares that some steamship lines allow a better freight rate on WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 29 boxes that are strapped than on those which are not strapped, the rate to England on canned goods being $1.75 strapped and $1.80 not strapped. Other advantages in the matter of reducing freight charges through intelligent ways of packing goods in- clude not only packing to reduce the cubic measurements, to which letters already quoted have referred, but the following hint from an export house doing business in Europe. A great saving in freight charges, it is pointed out by this house, can be effected by manufacturers by an endeavor, unless other considerations prevent, to pack the containers in such a manner that they will be accepted by ocean carriers on a weight basis. In other words, to pack if possible more than 56 pounds to the cubic foot. This can be done in the case of iron pipe fittings, for ex- ample, by avoiding the packing of large sizes only in a barrel and including in the same barrel the smaller fit- tings placed inside of the larger ones, thus reducing the total measurement of the shipment. Again, one of the principal New York exporters ship- ping to the West Coast of South America, points out the neglect of some manufacturers to utilize all packing space, and writes of a shipment in which automobile tires were dispatched packed in cases, the entire hole of the ^' doughnut,^' within the tire, being left quite empty not- withstanding the fact that on the same order there was a quantity of small sundry items which could readily have been packed in this empty space. The result was heavily increased freight charges, and a large part of those charges were for empty space only. A foreign freight forwarder declares that more favor- able rates of marine insurance, and especially very much lower rates for insurance against pilfering, can be secured when strong cases instead of second-hand cases are used, and they are properly strapped and sealed in such a fashion as to make pilfering extremely difficult. A firm of important exporters to Australia insists that cases be lined with proper waterproof materials, be- cause of the fact that insurance companies give them a 30 EXPORT PACKING reduction in premiums on policies when this is done. Another large New York house shipping to South America declares that New York underwriters have been paying special attention to American packing methods in order to obtain a guide as to fixing future rates of insur- ance against pilferage and breakage. Many heavy claims have recently been paid, and some insurance companies feel that on account of these claims shipments in any except approved packages are extra hazardous. This New York house states that it knows that these claims are almost invariably valid, and it declares that the South American merchant much prefers to receive his merchandise in good condition rather than be forced to depend upon claims which are difficult of collection, and the best of all ways of avoiding claims is through proper export packing. Influence of Export Merchants on Packing. — Doing export business through the average export concern, export merchant or commission house, involves consid- erations affecting packing similar, in general nature, to such considerations which enter into the problem of doing direct business with and making direct shipments to cus- tomers in foreign markets, and also involves certain special considerations to which sufficient attention is not always given by manufacturers. In principle, all export merchants in this country ought to inspect cases which are received from manufacturers for shipment to the exporter's foreign customers, and determine before ship- ments are loaded on board vessel whether, at least from superficial appearances, the cases, barrels or what-not are suitable for overseas transportation and inland trans- portation at point of destination. While it is quite prob- able that export merchants do not thus inspect all ship- ments sent in their care for foreign dispatch, yet their attention is sure to be drawn to any weak or frail cases by the receiving clerks on the docks of ocean steamers, who may either refuse to accept unsatisfactory cases, may advise the exporter of the fact that cases are not suitable, or may accept them and endorse the bill of " Caurtesy of General Electric Co. (9) Method of Packing Welding Machine. Machine w shipped complete with top mechanisms leaving considerable empty apace. Note cribbing supports ensuring against collapse of box. v» 1 >^! ^ ' 1 ¥fV r i-7MH) ,:#«»! .NHT-7i:in Courtesy of General Electric Co. (10) Completed Case for Welding Machine. Note marking in English, French and Spanish and arrow indicating top of 31 Courtesy of Oeneral Ehytric Co. (11) Method of Packing Generator Coils. Illustrates use of shock ahsorhing materials and deviees. Note -bed of excelsior conforming to shape of coils. (12) Courtesy of General Electric Co. Boxing of Generator Coils. Note position of top bracing, making each case thoroughly rigid. Note also cushioning and separation of rotes of coils, each self-sustaining, hy timbers padded with heavy felt. 32 WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 33 lading with the statement that certain packages are in bad condition when received. The latter is an alterna- tive which no exporter and no banker handling shipping docunients is pleased to have happen. Accordingly, in such instances exporters are very frequently called upon to repack goods or to recooper broken or weak containers. So doing involves expense. No manufacturer can de- pend upon an exporter to ensure the dispatch of the manufacturer's goods in proper condition. It is the manufacturer's duty to his foreign customers and to his own prestige and future trade, so to ship his goods in the first instance that they will arrive safely in the best possible condition. The exporter is not a buffer, and if expenses for recoopering, etc., are incurred, it is very certain that they will be charged back to the manufac- turers at fault. Again, the foreign customers of an export house who receive the commodities shipped through the mediary of the export house in question, may make demands for dam- ages incurred from bad packing, about which the ex- porter may not have known or had any opportunity of learning. Such claims on the exporter are certain to be passed back to the manufacturer from whom the goods originally came. The exporter cannot be made **the goaf in such instances. The manufacturer should in the first place have supplied goods properly packed. Further, manufacturers must recognize the fact that exporters will not, when they can avoid doing so, give their orders to those suppliers who refuse to heed specific instructions given them regarding packing, or who uni- formly supply merchandise improperly or insecurely packed for foreign shipment. Exporters will give pref- erence to manufacturers who supply the necessary and the right sort of packing, and who follow implicitly the instructions regarding the way in which goods should be packed, usually printed instructions, which the exporter gives with his orders. All of these features are brought out in the letters from exporting houses which are now under review. 34 EXPORT PACKING One of the largest houses shipping to the West Coast of South America complains that its requests for special attention to export packing are often entirely ignored. He has found some manufacturers, however, who have been acquainted with export business for years and are therefore familiar with its requirements, and it is those houses to which this exporter always gives business by preference instead of to competitors. A firm doing business with the River Plate countries writes that' it has printed on its order sheets special in- structions regarding the packing required, which are printed in red ink to ensure their receiving proper atten- tion, yet in spite of this goods are continually being re- ceived in old, second-hand and recoopered cases, even though the instructions on their order blanks include a cut of a proper packing case. This firm also complains that manufacturers are very often delinquent in failing to give proper gross and net weights of their cases, and owing to manufacturers' carelessness in this respect they have been fined at least twenty-five times by the custom house of one foreign country; and that manufacturers generally ignore any claims made on them for shortage, or damage on account of bad packing, and refuse to enter- tain claims for fines which have been incurred through their own carelessness. A firm of foreign freight forwarders declares that failure to provide proper packing often makes it neces- sary to have packages recoopered at American port of shipment, the cost of so doing being in many cases greater than would have been the cost of providing suitable pack- ages in the first place. Furthermore, of course, only the most flagrant cases of unsuitable packing appear to de- mand recoopering before shipments leave this country, although in many other instances shipments go for- ward when the bad packing is not obvious, and no trouble is suspected until goods arrive at their destination. A house which ships largely to the "West Indian trade is of the opinion that a large proportion of the com- plaints which reach this country of bad packing on the WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 35 part of American manufacturers, are to be explained by the fact that many manufacturers know nothing about exporting, while others skimp on their packing with a view to lowering the price of their goods. This house believes that exporters will have to leave such manufac- turers severely alone, and deal only with those who send forward their shipments in a way that will do credit to our methods and our desire to meet fully obligations to foreign customers. The New York buyer for one of the largest importers in South America says that he has endeavored to teach manufacturers from whom he buys the necessity of good packing, and the fashion in which merchandise which he purchases must be packed, but that the attempt has been a thankless task. Being direct buyers, they have too often found that after they have paid ocean freights and custom house import duties they have exported so much broken merchandise, and the manufacturer's mind is a blank when he is approached on the subject. A San Francisco house engaged principally in the ex- port of dried fruits, suggests that all export shippers ought to agree together to handle only goods which are packed in cases of the right description and strapped at both ends. Important exporters to Australia give the following as an illustration of the expense to which some manufac- turers have been subjected on account of their failure to follow instructions regarding packing given them 1^ ex- port houses. Recently a Chicago manufacturer shipped a lot of hardware to New York on the order of this ex- porter, which upon arrival here was picked up by the truckman and delivered to the steamship pier. There the steamship officials rejected the shipment because pack- ages were npt suitable. The exporter's representative went to the pier to examine them, found that the cases were of very old lumber, evidently used several times over, because there were numerous indications of a variety of old marks which had been partially erased. The exporters, therefore, had to entirely repack this 36 EXPORT PACKING shipment in new cases and made claim on the shippers for the expense incurred for labor, cost of cases and addi- tional storage and cartage charges. The suppliers had not followed instructions and were therefore held respon- sible. It is to be noted, however, that export merchants themselves are by no means above criticism when com- plaints are made of the bad condition in which American goods shipped by them have been received in foreign countries. It seems certain that a good many export houses do not give sufficient care and attention to the fashion in which the goods which they dispatch have been originally packed, and their condition when they are put on board vessel. In the majority of instances exporters know nothing at all about the cases which they ship unless they are in such a very bad condition, so flagrantly dam- aged, or so obviously impossible, that receiving clerks refuse to accept them. Yet another criticism to be made of exporters is offered by an export house itself which specializes in shipping tin plate and steel products. This house remarks that in many instances insufficient export packing is the fault not of the manufacturer but of the exporter, who frequently buys goods for export at domes- tic prices, in packages used for domestic deliveries, be- cause he is primarily intent on quoting lower prices than do some of his competitors, and is unwilling, therefore, to pay the extra cost for adequate export packages. A large general export house shipping to all. parts of the world, complains of the practices of manufacturers in carelessly numbering and marking cases, and remarks that ^^as the work of re-numbering has often to be left to the intelligence of a truckman, errors are frequent in invalidating consular invoices and resulting in fines in foreign custom houses.'' This may be characterized as a criticism of the exporter himself, who certainly is at fault if he entrusts the rectification of errors to an ordi- nary truckman. If fines are in consequence imposed, the remedy is obvious, namely, the supervision of export shipments by his own competent employees. WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 37 Merchants shipping to Latin America contend that manufacturers do not give sufficient- attention to the strength of their cases, and write of the cargo of a cer- tain steamship which went aground and had to be towed back to New York, where, upon discharge of the cargo, it was found that most of the cases of their shipment on board the steamer in question were broken, which, they write, would not have happened if cases had been prop- erly constructed and iron strapped. A critic, however, is quite sure to demand to know why these exporters had ever allowed such cases to go on board the steamer. For the sake of their own good name and their future trade with the customers to whom these shipments were ad- dressed, the exporters themselves ought to have made certain that the goods which they forwarded were prop- erly packed. This is always done, for example, by the New York office of large South American mining in- terests, which writes that it has a special inspector charged with examining the packing of all goods before they leave this country. In this instance the matter is one of prime personal interest, since the goods are for the use of the company which buys them. Perhaps in too many instances the ordinary exporter has not the same interest in his foreign clients that he might have if he himself were the client. In others, incompetent labor is employed. For example, an illustration of the latter point may be found in a letter from a firm of foreign freight for- warders, which tells of poor packing in a certain instance where several hundred cases arrived in New York, every one of which was in bad condition on arrival ; and all had to be recoopered before the shipment could be removed from -warehouse, and even then the nature of the cases was such that they did not hold, and upon being delivered to the steamer pier by truck they had again to be re- coopered before being placed on board the vessel, and finally arrived at destination in very bad condition. Clearly enough, this is an instance of pretty poor work on the part of the carpenter employed by the forwarding 38 EXPORT PACKING house, which is further to be criticized for allowing the goods to go forward at all unless in thoroughly satis- factory condition. Specific Eecommendations of Expokteks Export Cases. — From many letters received from ex- porters bearing on the subject of the kind of export cases desirable, the following may be selected. A firm of very large shippers to China and Japan writes that it has found that there is a point where a package is heavy enough to test the limit of the ordinary man's strength and not heavy enough to warrant using two men or em- ploying a crane, wheelbarrow or hand truck, with the result that, while such a case can perhaps be carried, when it comes to putting it down it is dropped because too heavy to be borne in the stooping position. Breakage is sure to result if contents are at all fragile, and to guard against this it is preferable that the supplier put up a heavier package which will require handling by two men or the use of a sling. An exporter who is chiefly engaged in shipping food- stuffs writes that in his experience, because cases contain- ing canned goods in tins, jars or bottles are made of too light timber, at least 12 per cent of the shipments do not reach destination in saleable condition. The disastrous effects of carrying out in export ship- ments experiments which have been made in domestic shipments, are related by an exporter in connection with a shipment of insulated copper wire which came to his attention. It appears that the manufacturer, a promi- nent concern, tried out a new system of packing for the domestic trade, using three-ply veneer wood in order to effect economies in cost, and met with success here at home. Thereupon they tried the same method in export shipments, and the exporter who writes of this example happened to be personally in the warehouse of one of the customers in Havana, when out of 38 cases 27 arrived in unusually bad condition, in one instance all that remained WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 39 of the case being the iron straps. Fortunately, the mer- chandise was intact, but its condition was not improved by the exposure to which it had been subjected. Shippers of mining machinery and supplies to South America advise that their rule is as follows, in order to decrease as far as possible the danger of loss or breakage of material due to the lack of adequate packing: Boxes must be constructed of not less than %-inch lumber or thicker, according to size and weight of contents. The ends must be paneled, made of double thickness lumber laid crosswise, wooden battens at least % inch by 3 inches pro\4ded all around each end, with substantial strap iron nailed around these battens, ends lapping. The usual i/o inch by No. 28 gauge strapping or twisted wire being practically useless, they insist on the use of 1 inch by No. 18 gauge strap iron. All fragile articles, glassware, etc., must be carefully packed in a case floated within a strong outside box, with a liberal quantity of cushioning material between inner and outer boxes. Checking and Weighing. — The prime importance of counting, recounting, checking, rechecking and weighing goods before being packed is insisted upon by all ex- perienced exporters. The manufacturer must be abso- lutely certain that the contents of each case are exact and identical, in count and weight, as well as description, with the articles supposed to be and invoiced as contained in the case in question. A New Orleans export commission house dealing chiefly with Mexico and Central America, lays particular stress upon the necessity for careful weighing of all con- tents of packages as well as the entire packages them- selves after packing is completed, so as to secure correct net, legal and gross weights, and thus avoid fines which may be imposed on customers and which mean not only loss of money and great annoyance and irritation but in many instances eventually lead to loss of trade. This loss of trade will originate with the customer who has suffered directly from improper attention to these de- tails, and also from other houses in the same market, 40 EXPORT PACKING whose business might have been secured through the satisfaction and the good will of the first customer. Strapping Cases— Protection Against Pilfering. — A well-known export house in the Latin American trade writes of two different American manufacturers who were accustomed to place straps around cases in the same direction that the boards of the cases ran — thus making the straps practically of no value, as they, of course, can only hold the parts over which they are nailed — in- stead of reenforcing the entire case by running the bands in the opposite direction to the boards. The iron banding of cases serves, of course, two purposes. First, reen- forcing the strength of a package, although as a promi- nent firm of exporters remarks, it is quite useless to hope to strengthen a frail package with hoop iron, as boards in many such cases are hardly strong enough to hold the nails. Banding also helps materially to diminish the risk of pilfering, which has grown seriously in recent years. A firm of South American shippers pbints out that pilferage of cases containing sundry commodities is almost certain to occur unless cases are properly reen- forced so that they cannot easily be opened; and, since rates for insurance against pilferage have been increased, many shipments do not carry this risk, and losses in- curred are not encouragement to customers to continue trading. Another exporter doing business largely with Colombia objects to the practice of marking the contents of packages on the cases, which not only invites pilfer- age but instructs thieves just where they can obtain the greatest results for their efforts. If all cases are un- marked as to contents doubtless a large number of cases would be opened by thieves in course of transit, but there would be fewer goods missing on arrival at destina- tion, because the thieves would have wasted a good deal of their time in opening packages containing goods not easily to be disposed of and not worth pilfering. An important export house specializing in automo- bile accessories submits the following suggestion received Courtesy of Oeneral Electric Co. (13) Completed Case Containing Coils. Courtesy of Oeneral Electric Co. (14) Method of Packing Switchboard. Switchboard is shipped without being knocked down. Note ''A" frame support and cross tie to prevent stcitchboard from overturning. 41 42 WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 43 by it from a foreign customer: ** Pilfering may be pre- vented by strapping the cases inside. Such a strap need not be continuous. The cover also must, of course, be strapped inside. In such a case one side has to be com- pletely destroyed to remove a board because the pilferer cannot abstract one board only and replace it without detection.^' Another firm of foreign freight forwarders empha- sizes the desirability of steel sealing straps, drawn tight by machine and nailed in such a fashion that a board can- not be removed without being noticed. This especially in the case of shipments of shoes and leather. Another firm of South American exporters emphasizes the bad policy of using advertising matter on the outside of cases ; this is an aid to pilferers who are thus told what the contents are. Safety seals must be used, as by ordinary strapping pilferage is not prevented, since straps can simply be removed and put back again. Pilferers, this firm remarks, are generally found in the holds of vessels or on the docks or even in the custom houses of foreign countries, and must not be encouraged by having drawn to their attention goods which may profitably be stolen. A large steamship company maintaining services to the West Indies and Central America, refuses to accept for transportation shipments of boots and shoes, cigars, etc., unless cases containing such goods are protected by metal straps or wires secured by lead seals at the ends, or **some equally effective device.'' Tin Case Linings. — The use of hermetically sealed tin linings for cases is advocated by some exporters as the best possible protection of goods most easily damaged by moisture or sea water baths, but in addition to this com- monly urged advantage it is to be remembered, says a shipper to India, that such tin linings are of very great value in shipping to some tropical countries as a protec- tion against damage by insects. The objection to the use of tin or zinc linings is naturally the very great cost in- volved. On this score, a large export merchant writes recommending that manufacturers install and maintain 44 EXPORT PACKING their own tinning department and not **give occasion to the next door tinner to blackmail them." It is also suggested by a house exporting to the Orient that if manufacturers fear to quote prices which will in- clude the cost of tin linings, anticipating that such quota- tions may not compare favorably in the minds of their foreign customers with quotations made by competing houses which do not include tin-lined cases, in such in- stances manufacturers may easily quote in two different fashions : First, for goods to be packed in ordinary water- proofing material, and on this score they may assure their foreign customers that every care and attention will be given to thoroughly adequate waterproofing ; second, they may at the same time offer to pack in tin-lined cases which will make safe arrival absolutely certain at such and such additional costs, giving their customers their choice as to how they want their goods shipped. Marking of Cases. — Innumerable letters received in reply to the questionnaire addressed to exporters and shippers, emphasize strenuously the great importance of marking and numbering export cases. A gentleman from the Philippine Islands recently visiting New York, protested against the tremendous losses incurred on this score by importers in Manila, stating that at the time he left Manila there was mer- chandise in the unclaimed warehouse of the Manila cus- tom house valued at between $25,000 and $30,000, which was not susceptible of identification, as regards marks and brands, because of the mutilation or destruction of their flimsy containers and utter indifference of the shipper in protecting his goods. Bales of textiles arrived entirely stripped of covering and without any marks to identify them. Heavy iron jacks, weighing between 90 and 100 pounds each, were shipped in a flimsy fibre box which on arrival was in shreds and could not be identified. Railway spikes packed in a flimsy jute sack, and casks containing bolts and nuts weighing two or three pounds each, arrived without identifying marks because the con- tainers were practically destroyed. Iron building bars WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 45 arrived without the slightest evidence of packing marks or brands. A large New York firm of general exporters remarks that every export merchant specifies on his orders the shipping marks which are to be applied to the containers, yet this firm often has packages arrive inscribed with their New York address and the manufacturer's trade mark, but with the shipping mark and numbers of the boxes, if they appeared at all, almost invariably tucked away in a corner or on a paper tag attached to the pack- age ; although this shipping mark is the real address and identifies the shipment in the foreign port where the New York house may be quite unknown, or where packages from one New York shipper have to be separated and delivered to different consignees. This firm emphasizes the importance of stenciling the shipping mark and serial numbers in large letters on the package, and putting the New York consignee's address on a small tag. The same firm recommends that shipments to the same consignee be numbered consecutively from one shipment to the next, that is, if the last shipment finishes with case No. 1,000, the next will begin with No. 1,001. This concern has observed that the majority of small manufacturers always begin each shipment with No. 1, even though shipments may be made only a day or two apart and a number of them may go forward on the same steamer, in which case the packages have to be re-numbered consecutively by the New York concern. It has known instances of ten shipments being received, all bearing the same mark and each shipment numbered from 1 up. Another New York firm urges that a packing list should be placed inside of each case, showing not only the contents of the case but the same markings as those which appear on the outside of the case. This is a protection when the case markings are accidentally removed or blurred. The American purchasing agent for a large South American industrial plant protests vigorously against the way in which steel material has been shipped, the 46 EXPORT PACKING address and mark appearing only on a tag, which is cer- tain to be pulled off by the handlers in loading on board vessel or in unloading at port of discharge. A foreign freight forwarder in New York urges that all marks be made by stencil, and declares that painting the marks on with a brush gives occasion for a great many mistakes in customs houses at foreign ports, be- cause many such marks are blurred and almost obliter- ated before port of destination is reached. Hbwever, a mark put on with a stencil must be properly water- proofed. An important steamship company calls attention to its printed circular of instructions regarding marking which reads: **The attention of shippers is especially called to the fact that the marking and packing of freight is a most important factor in the export trade, and in- structions from consignees as well as regulations of the various foreign countries should be strictly observed, as failure to do so invariably results in fines, delays and annoyance at destination. Packages should be marked with ink, not crayon or otherwise, and all marks must be distinctly legible. Several Latin American countries re- quire that all marks be plainly stenciled, brush or other kind of marking being prohibited by law. The port of destination should be distinctly marked on all packages, and in order to prevent goods from going astray ship- per's name and address should be shown on each package. Abbreviations frequently cause confusion and delay. If shipments consist of more than one package, all packages must be numbered consecutively in addition to other marks, and gross and net weights clearly shown thereon, and always in kilos on packages destined for Latin Ameri- can countries. It is desired to impress upon shippers the importance of having numbers, weights and other marks shown on packages, agree in every particular with those indicated in bill of lading and consular invoice, where the latter document is required, as the slightest discrepancy causes delay and complications and usually results in WHAT EXPORT MERCHANTS SAY 47 fines and heavy expense to the consignee, as well as pos- sible confiscation of the property.'* A merchant house shipping to Scandinavia writes, that too many American manufacturers consider proper marks as a matter of slight importance. Many difficulties have been experienced because shipments have not been properly marked. Intolerable inconvenience and con- fusion are caused when merchandise arrives and marks have become obliterated while en route. CHAPTER III THE CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES AND BALES By H. N. Knowlton ^ Boxing and Packing Specialist, General Electric Company TWO Principal Factors. — The two important factors in export packing are adequate protection from loss and damage and minimum cost. Adequate protection is the more important of the two, as the de- livery of the goods in undamaged condition is generally the primary reason for packing. The factor of cost is important because the keen competition in export trade, both foreign and domestic, makes minimum delivery costs absolutely necessary. Packing may affect ultimate delivery costs in any one or all of the following respects : cost of the container or packing materials ; cost of labor in packing ; insurance costs ; freight rates both ocean and railroad; storage costs; cartage costs and import duty. The ideal export packing is that which will deliver the goods to the foreign customer in perfect condition at minimum cost. The endeavor of many American ex- porters, however, to reduce their packing costs to a min- imum without giving enough consideration to the more important factor of adequate protection, together with a lack of knowledge of the hazards of loss and damage which are encountered in export shipping, are the prin- cipal causes of improper packing of American export goods. 11910-1917, Asst. Engineer in Forest Products, U. S. Forest Service. 1917-1919, Captain, Ordnance Dept. U. S. A., in charge of Packing Serv- ice. 1919-1920, Manager Packing Service Dept. Safepack Mills, Boston, "Mass. 1920, Boxing and Packing Specialist, General Electric Company. 48 CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 49 Export Versus Domestic Packing. — Export packages must of necessity be more securely constructed than do- mestic because the conditions of export shipment are so much more severe. As an example, a shipment to the Andes districts of South America first moves to seaboard either by express or freight. Upon arrival at seaport it may be carted to a warehouse and stored before ship space is obtainable. From the warehouse it is handled to the dock and from the dock into the ship *s hold, prob- ably either by means of a sling or a net. It is stowed away in hold with other freight and possibly with heavy packages on top of it. The ship encounters rough weather and pitches considerably, causing the cargo to shift and the packages to weave back and forth loosen- ing the nails in boxes and crates, loosening hoops on bar- rels and driving heavy packages against weaker ones. Upon arrrival at port the shipment, because of a poor harbor, must possibly be discharged into lighters in a choppy sea. The aim is to lower the sling load of pack- ages into the lighter with as little impact as possible, but a sudden swell raises the lighter and the load hits it with a bang. The lighter is towed to the dock amid dashes of sea spray and the packages discharged. Pos- sibly there is a lack of storage space and they are left on the dock in the rain for several days, where they are of easy access to pilferers. They are then handled by freight to a point in the interior, and thence loaded on mules for a several days ' trip to final destination. Owing to the hazards just mentioned packing which is entirely satisfactory for domestic shipment may be and generally is entirely unsatisfactory for export. To pack correctly for any foreign market an intimate knowledge should be had of the port conditions, transpor- tation facilities and climatic conditions of the country of destination as these all have a vital bearing on the neces- sary protection from damage. A knowledge of the method of levying import duty is also very important, as in some countries the duty is levied on the gross weight of the package and unnecessarily heavy containers may 50 EXPORT PACKING make the import duty more than the value of the goods. During the past few years extensive tests of various containers and packing materials have been made, par- ticularly by the Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest Service. The qualities of various woods have been exhaustively studied and the relation of these qualities to wooden package construction has been determined. Nails and other fastenings used in wooden packages have been investigated and rules worked out for their proper use. The efficiency and limitations of different types of containers, and the effect on their strength of the character of the contents and the method of packing have been carefully studied. The results of these tests on containers and packing materials have from time to time been published and have also been embodied in various specifications, the most complete of which are the several Packing Specifications of the War Department. The export packing instructions which fol- low are based largely on the War Department specifica- tions, although use has also been made of other authori- tative data on the subject. Box Construction. — The construction of wooden boxes for export is a subject which demands much careful study. The type of box selected, the species, quality and size of lumber used, the method of nailing and joining the parts together, the method of strapping and the method of packing the contents in the box all vitally af- fect its efficiency and serviceability. In general, except for light boxes such as canned food boxes and similar containers, cleated boxes should be used for export service. The cleats tie the box end to- gether, preventing it from splitting and also add more nailing surface for nailing the sides, top and bottom to the ends. They also stiffen the box end and are of great value in resisting the thrust which occurs when the box is dropped on its comer, or when heavy weights are stored on top of it as is often the case in the hold of a ship. It is also much more difficult to pilfer a cleated box than one without cleats. 51 «3 CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 53 The particular species of lumber used in the construc- tion of a box is not as important a matter as has often been supposed. The ultimate strength of a box is much more dependent upon the quality and size of lumber used and the method of nailing and strapping than upon the species used. The quality of the lumber as regards seasoning and defects is a vital factor. Boxes made of green lumber lose a large part of their strength upon drying out, owing chiefly to the loosening of the nails from the shrinking of the boards. It is absolutely essential that the boards of which the box is made be seasoned down to general atmospheric conditions, or to from 12 to 18 per cent moisture, based on the weight of the wood after oven dry- ing. Improper seasoning is one of the most common faults in export boxes and should be very carefully guarded against. The number of defects in the box boards such as knots, knot holes, season checks, or open- ings in the grain caused by seasoning and decay is also a matter of much importance, as the strength of the individual boards is dependent in a large measure on the number, size and position of such defects. Large knots, especially when they are unsound or decayed or loose, and large knot holes decrease the strength of the piece, particularly when they are near the middle of the board, and should not be permitted in export boxes. Large checks or splits should not be admitted, unless properly reenforced across the opening with corrugated fasteners, and decayed or rotten lumber should also never be used. No defects should ever be permitted in box boards which interfere with the proper nailing of the box. It is again emphasized that the severe conditions of export shipping demand good containers, and good boxes cannot be made of green lumber or lumber of poor quality. The size of the lumber used in the box or its thickness and width is of much importance, as this affects both the cost and the strength of the container. The standard commercial thicknesses and widths should wherever pos- 54 EXPORT PACKING sible be adhered to, as the use of special sizes not carried in stock by lumber dealers or box factories greatly in- creases the cost of the box and in most instances accom- plishes no particular purpose. By far the larger part of lumber used in box manufacture ranges in width from 4" to 6" or 8" although widths up to 12" are sometimes available. Boxes made of wide boards are preferable to boxes made of narrow boards, as they are more rigid, and there is not the danger of the box twisting out of shape by shearing along the joints between boards when it is dropped on a corner of the end. Also the wider the board, the less it will be weakened by a defect of any particular size. As a rule no piece of less than 2 1/2" face width should be used in any part except the cleats, since pieces narrower than this cannot be properly nailed with two nails at each end, as adequate nailing requires. If pieces as narrow as 2 1/2" face width are used their number should be limited, and they should be placed in the center of the side, top, bottom or end. The partic- ular thickness of lumber required in a box depends upon the size, character and weight of the contents, so it is impossible to lay down a definite rule in this respect. The contents of some boxes are strong and rigid and offer much support to the side, top, bottom and ends. In this case the element of damage by breaking or puncturing of the box boards is reduced to a minimum, and less thick- ness is generally required than where the contents oifer little or no support and the box is dependent solely on its rigidity for its strength. Boxes of excessive size must generally be of thicker material than small boxes, owing to the increased danger of the breaking of long boards. Also boxes with heavy contents must usually be of thicker material than boxes with light contents. Thinner ma- terial may be used in boxes if they are made of hard- woods such as beech, birch, maple, elm, ash, oak or gum because of the greater inherent strength and greater nail holding power of the hardwoods. The ideal box is the box which is of balanced construction, or in which each CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 55 part is just strong enough to balance the average strength in every other part. The particular thickness of material necessary to give both this balanced construc- tion and also sufficient strength to carry the contents safely to destination, is a point which will have to be carefully worked out for each product. Nailing. — The method by which the parts of a box are nailed together determines in a large measure its ulti- mate strength. Often the addition of a few correctly placed nails will increase the strength over 100 per cent. Improper and inadequate nailing are two of the most common faults in export boxes. The National Associa- tion of Box Manufacturers has recently issued a nailing schedule, which is based upon years of tests made by the United States Forest Service and also upon years of practical experience. Adherence to this schedule will insure adequate nailing and will do much toward improv- ing export boxes. The principal woods used in boxes are classed into four groups as follows, depending chiefly upon their physical and mechanical properties with re- spect to the way they receive and hold nails, and with respect to their strength : Group Group Alpine Fir I Maple, Hard IV Aspen I Maple. Soft or Silver Ill Balsam Fir I Noble Fir I Basswood I Norway Pine I Beech IV Oak IV Birch IV Pumpkin Ash III Black Ash Ill Red Gum. Ill Black Gum Ill Redwood I Buckeye I Rock Elm IV Butternut I So. Yellow Pine II Cedar I Spruce I Chestnut I Sugar Pine I Cottonwood I Sycamore Ill Cucumber I Tupelo Ill Cypress I Va. and Car. Pine II Douglas Fir II Western Yellow Pine I Hackberry IV White Ash IV Hemlock II White Elm Ill Hickory IV White Fir I Jack Pine I White Pine I Larch (Tamarack) II Willow I Lodgepole Pine I Yellow Poplar I MagnoHa I 56 EXPORT PACKING The gauge of nails to be used is determined princi- pally by the thickness and species of the wood in which the points of the nails are held after driving. The schedule which follows is based upon standard cement coated box nails. Use cement coated nails of gauge indicated. Thickness of Ends or Cleats to which Sides, Tops and Bottoms are nailed Thickness of Sides to which Top and Bottom are nailed When species of wood holding points of nails is: or less lie" 'A" %" H" A6 or '%" Vs" •Less than 'A" to to GROUP I 4d 4d 3d 3d 5d 4d 4d 3d 5d 5d 4d 4d 6d 5d 5d 4d 7d 6d 5d 4d 8d 7d 6d 5d 8d 7d 7d 6d 9d 8d 7d 7d 4d 4d 3d 3d 6d 5d 4d 4d 7d GROUP II 6d GROUP III GROUP IV 5d 5d ^Only in exceptional than }4''- is side nailing recommended when the thickness of sides is less In export boxes the spacing of the nails should be closer than in domestic boxes, owing to the rougher han- dling to which they will be subjected. In nailing side, top and bottom to ends six penny nails and nails smaller than six penny, should be spaced not to exceed 1 1/2'' apart when driven into the side grain of the box end and not to exceed 1 1/4" apart when driven into the end grain of the end. With nails larger than six penny the spacing should be increased one-fourth inch for each penny over six. In nailing top and bottom to sides, the nails should be spaced six inches or more apart when the nails are six penny or smaller, increasing the spacing V for each penny over six. No board should have less than two nails at each nailing end, and on edges where cleats are used the nails should be staggered so that approximately half of them are driven into the cleat and half into the end. Nails with large heads should be used, particularly when the sides, top and bottom are of thin lumber and great care should be taken not to overdrive nails. No nails should be driven into joints between boards. CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 57 Cleats on box ends should be firmly nailed to the ends, with nails of sufficient length to pass through the cleat and through the end, and clinch not less than one-quarter of an inch. Where the box end is composed of more than one piece each piece should be nailed to each cleat with not less than two nails. The number of nails used to nail the cleat to the end should be approximately the same as the number used to nail the adjacent side, top or bottom to the cleat and end. The nails should be evenly stag- gered and should be placed as near the edge of the cleat as possible without splitting it. Strapping. — The metal strapping of export boxes is a matter of the utmost importance. All export boxes no matter what their size, weight or destination should be metal strapped, as properly applied strapping greatly in- creases their strength and also is of great assistance in preventing pilfering. There are a number of different types of strapping in use, the principal kinds being single wire, twisted wire and flat steel band, applied with nails or staples. Wire and flat band strap are also made so that they can be applied under heavy tension without nails or staples, by the use of patented stretching and sealing devices. Plain flat band unannealed steel strap, coated to prevent rust, makes an excellent binding when properly located on the box and properly stretched and nailed. In most instances the unannealed strap is prefer- able to the annealed, because it has approximately one- third more tensile strength and is not so likely to stretch or to tear or break. The thickness and width of strap and the number of straps which should be used in any par- ticular case depend upon the size, gross weight, shape and construction of the box and the character of the con- tents. Very long boxes may require several straps, one at each end and one or more equally spaced between the end straps. Where the boards on the top and bottom of the box are run crossways or with the grain parallel to the box end, the box should be strapped two ways : i. e. one strap around each end parallel to the ends and one strap around tl^e box on each side parallel to the sides. 58 EXPORT PACKING Boxes of large size or heavy gross weight require a heavier, stronger strap than boxes of small size or light gross weight. In general a strap 1/2" wide by .018" in thickness should be satisfactory for boxes up to 100 lbs. gross weight, w^hile boxes over 100 lbs. gross weight should as a rule have a stronger strap — 5/8" wide by .020" in thickness, or 3/4" wide by .015" in thickness, having a tensile strength of about 1,200 lbs. These are only general instructions and may have to be deviated from in particular cases. The character of the contents of the box also affects the size and number of straps necessary. When the contents are of very high value, or where because of the nature of the contents it is necessary that the box be very rigid, it may be necessary to use stronger straps and to place a number of different straps on the box. The two common methods of locating the strap are directly over the box ends and in a slight distance from the end. Nailless strap and wire are al- ways applied in from the box end, being drawn to heavy tension by the use of a stretching device, and the ends sealed in some manner. No matter at what point the strapping is applied it is of the utmost importance that it be drawn to maximum tightness before nailing. Loosely applied strap loses much of its value as a binding, and the shrinking of the box as it drys out will make it loosen up even more, causing it to bulge between the nails and form festoons which are very liable to catch and tear on every projection which the box encounters in handling. It may safely be said that improper stretching before nailing causes more failure of strapping from breaking, tearing or pulling off the box, than any other one factor. The strap should be very securely nailed, especially where it passes over the corners of the box or where the side, top and bottom of the box meet. Between the box comers it should be nailed at frequent intervals, as a rule every 3 or 4 inches, to keep it tight against the box surface and minimize festooning. It is also a good plan with nailless strap or wire,- to fasten it with nails or staples at each of the four corners to prevent it from CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 59 slipping off when the box shrinks and the strap loosens. Marking. — The marking of a package with shipping directions and other necessary information, is as impor- tant as the packing and should be completely and care- fully done, as improper marking may result in the loss of the package or in the imposition of heavy fines in the country of destination because the markings are not in accordance with the country's regulations. The marks on the package should agree absolutely with those on the invoice and bill of lading. Wherever possible the markings should be stencilled on the package with black waterproof stencil paint, or where the article or package is of a dark color, with white paint. Sten- cilled markings are preferred to hand markings because they are clearer and generally occupy less space. All characters should be large enough so that they are plainly visible, in general not less than 2" high and larger on packages of large size. As a rule the complete mark- ings should appear on two faces of the package. Care should be taken that the markings are dry before han- dling the package. The use of tags should be avoided as much as possible because they are very liable to tear off or become defaced so that they are illegible. Where, because of the nature of the package, their use is necessary, they should be metal and should be firmly wired to the package. Labels are also objectionable because they are liable to be loos- ened by moisture or become defaced. The name of the consignee and the destination of the package with its routing should be marked in the most prominent place and in the largest letters, preferably in the middle of the face of the package as these markings are the most important. Other required markings such as the gross weight, tare weight, net weight, cubic dis- placement or serial numbers, should preferably be in the corners of the face of the package. It is always well to place a duplicate set of markings inside the package as a means of identifying it, should by any means the markings on the outside become defaced. 60 EXPORT PACKING It is also well to place a packing list inside, enumerating the kind and number of items making up the contents as an aid in tracing loss. Marks such as ^^This Side Up'' or ^'Handle With Care'' do not do much good unless written in the language of the country of destination. Advertising and other unrequired marks should be omitted as much as possible, because the presence of un- necessary markings is liable to cause confusion or mis- takes in interpreting the necessary markings. No old markings of any kind should ever appear on packages. Care in Packing and Special Protection. — The method of packing the contents in a container demands as care- ful attention as the construction of the container itself. Frequently the container is adequately constructed and arrives at destination in good condition, but the contents are damaged because they were improperly packed. The contents of the package should be very firmly and compactly packed, articles of irregular shape being nested together so that they occupy the least possible space. Loose packing of the contents, particularly in boxes and crates, may also seriously affect the strength of the container, since with the jars and vibrations of transportation the loose articles act as a hammer and loosen the nails and fastenings. Machinery, vehicles and other commodities which occupy an excess of space when packed assembled, should be disassembled before packing. Articles of a fragile nature should be separated from each other and from the container with partitions, racks, braces or cushioning material, so that the shocks of trans- portation will be absorbed and not produce breakage. Internal Packing Material. — Kegarding the use of in- ternal packing material, this is a rather difficult subject to treat, as the packing material which should be used depends entirely upon the contents of the container. Ex- celsior is a material which is used to a great extent for cushioning purposes, to separate breakable articles from each other and from the walls of the container. Excelsior differs considerably in its cushioning properties, some excelsiors being much more springy than others. Excel- CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 61 sior is well suited for many packing purposes where cushioning material is needed, but there are also places where it should be used with limitations. Some shippers of aluminum-ware claim that excelsior, which is wet or damp, makes a bad packing material, as it is liable to injure the aluminum during export shipment. For pack- ing purposes excelsior should always be dry, that is, have approximately the same moisture content as the air. This is especially necessary where it is used as a cushioning material for furniture and other finished wood surfaces. Where it is used in connection with a highly polished wood surface, the wood should first be covered with a flannel or very soft material so that the excelsior will not produce scratching. Considerable highly polished mahog- any furniture is often damaged by placing the excelsior directly on the furniture, especially if it is somewhat damp. Crumpled paper is considerably used for a cushioning material, and is excellent for this purpose. Bogus paper is considerably used for this purpose because of its soft character and cheap cost. Straw is also used to a con- siderable extent, but for certain purposes the straw is objectionable because it is liable to break up easily into small pieces, especially if old straw is used. Corrugated straw boards are also much used, especially for wraps around bottles, and make a very efficient cushioning material. Straw board is also used for partitions be- tween bottles, and in some cases makes a better material than wood partitions, because it has more resistance than the wood and does not break off the way the wood does. Hair felt is often used as a cushioning material for wrap- ping around highly finished metal surfaces, to prevent them from scratching, and also to form a cushioning material to minimize the shocks and jars of transporta- tion, especially in the case of delicate instruments. Wooden partitions and wooden cleats, properly placed in a box, can often be substituted in place of excelsior with considerable saving of space. One large electrical concern recently substituted such partitions and cleats 62 EXPORT PACKING in place of excelsior, for packing insulators, with a great saving in space and saving in cost of packing, and these cleats offered just as good protection as the excelsior. Cast-iron articles must be very carefully protected against the shocks and jars of transportation or they are very liable to be broken. Cast-iron stoves are one of the most difficult articles to export, because of the fact that they break very easily from the jars of shipment. "Where several cast-iron articles are packed in the same con- tainer, they should be separated from each other by soft wood cleats and should be protected by plenty of cushion- ing material. Waterproofing. — Protection from damage by water, moisture, or dampness is very necessary in the export shipment of many kinds of goods. The package may be exposed to rain in loading or unloading from the ship or in carting across the city. It is subjected to more or less dampness in the ship's hold. Wet packages may be piled on top of it during transportation or storage. If it is unloaded from the ship into lighters it may receive drenching dashes of sea spray. If it is destined for a damp, tropical climate it may encounter torrential rains and excessively humid atmosphere. Machinery, hardware, vehicles, furniture, musical in- struments, textiles, clothing, leather and leather goods, books, stationery, certain food products and chemicals are some of the more important products which require waterproof protection. Iron and steel parts subject to damage by rust should be coated with a good anti-rust compound, which is thick enough under ordinary temperatures to adhere well and not drop off or rub off. It should contain no grit, acid or other injurious substance and should be of such a char- acter that it can be removed without too much difficulty. Lining. — All boxes and crates containing material subject to damage by water or moisture should be lined with a thoroughly waterproof paper. The standard case and crate lining paper used by the War Department and also by many different industries, is a duplex waterproof CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 63 paper made of two 30-lb. sheets of No. 1 sulphate kraft basis 24" x 36" — 480 cemented together with asphaltum. This paper is absolutely waterproof, is of just the right strength for a case or crate lining material and is of the right weight to handle well. The waterproof coating is between the two sheets, out of sight and out of touch, where it cannot scrape off. The paper can also be folded without breaking the waterproof coating, which is an im- portant requisite in a case or crate lining paper. Duplex papers may also be had in heavier weights where extra strength is desired, such as combinations of two 40, two 50 or two 60-lb. papers. Another paper which is much used where it is desired to wrap the article itself or part of it, is a paper made of one sheet of sulphate kraft coated with asphaltum and reenforced with cotton cloth of various mesh. This paper can be had in various weights from a 30-lb. to an 80-lb. sheet, and reenforced with a cotton cloth varying from 8 to 40 threads to the inch each way. Cloth reenforced paper is much used in places where strength and resist- ance to tear or puncture is desired, such as a wrap for parts of engines, for electrical apparatus, for parts of vehicles and for bundles. By tying the paper securely with cord and asphalting all joints, a perfectly watertight wrap can be made around an article of irregular shape such as an engine part. Cloth reenforced paper is also used to line cases and crates, where the nature of the con- tents or the method of the construction of the package demands a paper of extra strength. Other waterproof papers much used are a kraft paper coated with asphaltum and reenforced with burlap, and a paper made of two sheets of kraft cemented together with asphaltum and reenforced between the two sheets with parallel cords. The burlap reenforced paper is much used where a strictly waterproof paper of great strength and resistance to abrasion is required. Because of their tensile strength and resistance to tearing across the cords, the cord reenforced papers are much used in nar- row widths to spirally wrap material in coils or rolls. 64 EXPORT PACKING Some articles which are very hygroscopic or extremely liable to damage by water or humid atmosphere, are packed in metal lined, hermetically sealed containers. Crate Construction. — A wooden crate consists of a frame with or without bracing. It may also be entirely closed or sheathed over similar to a box. Completely closed crates are often called cases. The construction of crates has not been standardized as has the construction of boxes, because the method of their construction is dependent in a large measure on the size, shape and weight of the article which is being crated. Crates are, from the nature of their construction, vitally dependent upon the method of joining and fastening the crate members together. For articles of large size and weight crates are gen- erally more economical than boxes, because the box will have to be made throughout of lumber of excessive thick- ness to give the required strength, while in the crate the required strength can be secured in the frame and braces, which can be covered with thin sheathing if necessary. In general the same remarks regarding the quality of lumber used in boxes apply also to crates. In the crate frame and braces, however, it is very important that strictly sound first quality lumber be used, free from any defects which impair its strength. The War Department specifications for crating limit the size of knots in frame and braces to one-fourth the width of the piece in which they occur. As in the case of boxes, the particular species of lum- ber which is used is not a matter of as much importance as that the lumber be of proper quality, proper thickness and properly joined and fastened in the crate. Prac- tically any of the commercially important w^oods will make satisfactory crates. The standard commercial thicknesses and widths should be adhered to wherever possible. Except in the case of small light crates, the width of frame members or braces should not be less than three inches, as it is difficult to properly nail or bolt pieces narrower than this. The sheathing or covering CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 65 material should not be less than 2 1/2" face width. The particular thickness of lumber to be used in the frame and braces depends upon the size, weight and shape of the article which is being crated, so no definite instructions can be given on this point. When hardwoods such as beech, birch, maple, elm, ash, oak or gum are used for frame and braces, the thickness of lumber required may roughly be 25 per cent less than when the soft woods are- used, owing to the greater inherent strength of the hard- woods and their greater holding power for fastenings. In selecting the size of the lumber for use in the frame and braces it should be borne in mind that crates, especially those of large size carrying heavy weights, are subjected to many strains in handling during shipment, and from the nature of crate construction the individual members, even in well constructed, well braced crates, are often required to bear a considerable proportion of the gross weight of the package. The crate should be so con- structed and the size of the frame members should be such, that wherever possible the package will ride safely on side, top, bottom or end. Bolting and Nailing. — The method of nailing or bolt- ing the members of a crate together is even more im- portant than the method of nailing the parts of a box to- gether. The bolting or nailing surface in crates is much smaller than in boxes, and much of the strength of the crate depends upon the efficiency of the fastenings, par- ticularly those at each of the eight corner joints. Both nails and bolts are used as fastenings, the nails as a rule being used for crates of thin material — 2" and under. All nails of size 20 penny and under should be standard cement coated box nails, as the cement coated nails have from 10 to 30 per cent more holding power, and because of their thinner gauge cause less splitting in driving. In frames and frame braces the length of the nail should be not less than twice the thickness of the member to be nailed on, or the piece through which the nail first passes. Frames and braces should have not less than two nails in each nailing edge— -more nails being used in the wide 66 EXPORT PACKING pieces. Where the piece receiving the point of the nails is of sufficient thickness, the nails through frame pieces and braces should be staggered. Crossed braces should have not less than two nails driven through both braces where they cross, and these nails should be clinched where pos- sible. The nails used in the sheathing or covering ma- terial should generally be 2 penny larger than the thick- ness of the sheathing expressed in eighths of an inch, and the nails should be driven in a staggered row where pos- sible, approximately 2V2" apart. Where bolts are used for fastening frame pieces and braces they should be car- riage bolts in preference to machine bolts. Standard cut washers should be used under bolt heads and nuts except under the heads of carriage bolts. The holes for the bolts should be bored to the same diameter as the bolts or a fraction smaller. In frames from 1 to II/2" in thickness %" bolts should be used, in frames up to 3" in thickness %" bolts, and in frames over 3" in thickness %" bolts. To prevent the nuts from working loose the threads below the nut should be upset. Not less than two bolts should be used in each framing edge, and the bolts should be staggered where possible. Joining and Bracing. — Much of the strength and ef- ficiency of the crate depends upon the way the members are joined together, and the way the contents are braced in the crate. Economy of space should always be in mind in crate construction. The corner joints should be so made and the braces so placed that the displacement of the crate is as small as possible. The ^* Three Way Corner'' joint should be used on each of the eight corners wherever possible, as this joint occupies the least amount of space — only one thickness of lumber intervening be- tween the contents and the outside surface of the crate. In this joint the three frame members entering into it — the side member, the end member and the top or bottom member — are joined so that each piece is held by nails or bolts driven from two directions, and all nailing, if nails are used, is into the side grain of the wood, which gives maximum holding power. (Diagram 1, fig. 1, page CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 67 68, illustrates the most efficient and most used type of three way comer joint. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate two more of the seven possible joinings of the three members to give this comer.) Large crates and crates with heavy contents should always be diagonally braced, and braces should be placed so that they are as near a 45° angle as possible. Where the panel to be braced is long compared to its width it may be necessary to use one or more cross members to bring the diagonal braces at or near a 45° angle. The following rule, which I quote from a pamphlet written by me, and published by the Safepack Mills, in- dicates the spacing of the cross members, and the number of panels of bracing: ^'Divide the longer dimension of the side or end to be braced by the shorter dimension, then — (a) If the result is less than IV2, use one angular or crossed brace (see Diagram 2, page 68), 6-f-6 = l. (b) If the result is li/o or more and less than 3, use a cross member and two angular or crossed braces (see Diagram 3, page 69), 8-^3.7=2.1. Use a cross member and two angular braces or a cross member and two crossed braces. (c) If the result is 3 or greater, use a number of angular or cross braces equal to the first figure of the result and cross members to correspond, thus (see Diagram 4, page 70), 14 -^- 3 = 4.6. Use four crossed braces (or four angular braces) and three cross members. *^ Braces are made both with single mitred ends and with double mitred ends (see Diag. 2). The single mitred end brace is much used on light crates of thin frame material. In the single mitred end brace, most of the stress in the brace must be taken by the fastenings in the end because the surface 'ab' (Diagram 2, fig. 1) has no bearing on the crate frame. In the double mitred end 68 EXPORT PACKING brace, the end is so cut that the 'toe' of the brace *bc' (Diagram 2, fig. 2) bears against the upright frame, thus taking some of the stress off of the fastenings in the brace and transmitting it directly to the frame. In the double mitred end brace, the 'heeP of the brace or the distance *ac' (Diagram 2, fig. 2) should be cut longer than the *toe' 'be' as shown, so as to afford as much nailing or bolting surface as possible. tCJx' Fig. 2 Fig. S Fig. 1 Courtegp of Safepack Mills. Diagram 1 *'When crossed braces are used as shown on Dia- gram, 2, fig. 2, it is necessary to place a fill piece 'x* of same thickness as the under brace, beneath the ends of the outside brace so as to make a flush nailing or bolting surface. These pieces should be securely nailed to the frame. OffAnyuUr Braf One. Crossed Brace Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Courtesy of Baf epoch Mills. Diagram 2 ''As far as possible the combined thickness of braces or of braces and sheathing, should not exceed the thick- ness of the frame members, so as not to project beyond the crate frame and increase the displacement of the CONSTRUCTION OF BOXES, CRATES, BALES 69 crate (see Diag. 5). The thickness of the sheathing ^S,' plus the thickness of the braces *B/ equals the thickness of the frame member *M.' *^When sheathing is used, diagonal braces are often placed outside the sheathing, as shown on Diag. 5, in which case one of the braces is usually divided when crossed braces are used, as shown.** Ont Cross n*rrb*r and Tw CrossttI Bi^mf4 Fig. 1 8' 0n4 Cross Mtmbtfontl Two An^vlor Brmcts Fig. 2 OourteBp of Safepack Mills. Diagram 3 With heavy articles the skids, or horizontal frame members upon which the load rests, should be at least 50 per cent thicker than the other frame members, the additional thickness preferably being in a separate piece nailed or bolted to the skids. The ends of the skids should always be chamfered or beveled. It is very important that the contents of the crate be firmly anchored to the skids with bolts or clamps, and also firmly braced against lateral or longitudinal movement. To quote again from the pamphlet mentioned : ** When the contents has base holes it should be bolted 70 EXPORT PACKING securely to the skids or to cross members in turn securely- bolted to the skids. Large washers should be used under bolt heads and under nuts, and either the threads on the bolt ends should be upset or lock nuts should be used to prevent nuts from working loose. Thrt* Cross litm^trj »nM Fp.:1P?C: .•".'::;■ : ■.-.f^XPORT PACKING being fastened through the outside of the box. In pho- tograph No. 18, page 52, attention is called to the five sets of braces equally spaced around the piece, engaging the piece at the center where it is strongest and extend- ing to each side of the case. This will be securely nailed through the side of the case in order to provide a support for the piece, and prevent the throwing of severe lever- age on the bolts which fasten the load to the skid, in the event that the case happens to be turned on its side during transportation. Photograph No. 24, page 93, shows an armature clamped in place and wedged at each end. Very valuable hints are to be found in photograph No. 27, page 94. If should be noted that in addition to the cradle which supports the body of the field, bearings are also provided under the shaft on each side close to the field and a further bearing is provided at the end of the ex- tended shaft, which is simply a balancing bearing and carries no weight. The blocking on each side of the field, providing the bearings, is held in position by angular braces on the outside and, being wedged on the inside between the field body and this blocking, makes the entire container and its contents a solid mass and prevents any movement of the field in the container. Attention is called to the character of these angular braces on the out- side. They are let into the skid at the toe and at the other end support the wall of the cribbing and the timber, pro- viding the bearing for the shaft, with crow foot construc- tion. These are securely nailed at the ends but since this photograph was taken the experience of the manufac- turer has shown that it is necessary further to fasten these braces and this has been accomplished by scabbing the toe to the skid. The scab consists of a one inch or one and a quarter inch board nailed over the joint which engages the brace and the skid. Floating Fragile Material. — Delicate apparatus can often to advantage be packed in a lightly constructed case and this case ** floated'* in excelsior or other packing material inside of an outer case. This very effective cushion of excelsior between the inner and the outer case PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 103 should be made of a thickness to correspond with the nature and weight of the contents. An illustration of how fragile materials may be care- fully packed in a case which is then *^ floated*^ inside of an outside container, should be carefully studied. In photograph No. 32, page 105, the manner in which the contents of the inner case is protected from shifting has already been described under ^ * partitions. ' * This case is enclosed in an outer case as shown in the photograph with a cushion of excelsior about 5 inches thick on all sides, ends, top and bottom. Other ways in which fragile goods receive adequate packing are illustrated in photo- graph No. 29, page 100, which so far as the cotton ticking ribbon supports are concerned has been already described under the heading of ** shock absorbers.'' It is further notable (see also photograph No. 30, page 100), that the crate is of very light construction so that any jar im- parted by handling would be more like the blow of a tack hammer than the blow of a sledge hammer, as it might be in case the crate were made of heavier lumber and the weight increased. A point to be carefully observed in the packing of apparatus of this character is to make the case as light as possible consistent with the safe carrying of the apparatus. No Loose Small Parts. — Wrenches, accessories, other tools or small parts are often enclosed in the case with a machine. These, however, should always be securely fas- tened, because they are likely to do severe damage due to their movement inside the case during transportation and handling. The best method is to place these small parts in a box and then to have the box, not only nailed, but also fastened by band iron to the skid or the inside of the box. Heavy boxes should be both spiked and strapped to the skid. The lighter boxes should be nailed and strapped to the sides, end or top. The accompanying photographs. No. 34, page 106, and No. 36, page 111, illustrate in a general way the fashion in which parts may be packed in cases contain- 104 EXPORT PACKING ing the main apparatus. This shipment consists of a 36 inch searchlight mounted on a Ford chassis. It was necessary to forward the outfit as ne.arly as possible in completely assembled condition, while at the same time the cost of space on cargo ships was so high that it was very important to minimize the cubical dimensions of the shipment. The wheels were therefore removed from the chassis and the projector was mounted on a skid. The wheels were fastened on the inside of the case as shown and the accessories were packed in separate boxes, etc., and arranged on the interior of the general packing case in the fashion illustrated. The one case therefore contained the complete outfit. Attention is also drawn to photograph No. 15, page 42, in which the box con- taining sundries will be noticed firmly attached inside the general packing case. Battens. — Battens on cases are highly desirable, par- ticularly if the case contains a heavy load. No end bat- tens should be less than three-quarters of an inch in thickness and two inches in width. For heavy loads and where rough handling is to be expected, it has been found well to provide four mitred end battens. Banding Iron. — In order to protect the nailing of the case, no case should ever be forwarded for export unless it is provided with end battens and banded with rust- proof band iron. The band iron, if of proper quality and properly put on, will arrest many shocks which otherwise would be imparted to the nailing of the box. Therefore, the band iron should not be put on directly over the nails if the best results are to be obtained ; but back from the nailing in the direction of the center of the box, up to a distance of six inches from the nailing on large cases. The exact distance should be determined by the condi- tions that will admit of proper nailing of the band iron. These nails should be from four to six inches apart, but care should be taken not to drive the nails through the case at points where they may damage the contents. All of our banding iron is enameled so as to make it proof against rust, and we make it a practice of banding all of 105 iiWIIIIIII irnll 'I ;«?»%;<»-;: 106 PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 107 our export cases, both large and small, heavy and light. More on the subject of '* Banding Iron" will be found under the heading of '* Skidding." What is true of fairly light cases is also true of skidded cases — they both need band iron. These bands are drawn tightly — as tight as a fiddle string — and they are well nailed. But to improperly band a case is worse than not band- ing it at all. The band iron soon arranges itself in fes- toons or loops, if not properly tightened and fastened. These loops catch on and damage other cases. They also make a convenient loop for the stevedores* hooks and hence the damage is cumulative. In many other ways, loose band iron promotes rough usage and creates addi- tional hazards. Unannealed band iron is superior to the annealed. The former can be easily nailed through, it is much stronger and it will not stretch as will the annealed. The band iron on a case performs its real function when the case is subjected to a severe strain by shock or great pressure ; so it will be seen that as the band iron stretches upon those occasions, it will not protect the nailing of the case as it should. Abandoned Wire for Cases. — In past years we used braided, twisted, single and double strand round wire for banding large cases. However, we have ceased to use this method as it was found to fall short of the requirements for strengthening cases. For some small cases contain- ing light loads we still use some **wire bound" boxes which are satisfactory when strengthened by additional nailing. Markings. — A feature of the greatest importance in marking cases is the quality of the marking fluid. This fluid should be indelible and of a character that can not be easily removed or blurred by rubbing. The containers must often stand next to a bale of cotton cloth, which due to vibration may erase the markings in transit. In addition to being indelible and difficult to remove, the fluid should be quick drying so that the cases or bales can be handled soon after without risk to the marking. 108 EXPORT PACKING All sMpments should be marked with stencil, the size of letters corresponding to the size of the container. Where possible the container should be marked with a case number and the shipping address on two sides. On the sides of the case bearing the address, there should be no other markings except the number of the case. How- ever, in very large cases which must be handled with lift- ing devices, it is permissible to show slinging positions and the center of gravity by center lines. Elsewhere on the case — preferably on the ends — may be shown the gross weight, the net weight, the measurements of the case, and other marks such as may be required. The case number should always be preceded by the words **Case number. '* The case number and the port marking should always be made to stand out boldly in larger figures and letters. Numerous photographs are reproduced in connection with this chapter, showing desirable ways of marking cases. Photograph No. 19, page 87, illustrates marking on cases to call attention to the points where the sling cables should be applied. The shipping marks on this case appear on two sides and no other marks excepting the case number and the handling marks appear on the sides. Marking on the case shown in photograph No. 38, page 111, also indicates points where the slings are to be placed. Also note marking at top of case in French, English and Spanish with arrow indicating the top. It will be noted in photograph No. 33, page 105, that this case has been marked in several places * ^ porcelain ' ' and **fragile.'' This evidently was done by the packing men from force of habit in marking domestic shipments. For export such markings as '* porcelain,'* * 'fragile," '* handle with care'' are practically of no use in providing any help in the way of notice to stevedores as to the na- ture of contents. In loading and discharging ships no time is taken to read such notices and at many ports to which shipments are forwarded such marking would not be understood. Branding. — ^With a real indelible fluid it is unneces- PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 109 sary to brand the cases with a branding iron; however, metal dies are used to accomplish practically the same result as branding and at the same time eliminate the fire risk. These dies may be procured in diilferent sizes to correspond with the sizes of the cases to be marked. They have a sharp edge which is coated with marking ink by saturating a piece of felt with the ink and working the die into it by hand. After being coated with ink the die is driven into the wood of the box by a hammer. This' has been found equal to branding, and quicker, cheaper and safer. Marks on the cases such as *' Fragile,'' *^ Glass," ** Handle with care,'' *^This side up," etc., etc., are of practically no avail in procuring special service or special care in handling the material. The materials must be so packed that the container riding in any position will with- stand the maximum hazards of export transportation. Skidding. — The strength of the skid lies entirely with- in the skid itself and receives very little additional strength from the container. In figuring the strength of the skid the packer should entirely ignore the container. A container built up on a weak skid is like a building on a faulty foundation. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link and a container is only as strong as the skids which form its backbone. While the container adds prac- tically no strength to the skids, yet if the skids are broken it racks and wrecks the entire container as well as the apparatus being shipped. Or if the skids should spring or bend, the entire case will probably be destroyed. The skid is the strategic point of the container. It is a curious thing how the same human being who hesitates to put a few more inches of lumber in the skids where it is abso- lutely essential, is likely to lavish lumber on the balance of the container. Lumber put in the skids is a factor of safety — it is container insurance. How Skids Break. — Whenever a container is lifted from one end or from one corner, the skid is likely to break or spring and ruin the container. Whenever the container is rested on one roller, in the middle or on two 110 EXPORT PACKING rollers, one at either end, the skid is likely to break or spring. Instances have even been known where skids have broken or sprung because the container was merely laid down upon an uneven surface. Containers are frequently broken, due to damaged skids resulting from the apparatus being improperly bolted to the skid. We make it a rule to have no square bolt heads projecting beyond the lower surface of the skids. The bolt holes should be countersunk and the bolt put in from the bottom so that the square head will not project and interfere with the passage of the skid over the rollers. Round headed bolts are also desirable for this reason. In either case the bolt should project through the apparatus and have the nut at the top. Sometimes wood clamps are used for fastening containers to skids, but they should be of hard wood and strong. Containers should be so built that they will not be racked if the stevedores make their donkey sling-hitch at a point above the skids. Therefore, the sides, ends and top should be strong, and unless they are reenforced by cribbing or bracing of contents, the high hitching will likely damage them. But the skidding is important for still other reasons. Not only must the entire container be of sufficient strength to withstand the various shocks of transporta- tion, but it must be able to stand up under the strain of cargo storage while in the hold of the ship. In the accompanying photograph No. 17, page 51, it will be noted that there are three bearings for the piece, one at each end and one in the center, this center bearing also preventing the bending or breaking of the skids in the event of its being moved by rollers or resting on an uneven surface. Fine Points in Case Construction. — Where the con- tents of a skidded container is of such a character that it may be injured by racking due to pressure at the top, there should be provided supporting posts from skid to underside of cover, securely nailed through casing. The ends of the case should rest on the skids and be xu Courtesy of General Elentrio Co. (37) Complete Projector in Case. Note how searchlight and acceaaories are made a compact mass. 112 PRACTICAL NOTES ON EXPORT SHIPPING 113 nailed to the binder or cross tie. The sides of the case, however, require different treatment for the best results. Although the inside or horizontal course should rest on the skid, the outer or vertical course should be longer, thus it can be made to overlap the skid and extend down* almost but not quite, to the bottom of the skid. But there is another reason which is not so apparent, and that is it enables the container better to resist compres- sion of a heavy cargo placed on top. These side boards are brought down within about a quarter of an inch of the bottom of the skid so that when the strain of the weight of storage is imposed, the strength of the box need not depend entirely on the strength of the holding power of the nails ; for, as the nails give or bend a little, this form of construction allows these vertical side boards to take up the load. The heavy weight on top of the case and the resulting slight giving of the nails permit the sides of the case to come to rest on practically the same level as the bottom of the skid; thus the container is saved from collapse. A distance of one quarter to three eighths of an inch has been found sufficient as a clear- ance between the bottom of the skid and the bottom of the vertical boards, which compose the outer course of the sides of the case. But these side boards should not be so long as to interfere with rollers, and should be kept above the bottom of the skid for the same reason that the square heads of the bolts are not allowed to project downward. Don't Use Lag Screws. — In the construction of skids, do not use lag screws and in fastening apparatus or other articles to skids, do not use lag screws. Also in fastening the bracings in all shipping and packing work, do not use lag screws but use bolts. Even nailing is preferable to lag screws, as it is most difficult to draw a lag screw ^*home'' without overdoing it. A single turn or even a part of a turn on a lag screw after being properly set, practically destroys its holding power. Slinging.— Wherever possible, large cases or pieces which must be handled with lifting devices, should have 114 EXPORT PACKING provision made for slinging. When the horizontal center of gravity of container is off the center of meas- urements, we provide slots in the skids and mark the cases at those points ** Sling here.'* In addition we pro- vide a center line on each side of the case indicating the center of gravity and so stencil it on the case. In photograph No. 1, page 11, it will be noticed that the skids are slotted at each end. This is for the slinging. The same feature will be observed in numerous others of the accompanying illustrations. Another way of pro- viding for the use of slings is illustrated in photograph No. 25, page 93.- However, since this photograph was taken an improvement has been made over this method. The horns or extensions which are shown in the photo- graph as engaging the slings are cut off and the under- side of the skid is slotted for slinging. This reduces the cost of shipping to the extent of the measurement of the horns previously used since, of course, steamship com- panies figure cubic measurements over all extreme dimen- sions. In photograph No. 27, page 94, especially care- ful attention should be directed to the location of the slots in the skids which are cut out for slinging the apparatus, the center of gravity being midway between the two slots. The strings which are shown in one of the photo- graphs. No. 23, page 88, are placed under the bearings in the process of packing rotating elements for electrical apparatus and are for testing application of weight applied to the several bearings in order that we may determine whether the strain as imparted by the load going into the container is being equally distributed to the three bearing points. The cribbing made to take the shaft bearings is a solid wood mass built so as to engage this shaft. Now before placing the load into the carrier or container, these strings are placed under each of the three bearings and as the load is lowered into the container, by the tension applied to these strings we are able to detect the equalization of pressure between the three points of bearings. CHAPTER V OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS-EXPERT INSTRUCTIONS TREMENDOUS progress in the science of export packing was made during the course of the World War, and the lessons to be derived from the exact and specific instructions issued by the War Department of the United States Government are certain to ensure a marked improvement in the packing practices of man- ufacturers and shippers in general. Probably in no other country has the export packing problem been attacked so scientifically and in so thoroughgoing a fashion as in the United States, where national needs from the outset of the war brought officials face to face with problems of overseas shipping which were not encountered by other nations. The results of official study, painstaking inves- tigations and comparison, the researches of the Forest Products Laboratory, plus the ingenious inventions of men called into the service of the army in devising the best possible packing methods — these all resulted in the publication of official specifications by the War Depart- ment and in a great deal of consequent and subsequent literature, based on these experiences and researches, which it is believed ought to be preserved in permanent fashion. Important excerpts are here included, with the conviction that the matter reprinted in this chapter will be found vital by every manufacturer or shipper dis- posed to give serious attention to this most important problem. Certain duplications have been omitted from the of- ficial specifications reprinted in this chapter because iden- tical advices or instructions appear in other chapters. It is none the less quite natural that there should be some repetitions of observations and instructions both among 115 116 EXPORT PACKING the documents themselves, which are now reprinted, and in the several other chapters of this book. It has been thought desirable to include many such repetitions, not only because sometimes involving slight variations in phraseology, but also because many of the problems dealt with merit repeated emphasis. The documents which follow include extracts from the War Department specifications on making boxes and packing in boxes; a pamphlet on the same subject by Capt. Knowlton, issued by the Saf epack Mills ; the War Department specifications on the making of crates, on baling and on marking ; an article from * * The Barrel and Box'' on the nailing of boxes; technical notes from the Forest Products Laboratory, etc. Standakd Boxing Specifications of the War Department Nailed and locked corner boxes must be well manu- factured from lumber which is sound (free from decay and dote) and well seasoned. Lumber must be free from knot holes and from loose or rotten knots greater than one inch in diameter. Knots whose diameter exceed one- third the width of the board will not be permitted, and no knots will be permitted which interfere with the proper nailing of the box. For these specifications, well-seasoned lumber has an average moisture content of 12 to 18 per cent based on the weight of the wood after oven drying. To determine this moisture content weigh a piece of material before and after oven drying to a constant weight, dry at 100° C. (212° F.), and divide the difference in weights by the lesser X 100. Width of Lumber. — (a) Any end, side, top, or bottom 6 inches or less in width should be one-piece stock. (b) No piece less than 21/2 inches face width shall be used in any part, except for cleats. (c) The maximum number of pieces allowed in any end, side, top, or bottom more than 6 inches wide should OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 117 be as follows (narrow pieces should always be placed in the center of the ends, sides, top, or bottom) : Maximum number Width of face of pieces Six inches and under 1 Over 6-10 inches, inclusive 2 Over 10-15 inches, inclusive 3 Over 15-20 inches, inclusive '. . . . 4 Over 20-25 inches, inclusive 5 Over 25 inches 6 Surfacing. — All material must be surfaced one or two sides. When surfaced one side the surfaced side shall be the outside. Joining. — Ends 1 inch or less in thickness should be either cleated or butt joined and fastened with not less than three corrugated fasteners, two driven from one side and one from the opposite side. Cleats should be not less than 2 inches wide and should have a minimum thick- ness of five-eighths inch. Triangular cleats of not less than three-fourths inch face measurement are permitted. Nails. — All nails should be standard cement coated box nails. Plain nails driven through and clinched may be used for cleating. The size of the nail shall depend upon the species and the thickness of the lumber in which the points of the nails are held. When the nail specified for use under these specifica- tions is not obtainable, use the next penny lower, and increase the number of nails in each nailing edge by one. ^ Metal Bindings. — All packing boxes for over-seas service must be strap ironed. Strapping shall be cold rolled unannealed steel not less than five-eighths inch wide by 0.015 thick, treated to prevent rust, and shall have a tensile strength of^not less than 850 pounds. The treatment must be of a character to prevent injury to strapping when bent or nailed. Strapping placed at least 1 inch from each end is preferred, with double corner nails and such additional nails or staples holding straps to sides, top, and bottom *See Capt. Knowlton's observation and recommendations under thig head, Chapter III. :port packing as well minimizing festooning nails or staples spaced about 6 inches apart. Strapping must be drawn tight by mechanical means in order to have the maximum of tension. Standard Specifications for Wire-bound Boxes Boxes must be well manufactured from lumber which is sound (free from decay and dote) and well seasoned. Lumber kiln dried at excessively high temperature or low humidities or below 6 per cent moisture, must be avoided. Material must be free from knot holes and from loose or rotten knots greater than 1 inch in diame- ter. No knots will be permitted which interfere with the proper nailing or stapling. Cleats. — Cleat material must be free from knots and cross grain. Cleats must not be less than three-fourths inch wide, seven-eighths inch thick. Wires.— Wires shall not be less than No. 14 gauge nor spaced more than 6 inches apart. Staples. — Staples shall be spaced not more than 2 inches apart over each wire. Staples which are not driven into cleats must be clinched. Ends. — On boxes not to exceed 20 x 15 x 10 inches in- side measurement and carrying not to exceed 90 pounds the ends may be the same thickness as the sheet material, and should be nailed or stapled on the inside of the cleats. Nails and staples shall be spaced approximately 2 inches apart. On larger boxes of heavier weights the ends shall be nailed to battens or to sohd ends set between the cleats. A seven-penny nail must be driven through cleat into each end of each batten. Number of Pieces. — Sides and tops shall be one-piece stock, and bottom one, or two-piece stock if made of rotary-cut lumber not less than one-fourth inch thick. If two-piece sides and tops and three-piece bottoms are used, material must be at least one thirty-second inch heavier than one-piece stock, or wires spaced not more than 5 inches apart. OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 119 When resawed material is used in sides, tops, and bottoms it shall be one-sixteenth of an inch thicker than the rotary-cut lumber specified for one-piece stock. Limitations. — There are limitations as to sizes, weights, and commodities that can be packed in wire- bound boxes. These limitations, however, can not be definitely fixed in any general specifications. Standard Specification of the War Department FOR Export Packing in Boxes Paper Lining. — Boxes shall be lined with waterproof case lining paper, over which shall be placed a lining of bogus or gray rag paper. (a) Specifications for Waterproof Case-Lining Paper. — The specifications for waterproof case-lining paper are as follows: This waterproof case-lining paper shall be made of two layers or sheets of 100 per cent sulphate kraft paper, each layer weighing 30 pounds to the ream of 480 sheets, basis 24 by 36 inches, cemented together with not more than 30 pounds average weight of asphal- tum to the ream. The basis of weight for the finished paper shall be 90 pounds to the ream of 480 sheets, basis 24 by 36 inches, with an allowable variation of 5 per cent above or below on the above basis, such variation, if any, to apply either to the paper or the asphaltum. The paper must be thoroughly Avaterproof, so that a receptacle made of a single piece shall hold water for 24 hours without wetting through. The strength shall be not less than 60 points on the Mullen tester. (h) Specifications for Bogus or Gray Rag Paper. — The specifications for the bogus or gray rag paper are as follows: This bogus or gray rag paper shall weigh 90 pounds to the ream of 480 sheets, basis 24 by 36 inches, and the strength shall be not less than 15 points on the Mullen tester. {c) Method of Lining Box with Waterproof Case- Lining Paper. — Boxes shall be lined with waterproof case-lining paper, either with sheets cut to the size re- 120 EXPORT PACKING quired or with made-up containers or case liners of the correct size. If sheets cut to size are used, boxes shall be lined as follows: The bottom, sides, and top of the box shall be lined with a sheet of width not less than the in- terior length of the box, plus not less than 6 inches for lapping 3 inches around corners at each end of box, and of length sufficient to cover the bottom, sides, and top of box, and lap at least 6 inches on the top. Each end of box shall be lined with a sheet of width not less than the interior width of the box, plus not less than 6 inches for lapping around the corners 3 inches on each side, and of length not less than the interior depth of the box plus not less than 12 inches for lapping 6 inches on the top and bottom of the box. Thus, a box of interior dimen- sions, length 36 inches, width 17% inches, depth 13 inches, shall be lined as follows : Bottom, sides, and top with a sheet 42 by 67 inches, and each end with a sheet 231/2 by 25 inches. (d) Method of Lining Box with Bogus or Gray Rag Paper. — The bogus or gray rag paper shall be so placed in the box that the waterproof paper lining is completely covered. Box Strapping. — Boxes shall be strapped with cold- rolled unannealed steel band treated to prevent rust. {a) Width and Gauge of Strapping. — The width and gauge of strapping to be used shall depend upon the gross weight of the box. On boxes up to 250 pounds gross weight the size of the strapping used shall be either % inch wide by 0.020 inch thick, or % inch wide by 0.015 inch thick, ultimate tensile strength not less than 1,000 pounds. On boxes over 250 pounds gross weight to and including 400 pounds gross weight, the size of strapping used shall be either % inch wide by 0.020 inch thick, or 1 inch wide by 0.015 inch thick, ultimate tensile strength not less than 1,200 pounds. {h) Point of Application of Strapping. — All boxes shall be strapped on each end, strapping to be placed not less than 1 inch nor more than 3 inches from inside of ends of box. Boxes the length of which is greatly in OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 121 excess of the width or depth shall have one or more addi- tional straps spaced equidistant between the end straps. .When these are considered necessary they will be specified. (c) Stretching of Strapping, — Strapping must be applied with some kind of stretching tool before nailing, so that it will be tight between nails and will not bulge over comers. (d) Nailing of Strapping. — Strapping shall be nailed on as follows: Where it passes over the corners of the box it shall be secured by two four-penny cement-coated nails — one driven through the strap and through the top or bottom boards into the side boards, and one nail driven through the strap. into the top or bottom boards. Between the corners of the box, strapping shall be secured with nails spaced approximately 21/2 inches apart, and at least one nail shall be driven through the strap into each sep- arate board of side, top and bottom. When the thickness of side, top and bottom is % inch, use i/2-iiich flathead nails; when the thickness of side, top and bottom is % inch, use %-inch flathead nails. When strapping 1 inch wide is used, the nails shall be staggered. (e) Joints of Strapping. — Joints of strap shall lap at least 5 inches, and shall be so placed that the end of one overlapping piece shall be on the top of the box, approximately 21/0 inches from corner, and the end of the other overlapping piece on the side of the. box approxi- mately 2y2 inches from same corner. Each end of strap shall be secured by nail driven % inch from end. The correct method of applying strapping is shown on draw- ing 76-11-9, with latest revisions, furnished upon request. Style of Box. — Two styles of boxes shall be used : Style A. — Having two cleats on each end, these cleats being vertical — i. e., at right angles to grain of ends. Style B. — Having four cleats on each end. Style _A shall be used when the weight of contents is 100 pounds or less, or whenever the depth of the box is less than 12 inches. Style B shall be used when the weight of contents 122 EXPORT PACKING exceeds 100 pounds and the depth of box is 12 inches or more. Surfacing. — It will be specified in each case whether box boards shall be SIS or S2S.i When SIS, the sur- faced side shall be outside. Surfacing shall be well done, and no injurious sharp splinters or rough spots shall appear on surfaced boards. Considerable economy will result from allowing %-inch material to be SIS, since two thicknesses can be cut from nominal lyo-inch lumber, while %-inch S2S sometimes requires 1-inch lumber for one thickness. Joining. — All joints between boards shall be tongued and grooved or Linderman jointed. When tongued and grooved, boards must be tight matched. When Linder- man jointed, the dovetail (or dovetails where double Linderman joint is used) shall be situated equidistant from opposite edges of the board. Cleats. — Boxes having sides, top, bottom, and ends of group 1 woods may have cleats of any of the species listed. Group 2 woods are recommended for cleats. Boxes having sides, top, bottom and -ends of group 2 woods shall have cleats of woods of same group. Cleats shall be 2 inches wide and of the same thickness as sides, tops and bottoms. Nailing. — A — Cleats to Ends. — Cleats shall be se- curely nailed to ends with nails sufficiently long to pass through both thicknesses of lumber and clinch. At least two nails shall connect each piece of end to each cleat. Nails shall be placed as near the ends of cleats as pos- sible, without splitting cleats. Intermediate nails shall be 'spaced approximately 2 inches along the length of the cleat. These nails shall be staggered. B — Sides, top and bottom to ends. — Nails used shall be standard cement-coated box nails. Proper size of nails depends on species and thickness of lumber holding points of nails after driving. The following schedule shall apply : * S2S should be specified when contents are such as to be damaged by abrasion on rough boards. OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 123 Classification of woods Thickness of/ pieces holding points of nails after driving Penny designation of nail Length of nails to be not less than — Average diameter of head to be not less than — Group 1 Group 2 Group 2 Inch d. 8 6 6 Inches We Inch % H Nails may be as slender as can be driven without bending or breaking, but must conform to the above schedule as to length. The head of the nail must be heavy enough not to be readily broken. Spacing. — Nails connecting sides, top, and bottoms to ends shall be spaced as uniformly as possible. Spaces shall average not to exceed 2 inches. On edges where cleats are used approximately 50 per cent of the nails shall be driven into cleats. Top and bottom nails of sides shall be driven into cleats. Each piece of sides, top and bottom shall have not less than two nails at each end. C — Top and bottom to sides. — Sizes of nails shall be in accordance with above schedule. Nails shall be stand- ard cement coated box nails. Nails shall be spaced at approximately 6-inch centers. When box boards are Linderman jointed the require- ment for two nails in each end of each side, top, bottom, and end board shall not apply. Sealing. — When tops and bottoms are Linderman jointed they shall be considered as one piece and two seals only (one at each side) shall be used. Screws in seal holes shall be 1% inches by No. 8. Screws must not be driven by hammer. Size of Box. — The following diagram shows a list of the standard boxes of various sizes : 124 EXPORT PACKING DIMENSIONS, DISPLACEMENTS AND WEIGHTS OF STANDARD BOXES Dimensions of Box X Approx- Displace- imate ment of weight Interior Exterior box of box H Group 1 woods, Group 2 woods. -g Xi ja ■g 1 %-inch lumber H-i ich lumber •|j _c .? rt ;?!■§ •n\ o „^_ :^ 6 1 1 1 ? .s .s ? u a o a 1 .s 1 l1 4-a o ^ 1 a J ^ ^ •5 1 1 sa 1 21.5 8 8 24.5 9.5 9.5 24 9.25 9.25 2,211 2,054 14 15 2 21 9 10 24 10.5 11.5 23.5 10.25 11.25 2,898 2,710 16 18 3 17 11.5 10 20 13 11.5 19.5 12.75 11.25 2,990 2,797 16 18 4 41.5 14.5 5 44.5 16 6.5 44 15.75 6.25 4,628 4,331 26 30 5 26 15 9 29 16.5 10.5 28.5 16.25 10.25 5,024 4,747 23 26 6 22 18 12 25 19.5 13.5 24.5 19.25 13.25 6,581 6,249 29 33 7 37.5 14 10 40.5 15.5 11.5 40 15.25 11.25 7,219 6,863 31 35 8 26 19 12 29 20.5 13.5 28.5 20.25 13.25 8,026 7,647 31 35 9 37.5 14 12 40.5 15.5 13.5 40 15.25 13.25 8,475 8,082 35 40 10 22.625 22.5 14.25 25.625 24 15.75 25.125 23.75 15.5 9,686 9,249 34 38 11 36 17.5 13 39 19 14.5 38.5 18.75 14.25 10,745 10,287 39 44 12 49 16 9 52 17.5 10.5 51.5 17.25 10.25 9,555 9,106 40 45 13 44 15 15 47 16.5 16.5 46.5 16.25 16.25 12,796 12,279 45 51 14 46 26 9 49 27.5 10.5 48.5 27.25 10.25 14,149 13,547 52 58 15 41 21.5 15 44 23 16.5 43.5 22.75 16.25 16,698 16,081 55 62 16 47 20.5 14.5 50 22 16 49.5 21.75 15.75 17,600 16,957 58 65 17 37 26 15 40 27.5 16.5 39.5 27.25 16.25 18,150 17,491 57 65 18 48 21.5 15 51 23 16.5 50.5 22.75 16.25 19,355 18,669 59 66 19 40.5 25 16 43.5 26.5 17.5 43 26.25 17.25 20,173 19,471 58 66 20 37 22.5 20 40 24 21.5 39.5 23.75 21.25 20,640 19,935 61 68 21 34 29 25 37 30.5 26.5 36.5 30.25 26.25 29,905 28,983 76 86 22 36 17.5 7.25 39 19 8.75 38.5 18.75 8.5 6,484 6,136 30 34 24 16.5 17 9.5 19.5 18.5 11 19 18.25 10.75 3,968 3,728 19 21 25 24.5 14 8 27.5 15.5 9.5 27 15.25 9.25 4,049 3,809 20 23 26 21 16.5 12 24 18 13.5 23.5 17.75 13.25 5,832 5,527 25 28 27 50 14 15 53 15.5 16.5 52.5 15.25 16.25 13,555 13,010 48 54 28 44 21.5 11.5 47 23 13 46.5 22.75 12.75 14,053 13,488 48 55 29 26 22 11.5 29 23.5 13 28.5 23.25 12.75 8,860 8,448 33 37 30 31.5 20 10 34.5 21.5 11.5 34 21.25 11.25 8,530 8.128 33 39 31 28 8 8 31 9.5 9.5 30.5 9.25 9.25 2,798 2,610 17 19 33 28 9 8 31 10.5 9.5 30.5 10.25 9.25 3,092 2,892 17 20 34 24 26 12 27 27.5 13.5 26.5 27.25 13.25 10,024 9,568 36 40 35 27 7.5 7 30 9 8.5 29.5 8.75 8.25 2,295 2,150 15 16 36 34 11.5 10.5 37 13 12 36.5 12.75 11.75 5,772 5,468 26 30 39 36.5 26.5 6 39.5 28 7.5 39 27.75 7.25 8,295 7,846 38 43 40 41 20 10 44 21.5 11.5 43.5 21.25 11.25 10,879 10,399 41 46 41 39 27 10 42 28.5 11.5 41.5 28.25 11.25 13,766 13,189 48 55 42 29 20 10 32 21.5 11.5 31.5 21.25 11.25 7,912 7,530 32 36 43 44 16.5 12.5 47 18 14 46.5 17.75 13.75 11,S44 11,349 43 48 44 33 16.5 11.5 36 18 13 35.5 17.75 12.75 8,424 8,034 34 38 45 33 13.5 9 36 15 10.5 35.5 14.75 10.25 5,670 5,367 26 29 46 35 11.5 11.5 38 13 13 37.5 12.75 12.75 6,422 6,096 28 32 47 26 18 12 29 19.5 13.5 28.5 19.25 13.25 7,634 7,269 30 34 48 19.5 18.125 16.5 22.5 19.625 18 22 19.375 17.75 7,948 7,566 32 36 49 41 12.75 12.25 44 14.25 13.75 43.5 14 13.5 8,621 8,222 35 39 OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 125 How TO Build a Box Issued by the SafepacJc Mills There are eight types of wooden boxes now in general use for shipping goods. Technically, a wooden box is any closed, rectangular wooden container with or without cleats, and it may be called either a ^*box*' or a '^case.'' They are the same. A crate, of course, may also be en- tirely closed or sheathed over, but it differs from a box in that it has an inside reenforcement of framework or bracing. There are also special types of veneer-panel, collapsible, and wire-bound boxes. The larger use, how- ever, is for the eight types of standard nailed and lock- cornered boxes shown on Diagram I. Which of these types of box should be used for any commodity depends, of course, on the commodity itself, its character, weight and bulk and the destination of the shipment. But the rules which follow are an easy guide to selection. Styles of Boxes Style 1 is nucleated and is used mostly for small boxes with light contents. Style 2 has double.-cleated ends and is particularly adapted for large boxes with heavy contents, because of its strength due to cleats and to double nailing of sides, tops and bottoms to both cleats and ends. Style 3 is a similar box with mitered cleats and heavier nailing, also adapted for large boxes with heavy contents. Style 4 has single-cleated ends and is suitable for boxes of medium size and medium weight of contents. The sides have double nailing into both cleats and ends, but the top and bottom have only single nailing into ends. Style 5 has internal cleats and is a good type of con- struction for boxes of medium size and weight of con- tents. Sometimes the width of the cleat is nailed to the end instead of to the side. Sometimes triangular internal 126 EXPORT PACKING *C£_e 'ii^.^ : STYLE I y ^ ^^:^ • ^ STYLE- 2 ^ ^"^^^"0**^ • il STYLE 3 ' . ^ .r'^ ^s^' ■^. STYLE S y^ Courtesv of Safepack Mills. .^■\ ^i :r - c » c ' \ 3 C 3 C 3 C 3 STYLE 8 c 7 1 } 1 Diagram 1 OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 127 cleats are used in place of rectangular cleats. For articles such as round cans and odd-shaped articles which do not touch the corners of the box, considerable displacement in the container can be saved by the use of this style, be- cause the cleats are inside and take up space otherwise unoccupied. Style 6 is a plain lock-cornered box and is adapted for boxes of medium size and medium weight of contents. Style 7 is a similar lock-cornered box fitted with a sliding cover. Style 8 is a similar lock-cornered box equipped with a hinge cover. Styles 1 to 6 are mostly used, styles 7 and 8 being used as a rule for more or less special products. Lumber Both tests and actual use have thoroughly demon- strated that satisfactory boxes can be made of prac- tically any of the commercially important woods. Knots, Knot Holes, Decay, Worm Holes and Checks.— The lumber used in the box should also be sound — free from decay, dote and injurious insect or worm hole — and should contain no knots or knot holes large enough to seriously affect the strength of the box. It is difficult to set an arbitrary maximum for size of knots or knot holes which will be satisfactory in all in- stances. The degree to which a knot weakens a board depends not only upon the size of the knot, but also upon its position in the board and upon whether it is a loose, decayed or sound knot. Knots or knot holes in the center of a box board are generally more weakening than knots or knot holes near the ends, and a loose or rotten knot is generally more weakening than a sound knot. The War Department specifications for export boxes permitted no knots larger than one-third the width of the board, measured as in Diagram 2, and permitted no knot holes or loose or rotten knots greater than one inch in diameter, measured as in Diagram 2. These speci- 128 EXPORT PACKING fications worked out very satisfactorily and did much toward improving the quality of army boxes. It has been said by some that this is too stringent a specifica- tion for commercial export or domestic boxes, because it requires too expensive construction. Possibly this is true, but it should be borne in mind that in many cases better commercial export and domestic boxes are badly needed, and better box lumber will assist greatly in im- proving them. Courtesy of Safepack Mills. Diagram 2. Method of measuring knot. Boxes which must be tight because of the nature of their contents should be made of lumber free from knot holes and loose or rotten knots. No knots should be per- mitted in any box which interfere with proper nailing. Large checks or splits are objectionable, because they weaken the board and should generally not be admitted unless reenforced with corrugated fasteners driven across the opening. Thickness and Width. — Probably no other factor is of as much interest to the box industry as the thicknesses and the widths of lumber which are specified. Because of the high cost of the upper lumber grades, the box in- dustry is compelled to use the lower grades which con- tain knots and other defects. These defects are cut out in resawing the boards, the amount of cutting necessary and the waste resulting depending upon the grade of lumber used and the grade of box desired. Under ordi- nary conditions the waste in cutting out defects runs from 15 to 20 per cent. OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 129 The rough thicknesses available are generally 1", li/4", 11^" and occasionally 2", and the available widths range from 3" and 4" up to 12''. It should be borne in mind, however, that although the available widths run up to 12" or sometimes higher, by far the larger per cent of material available runs from 4" to 6" or 8". The specifying for boxes of thicknesses and widths which cannot be produced by the box maker without a large amount of waste decreases the production of the box factory, increases the cost of the box and in most in- stances accomplishes no particular purpose. For the sake of economy, therefore, the standard and more com- mon thicknesses and widths should be adhered to. Rule for Thickness. — The particular thickness of lum- ber required for a box depends upon whether the box is for domestic or export shipment, and also upon the char- acter, size and weight of the contents. It is, therefore, impossible to lay down a general rule regarding thickness which will apply in all cases. Boxes of a gross weight of less than 100 lbs., such as boxes for canned goods and boxes for shoes and soap, are often made of lumber of less than commercial 1" thick- ness, using %", 1/2" or %" thickness, according to the standard practice. These thicknesses are resawed from 1", 11/2" and 2" thicknesses. Boxes of a gross weight of from 250 to 500 lbs., either for domestic or for export shipment, especially those of large size, should generally be made of heavier lumber than 1" thickness, using commercial 1%", 1%'' and 2" thickness, according to conditions. Boxes for export, in most cases, should be made of thicker material than boxes for domestic shipment owing to the increased hazards of transportation to which they are liable to be subjected. The thickness required for export boxes may exceed the proper thickness for domes- tic shipment by from 10 to 50 per cent, or even more, according to conditions. During the war the U. S. Army found that for hardware, textile materials, leather goods, mess equipment and similar material, where the gross 130 EXPORT PACKING weight of the box and contents did not exceed 250 lbs. and the cubic displacement 17 cubic feet, boxes made of standard commercial 1-inch lumber with cleated ends, constructed and strapped according to the specifications which follow, were of sufficient strength for both domestic and overseas shipment. It is possible to construct a box for almost any size and weight of contents, but in general, boxes for articles of very large size and weight are not economical, because they must be made of lumber of excessive thickness in order to have the required strength. Crating of large heavy articles is much more economical than boxing, as considerably less lumber can be used by making a l&eavy crate framework of sufficient strength to carry the article, anchoring the article to it, and if necessary, covering the framework with thin 1" sheathing. It has been conclusively proven that boxes which are well strapped with steel strapping require thinner lum- ber than boxes which are unstrapped. The great value of strapping has not been fully realized, and its use is worthy of very careful study, both from the standpoint of economy in packing, enabling the use of thinner lumber and also from the standpoint of increased strength of container. Rules for Width. — Boxes with one-piece sides, tops, bottoms and ends are generally stronger and more de- sirable than boxes where sides, tops, bottoms and ends are composed of more than one piece. Except in the case of small boxes, it is generally not practical to use one- piece stock entirely, because of the difficulty of securing wide boards and because of their cost. It is advisable, however, to use as wide boards as possible, because of the difficulty of properly nailing boards of less than 21/2" face width. Also large boxes made of a number of narrow boards are very apt to shear along the joints between the boards when dropped on a comer of the end, causing the ends to get out of plumb, greatly weakening the box. Bearing in mind the available widths of lumber and also the relation of widths of different size to the strength OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 131 of the box, the rules for width were worked out by the War Department. The box maker i« always anxious to use up his narrow stock so as to reduce his waste, and boxes are often made which contain boards l^/ or even V wide. However, the minimum face width of boards should never be less than 21/2", as it is necessary in properly nailing a box that each separate piece of sides, top and bottom have not BUTT 5 SHIPLAP Z TONGUE irGROOVE 1 Diagram 3. LINDERMAN Oourtesy of Safcpack Mills. Four usual methods of joining boards in box making. less than two nails at each nailing end, and it is impos- sible to successfully drive two nails into the end of a board less than 21/2" in width. Surfacing. — In general, boxes, especially small ones, should be surfaced on the outside, because rough boxes are very difficult to handle without getting splinters in the hands, and they are difficult to stencil or mark prop- erly. Whether or not the box should be surfaced on the inside depends upon the liability of the contents to injury by abrasion on rough boards. 132 EXPORT PACKING It is often more economical to make a box of boards which are surfaced only on one side, as they can some- times be resawed from thicker boards with less waste than boards which are surfaced on two sides. For in- stance, in the case of %'' lumber, two %" thicknesses can generally be resawed from commercial ly^" lumber when the boards are surfaced on one side, while it may require full 1" lumber for one %" thickness when the boards are surfaced on two sides. In some instances, there is also the question of slightly increased thickness and the re- sulting greater strength of boxes made of lumber sur- faced only on one side. Oourteaj/ of Safepack Mills. Diagram 4. Proper metliod of nailing an undeated box. Joining. — The more common methods of joining box boards are shown in Diagram 3. Where the nature of the contents demands a tight box for protection against moisture and dust it is advisable to use either a tongued and grooved or a Linderman joint. The use of these joints also increases the strength of the box, as the in- dividual boards assist each other in resisting the impact of blows which tend to puncture the box. When the Linderman joint is used, the dovetail tongue — or tongues OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 133 where the double Linderman joint is used — should be situated equidistant from the opposite edges of the board. Where butt joints are used in box ends 1" or less in thickness, it is advisable to fasten each joint with not less than three corrugated fasteners, two driven from one side near the ends and the other driven from the opposite side, midway between the other two. The use of corru- gated fasteners in butt joints in sides, tops and bottoms will also greatly increase their strength. It is also ad- visable to break joints between boards in sides and ends of box to eliminate the weakening effect of a continuous joint clear around the box. Courtesy of Safepack Mills. Diagram 5. Proper method of nailing a single-cleated box. Cleats. — Ends one inch or less in thickness composed of more than one piece and not reenforced in the joints with corrugated fasteners as specified above, should be cleated. The cleats on export boxes should, as a rule, not be less than 2" wide and should not be less than %" thick. In general, cleats and ends are of same thickness. Boxes whose sides, top, bottom and ends are made of woods listed in Groups 1 and 2 may have cleats made of any of the woods listed in the four groups. Boxes whose sides, top, bottom and ends are made of woods listed in Groups 3 and 4 should have cleats of woods from Groups 3 and 4 woods. 134 EXPORT PACKING In making Style 4 boxes, care should be taken that the cleats be cut a little shorter than the over-all height of the box, so that the ends reach slightly below the top and bottom surfaces of the box. If the cleats project even slightly above the top and bottom surface, they are very liable to be loosened or torn off in handling the box. The value of cleats lies in the reenf orcing which they give the end of a box by tying it together and reducing to a minimum the dangerous effects of splitting the box end. There is great advantage also in the increased nailing surface which they afford for nailing sides, tops and bot- toms, with consequent added strength to the box. Boxes Oourteau of Safepack Mills. Diagram 6. Proper method of nailing a doublecleated box. with heavy contents and boxes of great depth should, as a rule, have cleated ends, because of the great added strength afforded by the cleats. Nails and Nailing The manner in which a box or case is nailed is of ex- treme importance. The size and quality of wood may be just right, but the strength of the box and the safety of its contents will depend largely on the nailing. A box OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 135 is only as strong as its nail-holding power. Tests have shown that a few correctly placed nails will sometimes increase the strength of a box 100 per cent. All nails with the possible exception of nails driven through cleats and clinched should be standard cement- coated box nails, for cement-coated nails have from 10 to 30 per cent, more holding power than plain nails and greatly increase the strength of the box. They are also of lighter gauge than plain nails and cause less splitting in driving, and being lighter in gauge they are cheaper, for there are more of them to the pound. Nailing Outside Cleats to Ends. — Cleats should be se- curely nailed to ends with nails sufficiently long to pass through both thicknesses of lumber and clinch at least y^ Courteap of Safepack Millt. Diagram 7. Bad effect of overdriving a nail. of an inch. At least two nails should connect each sep- arate piece of end to each cleat, and nails at top and bot- tom of cleats should be placed as near the ends as pos- sible without splitting the cleats. Approximately the same number of nails should be used in nailing cleats to ends of box as are used in nailing the adjacent side, top or bottom to the end. Nails should be spaced evenly along the cleat and should be staggered, care being taken to place the nails as close to the edge of the cleat as pos- sible without splitting it. Diagrams 5 and 6 show the correct way to nail cleats to the ends of a box. 136 EXPORT PACKING Nailing Sides, Top and Bottom to Ends.— The gauge or size of nails to be used here is determined by the thick- ness and by the species of the ends or cleats in which the points of the nails are held after driving. A general rule worked out by the Forest Products Laboratory is as follows : When the box end or cleat is of woods listed in Groups 3 and 4 the penny of the nails should be the thickness of the end or cleat expressed in eighths of an inch. Ends or Courtesy oj Safepack Mills. Diagram 8. Steel strap located in from ends of box. cleats of woods in Groups 1 and 2 should take the next penny larger. This is a good general rule, but the Forest Products Laboratory has recently worked up a nailing schedule for boxes up to %'' in thickness which gives better nailing in individual cases. (See Capt. Knowlton's chapter on this subject.) For export boxes the spacing of the nails should be as follows : Six-penny nails and nails smaller than 6-penny should be spaced not more than 11/2" apart when driven in the side grain of the end (see nails marked ^*X'' in Diagrams 4, 5 and 6) and not more than ll^" apart when OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 137 driven in tlie end grain of the end (see nails marked <^y in Diagrams 4, 5 and 6). In the case of nails larger than six-penny, the spacing in end construction should be in- creased over these sizes one-fourth of an inch for each penny over six. Nailing Top and Bottom to Sides.— The spacing of the nails should be six inches or more apart when nails are six-penny or smaller (see nails marked ^*Z'' in Diagrams 4, 5 and 6). For nails larger than six-penny increase the spacing one inch for each penny over six. Oourte%y of Bafepack Mills. Diagram 9. Steel strap applied at ends of box, directly over nailing. Driving of Nails.— The heads of the nails should be heavy enough not to be broken in driving, and nails with large heads are preferable to nails with small heads, as they are less liable to pull through the boards. In all cases care should be taken not to overdrive nails. Nails should be driven so that heads are just flush with the surface of the boards, because when the heads of nails are driven below the surface of the boards the wood structure is broken down, and the holding power of the nail is greatly decreased, as Diagram 7 shows. No nails should be driven into joints. 138 EXPORT PACKING The Lock-Cornered Box A large part of the efficiency of the lock-cornered type of box depends upon the strength of the lock-cornered joint, and, therefore, care should be taken to make the joint properly. Locks at corners should fit tightly, and great care should be taken to thoroughly glue the locks with a good grade of glue. The strength of the lock- cornered joints can be greatly increased by driving a long thin finishing nail down through two or three of the locks at each of the eight comers. ^STEEL STRAPPING y Y / Y Y r V|- JL M/ "7 Courtesy of Sajepach Mills. Diagram 10. Section of strap-boimd box shown in Diagram 8. Wherever possible sides and ends should be of one piece. When sides and ends are made of more than one piece, great care should be taken to break the joints be- tween boards in the sides and ends at least 1", and prefer- ably l%"j i^ possible. If this is not done the box is liable to split in two at the joints between the boards. For nailing the top and bottom of lock-cornered boxes OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 139 to the sides, the same rule applies as in the case of nailed boxes. Metal Strapping of Boxes There is no other means which will strengthen a box so greatly as reenforcing it with steel strapping. Tests show that it is possible to increase the strength of a box 100 per cent or even more by the proper application of steel strapping. Also thinner lumber can be used and the cost of the box reduced, and in addition strapping is of great assistance in preventing the pilfering of boxes. It is good export practice to strap all boxes for over- seas shipment, no matter what their size, weight or des- tination. If strapping were also used to a much greater extent on domestic shipments, it would go a long way toward reducing the damage claims paid by the carriers for broken and pilfered boxes. Also the required strength of a container can be secured much more cheaply by the proper use of steel strapping than by lumber of excessive thickness. Types of Strapping. — The two most common types of strapping are flat steel band strapping and single or twisted wire strapping. There are also efficient special patented types of nailless strap and wire. For all-around use, however, there is no better strap than flat band, cold rolled, unannealed steel strap, coated to prevent rust, if it is properly stretched, properly located on the box and properly nailed. Unannealed flat band strapping makes a stronger binding than annealed, for the unannealed strap pos- sesses by actual test over 30 per cent more tensile strength than the annealed. Also it usually does not cost any more. The tensile strength of a strap is its most im- portant quality, as most strap fails by a direct tensile strain or by a tear. When a box dries out it shrinks and the strap loosens between nails, causing it to bulge away from the box. Then, when the box is handled in freight cars, on the docks, in the hold of a ship or in the ware- 140 EXPORT PACKING house the strap often catches on nails or other projections and tears or breaks. Annealed strap because of its low tensile strength is consequently much more liable to tear or break than unannealed strap. Also the annealed strap possesses con- siderable ability to stretch, which is another undesirable quality. The annealed strap nails somewhat easier than the unannealed, but in the gauges used for ordinary boxes there is no difficulty in nailing the unannealed strap. Location of Straps. — Boxes are strapped in two dif- ferent ways : with the strap directly over the ends of the box, as shown in Diagram 9, and with the strap a slight distance in from the ends, as shown in Diagram 8. The location of the strap slightly in from the ends of the box as shown in Diagram 8 gives a tighter binding, especially on boxes which are long, than strap applied directly over the ends, because in this position it better prevents the bulging of the side, top and bottom boards, which causes the nails in the end to start. However, on boxes whose sides, top and bottom are less than %" in thickness it is somewhat difficult to nail the strap when applied in from the ends, because of the thinness of the boards. The distance which the strap should be in from the ends will vary with the size of the box arid the weight of the contents, but will generally be somewhere between 2" and 5". Nailless strap and wire are always applied in from the ends of the box, being drawn tight by a stretching tool and the ends either sealed with a seal for flat band strap or twisted if wire strap is used. Strap applied directly over the ends of the box is generally easier to apply than strap applied in from the ends, because the ends of the box afford a firmer nailing surface and not so much care has to be exercised in nailing. Strap located on the end of the box not only assists in binding the sides, top and bottom boards to the ends, but also serves to prevent the nails in the side, top and bottom boards from working out. Stretching and Nailing. — The stretching of the strap is of the utmost importance, for a loose strap loses most OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 141 of its efficiency as a binding, and the tighter the strap the less it will bulge when the box shrinks. There are a num- ber of tools on the market which stretch the strap well and are simple to use.^ Diagrams 8 and 10 show the correct way to nail strap- ping when located in from the ends of the box with double corner nails **x*' and small flatheaded nails **y'* holding the strap to the side, top and bottom of the box, spaced about 6" apart. With %" strap it would probably be difficult to place two nails at the comers as shown at **x,'' in which case one nail should be used driven through the strap and through the top or bottom board into the side board. The lap of the strap should be at the corner, as shown, a nail being driven close to the end of the strap so as to hold the end down firmly. The double corner nails **x*' hold the strap securely against a pull in either direction, and the intermediate nails **y*' keep the strap snug against the box and pre- vent it from bulging. Four-penny cement-coated nails are generally large enough for the corner nails **x,*' and the intermediate nails **y" should be short, flatheaded nails of length slightly less than the thickness of the sides, top and bottom. All nails should be cement coated. Strapping located directly over the ends is nailed with double comer nails **x'* (see Diagram 9). The intermediate nails **y,'* however, are the same size and length as the nails **x'' and are generally spaced about 3 or 4 inches apart. Pilfering Many million dollars worth of goods are lost each year by pilfering, both in domestic and export shipment. * Instructions issued by the General Engineer Depot of the Army read: **Each ease will be firmly bound with unannealed cold rolled strip steel. Ends should lap at least four inches. Bands shall be drawn tight by mechanical means; the use of a hammer claw and driving a nail on a slant and then straightening it up are not satisfactory; the joint shall be on the side of the box or crate. Bands shall preferably be put on as late as may be before shipment, to minimize the effect of shrinkage." 142 EXPORT PACKING Of course, no wooden box can be made so strong that it cannot be broken open. A box can be so sealed, however, that it is difficult for a thief to get into it without a good deal of trouble and without it showing the effects of tam- pering. Well applied strapping assists greatly in pre- venting pilfering, although an experienced thief can often get into a strapped box and seal it up again so that it is difficult to see that it has been tampered with. There are a number of patented safety clips on the market which are very efficient in preventing pilfering. Courtesy of Safepack Mills. Diagram 11. Method of scaling l>a5 to prevent pilfering. One of the most efficient methods, however, is to use a tongued and grooved box and to seal the top, bottom and side boards of the box to the sides and ends by means of countersunk screws and sealing wax. Each separate board of the top and bottom and center boards of the sides should be sealed, with seals located as shown in Diagram 11. The seal on the outside top or bottom boards **x'' should be on alternate ends about 8" from the end of the board. The center boards ^*y'^ should each have one seal at the end. The seal is made as shown on Diagram 12. A hole **H*' is bored %" wide by 3/16" deep, care being taken OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 143 that the hole does not break the edge of the board. A screw '^S*' of length equal to twice the thickness of the top, bottom or side boards of the box is then driven through the top, bottom or side boards down into the side or end of the box. After the screw has been tightly driven, hot sealing wax ''W.' is poured into the hole **H^' so that it is about two-thirds full. While the wax is still hot it is stamped with the manufacturer's initials ^'I,'' the trademark or other distinctive mark. Care should be taken not to pour the hole clear full of wax, as the wax is then liable to be broken by other boxes sliding over it. -Ifr 5£^ U^ i--|/^ ,£. £3S^S — * S»tt tkry X ittf ^f"'» * J«bt thtw X Courtesy of Safcpack Mills. Diagram 12. Cross section showing method of preventing pilfering. With a box sealed in this manner the top and bottom boards cannot be removed without breaking the wax seal to remove the screws, after which the box would show the effects of tampering. This is the standard method of sealing used by the War Department. Standard Crating Specifications of the War Department A crate consists of a frame with or without bracing. It may be of open construction or completely closed with sheathing. The lumber must be sound (free from decay and dote), well manufactured and well seasoned. Frame and bracing must be free from knots greater than one- fourth the width of the face, and sheathing material must 144 EXPORT PACKLSfG be free from knots greater than one-third the width of the boards. No knot shall be permitted that interferes with the nailing. For these specifications well-seasoned lumber has an average moisture content of 12 to 18 per cent., based on the weight of the wood after oven drying. The principal woods used for framing and for frame bracing and sheathing are grouped as follows: FRAMES AND FRAME BRACES Group 1 White pine. -Sugar pine. Norway pine. Cypress. Aspen. Basswood. Spruce. Willow. Western yell ow pine. Noble fir. Cottonwood. Magnolia. Yellow poplar. Buckeye. Balsam fir. White fir. Chestnut. Cedar. Butternut. Alpine fir. Kedwood. Lodgepole pine. Cucumber. Group 2 • Southern yellow pine. Virginia and North Carolina pine Hemlock. Oak. Elm. Hackberry. Eed gum. Douglas fir. Sycamore. Larch. Ash. Black gum. Maple. Tupelo. Beech. Birch. Sheathing. — Any species of wood may be used for sheathing. OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 145 Thickness of Material. — When woods used for frames and braces in Group 1 are 1 to 2 inches thick, woods in Group 2 may be one-fourth inch less in thickness ; when woods in Group 1 are more than 2 inches thick, woods in Group 2 may be one-half inch less in thickness. Sheathing material of wood shall be approximately thirteen-sixteenths inch thick. ^ Figure 1 Widths of Lumber.^-Pieces less than 3 inches wide shall not be used in frames or frame braces. Pieces less than 21/2 inches wide shall not be used in sheathing. Nails. — All nails 20-penny or less shall be standard cement-coated box nails. In frames, frame braces and sheathing the thickness of the member to be nailed on determines the penny of the nails used. In frame and frame braces the length of the nail should not be less than twice the thickness of the member nailed on. In sheathing the nails should be two- 146 EXPORT PACKING penny larger than the thickness of the member expressed in eighths of an inch. Spacing Nails. — Frames and braces shall not have less than two nails in each nailing edge. Nails in bracing and sheathing are to be staggered, approximately 21/2 inches apart. Cross braces must have not less than two nails driven through the two pieces, and these must be clinched where possible. Bracing should have as many nails as can be driven without splitting either member. Figure 2 Bolts. — Bolts sliall be used on heavy frame pieces, not less than two bolts to each framing edge (see Fig. 1). Standard cut washers shall be used under boltheads and nuts, except under heads of carriage bolts. Holes for bolts shall be the same diameter as the bolts. Carriage bolts shall be used in preference to machine bolts. Not less than %-inch bolts shall be used for frames 1 to 1% inches thick; i/2-^^ch bolts in frames up to 3 inches thick; %-inch bolts in frames over 3 inches thick. OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 147 Contents shall be bolted to skids with not less than four bolts where feasible, the size of the bolts to be determined by the holes in the machine base. When machine bolts are used, heads shall be counterbored flush with skids, and each bolt shall have a single-cut washer of standard size. The thread of bolts shall be upset close to the nut, so that the nuts will not work loose in trans- portation. To remove the nuts split them if necessary. Designs of Crates and Crate Bracing The preferred design of crate construction is the three-way corner construction end, in which are placed Figure 3 Figure 4 on the inside of the longitudinal members either the ver- tical or horizontal end members, whichever conserves the greater space. (See Figures 1 and 2.) On heavy articles skids should be at least 50 per cent thicker than the other members of the frame, the addi- tional thickness to be in a separate piece bolted to the skids and extended to meet the vertical members. (See Fig. 3.) Combined thickness of the cross braces shall equal the thickness of the frame members. (See Fig. 4.) In angular crate bracing a cross member shall be placed so as to bring the angular brace as near 45° as possible. (See Fig. 5.) On all heavy material each side of crate shall be marked so as to show the center of gravity, and the skids 148 EXPORT PACKING shall be slotted on each side far enough apart to admit of proper handling. Slots shall be at least 2 inches deep by 8 inches long, so that when the crate is being slung the hook on the hoisting point will span equally the center of gravity. (See Fig. 6.) Internal Bracing Cleats of suitable length and thickness shall be used and shall be nailed or bolted to the skids at the base of contents so as to prevent longitudinal movements. All internal cleats and bracing, so far as possible, shall be Figure 5 SO placed that the compression stress is against the end grain of the wood. (See Fig. 7.) When contents have no base holes for bolting to skids, clamps must be placed at each end or side, fitted snugly to the load, and held in place by one bolt at each end. The clamps shall be full width of crate and of such square dimensions as will admit of no springing when bolts are drawn home. Such contents shall also have side cleats to prevent lateral movement. Space for Marking.— Some members of the crate shall be surfaced to permit adequate space for markings. Exceptions to General Specifications In the designing of crates for the protection of con- tents the information given, with the explanatory draw- ings, is of a general character and covers in a general OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 149 way all the material to be handled. There are, however, many exceptional cases where the material to be crated is of such a nature that it may be necessary to depart from these rules. All manufacturers contributing material for Government uses should remember that con- ditions under which this material is handled are prob- ably very much rougher and that the facilities for handling it are fewer than ordinarily is the case in export service. While the nature of the contents indicates the manner in which it is to ride, whenever possible material should be packed so that the packages will rest safely on side, top, bottom or end. Strapping on Crates.— In the use of strapping on crates there are so many forms, with such varied uses and functions, that it is not practical to lay down any Sockc* M^ltwJ Figure 7 fundamental rules to govern; yet straps are absolutely essential in certain cases, and must not be omitted in those instances, particularly at comers and at joints. Standard Baling Specifications of the Wab Department Size of Bale. — Bales shall be made to conform to the following standard size : Length, 30 inches ; width, 15 inches; height, variable, but approaching 15 inches as nearly as possible, but not being less than 14 inches nor more than 19 inches ; gross weight, 70 to 140 pounds. The only exception to this rule will be when the ma- terial to be baled is of such size and weight that it is 150 EXPORT PACKING impossible or impracticable to make it into a bale of this standard size and weight. Number of Articles per Bale.— The purpose in baling is to pack the maximum number of articles in the mini- mum of space without damaging them. Methods of Folding and Forming Articles in Bales. — Care should be taken in folding and forming that articles will produce neat, uniform and compact bales ; care taken that joints be broken to avoid cutting of covering by- straps. Covering. — Bales shall be covered with burlap of weight not less than 10 ounces to 40 inches in width. For the standard bale 30 by 15 by 14 to 19 inches, two pieces are required, each piece 50 by 40 inches wide. Larger sizes require correspondingly larger pieces. Interlining Paper. — Each bale shall have underneath the burlap a lining of waterproof paper. The interlining paper shall conform to the following specifications : 60/60 Watekproof Kraft Wrapping Paper for Baling Weight. — Shall be not less than 330 pounds. (Two sheets 60-pound Kraft duplexed with asphaltum.) 36 X 50 — 480 (24 X 36 — 480, 160 pounds). Stock: Shall be 100 per cent sulphate pulp. Bursting strength : Shall be not less than 140 points. Bursting strength after exposure of the waterproofed side to 3 inches of water for three hours shall not de- crease more than 25 per cent. Water Resistance. — The paper shall not wet or dampen through in 10 days. Waterproofing.— The paper shall be duplexed with and one surface waterproofed with asphaltum or its equal. The paper shall be flexible, but not tacky under ordinary weather conditions where a duplex paper is used. Cohesion. — The plies shall not separate under service conditions. OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 151 Basis of Purchase.— For 1,000 sheets 36 by 50. Explanation of Tests.— Bursting strength is deter- mined with the Mullen tester or testing machine giving equivalent results, the paper clamped with the water- proofed side up. Water-resistance test to be made with a column of water 3 inches in height after the paper has been crumpled in the hand. For the standard bale 30 by 15 by 14 to 19 inches, experience has shown that it is desirable to have at least two sheets, each sheet 50 inches long and 36 inches wide. Larger sizes require correspondingly larger sheets. The sides of bales should be reenforced when necessary with fiber boards, %-inch slats, or other light material, to add protection and rigidity. Banding. — The banding shall be of cold-rolled unan- nealed steel % inch wide, not less than No. 26 gauge. It shall be painted or coated to prevent rust and shall have a tensile strength of not less than 850 pounds. Not less than four bands shall be used on each bale. The two outside bands shall be placed approximately 4 inches from each end, and the intermediate bands shall be placed equidistant from each and from the end bands. Bands shall be applied by a mechanical stretching tool and must be stretched so tightly that the compres- sion of the bale will be held and that the bands will re- main in place and not slip off over the ends of the bale. Sealing of Bands. — The ends of bands shall be sealed with a metal sleeve or seal designed to be either punched or crimped. The breaking strength of the sealed joint shall not be less than 50 per cent of the breaking strength of the strapping. Loose ends of bands shall be folded under, cut round, cut or broken off so that no spider is left projecting. Sewing. — The burlap shall be sewed up with three- ply linen or twine of equal quality of not less than 40 pounds tensile strength. Bales shall be sewed sides and ends, and each stitch shall be knotted, and stitches shall be not less than 2 inches in length. Ears.— Not less than 5 inches of surplus burlap shall 152 EXPORT PACKING be gathered together on each of the four corners and securely sewed into ^' ears'* for handles. All ends of twine shall be securely fastened. Stenciling. — Stencil black, United States Army stand- ard, must be used, and the marking shall be in letters or figures as large as possible. Standard Specifications of the War Department for Marking Packages No advertising matter shall appear on packages. Stenciling is preferable to hand marking. The height of letters shall conform to the size and character of pack- age, but shall not be less than % inch. When marking with stencils, use only United States Army stencil black standard paint of the following composition : Pigment, 50 per cent. Liquid, 50 per cent. Pigment shall consist of: Drop black, 50 per cent. Calcium carbonate, 50 per cent. Liquid portion shall consist of : Varnish, 70 per cent. Combined dryer and thinner, 30 per cent. The thinner shall consist of turpentine or volatile mineral spirits or a mixture thereof. The varnish should be a clear spar varnish. For bales or crates use the standard system of marking. For marking machinery carts, structural steel, or similar commodities, use United States standard paint, either white or of the corps color. ** Tests and Suggestions for the Nailing of Boxes" By J. A. Newlin in ''The Barrel and Box*' *^The purpose of nailing a box is to hold it together and give it rigidity. To use more nails or larger nails than are necessary to accomplish this purpose is a waste OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 153 of both material and labor. To use fewer nails than are necessary to hold properly under ordinary conditions re- sults in breakage of the box and damage to the contents. *' Tests at the Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest Service, at Madison, Wis., and observations of packages in transit and at their destina- tion, have shown conclusively that where the nailing is insufficient the package cannot be improved by putting in heavier lumber. Observation has shown also that the Figure 9. Shrinking of fibers from driven nail. majority of failures in ordinary boxes are due, not to the lumber but to the nailing. It is also evident that in many instances a better package could be obtained with much thinner material by the use of a few more nails. **In arriving at the proper nailing there are a num- ber of factors that must be considered. These involve the nail, its length, diameter, and surface, and the species of wood, its thickness and condition. **It is desirable to know whether the nail should be smooth, barbed, or cement-coated. Our tests have shown that at least in the ordinary sizes, barbed 4iails are not 154 EXPOBT PACKING so efficient in box construction as smooth ones. Ap- parently the ability of the barbs to increase the resist- ance of the nail- to withdrawal is more than oifset by their tendency to tear the wood. Cement-coated nails have given uniformly better results than smooth nails, although different lots of cement-coated nails have shown greater variation in efficiency than smooth nails. The holding power of the cement-coated nail is from 10 to 30 per cent greater than that of the same sized smooth nail. On an average, a box built up with the cement-coated nails will withstand about one and one-half times as much rough handling as a box made with the same number and gauge of smooth nails.^ **Length and Diameter of Nails. — If the nail is short and is driven into soft wood, the weaving of the box in transportation and shocks' due to rough handling will cause the nail to work back and forth to its full length in the wood and come loose almost immediately, notwith- standing the fact that it may be of comparatively heavy gauge. * '■ If the nail is very slender it will not drive well, and the longer it is the greater must be its diameter in order to insure that it will drive. If a very slender nail is driven to considerable depth in a piece of hard wood, the shocks of transportation and handling will bend the nail between the two planks of the box and it may fail by breaking off rather than by pulling out. * Note — Mr, D. L. Quinn, late Director of the Forest Products Labora- tory, explains nailing tests at that institution as follows: **The holding power of cement coated, plain, and barbed nails was obtained by testing a standard 7-penny nail driven to a depth of 1 inch in dry wood and is given below." Species of Wood Used in the Box Longleaf Basswood Beech Load in pounds per nail Cement coated 250 140 110 133 82 70 430 Plain nails 400 Barbed nails 335 ^1 If "^fc :\ :^ 5* \: S i § ■ ^ 1 8 «- 7/w 2M0 iind at ajymosv founod CaHi Figure 10. 155 156 EXPORT PACKING ^ ' The diameter of a nail should be great enough so that it may be driven easily, which is usually the limiting factor, but should not be so small that it will break in use. It should be such that with the weaving of the pack- age in transportation and the shocks of handling it will not be bent and will not work back and forth to its full depth in the wood. The proper balance is reached when there is an equal likelihood of the wood failing or of the nails breaking off or pulling from the end. ^^Head of the Nail. — As a ruk the head of the nail is too small, and failure of the box occurs because the head is pulled through the sides. With the larger heads made in accordance with the ordinary practice the material is too thin and the head breaks off. It is thought that a much better nail can be made than is being produced at the present time. **The Wood. — The species of wood is of importance, since each species has certain characteristics of weight and hardness which indicate its ability to hold nails, its strength and its likelihood of splitting, and thus deter- mine the proper thickness of material and size and spacing of nails. ' ' The most significant difference in the various species of wood is in their dry weight. A piece of lumber of very light weight has but little wood substance. It has been shown that all wood substance is of practically the same weight and that the weight of a piece of dry lumber, when free from resinous material, is an indication of the amount of wood substance it contains. It will be evident, therefore, that without sufficient wood substance it is impossible to have strength or nail-holding power, and that the more wood substance there is in a given species the greater its strength and nail-holding power are likely to be. ** Figure 10 is a curve in which has been plotted the density or dry weight of the various species against their ability to retain nails driven into side grain. In this connection it may be noted that, with practically all spe- cies, the resistance to withdrawal is greater if the nail is OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 157 driven into the side grain than if it is driven into the end grain. The curve shows conclusively that the heavier species hold nails much better. As a rule all the strength properties of wood increase with the weight. When a nail is driven into a dense piece of wood it produces a much greater splitting force than when the same nail is driven into a soft piece of wood. A dense piece of wood has greater resistance to splitting than a light piece of wood. These two factors tend to counterbalance each other but do not do so entirely. The dense species, as a rule, will split somewhat more than the lighter species with the same nailing. **The lockiness of grain and other species characteris- tics are important factors in determining the resistance to splitting. ** Condition of Wood. — Green wood is much softer than dry wood, and the nails can be driven in and with- drawn from green much more readily than from dry wood. * ' The moisture content of wood, when green, may vary from 30 to 200 per cent of the dry weight, depending on the species and on conditions of growth. As the wood dries it first loses the free water in the cells and after- wards that from the cell walls. When the water begins to leave the cell walls the wood begins to shrink in both width and thickness but not materially in length. This causes the fibers, which are bent down along the nail as illustrated in photograph fig. 9, to shrink away from the nail in the direction of the end grain, in which direction the nail was being most firmly held in the first place. Thus we have the nail which has been driven into green material, afterwards dried, held only by two sides. The weaving action during transportation will readily cause such nails to come loose and work out of the box without any rough handling, and the boxes will not stand more than 10 per cent as much rough handling as those nailed up at 15 per cent moisture and kept in practically that condition. **A nail driven into a dry piece of wood which after- 158 EXPORT PACKING wards is allowed to become soaked and then dried will act as does a nail .driven into green lumber. *^ Boxes made of lumber in the proper moisture condi- tion will stand ordinary storage without any appreciable loss in the ability of the nail to hold. **The effect of over-driving nails is to reduce their re- sistance to^ withdrawal, the proportionate reduction prob- ably being greater in the case of dry wood than in green. ** Thickness of Material and Spacing of Nails. — After the above fundamentals as to nails and wood, considera- tion should be given to the thickness of material and the spacing of nails. ^'The ends of the boxes must be of such thickness that the nails will not run out under ordinary conditions. The nails must be small enough in. diameter so that they will not cause splitting of the material. The inclination to split is increased with decreased spacing. The spacing, then, must not be so close as to cause splitting. ^* Experiments have been made and a great many ob- servations taken on the splitting of material by nails. The following conclusions have been drawn and appear to be substantiated by two years of observation : ^^In using the slender or box nail in species of medium hardness, the * penny' of the nail cannot be greater than the thickness, in eighths of an inch, of the wood which holds the point of the nail. ^^For the softer woods nails may be one * penny' larger and sometimes even two * pennies.' For the hard wood nails one * penny' smaller should be used. **The ordinary box machine, when nailing boxes of the sizes usually used for canned foods, cannot space the nails close enough to cause splitting of the ends or to develop the strength of the lumber. ' * The following rule has been suggested for guidance in the spacing of nails for domestic^ shipment : *^For six * penny' or smaller nails held in the side grain there should be a spacing of 2 inches, and for the *See Capt. Knowlton's chapter on Box Construction for his recom- mendations as to nailing export cases. OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 159 same nail in the end grain a spacing of 1% inches. For larger nails the spacing should increase % inch for each * penny/ To a great many people this spacing will ap- pear to be too close, since it gives many more nails than have formerly been used. As a matter of fact, how- ever, it is only about two-thirds of the number that can be put in before excessive splitting of the ends is encoun- tered, and is only about two-thirds of the number re- quired to balance fully the strength of the box in other respects. Therefore, even with this spacing, the nailing is still the weakest point of the ordinary box.'' Special Box Corner Design to Prevent Loosening of Metal Straps From Technical Notes of Forest Products Laboratory Metal strapping applied to a box made of thin mate- rial cannot be fastened by nails driven into the edges of the boards, but must be joined by one of the various fastening devices and held in place by tension. When first applied, the strap is very tight and no diffi- culty is experienced in keeping it on the box, but when the box is stored for a period of several months the shrinkage of the lumber usually reduces the circumfer- ence to such an extent that the strap falls off in trans- portation. Such loosening of the straps may be successfully pre- vented on canned food boxes or, in fact, on any box carrying a commodity which has sufficient strength to resist the strap tension, by building the box in such a manner that neither the top nor the bottom laps the sides. The accompanying sketch will make the construction clear. The strap is applied in the usual manner and drawn very snug. The tension of the strap is sufficient to spring the sides, top and bottom of the box in against the contents so that the corner boards lap in the center. As a result, the middle of the box is smaller than the ends, and the straps will not slip off, even thoughihe box shrinks. (See sketch page 160.) 160 EXPORT PACKING Several such boxes were made up at the Forest Prod- ucts Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, of lumber contain- ing 15 to 20 per cent moisture and, after packing and strapping, these boxes were dried to a moisture content of 9 or 10 per cent, which is about the moisture content they would come to in a heated warehouse. It was found that, even after the boxes had shrunk, the straps could not be removed from them without cutting away the corners. When the boxes were tested in the revolving drum the straps showed a tendency to work toward the center rather than to slip over the ends. Courtesy oj Forest Products Laboratory Box Handles of Webbing Instead of Rope Save Shipping Space From Technical Notes of Forest Froducts iMboratory In export shipment, boxes loaded with 200 to 300 pounds are most easily manipulated when provided with handles. Usually such box handles are made of rope, in- serted through holes in the ends of the box and secured with wall knots, or inserted in grooves on the under sides of the cleats on the ends of the box, and held in place by nails or screws driven through the cleats. OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS 161 The former method of fastening has the disadvantage of taking up valuable space in the interior of the box. The latter increases the thickness of the cleats to provide for a groove of sufficient depth to hold the rope, thereby increasing the displacement of the box. Since the rates for export shipments are virtually based upon the cubical contents of the package, the displacement is an important factor. y£ o o o o o y _ o o o o o o o o o o ^ o 1 1 «^ ^ o & o 3 (J b ^ Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory A box handle made of webbing instead of rope has been suggested by the Forest Products Laboratory as a means of conserving space. For this purpose webbing about % in. thick and IVs ^^- wide, which has a breaking strength of 800 lbs., should prove suitable. It may be inserted through saw-cuts made parallel to the grain in the ends of the box, turned down flat inside, and nailed securely with large headed roofing nails. Such a handle takes up no extra space either inside or outside of the box. It is easily made and has a lifting strength with a large margin of safety. CHAPTER VI BALING VERSUS CASINO By David T. Abercrombie ^ THE men in charge of government packing during the war were face to face with the necessity of getting goods to the other side as quickly as pos- sible, at a time when the amount of cargo space available was exceedingly small. It was our business to see that the problem was met and that the extreme handicaps of the situation were overcome, and with this end in view methods were adopted which were termed radical ; under normal conditions they would probably not have been used or would have been adopted very gradually. The results proved, however, that in all cases the spur of necessity was highly productive, and there is no doubt that the experience obtained during the period of war effort is a splendid heritage for the department of over- seas packing; similarly the experience in other branches of organized government war-effort will enjoy wide ap- plication in the industrial development of the future. Before the war baling was a method used both in domestic and overseas packing for raw material and piece goods, but the extensive application adopted during the strenuous war-effort had not been made in com- mercial work. I had used various types of bales in my own business, but the larger use of these methods had, I believe, not been attempted and the problem of baling had certainly not been attacked with anything like the vigor or completeness that were made necessary by the exigencies of war. To illustrate this point, in my own * Officer in charge Packing Division, Zone Supply Office, New York, 1918-1919. Chief, Packing Service Branch, Director of Storage, War Department, Washington, D. C, 1919. President, the Abercrombie Corpora- tion, New York City, expert packing for export. 162 ^^ BALING VERSUS CASING 163 business we had developed a very good bale for clothing, but our experience was limited to only a few articles, while in the baling work for the army we had to care for a variety of commodities which superficially would seem to be unfitted for baling practice. When one day our department was presented with some 327 dozen saws and it was our business to pack them in a rush, obviously we had something quite new and an article which hardly seemed adapted to the work we were doing, and yet we baled those saws, saved costly space and made an excel- lent shipment. As time went on we baled many other commodities which would seem to be far removed from the possibilities of my department. There are certain things you cannot bale, such as will not stand compres- sion, but whenever a group of commodities presented a new packing angle we could in the majority of cases decide to bale them with every probability of success. In one plant our average production the first month was thirteen tons a day, and we thought this was very good work, but in the month of May, 1918, our daily out- put was 310 tons a day, and this average was maintained constantly until the armistice was signed. We were ready then with the new methods and machines we had in- augurated to increase our production to 600 tons daily, for the baling department had been called on to perform a far more comprehensive work than before. We were ready to pack the increase before deliveries began, and the armistice was the reason for cancellations instead of deliveries. The results obtained were very important, and the practice that ruled during the war is now being applied to normal industrial work, while the extension of this practice that was prevented by the termination of the war is being perfected. I am perhaps giving the impression that baling as packing practice is as yet not widely in use, and if I am giving this impression it is correct but only in one sense. The technique of baling in the shipment of raw and piece goods both to points within the United States and overseas is used, and there is a beginning of baling some 164 . EXPORT PACKING manufactured goods, but I do not believe that the bale is as yet employed to anything like the extent that could be done if the advantaged and savings of this method were fully appreciated and the force of habit could be broken. The savings are extremely important and goods properly baled are better packed than cased goods, and in every case baled goods will arrive at destination in far better shape than the same goods cased, while the economy effected by the use of the bale cannot be obtained by the use of any case yet devised, either as to cost of material or labor. To illustrate the points made here I am going to make use of my records obtained during the war ; the work during this period was on such a vast scale and covered so many different commodities that no ordinary commercial records could give as much information. Economy of Process. — After the signing of the armis- tice goods shipped to France began to come back to us in the original bales, and among this great mass I remem- ber two bales containing 460 pairs of leggings which came back to us in just as good shape as they left the country. It happened that the balance of this shipment of leggings was packed in cases, and when these came back we found that many of the cases had been broken in shipment and a considerable portion of the contents lost and damaged. The two bales took up a little over six cubic feet and cost the Government $6.60 to return to tlie United States, while the cost of the same quantity of the same goods in cases was $30.80. This is a difference of more than five and one-quarter (5^/4 ) cents on every pair of leggings for freight alone, an amount of money that would represent a big portion of the profit to any one handling the line. I could multiply this example by hundreds of a similar character, but this is sufficient to show immediately that where it is possible to bale goods no other method should be used. Another great saving that is made by baling goods is in the tare, for baled goods will save 97 per cent in tare as compared with cased goods. When we entered the war we were packing in cases overcoats, blouses, underwear, BALING VERSUS CASING 165 breeches — in fact everything that a soldier uses, and it was a regular thing (QMC Manual) to require 48 pounds of overcoats packed in 40 pounds of case. In 1917 and after it was very difficult to buy cases and we could not be particular about what sort of wood was used. In con- sequence vast quantities of yellow pine were bought and made up into cases, and these cases often weighed more than 90 pounds, and this 90 pounds of case had to be shipped not alone to Europe but all over the United States, enriching the express companies, it is true, but costing the Government large sums of money. We paid as high as $14 per hundred pounds when we had to send goods to the far west, and it does not take much effort to figure the immense loss when 48 pounds of goods had to go in 90 pounds of case, and when on every pound 14 cents or more had to be paid for transportation and in addition an excessive price had to be paid for cases. If we had used then as we did in January, 1918, bale pack- ing we would have saved 45 per cent in transportation, 70 per cent in space and 82 per cent in the cost of packing materials for the war. Our saving throughout the whole period, calculating a list of 141 articles packed in stand- ard 4 cubic ft. bales and also in standard (previous to January, 1918) 6 1/5 cubic ft. cases is shown by the fol- lowing ratios : This comparison is based on an equal quantity of goods in each one of the ratios. Number of packages 1 (Bale) to 2.1 (Cases) Cubic ft. of space 1 (Bale) to 3 .94 (Cases) Cost of container 1 (Bale) to 5 .50 (Cases) Packers' cost (labor) 1 (Bale) to 2 .50 (Cases) Up to November, 1918, the amount baled in the New York District was a little over 137,000 ship tons, and although no one knows exactly what it cost to send over a ship ton, there was an arbitrary cost adopted in Wash- ington of $240.00. However, I know of a good many instances where the cost was nearer $340.00 a ship ton, and there was an instance of a shipment where the cost ran as high as $22.50 a cubic foot. I believe that when 166 EXPORT PACKING the bill is finally settled and all the costs of convoys, losses and other incidental expenses are figured out that $10 a cubic foot would represent a fraction of the real cost. The fact that $6 a cubic foot or $240.00 a ton, is the price that has been fixed probably will not affect the result so far as the individual citizen is concerned, for the money has been spent and we have got to pay it. But what does interest the individual citizen is that this great cost was not altogether unproductive, for out of this immense transportation task certain absolute facts were developed which will mean great savings to the people in the future. To put the situation in a dif- ferent form it may be safely stated, that the saving to the Quartermaster Corps resulting from the use of bales instead of cases was over $100,000,000. Had the war con- tinued we should have been able to bring about still greater saving, and had we been prepared to use bales at the start we would have cut out big slices in the nation's bill of expenses. With reference to warehousing, the use of bales shows important savings in rent, for baled goods not only occupy less space than cased goods, but they can be stowed much more compactly. I believe it is safe to say that fully 70 per cent in space is saved by baling. There is great saving in dunnage, and another important saving arises from the relatively small space occupied by a baling plant as compared with that absorbed by a casing plant. In the latter the wood of which the cases are made is itself bulky, and the manufactured cases occupy a great deal of valuable floor space, which in these times of in- adequate storage space and high rents is a considera- tion of great importance. The baling plant, on the other hand, occupies less than one-sixth of the space taken up by the casing plant, the material of which the bales are made can be most compactly stored, and there is no space taken up by an intermediate product represented in the casing plant by the unfilled box. We have thus clearly demonstrated important savings in the chief factors of shipping expenses : we have saving Use of Forming Machine. Oarments bricked in forming machine for construction of preliminary laic. 167 Operating a Hand Press. 108 BALING VERSUS CASING 169 in space and consequent saving in the cost of any form of transportation ; we have saving in tare, which is of the utmost importance in shipments going to foreign coun- tries or anywhere ; we have saving in the cost of the pack- age, which to-day is an element of the utmost importance, and we have saving in the space occupied by the shipping department, another very important item in the total cost. And to these economies must be added the equally im- portant one that the bale will travel where the case hardly can, that the goods are abundantly and fully pro- tected, that the range of adaptability of the bale runs from socks to overcoats, from water bags to cooks ^ caps, from nose bags to tents. Another great saving is that of natural conservation ; in our baling a bale used 2% yards of burlap; the same amount of goods require 60 feet B.M. of lumber when cased. Burlap grows two crops a year ; lumber takes 30 years to grow ; acreage is as 1 to 60. Possibilities of Commercial Use. — It seems to me that I must emphasize here the effect that this war work has had on civilian trade, for as I understand it the purpose of this treatise on packing is not to show anything new to the man who has solved his packing problems through long years of grief and struggle, but to tell the newcomer something of what can be done and should be done in packing overseas goods. Up to the time we started our work of compressing fabricated goods I knew of no con- cern that made a practice of compressing fully made-up clothing. As I have stated, I had done this work in a small way in my own business, but when I called the attention of the authorities to the possibilities of the method I was told flatly and simply that it could not be done. I was told it would break the buttons, that the goods could never be freed from the creasing incident to baling processes, that it was a fool idea and a great many other things equally theoretical which were proved in actual practice to be incorrect. When a man walks on a carpet, say he weighs 200 pounds, the actual pressure is fully 1,200 pounds to the square inch maximum, as one-sixth of a square inch is 170 EXPORT PACKING about as much as is in contact as his foot first falls. It is a fact known to all of us that hotels and other buildings where foot traffic is heavy almost invariably use a heavy pile fabric for carpets, as it has been proved that this class of floor covering lasts longer and costs less per diem than any other suitable material. Returning to the but- tons, I folded up some overcoats (September, 1917) and sent them to a laboratory at my own expense, as I had not learned then how to get the Government to pay for such things, and I found that we could put on a pressure of many tons before the button collapsed, and then the metal buttons or shanks did not cut the fabric. It was a simple natter to calculate then that if we kept a certain maximum we could use any pressure under this in making up our bales of clothing. I already knew that 92 pounds is a weight that one man can handle most economically, and we accepted, that as the standard weight for a package. Then I investigated the specific gravity of clothing and equipage and we calculated that this would average less than four cubic feet for 92 pounds. The best package therefore we decided would measure (average) four cubic feet; it should be twice as long as broad and a little less in height than in width, weigh 92 pounds and would, to be exact, be 15 x 30 x 14 inches. The covering was 10 oz. burlap for outside, with two sheets of expansive (both ways) paraffined baling paper for interlining; on rare occasions we doubled the covering. This package is the correct size for handling during the baling process; it fitted the French cars and American escort wagons and automobile trucks, and could be handled by one person of any nationality, and we put more clothing in a freight car than had ever been accom- modated before, loading many of the articles to the capacity of the car. And this result was obtained in a short time in spite of the fact that when we started we did not have any machines nor was there a machine made that was adapted for the work. Day after day we packed millions of articles in our New York plant, 16,000 pairs of socks in every ton, 300 overcoats to the ton and so on i^t.- BALING VERSUS CASING 171 through all the list of things that fighting men need when they are in the field. Over the river at Bush Terminal No. 22, where the first plant was established, the bale was shown to be a method in overseas packing that could accomplish astonishing things, and that could effect economies of time and money that were absolutely out of the question by any other method. When we were pack- ing 340 tons a day the complete organization numbered some 2,230 persons, and this number included the re- ceivers, routers, inspectors, warehousemen and shippers. Organization of a Department. — Careful routing of the goods is very important in any well-organized plant, and the plant should not be put in operation until ex- periment has shown that the routing is correct. The op- erations in baling are very clqsely related, and the more the work tables can be grouped and the closer together all working elements can be arranged just that much will be gained in efficiency and speed. There were certain de- tails in our work, such as receiving and inspecting and checking, that will not enter into the average commercial equipment and will not be a part of the baling depart- ment, but with us the checking and receiving were in- timately related to the baling department, so that once installed the system worked automatically. But through- out the whole process every movement was related to the ultimate purpose : the shipment of a bale. A bale was completed 40 minutes after receiving the goods. Another important consideration is the fixing of re- sponsibility for mistakes in packing, and this can be done perfectly with our method. Each bale carried a num- bered tag signed by every one who worked on that bale. In each of our packages that made up a bale there was enclosed a slip, and all persons having to do with the work on that particular package signed their names, no matter what the character of the work, inspecting or fold- ing. When the goods reached the other side, if there was a defect, all that was necessary was to return the slip with the statement of complaint, and the matter could be absolutely traced to the inspector or folder at fault. 172 EXPORT PACKING When the bale was shipped the tag was cut from the bale and retained, leaving the number on the bale. Thus a record was kept. How to Bale. — In folding goods for baling each article is folded in its own way and made into a package of a certain number. The idea here is to obtain the same num- ber of laminations in each package of goods entering the bale, and this similarity in folding must obtain whether goods be mosquito bars or trousers. With this identity of folding in each separate piece of goods it is also easy to obtain perfect compactness and uniformity in width and length, which are so necessary to any successful baling operation; then the correct number of packages are laid to make up a bale, and when pressure is applied you get a minimum size bale for the amount of goods it contains. In practice we found that the results described in the above paragraph were little short of remarkable when compared with former results. Under the system of pack- ing first used only 50 blankets were cased into a ship ton, but with our baling system we put 256 into the same space. We put 962 mosquito bars where formerly only 116 had been placed, and the whole secret of this result was in so folding the goods that absolute uniformity in the size of package was obtained. We had a standard size for our bales and this size was used no matter what the goods : blankets, gloves, breeches, blouses, overcoats, caps, hospital tents, and so forth. Another important point is the density of the bale, for unless the proper density is obtained much of the virtue is taken out of the work. Cotton has been baled for a good many years in the south and one would suppose that the wide experience incident to that work had solved the question of proper density. But we packed some^of our garments in bales that had nearly twice the density of a bale of cotton, although our goods were not a raw fiber that admits of almost any compression, but manufactured goods, many of which had parts more or less susceptible to damage. Standard and Commercial Bales. Former ,„rasures k cu. It- <^nd cales in many instances v^Uhstood rough liandling better than cases. 173 On the Bridge at Galatea. Shows method of transporting furniture in Turkey. Courtesy of The Americas. Example of Poor Crating. Crate containinff automobile wheels wMch was hroken when it arrived at its destination. BALING VERSUS CASING 175 Twenty-four tons pressure on a surface of 450 square inches harmed nothing. Our officers' uniforms carried splendidly, so did our fur caps, fur gloves and fur Paakas to Siberia. Fur caps, the most expensive things we shipped, $3,000 worth in a bale, arrived safely at destina- tion and not a single complaint was made on account of loss or stealing. In making up the bale the packages were placed one on top of the other in layers like masonry. The bales were protected with waterproof expansive paper covering be- sides the regular burlap covering. Many of these bales crossed the water, suffered exposure that rusted the metal bands almost completely through, and yet came back to the United States with the goods inside just as smooth and perfect as the day they left our shores, showing beyond question that burlap and paper make as sturdy a protective envelope as any case that was ever devised. Cased goods returned were a mess. The stealing from the bales was practically nil, for in this class of packing it is very difficult for a package or piece to be removed ; to do so a steel band must be cut, and that would not escape detection. It is true that we lost an occasional bale as well as case, but tampering with the bale itself and removal of contents was practically unknown. Our records show that there was one complaint of mismarking to 30,000 bales. This, I think, is a very good record indeed. Another interesting point about the bale was the salvage value of the material used in covering. When wooden cases got to France and were opened at the front they could not be burned because of the smoke, and they could not be well used for other purposes. The covering of the bale, on the contrary, came in splendidly for many uses, particularly for sandbags, each piece of burlap hav- ing been cut to make two sandbags. Marking. — Our bales were marked with numbers, each number designating a particular commodity, and the same method could be profitably used in a great deal of export work. It does not matter what language a man 176 EXPORT PACKING speaks, he may be Chinese, African or Portuguese, but this notwithstanding he will learn immediately the sig- nificance of a number, while printed or painted words would be unintelligible. And so we used a four-inch black number on a buff background that could be distinguished a long way off. We had a series of basic numbers and another of subsidiary numbers. For example^ *^15^' stood for overcoats, as that was the quantity put into a bale, and when the **15*' had a number **40*' by the side of it, separated by a dash, this was a bale of overcoats size 40, the left-hand number denoting the quantity in the bale, i. e., 15. This was done throughout. There were different sorts of gauntlets : heavy leather, lined, chauf- feur, and so on. Each had its basic number and another number alongside to designate the particular size of glove. In a short time we found that the men became acquainted with the numbers and rarely made a mistake. This helped greatly in warehousing. We found the ques- tion of hooks was solved by having ears on the bales for handles, and the moderate weight rendered hooks un- necessary. Doubtless there are questions that I have not answered and that will occur to every reader, but the space at my disposal does not permit a lengthier discussion of the subject of baling. The point I have tried to make here is that of the value of baling as a shipping and packing method, and I believe that what I have said will be suf- ficient to cause investigation on the part of the individual shipper. If this is done the correctness of my statements and conclusions will be fully demonstrated. It should be appreciated that I have attempted here to show clearly the tremendous possibilities in the baling of goods, and in our practice with overseas shipments during the war we found that there were very few com- modities that could not be satisfactorily baled. However, I do not wish any shipper to assume that the practice illustrated is suitable in all commercial transactions. In the case of shoes, hardware and other goods, bulk ship- ments in bales should be made only after an understand- BALING VERSUS CASING 177 ing has been reached with the consignee that such form of packing would be satisfactory. It is quite possible that consignees would desire shoes, hardware, ready- made clothing and other commodities packed in certain form and in cases rather than in bales, and the shipper must be thoroughly sure of the wishes of the consignee before proceeding to make up the package. The point that I have desired to stress in this article is that the bale offers a most economical and useful means of packing and shipping goods, and that the possibilities of this method should be always considered in any packing problem. CHAPTER VII THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY AT MADISON, WISCONSIN TEN years ago the Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture established the Forest Products Laboratory on the Campus of the Uni- versity of Wisconsin, at Madison, Wisconsin, and the record of the laboratory during the period of its exis- tence has been one of incalculable usefulness to the Government and to the nation at large. At first the laboratory occupied one small building and had a meagre annual appropriation for its support, but so important a place has it taken in the work to which it is devoted and so extensive has its cooperation become with the Government and business interests of the country, that to-day it occupies several large buildings, its personnel numbers over two hundred people and it is receiving nearly a half million dollars a year for its support. It is without doubt one of the world's greatest industrial laboratories, and so thoroughly has it proved its useful- ness that a number of large organizations are now con- structing laboratories of their own, modeled after the one at Madison. So far as we know, Canada is the only foreign country that possesses a similar institution, and this was planned along the lines laid down at the plant in the United States. Its Service to Export Manufacturers and Shippers.— In one of its bulletins the Forest Products Laboratory states that **no industrial research is complete until its results have received commercial demonstration and the industry concerned is reaping the benefits. It is essential, therefore, that proper contact be maintained between the industrial research laboratory and the industries which it serves." This we believe expresses in a few words the 178 THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 179 spirit and purpose of this most interesting and helpful organization, and also illustrates the practical coopera- tion that is given the business world. The services of the laboratory are available to the export manufacturer and shipper, and the expert knowledge of its staff is brought to bear on the special problems, either at no cost or for a nominal fee, depending upon the nature of the case. The officials of the laboratory urge that information be solicited and every effort will be made to give as full and complete an answer to the inquiry as possible. The results of the laboratory's work are published in the form of bulletins issued by the Department of Agricul- ture, in the form of articles in the trade press, and there is a service of mimeographed reports which are available upon request. When special cooperative work is undertaken by the laboratory there is a charge for the service, the re- muneration, however, being reduced to the extent to which the work is purely experimental and of value chiefly to the laboratory. The laboratory is always open to visitors, and those whose interest is merely general are shown through the various departments and the work carefully explained. Those who come to the laboratory for the purpose of obtaining specific technical data or to obtain help in the solution of some specific problem, are directed to the proper office and every effort is made to render the serv- ice required. Reports state that it is not uncommon for visitors to spend a week or more at the laboratory, study- ing data and consulting with different members of the staff, and from time to time special one or two-week courses are given on subjects within the province of the work, for example, on kiln drying, box design, manufac- ture and use of plywood, glues, and so forth. As time and funds permit the members of the staff make special trips, problems are studied at first hand in private plants, and demonstrations are made in factories of new processes which develop from the research work of the laboratory. Likewise the meetings of associations 180 EXPORT PACKING are attended by members of the staff and lectures are given, frequently illustrated, on special subjects. Examples of Its Work. — In 1917 the Forest Products Laboratory was designated by the Ordnance Department for the solution of container problems, and there can be no doubt that the war was shortened measurably by the fact that the laboratory designed containers that made possible larger and quicker shipments to the soldiers in France. In redesigning a case fitted to carry 140 pounds of powder 14 per cent of cargo space was saved ; a Gov- ernment school for packers was established at the lab- oratory, and one of the men designed a box that saved the Government $100,000 in freight in six months; an- other case for packing soap was re-designed with a saving of 43 per cent, and on the first shipment the Gov- ernment saved $414,000; a case for carrying two Browning guns was re-designed with a saving of 28 per cent, and this meant a saving of $5.77 on every two guns shipped, and for many months the shipments were 900 guns a day; a box designed for the regular army rifle saved one-third of the former space, which meant $1,500,000 on every shipment of a million rifles ; the losses suffered by the Government from poor packing were re- duced by the Forest Products Laboratory to 15 per cent of what they had been before packages perfected in the laboratory were used. Other Branches of Its Work. — The activities of the laboratory, however, are not restricted simply to the solution of packing problems, although this is the work that chiefly concerns the scope of this book. The lab- oratory also devotes itself to any problems related to lumbering, physics of timber, mechanics of timber, wood preservation, derivative products of wood, wood pa- thology and pulp and paper. In this last commodity the laboratory has a most interesting field and one that affects the public intimately, in view of the decreasing supply of pulp timber and the constantly increasing scarcity and rapidly mounting cost of paper. There is no doubt that sooner or later a way will be found for utiliz- Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory. Making a ^'Compression-on-an-Edge" Test. This test consists in standing a bow on its edge and applying a gradually increasing pressure. 181 This Making a test consists in Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory. CoRNERwiSE Compression Test." steady and constantly increasing pressure measured in pounds, applied to the comer of any package with the opposite corner in a direct line with the pressure. 182 THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 183 ing more of the tree in the manufacture of pulp, for in the language of the laboratory, ^'a ton of dry wood yields only nine hundred pounds of dry sulphite pulp for paper. The rest is lost in the waste sulphite liquor.'^ Solving Business Problems.— And so thousands of problems have been submitted to the laboratory by the Government and private interests, and thousands of these problems have been solved. In its manifold Govern- ment work the laboratory not alone found out the most suitable woods for airplane propellers during the late war, but also invented a method for perfectly drying the wood in from ten to twenty days, something that before that time had taken from one to two years. The lab- oratory also discovered the method of waterproofing the propeller, known as the aluminum leaf method, and the experiments on plywood, or veneered wood, carried on at the laboratory, saved the Government some $6,000,000 in wood costs and prevented countless airplane accidents. The inventions of the laboratory in glues alone would fully justify its existence if it did not have to its record a great number of achievements in many other depart- ments, and let us repeat that just as the laboratory solved Governmental problems, it stands ready to solve the problems of business, whether these problems have to do with the preparation of shipping cases or crates or with some other work entrusted to the vigilance of this most important efficiency organization. Many' business concerns have made use of the facilities offered, and the General Electric Company has smashed thousands of electric lamps in testing machines of the laboratory for the -purpose of designing a suitable container. Method of Testing Containers— We show herewith a number of illustrations, among them being the so- called ''hazard'' machine, which is designed to give a box or case as many bumps and jars as it would receive on an ordinary thousand-mile journey. It is interesting to note that these machines are now being built for private plants, the Edison Lamp Works of Harrison, N. J., having just installed such a machine at a cost 184 EXPORT PACKING of $2,500. This machine is hexagonal in shape and re- volves vertically, the inside of the drum containing ridges of wood and metal. Each time the wheel revolves the box being tested drops six times, a meter keeping accu- rate count of the drops, and the drum revolves so slowly that as the cracks open or the wood splits it is easy to follow the process. These tests show the defects of the particular container and new designs are then placed in the drum which are put through the same test, and so the story goes. Another test that we illustrate is the *^Comerwise Compression Test," which consists of standing a box on a corner and applying a gradually increasing pressure or squeeze. Another test is the * ^ Compression-on-an-edge Test,'' which is the same method as that used in the first test, only in this case the edge of the box is submitted to the experiment. Of course all of these tests are carefully recorded and the data minutely examined. Still another test is the ^^Drop Test,'' in which a case is repeatedly dropped and the results carefully watched. We have given a very summary view of what the lab- oratory has done and is doing, but it is not possible for all of us to go to Madison nor can we take a personal part in the experiments. However, the laboratory has antici- pated all of this and comes to us in the form of exhaustive tabulations of the results of experiments, and practical data obtained from them. One of the most interesting is a report of the laboratory on ** Balanced Packing Box Construction. ' ' This we print in full as follows : **A properly designed packing box is one which has enough strength in each part for the purpose for which it is intended, and no more strength in any part than is necessary to balance the average strength in every other part. The data necessary for designing such a box can- not be obtained from observation of boxes in actual com- mercial service, because the observer sees the box only after it has completely failed. He does not see the be- ginning of the failures; and he does not see and conse- quently cannot measure the hazard which completes them. THE FOREST PRODUCTS LARORATORY 185 A failure frequently bears evidence in itself of the cause of the damage ; but there is no way of determining from a study of the failure the amount of force exerted by the damaging cause, and in cases where several causes have been active it is impossible to identify each of them. On the other hand, laboratory studies (made at the Forest Products Laboratory, conducted by the Forest Service at Madison, Wis., in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin) combine practical experience, which is a knowledge of the designs in use, of what lumber is avail- able, and of box factory practice, with accurate scientific tests made on the package itself, packed as in actual service and subjected to strains that appoximate actual transportation conditions. Tests to Determine Box Design. — * ' Compression- along-an-edge test, as its name implies, is a steady and constantly increasing pressure (measured in pounds) ap- plied along any edge and with the opposite edge diagon- ally through the box in a direct line with the pressure exerted. The corner-wise test is applied in the same way to any corner of the package with the opposite corner in a direct line with the pressure. These two tests measure the strength of the box in withstanding any external pressure, and to a limited extent approximate the hazard of the lower tiers of boxes in a pile. By themselves these tests are insufficient to determine comparative weaknesses in the various factors that enter into properly balanced construction. ** Another very good test is the drop test, especially for comparing the strength of one box with that of an- other. In this test the box is packed with the actual con- tents as in service and dropped from a predetermined height directly on the corner, which is a fall that occurs in actual service. The value of the conclusions, in any constructive way, is limited, however, because one failure runs so rapidly into another that the observer does not always get the true measure of the weakness. ^^The most practical method yet devised for testing packing. boxes is the revolving drum test. The drum is a 186 EXPORT PACKING hexagon-sicled machine and revolves slowly. The box to be tested is packed with the actual contents, as in com- mercial service, and placed in this drum. In the drum are arranged a series of hazards, which cause the box to follow a regular cycle of drops, falling upon sides, top, bottom, ends, edges, comers, and flatwise upon a projec- tion similar to the corner of another box. These drops simulate the usual hazards of transportation, excepting the heavy static pressure received by a box in the lower tiers of .a pile, which is secured by means of the compres- sion-on-edge test described above. **As the box moves on from one drop to the next the observer notes the beginning of the failure of the weakest point in its construction, and follows the development of that weakness until the box entirely fails and lets its contents out. ^*The weak feature of the box may be too few nails, nails of too short a length, nails driven in a crack and thus having no great holding power, or some other form of nail failure ; and the tests clearly show this weakness. The material in the sides, top or bottom may be too thin, so that the shocks of the falls pull the wood from the nails. The wood may split or break across the grain. ** Any one of the numerous weaknesses of packing- box construction may be developed in this test, until finally the observer is able to build up a box that is prac- tically equally strong in every feature. Boxes are then built, packed, and tested until the presence of this balance in design is clearly demonstrated. Such a demonstra- tion will show failures ultimately occurring in average proportion in nails pulling from the wood, wood pulling from the nails, splitting or breaking of ends, sides, tops or bottoms, and through the weaknesses of the species themselves. Conditions Which Affect Box Design.— ''Commercial conditions and practices in box factories enter into con- sideration in designing containers of proper construc- tion. Packing boxes are made of low-grade lumber. This lumber is low grade because of splits, shakes, knots, e' ■^1 s 5^ §1 « 8e 22 00 s t ft 1* o ° 5j o (C ^ H li oc 03 ^» V W *?•« e H II 1 PI t fo s S o 03 Is-^ o H tH .s *^ ^ SeS 1— 1 SSI It THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 189 knot holes, dote, or other defects. Such defects as affect the proper efficiency of the box must be cut out ; but those defects which do not destroy the proper balance of the construction should be permitted, so as to keep down the cost of manufacture. ^*As lumber is sawn into such thicknesses as bring the best market prices for the high grades, the low grades must be necessarily of the same thicknesses. The thick- nesses specified in the packing box must be obtainable from this lumber without undue waste. ^'Certain box factory equipment is standard. This should be kept in mind and no construction adopted that requires special equipment unless some essential features of construction cannot be obtained otherwise. Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory Figure 1. Method of measuring size of knot. Aids in Box Designing.— ** As a result of many box tests of all kinds certain aids of somewhat general ap- plication in designing packing boxes may be suggested. No general rules can be laid down, however, for the rea- son that each box must be built with reference not only to the external shocks it will have to endure but also to the nature of the article it is to contain. Some commodi- ties require partitions, trays, diaphragms, and the like. Some commodities are affected by heat or cold. Some commodities contribute strength to the package; others are fragile, so that all the required strength must be in the box itself. **A design which takes into consideration these points 190 EXPORT PACKING and the conditions in the industry as well will result in well-balanced construction, and the most practical and economical package for the purpose intended; but lab- oratory tests on the box, packed with the commodity which it is to hold, are necessary to make certain that all the qualities desired are actually present. Each com- modity should be studied before a package is constructed for it. Nor is the nature of transportation always the same. Packages for foreign service are subjected to severer hazards than those shipped to domestic markets and should be protected accordingly. Quality and Condition of Lumber. — *' Boxes should be manufactured from lumber which is sound (free from decay and dote) and well seasoned. The average mois- ture content of the wood should be from 12 to 18 per cent, based on the weight after oven-drying. **The following chart shows the effect on the strength of the box caused by the moisture condition of the lum- ber and the change of moisture condition in storage. MOISTURE CONTENT Strength Relation Per cent Nailed and tested at once at 15 per cent moisture 100 Nailed and tested at once at 30 per cent moisture 90 Nailed at 15 per cent, tested at 5 per cent moisture, 4 months' storage . . 75 Nailed and tested at once at 5 per cent moisture. 50 Nailed at 30 per cent moisture, tested at 5 per cent moisture, one year in storage 15 Nailed at 5 per cent moisture, tested at 35 per cent moisture, stored 2 weeks in exhaust steam 10 Nailed at 5 per cent moisture, dried at 43^ per cent moisture, tested at 35 per cent moisture, two weeks in dry storage, two weeks in steam 10 Nailed at 5 per cent moisture, steamed at 35 per cent moisture, tested at 43^ per cent moisture, two weeks in steam storage, two weeks in dry storage 10 * ^Lumber should be free from knot holes and loose or rotten knots. Knots whose diameter exceeds one- THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 191 third the width of the board, measured as in Figure 1, should not be permitted, and no knots should be per- mitted which interfere with the proper nailing of the box. Weight and Interchangeability of Species.— ''The re- sults of the drum tests, combined with the data devel- oped by thousands of tests on many species of woods under varying conditions of locality, state of dryness of the wood, weight, hardness, shock-resisting ability, resist- ance to nails, tendency to split, et cetera, as well as by tests of the holding power of the various sizes and kinds of nails, screws, strapping, and the like, have made it possible to group the woods generally used in packing boxes into four groups, such that, in a general way, any wood in one group substituted for any other wood in the same group and built into a box of the same specifications, would give practically the same results in commercial service. These groups are given in Table 1, which also gives the average weight of the various species in pounds per square inch surface measure, on various thicknesses of box lumber, air dried (an approximate moisture con- tent of from 12 to 18 per cent based on the weight of the wood after oven drying).'* Barrels. — In this book the discussion of packing con- tainers has been to a considerable extent limited to cases, crates and bales, but there has been frequent mention of shipments in barrels, and certain commodities, for ex- ample, cement, oils, greases and so on, are very generally shipped in barrels. Moreover, it will be found that the barrel invades many other lines as a container, and this fact is brought out in the description of packing of chains and other metal goods. The importance of the barrel should therefore not be minimized, and we present with this chapter five photographs which show that the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, has not been unmindful of this fact. The Department of Agriculture's figures on cooper- age production, the latest statistics available being those for 1918, show some very interesting totals. In this year the reported production of tight cooperage stock 192 EXPORT PACKING TABLE 1— APPROXIMATE AVERAGE WEIGHT OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF WOODS USED IN PACKING BOXES. IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH SURFACE MEAS- UREMENT FOR USUAL PACKING BOX THICKNESS. SPECIES IN AIR DRIED CONDITION. 12% TO 15% MOISTURE CONTENT. Species Thickness H" '%' H" H" ^' H" .^ H" Group I Pounds per sq. in . surface measurement . White Pine Norway Pine .014 .017 .014 .014 .013 .015 .014 .013 .015 .014 .013 .017 .014 .014 .018 .013 .013 .016 .013 .014 .017 .012 .015 .013 .016 .013 .013 .012 .014 .013 .012 .014 .013 .012 .016 .013 .013 .016 .012 .012 .015 .012 .013 .016 Oil .014 .012 .015 .012 .012 .011 .013 .012 .011 .013 .012 .011 .015 .012 .012 .015 .011 .011 .013 .011 .012 .015 .010 .013 .0098 .012 .0098 .010 .0094 .010 .010 .0094 .011 .0098 .0094 .012 .010 .010 .013 .0091 .0094 .011 .0091 .0098 .012 .0083 .010 .0078 .0098 .0078 .0081 .0075 .0084 .0081 .0075 .0087 .0078 .0075 .0098 .0081 .0081 .010 .0072 .0075 .0090 .0072 .0078 .0098 .0067 .0084 .0059 .0074 .0059 .0060 .0056 .0063 .0060 .0056 .0065 .0059 .00.56 .0074 .0060 .0060 .0076 .0054 .0056 .0067 .0054 .0059 .0074 .0050 .0063 .0049 .0061 .0049 .0050 .0047 .0052 .0050 .0047 .0054 .0049 .0047 ,0061 .0050 .00.50 .0063 .0045 .0047 .0056 .0045 .0049 .0061 .0041 .0052 .0039 .0049 .0039 . .0040 .0038 .0042 .0040 .00.38 .0043 .0039 .0038 .0049 .0040 .0040 .0051 .0036 .0038 .0045 .0036 .0039 .0049 .0033 .0042 Spruce Western Yellow Pine . . Yellow Poplar Balsam Fir Chestnut Basswood Willow Noble Fir Buckeye White Fir Cedar Redwood Butternut Alpine Fir Lodgepole Pine Species Thickness Vs' '%' H' W H' %' H' Group II Pounds per sq. in. surface measurement Southern Yellow Pine Hemlock Virginia and Carolina Pine Douglas Fir Larch 020 015 .019 .014 .017 .013 .015 .010 .012 .0084 .0087 .0063 .0072 .0052 020 017 019 .018 .016 .017 .017 .014 .016 .014 .012 .013 .011 .0096 .011 .0085 .0072 .008 .0071 .0060 .0067 .0058 .0042 .0057 .0048 .0054 Group III White Elm Red Gum Sycamore Pumpkin Ash Black Ash Black Gum Tupelo Maple, Soft or Silver Group IV 017 .016 .015 .012 .0098 .0074 .0061 018 .016 .015 .013 .010 .0076 .0063 018 .016 .015 .013 .010 .0076 .0063 019 .017 .016 .013 .011 .0080 .0067 018 .017 .016 .013 .010 .0078 .0065 018 .017 .016 .013 .010 .0078 .0065 019 .017 .016 .013 .011 .0080 .0067 017 .016 .015 .012 .0098 .0074 .0061 .0049 .0051 .0051 .0053 .0052 .0052 .0053 .0049 Hard Maple Beech Oak Hackberry . . Birch Rock Elm.. White Ash.. 022 .020 .019 .016 .013 .0095 .0080 022 .020 .019 .016 .013 .0095 .0080 023 .022 .020 .017 .013 .010 .0083 019 .017 .016 .013 .011 .008 .0067 022 .020 .019 .016 .012 .0093 .0078 023 .021 .020 .016 .013 .0098 .0081 019 .018 .016 .014 .011 .0082 .0069 .0064 .0064 .0067 .0053 .0062 .0065 .0055 THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 193 amounted to 286,401,000 staves and 20,711,271 sets of heading. The output of staves was 24 per cent smaller, than in 1909 and 20 per cent smaller than in 1911, while the manufacture of heading was less than 1 per cent under that of 1909 and 32 per cent under 1911. For staves the slack cooperage production for 1918 was 50 per cent under 1909 and 24 per cent under 1911, and the heading production showed a decline of 57 per cent and 43 per cent as compared with 1909 and 1911 respectively. From these figures it is evident that important changes have taken place in the cooperage industry during the past ten years. Demand for certain types of barrels has fluctuated with the popularity of various styles of containers, while the increasing use of con- tainers made of other materials has had a marked effect on the production of cooperage stock. This is equally true whether we consider tight or slack cooperage. The use of the latter style of barrel has been greatly modi- fied by the increasing use of sacks as well as that of the veneer barrel or drum. However, the increased use of barrels for packing lime and cement, as well as farm produce, has done much to maintain the cooperage indus- try at a fairly high productive level. The prohibition movement has also greatly affected the demand for tight cooperage, and while millions of beer and ale staves were produced in former years, in 1918 the production was measured by a few hundred thousands. Mr. Hu Maxwell writes interestingly in American Forestry on the subject of cooperage, in part, as follows : Kinds of Cooperage.— "There are two kinds of coop- erage, commonly distinguished as ^tighV and * slack.* Tight vessels are intended for liquids ; slack for dry ar- ticles. Classes and grades come between the two ex- tremes. The barrel that carries alcoholic liquors is con- sidered the highest class of tight cooperage, while the vegetable barrel is typical of slack containers. The slack barrel end of the business is the larger, judged by the quantity of wood required in manufacturing the product; but tight barrels demand a much higher grade 194 EXPORT PACKING of wood. The value of the slack stock used in the country is nearly 50 per cent more than the value of the tight ^material. Nearly any wood is suitable for some kind of slack cooperage, but only a few are serviceable for tight. Woods Used. — '^Room exists for considerable choice of wood for staves in slack cooperage, but not so much for containers of liquids. Flour barrels were once made principally of cottonwood staves, but elm has proved to be a good substitute. A white wood that represents a clean appearance is wanted, and it must be tough enough and strong enough to carry the load. It must be free from odor or taste that might injure the contents. The sugar barrel demands material of the same kind. ^^Red gum leads all other woods because it is abun- dant and satisfactory. The shippers of butter, lard, meat and other food products select the most suitable woods for their barrels. Custom has much to do with it, but not all ; for it is easy to understand that a pine barrel might taint food with the taste of turpentine. The hard- woods are demanded in three times the number for slack barrels as are the soft-woods ; yet many commodities go to market in soft-wood barrels and kegs. Scrub pine is used for nail kegs and for containers of other small hard- ware. • Wide Use of Cooperage Stock. — '^Extensive use is made of barrels and kegs as shipping containers, and in some places they compete with boxes, while in others they hold the field to themselves. The life of a barrel is put down at one year by the trade, but that is not enough. A majority of barrels are used many times. They begin as sugar or flour barrels, and are then sold to the farmer for shipping his produce to market. It may be said that they are returned to him several times, carrying potatoes to the market on the first trip, and tobacco or lettuce on the next, each cargo. being lighter in weight than the previous one, owing to the weakened condition of the barrel. Finally the barrel may serve out its life work as a trash receptacle, and in the end can be used for fuel. Thus it may be said that a barrel fills as useful a career •-3 § ^ si ©to «5^ 195 ^ Courtesy of Forest Products Laboratory. Small Hazard Machine. Employed in testing boxes up to 2V' in their greatest dimensions. Machine revolves verticallif. Inside of drum contains ridges of tcood and metal. With each rp'-o7'ifion *h" h^ir frfifrd drops six times. r*!m *'r*-Ai Courtesy of Forest Products Laloratorjf, Internal Pressure Test for Barrels. Barrel and connecting pipes filled with water to exclude all air. Pressure is then progressively raised until 1 lb. of water escapes from barrel in one minute. 196 THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 197 as almost any other manufactured article, and its life is much longer than a season. *'The demand for barrels is constantly growing, be- cause modem machinery has made it possible to make them for the trade cheaper than almost any other form of durable package. That it is the most convenient form of package has long been acknowledged. *'The heaviest demand comes from the cement busi- ness, and flour ranks next, closely followed by sugar and salt. As containers for fence staples, bolts, nuts, nails, and packages for roasted coffee, spices, crockery, fruits, and vegetables, they follow in the order named. Glass manufacturers, baking powder companies, liquor distil- lers, and candy, tobacco, and cheese packers are big users of barrels. The demand for barrels for molasses, oil, lard and pork is also enormous, while dry paint, glue, snuff, oatmeal, screws, castings and general hardware articles annually increase the demand on the cooperage supply. Characteristics of Woods. — ''Some woods are water- proof, others are not. Alcoholic liquors and some oils will pass through the pores of some woods where water will not go. The wood of which a whiskey barrel is made may absorb a gallon of whiskey without any passing through the staves and escaping. Some woods are so porous that barrels made of them will not hold water very long. Coopers learned by experience that certain kinds of wood made better staves than others, when the barrels were intended for liquid. It was wholly a matter of experience at first, but later the microscope helped to explain why some are proof against seepage and others are not. All wood is more or less porous. It is made up of hollow cells, connected one with another by small openings, all microscopic in size ; but some of the hard- woods have openings much larger than cells. They are tubes running through the wood, up and down the trunk of the tree, and are called pores or vessels. Some of them, as in oak and ash, are large enough to be seen by the unaided eye, by inspecting the end of a freshly cut 198 EXPORT PACKING stick. These pores are responsible for the fact that some barrels will not hold liquid. It seeps into the pores and flows along them until it passes entirely through the staves and escapes. That is why wood with large open pores is not suitable for tight barrels. ilSH^^^^^nri^';% . ^^^^r r^ BE3^^BB|CLJiJk. ■ S .•t' '' ^Hl^^^ \^M '"^Sm^^ mw Courtesy of American Forestry. Photograph shows tyloses in process of plugging white oak pores. *' White oak has always been considered the best tight cooperage wood. Many years ago it was thought that no other could or should be used for certain liquid com- modities, but others have lately come into use. Yet, white oak has large pores, and a casual observer noting that characteristic would conclude that it is not good for tight barrels, but experience shows it to be good. Though it has large pores, which may be easily seen, they are not open. They are closed as a bottle is closed with, a cork, and liquid cannot enter. The plugging substance, which is known as tyloses, is of a whitish color and is deposited in the pores by the wood itself, in the progress of the tree 's growth and maturity. It occurs principally after the sapwood has changed into heartwood. Red THE FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 199 oak's pores are not plugged. Therefore red oak is not suitable for the best kind of tight cooperage. The condi- tion of the pores, whether they are plugged or not, ex- plains why fewer woods are available for tight than for slack cooperage. Only the best wood is used as barrels for alcoholic liquors; but some other woods will do for other kinds of liquors, such as brine for pork, vinegar for pickles, and for certain oils.'' Descriptive of the tests on barrels made by the Forest Products Laboratory we show herewith five cuts, the first illustrating the side-compression test. In this test the barrel was placed between two flat surfaces and com- pressed in the direction of its' diameter. The rate of compression was 0.25 inch per minute and simultaneous readings of load, compression and loss of water from the barrel were taken. The test was discontinued when one- half the water had escaped. The second test is known as the diagonal-compression test, the barrel being compressed between two flat sur- faces and supported on one edge or chime and loaded on the other. The rate of compression in this case was the same as in test number one. The side-drop test is shown in plate three, in this case the barrel being dropped on a wooden platform about 31/2 inches thick which was covered with a steel plate % inch thick, the platform resting on the concrete floor of the laboratory. The first drop was three inches, the next six, and so on, the length of drop being increased three inches each time. The test was continued until one-half the contents of the barrel had escaped. The diagonal-drop test, shown in plate four, is the same as the side-drop except that the barrel is dropped on the edge. In the internal pressure test, plate five, the barrel and connecting pipes were filled with water in such a way as to exclude all air as far as possible. The pressure was then raised to two pounds per square inch and held for two minutes. The pressure was then raised to four pounds and held for two minutes. The process was continued, increasing the pressure two 200 EXPORT PACKING pounds each time and holding it constant for two minutes, until one pound of water ran from the barrel in one min- ute or less. With the data of these tests as a guide the laboratory was able to suggest some very valuable im- provements in the barrels experimented with. This chapter should be read in connection with other chapters of this book, which mention and discuss barrel containers. In the chapter on cement will be found inter- esting data and photographs. CHAPTER YIII CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES AFFECTING MANNER OF PACKING PROVIDING for transhipment is not alone a ques- tion of export packing sufficiently good to stand being taken from the ship^s hold and dropped into a lighter, frequently under very severe conditions; it may involve much more than that. For example, after the package is taken from the ship it may be necessary to tranship it by cart, burro, llama, bullock, camel, man, or in some other way. Therefore it is not alone a ques- tion of packing goods well, it is also a question of packing them to meet these special conditions. Generally it may be said that a mule can carry from 200 to 250 pounds, a burro from 150 to 200, a llama about 100, and a camel from 350 to 450. In making up packages for transporta- tion by any of these beasts, however, the package should be only one-half of the indicated weight. Transportation by animals generally takes place by strapping a pack- age on each side of the beast, so as to balance the load. Thus the mule would carry two packages of 100 pounds each, the burro two of 75 to 100, and so on. With refer- ence to human transportation the weight that can be carried varies greatly. Any one who has seen the Mex- ican peon, a Peruvian Indian, or a Turkish hammal (porter) trotting along under huge burdens would be inclined to conclude that there was almost an unlimited capacity. But it may be stated that the general average load for a man is from 100 to 150 pounds. Climatic Conditions as Affecting Packing. — Climatic conditions have a very important influence on the char- acter of the package, and this offers another opportunity to insist on a little .preliminary study of geography. This statement applies no matter what the direction of 201 202 EXPORT PACKING the compass. For example, a shipment may be going to Nova Scotia and the manufacturer may think that his usual Canadian packing will suffice, but he overlooks the fact that the climate of Nova Scotia is very damp and that his metal goods should be much more carefully pro- tected than is the case for shipments to more usual Canadian points. Moving to another part of the world, to Honduras for example, we find that the rainy season lasts for from five to six months, and the rainy season there is no mere figure of speech as it is in many cases. In Honduras goods must be carefully packed for pro- tection against moisture if the shipment is to arrive in good shape. Shipments for Salvador or Peru which are transhipped into lighters are exposed to sea water, while exposure to torrential rains is characteristic not alone of shipments to Colombia and many parts of South America, but also to many other sections of the world. Another peril goods have to face is intense heat. It frequently happens that goods are stowed near the boilers of ships or that they are subject to intense trop- ical heat, as in Colombia or India. Moreover, in many countries the air is heavily charged with humidity, to such an extent that fungoid growths are produced fre- quently destroying or rendering useless many valuable shipments. It may be that the foreign buyer is unreason- able in expecting the exporter to know all about these many different conditions, and not alone to know about them but to guard against them by packing that protects the goods. But, be this as it may, there are some export- ing houses that are acquainted with the conditions and that take proper precautions to protect their shipments, and these are the houses that eventually get the business. What They Do in the Ports. — Another important point to be considered is the port conditions. Because we have ideal port conditions in New York and in many of the other shipping centers of the United States, it does not follow that there is anything similar in other countries. To be sure, there are countries where port conditions are superior even to those of the United States, but none CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 203 the less there are vast sections of the world 'where port facilities are practically unknown, and this is true par- ticularly of many parts of South America. Later in this chapter there will be quoted a description of tranship- ment at a South American West Coast port. Foreign Transportation and Its Difficulties.— Goods may be carried for many days in ox carts, as is the case in Honduras. Goods sent by parcel post, packed by the Post Office in bags or cases, are tossed from a wagon to a wharf, from wharf to the hold of the ship with other packages of various descriptions on top as a rule, and when taken from the ship they are dropped into a ligUter and again and again go through the same process, each time receiving shocks of various kinds. Or it may be, as in Colombia, that the lighter packages are usually se- lected by the porters and muleteers, and the heavy boxes left until such time as conditions admit of their transpor- tation. But this time may be many weeks, even months, after the arrival of the goods, and many things may happen during these weeks and months. Where Conditions Are Trying. — The two principal conditions existing in foreign markets which require the attention and consideration of American shippers in pre- paring their packages for export, are climatic conditions as existing in the tropical countries, of which India may be taken as one of the most striking illustrations, and the primitive development, even the total lack, of harbor and port facilities which many ports in Central and South America may best illustrate. Many Americans who have not traveled widely over the world have not the faintest conception of what a really tropical climate means with its excessive humidity, its rainy and its dry seasons, the danger of ravages by insects, etc. Similarly, few people who have not seen for themselves or studied in books or photographs the conditions under which* goods are landed in some of the Latin- American ports, can begin to understand what it is like for a steamer to anchor from two to four miles off shore and tranship its cargo into lighters bobbing up and down in a heavy 204 EXPORT PACKING swell ; even landing their passengers in lighters or tend- ers, to which they have to be transferred from the steamer in baskets lowered by derricks, because of the impossi- bility of climbing up and down a ship 's ladder in a heavy sea. There is not space in these pages for detailed descriptions of the climate of all countries of the world, nor of the facilities existing in the hundreds of seaports of the world. Certain vivid illustrations may be here printed which will suffice to convey a more or less ade- quate impression of actual conditions such as those just referred to. What a Tropical Climate Means India offers us a classic example of conditions in a tropical country, and while a number of the cities of British India have magnificent docks, none the less the packing problem for goods shipped to India is a very serious one. First, we have conditions of interior trans- portation which, in a large part of the country, are primi- tive to a degree, and added to this are transhipments which goods sent out from the United States must some- times suffer. However, the chief hazard is climatic, and this hazard begins to operate long before the goods reach India, when, for example, they pass through the Suez Canal and begin their journey through the Red Sea. The terrific heat here makes itself felt, the iron sides of the ship becoming so hot that one cannot touch the plates with one's hands in comfort, and hazards increase the nearer the goods are brought to India. A writer in the Indian Textile Journal, of Bombay, has this to say of the climatic situation, his remarks applying in general terms to any other tropical, damp climate : Rainfall. — '*The rainfall in India, which all takes place within four to five months, contributes largely in giving to the climate its peculiar character. Averages at various cities follow : Bombay 72.25 inches, Karachi 7.34 inches, Hyderabad (Sind) 8 inches, Nagpore 45.09 inches, Alla- habad 38.51 inches. THA.Nr,i'uiviATiON IN Turkey. Eight men are shown carrying a hogshead in Constantinople. of The Americas. MOLLENDO, A TYPICAL PORT OF THE SoUTH AMERICAN WeST COAST. Goods are landed into lighters in the open water of the Pacific. 205 ■^ISVISA^-X « Courtesy of The Americas. Unloading Freight at Arica. y^r'thrsm ofT^Mr^^^^ ^^^ ^^*^^ *^^^^^ ^^^^ lowered into a lighter 206 % CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 207 **The effect of heavy and continuous rain in the trop- ics is to produce a dampness in the air quite unknown in Europe, and which is very destructive to many articles of European manufacture. The moisture and heat com- bined set up all kinds of fungoid growth and decay in goods which are quite unaffected by the climatic condi- tions of Europe. Mildew attacks textile goods, leather, books and stationery; arms, cutlery and metal work require constant supervision to preserve them. Euro- pean furniture of wood is soon spoiled by swelling and shrinkage, or by borer worms ; and liquors, excepting the strong alcoholic ones, rapidly deteriorate in the heat of India. Perishable goods soldered up in tin lined cases are not safe if they have been packed in Europe in wet weather. The heat of the ship's hold in the Red Sea, or that of a closed iron wagon on the liidian railways, when the iron may acquire a temperature of 160 degrees in the sun, will start mildew in the case by the aid of the moisture within it. Straw and shaving packings hold a good deal of moisture in damp weather, and do much mischief when sent to the tropics. No merchandise, therefore, that is liable to injury from heat or moisture can be stored long in India without serious deterioration. Books in India. — ' * Books if bound with ordinary paste are quickly attacked by mildew and by vermin. Beetles will eat off the surface finish from stamped cloth covers. The paste should be mixed with corrosive sublimate or other antiseptic. Books on shelves, unless packed tight, are all hanging by the binding, and a warm, damp atmos- phere loosens them from the covers if they are large. All large books for use in the tropics should be bound so that when placed upright on a shelf the leaves would rest on the shelf, that is to say, the covers should be cut flush with the leaves on the under side. The appearance of such a volume might provoke criticism, but it would never lose its cover in the manner described. Books sewed with wire go speedily to pieces in the tropics. Since wire sewing has been introduced, a very foolish economy has substituted tinned iron wire for tinned 208 EXPORT PACKING copper. The tinning soon disappears from the iron and the book soon falls to pieces. Oils and Drugs in India. — ** Barrels containing oil are very quickly affected by a hot and dry atmosphere. The moisture from the wood is evaporated more quickly than the oil can replace it and leakage begins unless the hoops are set up. Oil, therefore, can be safely stored only in iron tanks. Drug compounds and proprietary medicines are also specially affected in the tropics. Pills lose in time their capacity to dissolve, and gum capsules, by oxidation, become practically waterproof in spite of every possible care having been taken of them. Manufactures of Steel in the Tropics.— '' Steel or iron instruments or weapons meant for use in the tropics should be kept in cases without any linings. Velvet, silk, plush, cloth or leather linings all absorb moisture and cause the instrument to rust. Nothing will keep them so well as linings of baywood or other absorbent timber which has been well painted, while hot, with a melted" paraffin wax. No wax need remain on the surface, but if the pores are properly filled the trouble and loss due to rusting of valuable instruments or weapons may be avoided. During the monsoon rains all wooden cases containing merchandise for transport must be covered with pack sheeting and tarred unless they are tin lined. Drying Merchandise in India. — ''The process of dry- ing merchandise, whether it be textile goods or other materials, demands special arrangements during the rains that may fall for weeks together with very little intermission, and the storage of dried and other goods, such as tobacco or provisions, has still to be provided for. It may not improbably be found in connection with the ice factories that are becoming common in India, and which, by means of suitable extension, might provide cool storage, as is already done in New York. A sufficient reduction of temperature stops the action of moisture even on the most perishable goods. This may be ob- served in the case of fish and meat, which in Bombay are tainted in a few hours after death. In cold weather in CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 209 Europe they will keep for several days, and if well frozen they may be preserved indefinitely. Absorbents and Repellents Required in India. — ''Much has already been done for the preservation of perishable goods on a small scale, and the use of absorbents in air tight cases is a great aid in the preservation of samples used in commerce. Lime, chloride of calcium, salt, dried sawdust, and sulphuric acid have their uses as absorbents of moisture, and should all be known and understood in a well arranged sample room. ''Glass showcases should have a floor as well as top and sides of glass, for a wooden floor, being permeable to moisture, will absorb water vapor from the air and transmit it to the atmosphere of the case. There is thus a flow of moisture through the wood which must either be taken up by absorbents or left to deteriorate the con- tents of the case. No showcase is absolutely tight, unless it be a bottle with the stopper cemented in place. There is therefore a circulation of air in and out, which is con- trolled by and due to the fluctuation of barometric pressure twice in every 24 hours. Every closed vessel breathes twice a day, the inflow carrying with it dust and moisture. The dust settles in the still air of the case and the moisture is taken up, partly by the absorbent and partly by the articles within. It is this fluctuation of air pressure that gives movement to the aneroid barometer. Camphor has for a long time been used to repel the attacks of vermin upon furs and textile fabrics, but it is now being abandoned in favor of naphthalene and benzine, whose odor is particularly repugnant to insects of all kinds. Kerosene is also much disliked by them, but being much less volatile its use is limited. Ants will not crawl up the leg of a table or bed around which a rag dipped in kerosene has been tied, and suspended meat safes may be protected in the same way, with a rag tied around the suspending cord. Advantage Taken of Dry Season in India. — "Machin- ery, especially that for textile factories, is imported during the dry season. If it has to be conveyed far from 210 EXPORT PACKING the port of discharge, the makers should be carefully informed regarding the kind of land carriage that will be employed to deliver it. If there is much transport by road, as may easily happen, the quality of the road, the inclines, bridges, and fords should all be carefully exam- ined and reported on, as it might be necessary to restrict the maximum weight of the heaviest article to meet the peculiarities of transport.'' Displaying Hardware in India. — Shopkeepers in India have difficulty in making their show windows and even their counter showcases attractive, when they wish to display bright steel goods, especially cutlery, If a pocket knife, for example, is displayed in a show window for a single day or two it promptly rusts and becomes unsale- able and unuseable. Accordingly, the spectacle is com- mon, but by no means attractive, of a handsome display of cutlery and other bright steel goods in hardware show windows all thickly coated with vaseline. How Indian Druggists Keep Rubber Goods. — The only way that retail drug shops in India can satisfactorily carry in stock the necessary supplies of rubber sundries, syringes, ice bags, hot water bags, etc., is by keeping their reserve supplies in their cellars, under water. If kept on the shelves in the way in which American druggists carry such stocks these rubber goods would spoil in a week or two at the outside. Packing Dry Products and Chemicals for the Tropics. — The Indian agents of a large British firm wrote recently in the following terms regarding packing for India: *^The packing that will do for temperate climates, or even some other tropical countries, is in many cases absolutely unsuitable for India. Take, for instance, such things as dry products in the shape of milk foods, etc., and powdered forms of chemicals. It is absolutely essen- tial in most cases that these shall be packed in glass con- tainers, otherwise the humidity of the climate causes metal packings to sweat and the contents to become spoiled. In such matters, also, as the packing of heavy chemicals for the milling industries — nitric, sulphuri^j, CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 211 and other acids — the packing preferred for these, instead of being carboys, is 28-pound earthenware jars, packed two in a case, the cases being very strong to prevent breakage. In all instances hooped packing cases should be used, as the goods are subject to very rough handling by the native labor at the docks and railways. ' ' Packing for Burma. — Burma and in fact all terri- tories in this part of the world are very like India so far as climate is concerned, but it should be especially noted, in addition to packing for climatic conditions, that away from the main river and railway transportation system these countries are dependent on bullock carts traveling on soft bottom roads which are only tracks. It is always to be remembered that native Indian labor is far from intelligent and is taught and educated with some difficulty. The West Coast of South America. — A large exporter of rubber goods has, in the following letter to the author, given a very good idea of conditions existing along the West Coast of South America which, in a general way, may be taken as further typical of conditions at many other ports, especially those of Central America and the west coast of Mexico: *'To appreciate fully the need for greater care and more efficient packing one should really take a trip down the West Coast of South America as far as Mollendo, Peru, and then journey inland as far as Cuzco, or up over the mountain passes to Cerro de Pasco and Huanuco. Unloading Cargo. — '^In most instances all freight for the West Coast of South America must be unloaded from the steamer into a launch or lighter in the open bay or roadstead, and then to the dock or pier, while the lighter is often tossed about on the breakers. These lighters or barges come out from shore on the arrival of a steamer, fasten to her with a bow and stern line, then swing clear, as the ocean swell keeps both barge and steamer moving and their up-and-down motion is by no means coincident. A sling full of merchandise consisting, say, of a box, a barrel, and a crate, weighing perhaps 1,500 pounds, is 212 EXPORT PACKING swung over the ship^s side and lowered to within 15 or 20 feet of the water. When the barge comes beneath the swinging sling down goes the merchandise with a rush to catch the barge. The package on the bottom receives the full force of the impact. **In many ports on this coast there is further rough handling after the goods are landed. There are few trucks in the warehouses, and much of the merchandise is transported on the shoulders of men, who, instead of lowering their burden easily or having someone help them, simply stand erect and let the cases fall. More- over, warehouse accommodations may not be sufficient for all goods landed. In such instances the shipments are liable to damage by exposure to the elements. Interior Transport in Peru.— ''Another fact usually lost sight or by the exporter, is that after arrival at the port of destination a considerable amount of the ship- ment has, in all probability, to be transported inland over devious mountain trails or through jungle paths before it reaches its final destination. *^Take, for example, goods that are consigned to Tarma, Huanuco or Mayobamba in the interior of Peru. As vehicular traffic, owing to the narrow roads and mountain passes, is impossible, all inland transportation is effected by burro or mule trains. The muleteers and cargo dories are no respecters of merchandise and in consequence it is no uncommon sight to see the trails strewn with goods. In many places the old Inca trails are so narrow in the mountainous regions that two burro trains cannot pass one another without one string of donkeys being faced to the inside wall of the trail while the others pass by, picking their way carefully along the edges of the precipice which frequently has a sheer drop of several hundreds of feet. **As another example of the necessity for strong and proper packing, let us follow the routine of one of our shipments to our branch at Santiago, Chile. This is what takes place after the ship has anchored at its destination and starts discharging cargo. Llama Pack Train in Peru. Method of transporting goods in the interior of Peru. Courtesy of The Americas. Unloading Flour from a Lighter. Typical West Coast method of unloading flour and other goods, 213 Courtesy of The Americas. Unloading of Auto Trucks. Note the condition of the case heing lowered, due to had packing. Courtesy of The AmericaB. Badly Packed Agricultural Implements. Shows damaged condition of case when it arrived in Chile. 214 CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 215 Follow This Shipment to Chile.- ''In many cases the packages are unloaded from between decks, being drawn to the hold by the sling, from there lifted over the side to be dropped into lighters which sometimes have a per- pendicular movement of 15 feet. In no case is any care used by the officer in charge of the unloading to see that the packages land in the lighter as they should. As many of the lighters are two or three hundred tons, it is necessary to pack case on case, sometimes as many as six or eight layers of cases of different sizes and con- struction. The lighters are then moved to the dock where the packages are unloaded by slings and again receive rough treatment in dropping onto the dock. From the dock to the custom house car the packages are handled by slings and, as the cars are very small they are loaded with from two to five layers of cases. The car is moved to the warehouse of the custom house and cases dropped to the cement floors. After documents are presented for dispatch, packages are again loaded onto the same style of car in the same manner and taken to the Eevision Department of the custom house and again dropped to the floor. After revision they are again loaded onto the car and taken- to the street, where another unloading operation is performed. From the street the packages are loaded to the dray which takes them to the railroad station, where they are dumped on the platform. From the platform another handling is made to the car. Arriv- ing at destination, it is customary to load the drays sev- eral layers deep, and arriving at the branch the packages are unloaded in the street. The packages from the higher layers are, in most cases, dropped to the street which is granite paved. From the street they are rolled into the branch. The warehouse being in the cellar of the build- ing, it is necessary to lower these packages by sling to the floor of the warehouse. *'A11 these conditions must be taken into account by us if we desire our goods to reach their destination intact and our customers to be satisfied. Ignorance of the treat- ment his goods will receive during transportation to con- 216 EXPORT PACKING sumer excuses no exporter ; instead, it creates an unfavor- able opinion not only of the individual shipper but of all American exporters. '^ Heavy Weights to be Avoided. — A British govern- ment report recently commented at length on ways in which merchandise of many different descriptions ought to be packed, calling especial attention to the recommen- dations of importers in Valparaiso, Chile, to the desira- bility of limiting the weight of single packages to about 500 pounds gross because of the fact that in Chile the work of stowing in custom house sheds and delivery to consignee is all performed by manual labor. Importers in Colombia urge that bales and cases should, if possible, not exceed 90 kilos in weight, while on the other hand it is advisable that they do not weigh less than 70 kilos. Interior Transportation by Muleback.— The well known mule has frequently to be utilized for the trans- portation of freight to the interior of many Central and South American republics, both because of the absence of wagon roads and because of the perilous nature of many of the trails over the mountain passes where the sure-footed, if obstinate, mule possesses many advan- tages as a carrier. However, it is highly probable that the extent of the requirement for special packing suitable for muleback transportation has always been much exaggerated. In all countries where an animaPs back has to be utilized for carrying freight, the amount of merchandise thus to be transported, almost always to remote and thinly populated and less favored districts, is comparatively small ; the great bulk of the imports of the country in question being not only received but con- sumed in the port cities or the more important places, which, because of their size and demands, have been closely linked with the ports by railways, river steamers or adequate highways. None the less, there remains that part of the import trade of a given country which has to be transported into the interior by pack trains for which careful and special packing must be provided. Take, for example, and by way of illustrating very similar condi- CLIMATE AND PORT FACILITIES 217 tioiis in other countries, the following description of in- terior transportation in Honduras, which appears in Central America as an Export Field, by Mr. Garrard Harris: Trying Conditions in Honduras. — **Pack train service extends over practically all of Honduras, perhaps half the population or more being dependent on pack trains for goods from the outside world. But it does not follow from this that half the imports and exports of the country are handled by pack trains, for the people in the interior towns and villages depend to a large extent on native produce, and aside from cloths, various kinds of clothing, and some flour, little is transported regularly by pack train. However, such unexpected articles as soda foun- tains are to be found in some places in the interior, the drums of carbonated water being carried for over 100 miles, and several gold mines have brought heavy ma- chinery at enormous expense 200 miles into the interior. **Most interior towns are supplied by pack service from the Pacific side of the country, the goods being landed at Amapala, lightered to San Lorenzo, and trans- ported for the most part in ox carts over the cart road to Tegucigalpa, and from there to the interior towns by pack mules. Weights for Mule Loads. — **The pack trains from Masica, Ceiba and Trujillo must cross the very abrupt and very moist coast range of mountains; consequently the average load is not as large as in other parts of the country. ' ^ The average load for a pack mule in the Ceiba dis- trict is approximately 8 ^^arrobas.*' An arroba is sup- posed to weigh 24 pounds and so 200 pounds can be con- sidered the load for one mule. In other parts of the country where the trails are a little better and the grades lighter the average load is 250 pounds, or approximately 10 arrobas. ''An important fact to be borne in mind is that the loads referred to above are mule loads, and that goods must be packed in units having just half the mule load 218 EXPORT PACKING weight, for it is necessary that the load be evenly divided in separate packages across the animal's back. Pack- ages should not be over 3 feet in length or over 14 inches in any other direction ; and those packages, such as bales of cloths, that do not present a square edge are better for packing, although the square edged packages are not hard to handle. Desirable Packing for Honduras. — *' Flour is generally shipped in 12V2-pound sacks, which in turn are packed by the muleteers in gunny sacks and covered with water- proof covering. It often happens that the flour arrives in the interior in a damp condition, and if it could be shipped without great extra expense in hermetically sealed tins its arrival at destination in better condition would be insured. All packages should be covered with a heavy paper inside the outer covering, and if possible this should be a waterproof material, such as paraffin paper. * * Small machinery, such as sewing machines, should be shipped knocked down and crated with special reference to the balancing of weights referred to. Pipes, rails, etc., should be cut to 3-foot lengths. ' * CHAPTER IX PILFERING ACCORDING to the statistics of the United States Railroad Administration, the railroads of the United States lost $45,000,000 in 1919 from pilfer- age. Other statistics tell us that the marine underwriting companies of New York City alone were called upon to pay in 1919 more than $3,000,000 in losses due to the same factor. It is true that this book does not concern itself with domestic conditions, but the two losses mentioned are due principally to the same cause, that is, poor pack- ing. Mr. Robert L. Calkins, freight claim agent of the New York Central lines, states that the ''New York Cen- tral lines are paying out over a half million dollars monthly in freight claims, the result of thefts and break- age of shipping cases. This means approximately $6,- 000,000 a year, and it is fast developing into a very serious situation for the railroads of the country. These losses are increasing instead of diminishing. . . . While measures have been adopted with a view of Cur- tailing these huge losses, the wholesale thefts go on just the same and the companies seem powerless to check them. On the New York Central lines alone there are over 400 detectives at work on this matter, yet the claims for losses continue to pour in. . . . Pilferage consti- tutes nearly 60 per cent of our losses." On the export side, a prominent marine insurance house stated a few days ago that theft and pilferage of American goods in transit to foreign ports have reached a degree of magnitude which is not only alarming for writers of marine insurance, but promises, if continued, to be a menace to foreign trade. Some marine insurance companies are refusing to grant policies against this type of loss except in a very limited number of cases, while 219 220 EXPORT PACKING others, in self-defense, have been compelled to raise rates in proportion to the risk. This risk is estimated by the presidents of several insurance companies to range all the way from 100 to 1,000 per cent greater than before the war. In marine insurance circles, the increase in pilferage is ascribed to several factors. First, we have bad pack- ing, especially on the part of export concerns that are new in the business, houses that came into existence during the war. These concerns are in the main the cause of the many complaints from consignees; com- plaints due to second-hand cases, thin lumber, too few nails, lack of metal strapping, failure to use mechanic- ally tightened straps and so on. However, there are other factors producing these very heavy losses, one being the congested conditions existing at shipping ports, while a lowered standard of honesty is alleged by some insurance people to be a most potent element in the situa- tion. It is stated by men in a position to know that in many Mexican, South American and Italian ports thiev- ery is carried on in an organized way, and it is claimed that cargoes to South American ports are subject to pil- fering more than those consigned to any other ports. It is said to be impossible for a ship to reach a Chilean port without its cargo having been pilfered to a greater or less degree, and in most cases it is impossible to trace the crime to a person in the United States port, on the ship or in the Chilean port. Effect of Pilfering on Insurance Rates. — It is inter- esting to note in this connection that the new policy of the French marine underwriters that went into effect January 15, 1920, takes particular cognizance of losses by theft. So extensive is the pilfering of goods that European marine underwriters have become very much alarmed. Some companies have increased the rate of premium for this class of risk, and others have refused to give coverage for certain South American ports. The new French schedule shows minimum rates for theft ranging from Is 6d to 80s per cent, and these rates are PILFERING 221 to be increased 50 per cent in the case of hosiery, hats, boots, shoes, woolens, perfumery, foodstuffs, and so on. The rates to different countries for theft insurance vary with the conditions in the foreign ports. The new French tariff ranges from Is 6d to Canada and the United States, to 80s to interior points in Chile. This latter is equivalent to 4 per cent in the United States. Insurance against theft placed with American companies for the interior of Mexico or the west coast of South America would be at rates ranging from 1 to 5 per cent, while coverage against the same risk on shipments to London or other ports of the United Kingdom might be as low as 25 cents. Testimony from the Argentine. — In a recent report is- sued by the United States Chamber of Commerce of the Argentine, it was stated that the increase in pilferage during the past few months had been alarming. **An effort was made to deduce from the evidence received the value of the goods stolen, but this was impossible, al- though in general terms it would seem to run into hun- dreds of thousands of dollars in gold. One curious feature developed, and this was that pilferage occurs with frequency in articles sent by parcel post, for which there is no recourse if no value has been declared. **The thefts have all the characteristics of system- atized robbery by people who know the merchandise and also know the peculiarities of the shippers. It would seem, moreover, that a widespread international organ- ization was at work, for the same characteristics are visible in thefts of merchandise from Italy, France, Spain, and England as from the United States. *'One house imported a lot of 30 automobiles. It is the custom of this factory to pack the set of tools in one special corner of the case. A hole was cut into this par- ticular corner of 29 cases and the tool sets were removed. Apparently the thieves knew exactly where to look for the articles they desired. ''Another house which imports dry goods found that zinc lined cases had been opened, the silk contents 222 EXPORT PACKING removed and an equal weight of coal put into the cases which were nailed up. Another house which also imports dry goods had several cases of silk velvet completely- rifled and in the cases were found cotton goods of an inferior quality. Each of these cases involved losses amounting to nearly $10,000 gold. One exporter of silk from Europe, with the idea of deceiving the thieves, changed his form of packing and also his shipping marks, but the thieves went direct to the packages and rifled them as though they knew beforehand what they con- tained. Two separate shipments, each containing 150,000 sewing machine needles, were stolen, the empty boxes arriving in Buenos Aires, although in this instance the shippers have complete security that the merchandise was loaded on the steamer in proper condition in New York. A merchant makes his custom house declaration in harmony with the shipping documents received from abroad, and must pay duty on goods that are stolen. *'The British steamship companies at first, and more recently the American steamship companies, have included in their bills of lading a clause to the effect that the steamer will not be responsible for pilferage in all cases in which loss can be covered by insurance. Insurance companies are increasing their rates and threaten to make still more increases. The attitude of the steamship companies and the captains is a direct invitation to unrestricted theft on board ship. As theft increases, insurance rates will increase and the eventual prejudice to legitimate commerce threatens to be very grave. **The opinion of responsible maritime insurance agents and adjusters, who are in close touch with the situation, is that the only remedy is for the steamship companies to reassume responsibility for pilferage, and in case they are unwilling to do so governmental pres- sure should be brought to bear to compel them to elimi- nate this clause.'' Before taking up methods of pilfering and means of detection, it would be well to state that claims for pilfer- PILFERING 223 age frequently take weeks and sometimes months to settle, and the insurance companies should receive the closest cooperation from the shipper and consignee. These latter are particularly slow in reporting claims to carriers, but the need of prompt action and close coop- eration cannot be too strongly emphasized. How Pilfering Occurs. — It should not be supposed for a moment that because a case of goods reaches a foreign port with a portion of the contents lacking, that this means that a thief has been at work aboard ship or in the foreign port. Pilfering may occur at any point in the journey of the case ; it may occur in the very factory manufacturing the goods, or it may occur at some later stage. It is therefore of the utmost importance, if pil- ferage is to be traced, that every effort be made to be sure that the merchandise leaves the factory in good shape. The writer knows of a shipment of typewriters in which several cases reached their destination without the goods. Laborious and painstaking investigation developed that when this shipment left the factory sev- eral of the cases were minus machines; instead of type- writers the cases contained scrap iron of the requisite weight. This method of substitution is extremely common and may take place all along the line. Many instances are on record where goods have been stolen from their cases and the cases filled with stones, bricks, or scrap iron; the cases are then carefully resealed and delivered. Only recently an instance of this was called to the writer's attention. A truckman, employed in delivering goods to a pier in Hoboken, N. J., and later found to be a member of an organized gang, was caught red-handed when it was discovered that he was exchanging cases of high-grade textiles, en route to the pier, for other cases of the same weight and size and bearing the same marks, but containing nothing but waste material. The silk industry has been particularly hard hit by this method of substitution, and frequently it is extremely difficult to find out where the substitution is taking place. Truck- 224 EXPORT PACKING men may resort to other methods. The receiving stamp of the freight clerk may be stolen and the bill of lading stamped, the goods being sold and the stamped bill of lading delivered to the shipper. A box of stolen mer- chandise may be substituted for an empty case, and so on. A short time ago in removing cargo from a British vessel several cases of linens were found to have been tampered with. The linens were subsequently found in the berths of thirty-three members of the crew. The variety of methods used is limited only by the ingenuity of the thief. Aboard ship, or anywhere en route, a very common method is to loosen the nails or straps on a case, slip out a board, and abstract as much of the goods as possible, the board then being replaced. With this method it is not possible, unless the case is sealed, to tell that it has been tampered with until opened in the custom house. f Courtesy of The Stanley Works. Figure 1 How to Minimize Pilferage.— It will be noted that I have not headed this paragraph * ^ How to Prevent Pilfer- ing,'' for the reason that I do not believe any absolute remedy exists. But I do believe that it is possible to minimize it, and I will attempt to describe as fully as pos- sible the most approved methods in use for checkmating the thief. It is not possible to absolutely prevent pilfer- age because pilferage takes place when goods are packed in tin-lined, hermetically sealed cases, and there is no safety device, so far as the writer knows, that provides the all-around protection which would be required. In- deed to prevent pilfering the only sure method would be to ship goods in burglar-proof steel cases. The writer believes that all that can be done to prevent loss of this PILFERING 225 character is to adopt certain precautions that will lead to the detection of the theft, or deter the thief from tamper- ing with the case. In the great majority of shipments this is all that need be done, and is absolutely effective. Pilferage may be minimized by the manner in which the contents of the case are arranged. For example, the writer has known houses that shipped shoes with all the right shoes in one case and the left shoes in another. Another house has shipped the bowls of coffee-grinders in one case and the gears in another, while the same house packs the breach mechanism of rifles and revolvers in a case separate from that in which the stocks are sent out. In the case of cutlery the writer has known of the sets being broken up in the packing, the knives separate from the forks, and so on. s.w. Coui teay of The Stanley Works. Figure 2 In those shipments where the case is put together with screws, these latter may be countersunk and the holes filled with wax. Tampering with the case can be immediately detected. Another method is to drill small holes in each of the boards on the sides, top and bottom of a box, pass a cord through these holes and seal the ends of the cord with a lead seal. A board cannot be removed without cutting the cord. This method, how- ever, weakens the box by drilling holes in the boards, and the holes also admit moisture. Foreign customers of a large New York house spe- cializing in automobile accessories advise that a very good method for preventing pilfering in their particular instance is the practice of strapping the case inside. The walls, bottom and cover should be so strapped, not 226 EXPORT PACKING necessarily by a continuous band, that it is impossible for a would-be pilferer to remove or slide out one board and replace it without detection. A whole side of the case has to be destroyed in order to remove a single board. In shipping hats, a large American manufacturer states that when his goods are forwarded by steamer to Mexico, where the risk of theft is very great, a double wooden case is employed, that is, one case inside of another, the boards of the inside case running in oppo- site directions from the boards of the outside case. 7 d Courtesy of E. J. Brooks a. Co. Figure 3 Steel strapping, properly tightened and securely nailed, will do much to make it difficult for a thief to enter a case, but one of the best methods is perhaps the simplest. This consists in leaving the outside of the case free of any marks or plasters that would call attention to the character of the contents. Candy and shoes are two products that suffer a great deal from pilfering, and in these shipments the picture of a shoe or of a box of candy on the case is without question the delight of the thief. It might be stated here that shipments of boots and shoes, wines, liquors and so on, will not be accepted by the steamship companies for transportation unless the cases are protected by metal straps, wires secured by lead seals or some other equally efficient device. It is frequently a wise precaution to alter shipping marks from time to time. A consignee, for example, who PILFERING 227 is a regular importer of shoes becomes known by his marks, and changing of the mark occasionally will often lead the thief astray. Another very simple way to reduce pilfering losses to a minimum is to see that good cases are used and that these cases are properly constructed and properly nailed. A favorite diversion is to drop a package, and in case it is defective the goods are scat- tered over the dock. Obviously an excellent opportunity is given for stealing a certain portion of the contents. Courtesy of The Durahl;H^>>||>^>;H=^> = =-^ ;2;I;?^^;25^;2|;?^;S ZZZIZZZ^ pS.^sir.:ji : : : . ^ z. y:. x. x. x. x. X /^ 1 111 ;i;i 1 1 i -li-si liHJlll •'£S7 !^>;?^;lii^;|S;2^;:=;|^i ^^^^ '•a;^;' -;;;;;:;;:; ■-Xi^x^^^x ■^^^r.^' ; ^ : ^ : ; : ; ^ i i ; i ; .^;2^^>^> puoBlH "1"V |^;l«;2l^l^^l^;2>>^^ | ^! ^ ^ J! * in Ii ^li Jji ill' £l * ' ;|5' 6:||' ° Iflfl III lllll 1 n 3311111111111 :' 31113111 i IS 1 c mmr r ■ ' ■ mmu- 1 .S 1 i£ £ 5 . How THE Machine is Held in Place. This picture is taken from a positiwi slightly above the machine and illua- tratcs the method of holding it in place in the box. Courtesy of Norton Co. The Disassembled Machine in Complete Shipment. The entire sh'-pment ready to be placed aboard cars. In this picture the method of marking is also plainly shown. 335 Courtegy of Worthington Pump and Machinery Cwp. ) Packing a Power Pump. Vertical triplex power pump set on 3" x 6" spruce timbers for skidding, cross brace is of the same material and size. The Courtesy of Worthiru/ton Pump and Mnchinrnj Corp. Mounting the Pump ox Plattorm. The pump is mounted on skids with proper blocking underneath, ready for framing and boxing. Platform is of very rigid construction. Note that dis- charge air chamber has been removed from pump and is bolted and blocked tii platform underneath machine. It is the practice to carefully pack all accessories in small boxes placed under machine. 336 THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 337 order for export, from which the following is to be noted : ^^Each machine and all parts thereof, when the same are not shipped attached to the individual machine, shall be marked with the same item number that is shown on the order list. This applies also to any and all equip- ment to which an item number is assigned on the order. The numbering shall be done in the following manner: *^A11 large and heavy parts shall be marked with let- ters at least 2" in height, in a color contrasting to the body color, in four different places. All small parts shall have a metal tag not less than lV2"x3" attached thereto with No. 16 gauge annealed wire. These tags shall be marked with the item number by punching or raised let- ters 1/2^ in height. In no case is paint to be used for marking tags. All small parts, or anything that tags and paint cannot be used on for marking, shall have the item number stamped thereon in a place that is not injurious and is clearly visible. Shafting shall have the number stamped on each end. This stamping shall be in letters at least i/o" in height.^' Protection of Bright Parts. — From the circular of the Pacific Coast exporter who has just been quoted, the fol- lowing paragraph is also to be noted: '*A11 exposed faces of machinery or machinery parts that are planed, polished or otherwise finished, shall be covered with a pure white lead and boiled linseed oil, with sufficient drier to harden properly. All interior faces of machinery or machinery parts that are planed, polished or otherwise finished, such as cylinders, shall be protected by a coating of petroleum jelly. All deli- cate machine parts shall be first wrapped in oil-soaked cheesecloth, then wrapped with burlap and sewed before boxing. ^ ' The specifications of the General Engineer Depot include the following: "Exposed surfaces of machined parts shall be protected with a rust-preventing coating, free from acid, which expands easily, sets quickly to a sufficient firmness, and dissolves readily when wiped down with oil, turpentine or petroleum. Adequate wood 338 EXPORT PACKING covers or lagging will also be used when found necessary. ^*When bearings are used as supports, block supports are prepared; (1) support points will be slushed, (2) a zinc plate will be laid thereon, (3) carriage cloth or oil- cloth will be laid on the zinc, finished side to the zinc, and the other side slushed to receive the shaft. '^ A representative of the High Commission of a great foreign government which has offices in New York City, submits among. his recommendations for the packing of machinery this advice as to the protection of bright parts: ^'Care should be taken to well protect the con- tents of the crates against moisture by properly covering all bright metal parts with a rust preventative, of which there are several kinds on the market. In the case of pieces of heavy machinery which are shipped uncrated, one of the best rust preventatives is a mixture of white lead and tallow. This mixture has the disadvantage of being difficult to remove. Among the rust preventatives used by the different automobile companies may be men- tioned such compounds as coral compound, cedarolium compound, glenmore compound, etc. Some of these com- pounds are easier to remove than others, and in many cases it is necessary to wash the parts in steaming hot soda tanks in order to remove these protective compounds. ' ' The English authority already quoted says that in coating bright parts it is of the utmost importance to remember that the machines may not only be exposed to rain and an occasional dose of salt water during their journey, but that in passing through custom houses cases may be opened and the coating, if not sufficiently firm, may be rubbed off in places, while even after arrival the cases may stand for some time before they can be unpacked. Packing of Small Parts. — Instructions issued to American manufacturers by the High Commission of one of the great foreign governments include the following: **In connection with the boxing of parts it is quite important that all small parts be contained in well water- ('(jitrtisji of W'nrthinatmi Pump and Machinery Corp. Completed Framework op Case. Illustrates further steps in packing the same machine as shown in previous illustration. Framework is ready for hoards, the uprights being securely spiked fo platform and braced where neecssary against various parts of machine. With additional bracing afforded by case itself this provides very rigid con- struction. toutl(fi!f of \\ urthiiiyton Pump and Machinery Corp. Case Containing Steam Pump. Top and one side of case are removed to show method of packing. Note especially manner in which pump is supported in case by blocks placed under solid flanged portions, keeping feet from touching platform. Note also that entire weight of pump is not carried by bottom of case as sides help support weight by cross braces nniled to side boards. Top cross pieces also hold pump in firm position. Note compactness of case in relation to hulk of material. 339 Courtesy of The Cltallcngc Macliinvty Company. Crating Parts op Printing Press. Crate No 1 contains the side frames. Crate No. 2 the center girts. Method of construction fully described in text. Courti'sii uj J he Challenge Machinery Company. Packing Printing-press Parts. Crate No. 3 contains the troughs. Bow No. J, contains the cylinder; No. 5 contains all small parts; No. 6 contains the fountain. Method of packing fully described tn text. f j » 340 THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 341 proofed bags; that all threaded parts be well protected against injury by contact with other parts. All finished or ground parts should be separately packed to avoid damage to finished surfaces. The tags designating the names and numbers of the different parts should be of such material that they will not be damaged by oil or water, and in this connection it may be mentioned that the use of aluminum or other metal tags is being generally adopted. A packing list containing the contents of all crates, boxes or packages should always be well secured in a prominent place in the interior of the box; also, it is desirable that a copy of such a list, when practicable, be well secured to the outside of the crate or box, covered with galvanized sheet iron or other suitable protection.*^ The utmost care is required in making certain that all parts are shipped and are so shipped that they will arrive safely and complete, as will be realized from a consideration of the great loss which may be occasioned should the parts be lost or damaged en route. A machine arriving minus essential parts is utterly useless until new parts can be secured, which may entail months of delay, which in turn may mean excessive pecuniary loss, as, for example, when a mill or factory is being equipped. Inside Bracing and Packing. — The General Engineer Depot of the War Department among its specifications publishes the following: ' ' Machinery itself should be covered with water-proof- ing paper or oilcloth to prevent damage from moisture. Machinery should be thoroughly slushed with suitable protective compound. All loose or detached parts should be firmly and securely fixed to prevent dislodgement during transit. All finished surfaces to be amply pro- tected against injury from salt air and water. *' Packages containing machinery, or parts, should be securely blocked in the case or crate to prevent movement. *' Electrical and mechanical apparatus to be solidly packed in excelsior, straw, salt hay, or other filler in a solid box with paneled ends, securely nailed and then 342 EXPORT PACKING reenforced with % by 3-inch battens around the sides at the ends, with 1-inch by No. 18 gauge strap iron all the way around the battens, ends lapping at least 6 inches. *' Projecting portions of heavy castings having narrow necks ifiust be taken off, as they will break off by jarring. ^^Gray iron extended parts must be kept one-half to one inch away from covering, as the spring of boards will cause breakage. ' ' Where light gray iron castings or breakable machine parts are near the outside of a package, brace the case so that there may be always one inch clearance between the articles and the case. ^'•Two heavy cast pieces must not rest together, but must be cushioned or separated by wood brace or block. ^* Cross timbers which hold heavy articles in place should be socketed at the ends where there is danger of splitting if nails only are used. ** Heavy items must be firmly bolted to skids or floor- ing; nothing shall be hung from sides of boxes. Unoc- cupied space in packing boxes must be thoroughly braced. *' Articles subject to damage by moisture shall be ade- quately protected. ' ' Switchboards shall be packed in two boxes, the inner box being floated in the outer box, 3" clear space between, this space packed with excelsior. The inner box has supports; upon these is laid the switchboard with cigarettes between; these cigarettes are two or three inches in diameter, of excelsior rolled in paper, pieces are then forced down over the cigarettes and nailed to the sides. The inner box is completed, floated in the outer box, and this properly secured. '* The instructions of the foreign government's High Commission, which have already been quoted, state in this connection : * ' It may be mentioned in connection with packing that the use of the excelsior which was formerly used to quite an extent has now been practically elim- inated, as it is* not necessary to make use of such mate- rial when the contents of the boxes are well secured in place ; also, it may be noted that excelsior may be con- THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 343 sidered as being subject to spontaneous combustion.'* An English authority may be quoted as follows : '*The sweating which takes place on board ship and affects the cases themselves also attacks their contents, especially the parts of machinery to which it is not possible to apply slush or the usual rust preventatives. In no case should machinery be packed with sawdust or wood chips when these materials can get among the parts of the gearings, as this occasions the receiver an endless amount of trouble and unnecessary annoyance. *' Shipping Weights. — The War Department in its over- seas shipments advised that ** packages over l,66o pounds or less than 200 pounds are to be avoided when prac- ticable." Of course, it is not always practicable to reduce weights to this limit, and where port and interior transportation facilities at destination are such as to permit the easy handling of heavy packages there is no objection to bulk. It must also be remembered that a heavy case weighing perhaps several tons cannot be thrown around and handled so roughly during transit as can smaller cases ; and that the officers of ships always pay particular and personal attention to the handling of such extremely heavy cases, because of the damage which would be done to their own vessel and to lighters or quays should freight of this description be suddenly dropped on decks or down hatchways into the holds of vessels. An English authority calls attention to the packing in small cases sometimes required : ^^In packing shipments for crude, rough transporta- tion to interior and almost inaccessible points in such countries as Colombia, to mines in other countries simi- larly situated in regard to transportation facilities, it is necessary to remember that machines should be disunited and heavy parts reduced to the lightest weight possible, because bulky and heavier pieces are always left by muleteers for long periods while the lighter packages are first transported. Of course, there are some struc- tural parts, such as base castings, where the size and weight are fixed quantities and which it is impossible to 344 EXPORT PACKING transport on muleback. Such parts should be stripped of everything, including bolts, nuts and removable parts, and then bolted on skids both top and bottom so that they can be hauled by mules or oxen as the custom is in these countries for interior deliveries. Machines des- tined for such interior points are frequently exposed to the weather for many days, heavy rains succeeded by intense heat, and sometimes such machinery may be covered, after two or three weeks ' exposure, with several inches of mud.'* Construction of Cases and Crates. — One fact which must always be taken into consideration in packing ma- chinery for export is the fact that cases or crates are as likely as not to be turned on their sides or even stowed upside down. This general subject has already been thoroughly treated in other pages of this volume. It is, however, believed desirable to reprint at this point further observations and instructions bearing on the construction of cases and crates, even at the risk of repetition. The following advice is transmitted by the New York representative of the High Commission of a foreign gov- ernment from whose communications on the subject of export packing quotations have already been made : ^'For shipping heavy material which is subject to damage in transit and deterioration if exposed to the weather, the following principles should be adhered to in crating such material: *' Depending upon the size of the crates containing automobiles, trucks or other large heavy machines, these crates should be constructed of good material only and have such a general strength that they can resist the bending and twdsting forces which may be applied to them when they are handhd in loading and unloading, carried in slings, etc. This means that the floors of these crates shall be amply thick, of double thickness planking in many cases, and that the bottom, sides, ends and top of the crate be well strengthened by interior bracing and that the construction of the corners be such that the Courtesy of Babcock Printing Press Mfg. Co. Packing a Printing Press. A numhiT 6 Htandard track being placed in the skeleton of its crate. The crate is made of material I14" thick. Note how the track is bedded in excelsior. Courtesy of Babcock Printing Press Mfg. Co. Completed Crate for Track. The track shown in the previo^us illustration completely crated a/nd in the process of being moved from box shop to car. 345 Courtesy of Bahcock Printing Press Mfg. Co. Packing Units of Printing Press. The "outrigger" hox on a number 6 Standard Press. The balance wheel can he seen beneath the feeder's platform. Note the method of placing parts in boxes. Box is made of boards 1%" thick. Measurements over all 3' x V x V. Courtesy of Babcock Printing Press Mfg. Co. A Crated Printing Press Side Frame. The material from which this crate is made is IV^"- thick. Nate that three thicknesses of this material are placed crosiwise of each other on each side of frame. A crate containing a pair of feed table brackets stands at left. 346 THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 347 bottom, sides, ends and top are well tied together. In this connection it is preferable that lag screws or bolts be used as fastenings in the corners rather than nails; also, that the bracing of the sides and the ends consist of both diagonal and vertical braces. * ' Not less than three skids of large cross section and of a length equal to the total length of the crate should be fitted to the bottom of the crate. The transverse strength of the crate must be such that the crate can resist the eifect of crushing when it is raised with slings. Suitable chocks, blocks, etc., must be securely fastened to the bottom or floor of the crate, to which chocks, blocks, etc., can be attached the truck or other machinery con- tained in the crate in such a way as to insure that there will be no movement of this machinery. In addition to the above mentioned attachments to the bottom of the crate, it is often desirable that the contents of the crate be braced firmly In place with such additional shores or chocks as may be necessary to prevent all tendency to movement. '^It is important that the crate have sufficient local strength to avoid damage to its contents if small heavy articles are placed on top. For example, in some ship- ments, owing to carelessness on the part of the steve- dores, heavy coils of barbed wire were often placed on the tops of crates containing machines, with a consequent damage to the contents of these crates. *^It is desirable to have the sides and top of the crate made of matched boards rather than plain boards, although satisfactory crates are often constructed by using plain boards in conjunction with a good grade of strong waterproof paper. It is desirable to use such waterproof paper on the bottom, sides, ends and top of the crates, although when matched boards are used it is often omitted on the sides and ends.^' The specifications of the General Engineer Depot of the War Department, among other things, provide that all packing should be as light in weight as possible and cubic contents kept to a minimum in order to economize 348 EXPORT PACKING shipping space; but the paramount consideration must always be safe handling. Brittle pine crates of half- inch board are worthless. **Each case or crate should be firmly bound with strap or band iron. Straps should be not less than one inch wide No. 18 gauge. Ends should overlap at least 6 inches. ^^All lumber used in boxing and packing to be strictly sound and of such dimensions as to insure full protection under rough handling. Under no circumstances should outside boxing be less than 13/16 inch thick. ^'Packages over 300 pounds should be packed in not less than 2-inch stock, additional straps and bindings to be used at every 2V2 inches for boxes exceeding 3 feet in length. *^ Boxes 600 pounds weight or over shall have 4x4-inch skids, top and bottom of box, securely bolted together with %-inch diameter bolts, and these bolts, wherever possible, should extend entirely through the box. To prevent shifting, ends of box must be securely braced inside. *'Use yellow pine, gum, white pine, spruce and hem- lock lumber surfaced one or more sides. This gives a desirable uniformity of thickness and makes easy sten- ciling on more than one face of the package. **Use cement coated or barbed wire nails — 8-penny and 10-penny. This is important to make the nails hold. Not less than two in end of any board and not over four inches apart in wide boards. Six-inch boards, three nails. ^*Use corner posts in all packages.*' From Siberia advice is given that all cases weighing over 500 pounds be fitted with skids as there is no modern freight handling machinery in eastern Siberia, and all shipments for interior cities should receive extra strong packing as, in addition to the crude methods of handling cargo at Vladivostok, they are subject to very much rougher handling in unloading from the railway cars into river barges and again at landing; it is very likely that they will again receive rough handling in long hauls in primitive carts before reaching their destination. THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 349 Packing of Machine Tools. — American machine tool manufacturers have for many years devoted the closest attention to disassembling, and export packages of this class of machinery give very interesting solutions of this particular problem. In addition, the machine tool pre- sents very nice questions of proper balancing and bracing as well as the packing of the stripped portions. We find machinery of this character provided with the most delicate adjustments. Proper protection of the different surfaces is also most highly essential and this presents another angle of the packing problem. Through the kindness of a prominent manufacturer, several photographs are reproduced in connection with this chapter which show practice that is the result of many years' experience constantly checked with results from the consignees * standpoint. A study of the bracing of the cases and of the machine, as shown in these photo- graphs, will be of great value to all interested in export packing. By comparing the cubic contents of the assem- bled machine with the completed export boxes (see cuts appearing on pages 328 and 335) some idea will be gath- ered of the extent to which the machine in question, in process of being shipped to Holland, has been stripped and the care with which it has been packed. All finished surfaces throughout the machine are covered with a spe- cial slushing compound, developed by this particular manufacturer for his own use, and which has been found to successfully resist ravages of moisture and salt air. Hoisting Machinery. — Among many interesting let- ters which have been received detailing practices of experienced manufacturers in the export packing of their products, the following from a well known manufacturer of hoisting machinery is notable: *'No general rule can ever be laid down for export packing, because the size of the lumber always depends upon the weight, shape and size of the piece boxed. The first thing to en- sure is a strong envelope and then to secure the part which goes into the envelope with cross bracing in such a manner that it is absolutely tight, so that jerks, jars 350 EXPORT PACKING and slamming around cannot loosen it and cause it to slip and slide around until it breaks the box. The object is, of course, to provide packing that will stand rough usage in transit ; this is a first consideration, but it must be obtained at minimum cost and with minimum weight. We have found in our experience that crates will not stand up under handling and do not furnish adequate opportunities for inside bracing, nor do they furnish protection against weather, and are often actually torn off by the use of hooks or broken by handling in slings. Flat straps securely fastened by nails and passed entirely around the case should be used. Comer straps and wire straps are entirely inadequate. For marking we use a stencil cutting machine but where foreign alphabets are used, such as the Eussian, Chinese, etc., we have a draftsman make a drawing of the mark, from which a brass stencil is made.'^ Another large shipper of hoisting machinery writes of his experience and practice in shipping as follows: ^*0n boxes or crates ranging from three to five feet square and approximately six to eight feet in length, carrying a weight of from two to four tons, the box or crate should be made with bottom skids of 3"x4" or 4"x4" pine lumber beveled at the ends to permit application of slings and rollers. The floor of our boxes is made of 2-inch plank, vertical posts of from 2"x4" to 3"x4" tim- bers bolted directly to the bottom skids. Sides, tops and ends of our cases we make from li/4-inch S2S pine. Boxes carrying a greater weight than four tons must be made from very heavy lumber for skids, vertical posts, sides, tops and ends, some of our cases having 8"x8" skids and 6''x6'' posts with 2-inch plank for the sides, tops and ends. Large pieces of machinery are bolted to the floor, sides or ends, or securely held by blocking and strap iron to prevent shifting. Small parts are invariably packed in straw or excelsior and always- wrapped in oilcloth or waterproof paper when of a char- acter likely to be damaged by moisture. Further water- proofing is provided by the use of tarred paper inside Couftcay of Chandler d Price Co. Method of Interior Bracing. Ccise contains printing press packed for export.. Platform has as its base henry 2" boards on which at cither end is placed a 2" x 6" cleat. Space be- tween cleats is filled by 1" boards, making a strong and substantial platform. Sides of case arc made of^unplaced I" selected Norway pine. Machine is bolted to platform and case braced in all directions by 2" x i" stuff. i:iH ^ 1 P-: 9 ^ i ^:-^'- m 1 y^^ .HH'. W Ui _. 1 Courtesy of Chandler & Price Co, Printing Press Packed for Muleback This is the same press shown in previous illustration. 351 Courtesy of Boston Wire Stitcher Co. Packing of Wire Stitching Machine, Pieces shown are the interior bracing heforc being pUwcd in case where they are identified by corresponding numbers. For detailed description see text. 352 THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 353 the cases. All parts are given from one to two coats of paint and bright parts are slushed with a compound made of white lead and tallow.'* Steam Pumps.— Several photographs illustrating the export packing of a large manufacturer of steam pumps and similar machinery are reproduced on pages 336 and 339. Writing in regard to its packing the company in question states that the following features of its prac- tice are to be noted in addition to the details explained in the captions : In the cut on page 336, it is to be noted that the discharge air chamber has been removed and is bolted and blocked to the platform underneath the ma- chine. All accessories, such as speed governor, lubri- cators, oil cups, wrenches, etc., are packed in small boxes which are also placed underneath the machine in order to utilize space to best advantage. Another cut (page 339) directs special attention to the manner in which the steam pump is supported inside the case by blocks placed under the solid flanged portions of the pump, keeping the feet from touching the bottom. The entire weight is not carried by the bottom of the case as the sides help sup- port the weight by the cross braces nailed to them. The top cross braces are so designed as to hold the pump firmly against lateral movements. This case is believed to be as compact as possible under the circumstances, the important feature in saving freight rates. Another photograph supplied by this manufacturer, reproduced at top of page 336, illustrates a vertical triplex power pump mounted on 3"x6" spruce skids. The cross brace shown is of the same material and size. Extra Heavy Machinery. — No general rules can be laid down as to the packing or lack of packing or even the special protection that is required in exporting large and heavy machinery, especially when of irregular shapes. A manufacturer of machinery of this descrip- tion writes that it is practically impossible to construct a package that will stand the strain of the weight in handling with ropes and slings and it is, therefore, very much better frequently to use as little crating as possible 354 EXPORT PACKING on such pieces, as in some instances crating would be certain to give way and permit shocks which might cause the lines to slip or part. Photographs supplied by this manufacturer, v/hich are reproduced on pages 371, 602, are submitted as illustrating the reasonableness of the claim made. It is stated that the practice is to place boards over finished bored holes and bearings, and to wrap with burlap and protect by narrow strips of wood fastened together with steel bands, the smooth finished surfaces, as on shafts, etc. All such machinery is dis- mantled or knocked down so far as possible to make the individual pieces of the lightest weight. Each individual piece is stenciled with paint in good sized letters and figures showing consigning marks, over all dimensions and gross weights. The packing of large pieces, boilers, etc., may be illustrated by the packing shown on page 371, of a con- denser prepared for export shipment by a prominent American manufacturer. In this case the saddles and feet are not cast integral with the shell. The cut is felt to adequately explain the packing believed necessary and desirable. Printing Presses. — It is doubtful if any one class -of American machinery has been more widely distributed all over the world than have our printing presses. The United States is without doubt the country of greatest progress in the graphic arts, and the spur has been con- stantly applied to the production of machinery that has expressed high attainment in economy, efficiency and simplicity. A number of American manufacturers of printing machinery have a worldwide distribution of their products, and have supplied some interesting pho- tographs of their export pacting methods and practices which are reproduced in connection with this chapter. The printing press varies from a fairly light machine to one weighing a number of tons, and while it is not a piece of precision machinery, it is none the less one of fine adjustments to which careful attention must be given in packing. One well known manufacturer sup- THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 355 plies us with photographs (see pages 345 and 346), and writes: **We have found after thorough investigation that the chief cause for broken parts has been due to their being packed too tightly in the vessel; that when large parts, like frames, tracks, etc., were broken it was not safe merely to make the cases of heavier lumber. ** Relative to the material used, we may say that we have always felt that spruce was best. It is very tough, does not split readily and is strong — a combination which is not found in many of the ordinary hard woods used for boxing. For export boxes we use from l^-inch up to 1%-inch lumber and in the vital places we use two boards, spiking them firmly together. A plank made of two thick- nesses thus spiked together is often far stronger than a single plank, although this is only one reason for using this method, the other being our own convenience in not having to carry so many different sizes of lumber in stock. ^ * Other cuts illustrating the packing of printing ma- chinery by another manufacturer are shown herewith (page 351), and are adequately explained by the captions to these cuts. Still other illustrations of the packing of printing presses have been supplied by a third manufacturer in the two cuts appearing on page 340 which show six dif- ferent packages. The placards attached showing weights in pounds and kilos were merely supplied for the pur- pose of photographing, in order to give the reader an idea of the weight of each package in connection with the quality of the packing furnished. In reference to these packages, further details are necessary than it is possible to supply in suitable captions to the cuts. The manufacturer supplies the following data: ''Crate No. 1 contains side frames and is made by taking two pieces 2"x4"x7' long. Fasten these together with five cleats I"x6"xl3i/^" in such a manner that the corners are flush. The top consists of two pieces; one, I"x6"x7' and one, l"x7V2"x7'. Fasten together with three cleats l"x6"xl3i/2" ; then fill in with I"x6"xl3y2" 356 EXPORT PACKING cleats until top is solid. The ends are composed of three pieces, each I"x8"xl5" nailed across the two upright sides. The sides are composed of seven pieces, each V x8"x4'3", making fourteen pieces in all. All of the side pieces on each side are long enough so that the end is nailed to the cleats on top and bottom. Three pieces I"x8"x7'2" are then nailed on each side lengthwise, full length of the crate — one in the center ; one 41/2" from the top and the other 2" from the bottom. *'The inside braces are made as follows: Two pieces %"x8%"xl6", with a small cleat between at each end, thus forming a space between, are nailed together and placed inside between the front and back part of the frames with a %" bolt running completely through the two frames, sideboards, and brace to hold this brace in position. There is one of these braces at each end. One piece 2"x8%"x7' is nailed to the bottom on the inside to keep bottom of frames apart. One piece %"x8"x4', hardwood, is nailed upright between center of the two side frames to keep frames from spreading. Two cleats I"x6"xl6i4" are nailed to this upright and the ends nailed to the upright side pieces. Two pieces I"x7"x8", with small cleats between, are nailed together and placed be- tween the cylinder boxes in side frames, and a y2"xl8" bolt running completely through the sides, cylinder boxes and braces. **Nine iron bands, each 28" long are nailed, three each, over top, bottom and ends, overlapping 4" on each side. Formerly these merely extended over the corners and not completely across the ends, bottom and top. ** Crate No. 2 contains center girts. Each end con- sists of two pieces, each 2"x5"x24i/2" and 2"x4"x24i/2", the former being on the gear side and the latter on the opposite side. Inside of these, to hold them together, are nailed two cleats each I"x6"xl6", in such a manner as to allow the end of the main gear shaft to extend up between the 2" end pieces. Two %" bolt holes are made through the 2"x5" and 2"x4" end pieces at each end of the crate. Through these holes, %"x2y2" cap screws (1 & 2) Courtesy of Sleeper and HditU y, inc. Base op Case for Nail Machine. The base conaiats of S heary longitudinal skids A, A^, A-, covered by a platform of heavy boards, B. An additional feature of the base (illustration 2, end view of base) is a temporarily attached framework C, shown in illustration 3 as the framework for the cover. Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. (3) Framework op Case. Machine is lowered into position on base and bolted thereto. Central sup- port D, which is long enough to stretch across two base skids, is put in place and wooden wedges are driven between D and bottom of machine to prevent shrinking of s^ipport. Upright eo^-ner boards E. E\ E', E^, upper framework G, side supports F, end supports O, and supporting timhera if, H^, H^, etc., care nailed into position. 35l Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartlev, Inc. (4) Another View of Framework of Case. Thia Uluatration shows aide oj case opposite to that reproduced in S. Courtesy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. (5) The Completed Case. Note that upper comers of case K are hevielled off to prevent splintering of corner cover hoards by angular blows. Heavy band iron is <;arri€d around case and over top in two places, L. The skids are bevelled off and end covering boards are not allowed to go down over ends of skids; side boards do not touch floor within half an inch. 558 THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 359 which are used with the machine are placed in order to hold the contents solid. These bolts go into the tapped holes in the center girt. Each side is composed of three pieces, each I"x6"x4'2". Two of these are nailed to the ends so that they are flush with the end pieces at the corners, the other one being equal distance between. The top consists of seven pieces I"x6"xl9", nailed to sides. The bottom is composed of three pieces l"x6" x4'2", nailed to ends lengthwise, for skids. For the in- side braces two pieces 2"x3"xl6" are nailed to each side piece to hold the gears in place. The crate is then en- circled at each end with an iron band 6' long. Twelve bands 11" long are used at side and end pieces. *' Crate No. 3 contains the troughs. Bottom is made of two skids 2x4 inches, 6 feet 6 inches in length, cleated together with five cleats each 1x6x12 inches, end cleats being one inch from the end of skids. The sides are composed of four pieces, each 1x6 inches and 6 feet 6 inches in length, cleated together with five cleats on each side lx6xl9V2 inches, the sides being nailed to the bottom with the cleats inward. The top is made from eight pieces 1x8x171/2 inches nailed across to the sides of the crate. Two pieces 1x6 inches, 6 feet 6 inches long, are then nailed lengthwise on top to form skids. The ends are made of 1x8 inches stuff, 141/2 inches long or cut to fit from side to side. Three iron bands are then nailed com- pletely around the center and ends of the crate. **Box No. 4 contains the cylinder of press whose packing is now being described. The bottom of this box consists of two pieces 2x4 inches, 4 feet 10 inches in length, nailed together with boards running crosswise 17 inches long, making the size of the bottom 17 inches by 4 feet 10 inches. The top is made of exactly the same size material. The sides are made of boards 16 inches in length nailed to top and bottom, all boards being flush at the ends. The ends consist of 16-inch boards cross- wise from top to bottom. Four cleats 1x4 inches and 4 feet 10 inches long, are nailed on the sides at the comers the full length of the box. Between these cleats there 360 EXPORT PACKING are nailed three cleats on each side 1x4x11 inches, the ends of the latter meeting the longer cleats. One of these cleats on each side is in the center of the box, the other four being at the corners. Iron bands are placed completely around the ends and center of the box over" the 11-inch cleats. ^'Box No. 5 contains small parts of this printing press. The ends of the box are made 16 inches deep of lx28-inch boards, cleated together with lx4-inch cleats 20 inches long, the latter extending 1 inch on each end but flush with the ends of the boards. The sides are 5 feet 10 inches long, 16 inches wide, of 1-inch boards nailed to the ends flush with the cleats of the latter. The top and bottom are made of 1-inch boards, 5 feet 10 inches long by 30 inches wide, nailed to the ends. Four cleats 30 inches long are then nailed across the bottom, and the same on the top, two of them being at the corners, the other two at equal distances between. The eight side cleats are long enough to overlap the top and bottom cleats. The connecting top, bottom and side cleats are reenforced at the corners with bands 12 inches long. Four bands are nailed over each end at the corners bind- ing the end cleats to the top and bottom cleats. Two cleats I"x6"x5'10" are nailed to one side of the box and these serve as skids. Four iron bands approximately 8" long are nailed to each end of skids, lapping 4" over the end of box. **Box No. 6 contains fountain, and is made with two one piece ends, each 8V2x8x2 inches. The sides are also preferably in one piece 55x8x1 inch. The top and bottom are made of stuff 55x101/2x1 inch. ** Three iron bands 40" long are nailed completely around the box, one at each end and the other around the center. **The lumber used is so-called hard wood, usually gum. By referring to boxes Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 5 it will be noticed that on one side at least the cleats run full length of box, serving as skids so that the box can be handled on rollers when necessary. On boxes 2 and 6 these skid- THE PACKING OF MACHINERY 361 cleats are not necessary as the boards run the long way of box. Our theory is that some provision should be made so that every box can be handled on rollers when required. ^ * Wire Stitching Machinery.— The wire stitching ma- chine is a good example of a small machine that re- quires very careful export packing. While by no means fragile or delicate, as are precision machinery and instruments, it is none the less a highly specialized piece of machinery which must be carefully packed if fine adjustments are to be conserved and the machine is to arrive at destination in good condition. It has many bright and nickeled parts and must be carefully pro- tected by proper slushing in addition to being thoroughly wrapped in waterproof paper. The wedging used inside the case must positively guarantee against motion, or damage would inevitably result. The accompanying photograph (page 352) is supplied by a concern which has made an exhaustive study of suitable export packing for its machinery. The blocking or wedges shown both outside the case and in position in the packed case, bearing duplicate numbers, display the thought which has been given to the question of suitable wedging for the machine. In explaining the method of packing this company writes : * ' The finished parts are coated with a slushing grease and then wrapped in waterproof paper. The blocking No 1 is first nailed together, consisting of three pieces, and is then placed in position inside the case, one end only showing in the photograph, that being the long end. The machine is then placed in position so that the back is firmly locked in Notch A of block No. 1. The next process is the bolting of the machine to the bottom with %x3y2-inch carriage bolts. Block No. 2, with notch as shown, is then placed over the top of the frame and pressed down firmly. Block No. 3 is used to hold the machine against-No. 1, and block No. 4 holds the machine down and acts as an auxiliary to the car- riage bolts. The small box shown at the left of the case contains the work-table and small parts removed from 362 EXPORT PACKING the head of the machine. It is 26%x5%x3 inches. This is nailed in position and block No. 5 is then attached and the case is complete as shown and ready for its cover. These cases are made of 1 1/16-inch native eastern pine, tongued and grooved with tongues glued. The ends are cleated and the box nailed with 10-penny cement coated wire nails, bound with strap iron on both ends and in the center. The particular case shown is 45x151/2x25 inches inside measurement.'^ Wire Working Machinery.— A prominent manufac- turing firm, making machinery for working wire, sup- plies photographs (see cuts on pages 357, 358, 363 and 364), with the following notable description of the pack- ing, and the methods employed : * * By way of preface, we might say that we have been making shipments for a number of years to Australasia, India, China, Japan, South and Central America, the British Isles, and the Continent of Europe, as well as to the countries bordering the Mediterranean. **The methods of packing and boxing which we have adopted and which will be illustrated and described hereafter, have been such that we have had no complaints of breakage from our foreign customers, nor have our casings ever been considered insufficient or inadequate. On the contrary, we have had a number of unsolicited testimonials from foreign customers and agents, compli- menting us upon the manner in which our packing has withstood the varied conditions of handling, stowing and shipping, all over the world. The head of our shipping department has had a long and varied experience in con- nection with export packing and shipping, and has had also a very varied experience at sea and in foreign ports, so that he is thoroughly familiar with all the conditions of handling and stowing freight on ships, lighters and dock, in all of the countries mentioned. .,** Apart from the strength of the base and outer casings, our main reliance is placed upon a system of strutting or buttressing, whereby the machine is very securely supported within the case, so that it will travel t dyuHcsy of Sleeper and Hartley, Inc. (6) Packing of Spring-Coiling Machine. A solid and compact machine weighing 10 tons and having few open spaces. Base of case N is made of two thicknesses of hoard, IVi" KK Jioxhu FOR Export. The trailer is shipped knocked down. Boxes hound with 1" No. 22 strap iron naned on. Corners are reenforced icith No. lit sheet steel. * 402 PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 403 crates, all places which should be painted (but were not covered at the time the spraying was done) will be painted with a brush; also all parts of the assembly marred in making the disassembly will be re-painted with the brush. *'13. Tools and spare parts : Tools will be packed in a box made of 1" material, 20i/>" long, 16%" wide and 14 34" high; and spare parts will be packed in two (2) boxes made of 1" material, one of which is the same size as the tool box and the other size 41'- long, 10" wide and 9" high/' Hand Plows. — A large exporter of hand plows gives us the following information regarding packing for ex- port shipment : '*In packing plows for export shipment we always knock them down completely or disassemble all parts. The plow bottoms proper, which consist of the standard, mouldboard, share and landside, are usually packed in one case, placing about six of these bottoms in one box. Prairie hay is packed between the parts so as to prevent breakage. We have found this to be the best material that we can get hold of for this purpose, as it will not move or shift around in the box like shavings or some other materials that are sometimes used. The hay is very tough and even when the cases are occasionally sub- jected to rain or weather conditions, this hay remains just the same as when placed in the cases. *'If the plows are fitted with steel beams, we usually pack the beams for six or twelve plows in a case and the wood handles in another case, so that the iron parts will have no chance of scratching the paint on the wood parts. **If the plows are fitted with wood beams, the usual custom is to pack the handles and beams in one case. When there are nothing but wood parts in a case no hay, of course, is required as everything is packed tightly and if necessary, cleats are nailed in the cases so as to keep everything in perfect position. **The cases themselves are made from good quality 404 EXPORT PACKING pine crating or boxing lumber of one inch in thickness. Occasionally it is necessary to use some hard wood lum- ber where a little more weight than usual is to be placed in the cases. You will note that they are cleated at the corners on each end, giving strength and also providing better facilities for fastening on the lid. All cases, which are five foot or more in length, especially if considerable weight is placed in them, are also provided with cleats in the middle on the inside of the cases, on both sides and the bottom. ^*A11 cases are bound with heavy strap iron and ex- tremely well nailed. The small cases are bound on each end with strap iron, while the longer ones are also bound in the middle and if exceptionally long we place two bands of strap iron in the middle, making four alto- gether. **The average weight of our cases is around 400 pounds gross and they very seldom weigh more than 650 to 700 pounds. For the West Coast of South America the cases, of course, are somewhat smaller and we always follow closely the wishes of our customers when they want the weight held down to the minimum on account of having to carry the cases over the mountains on mule- back. **We have in charge of our export packing depart- ment an old and experienced employee, w4io takes a spe- cial interest in the business and a special pleasure in seeing to it that all goods reach destination in the same condition they leave the factory." Another large shipper writes us: *'We use double end cases built of North Carolina or Georgia pine, and banded with hoop iron. In packing the boxes we are careful to see that there are no bulges in the middle, as these will bring the weight of the cargo unnecessarily upon the contents of the box, and result in breakage without any apparent cause. Normally, we pack 3 plows in a box, but the small plows go 6 in a box, and the heavy contractor's plows 2 in a box. **The plows are set up complete with the exception PACKING AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY 405 of the handles, and are then knocked down, all of the parts of the plow being together so that every plow can be assembled with the same parts. While it is true that plow parts are interchangeable, it is not possible to as- semble and polish them, and after tearing them down, to build them from parts at random, and have them look as well as the original plow. The iron and steel parts are packed in excelsior, and the wood parts are protected from damage through contact with the iron parts by a thin strip of wood. The handles are included, so that each box contains all the parts to complete the plows. ^'We endeavor to keep the boxes to within the limit of about 450 pounds, as our experience shows that heav- ier boxes show a great increase of breakage.'' In connection with this information the photographs reproduced together on page 409 will be found of interest. Cut No. 1 shows a box of plow parts before being nailed up. The use of prairie hay for packing between cast parts or between steel and wood parts to prevent scratch- ing of painted surfaces will be noted. Before the box is finally nailed up additional hay is put on top and the case is filled as full as possible. Cut No. 2 shows a carload of goods all boxed, packed, stenciled and marked and ready for loading. CHAPTER XV THE PACKING OF HARDWARE, TOOLS, AUTO- MOBILE ACCESSORIES, SMALL APPARATUS IT is very probable that one of the very important reasons for the success that has attended American export trade in hardware and tools has been due to the character of the packing and the care with which the firms most prominent in the work have distinguished their export effort. The neat, carefully wrapped and cartoned American tool or fine hardware is a delight to the foreign merchant and is constantly winning us good grace and favor. The character of the American export package is in direct contrast to the European method, and this is fairly surprising in view of the care with which the European export package is usually looked after. The fact is, how- ever, that the continental manufacturers usually ship tools either loose or uninvitingly wrapped in brown paper, and the merchandise hardly graces the merchants ' shelves when once it has been unpacked and piled up as best the situation permits. It is not alone the neat carton that commends the American package of tools or hardware, it is also the well considered export case in which the goods are placed. The best practice of the United States has developed an excellent export case for this class of goods, and the man abroad who takes his exercise along the docks from time to time is more than once pleased to note many excellent cases with the name of some well known American man- ufacturer of tools or hardware stamped thereon. Character of Complaints. — However, no American manufacturer of hardware or tools and similar goods should delude himself into the belief that his packing is 406 THE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 407 necessarily perfect. Not a few complaints are constantly being received from foreign customers of American man- ufacturers as to the unsatisfactory condition in which various commodities are received. For example, a letter from a large New York export merchant specializing in the shipping of hardware and tools reports several com- plaints recently received. One from Australia referred to the light, frail cases which many American manufac- turers use and the soft woods employed for making the cases which are not at all suited for the long sea journey. Another complaint received by this merchant from customers in India refers to the same characteristic of some American packing, that is, cases too light and iron banding both too narrow and too light weight. Fur- thermore, the Indian customers of the New York exporter declare that there is a very large breakage of iron cast- ings due to the totally insufficient use of excelsior or other stuffing material. Other complaints of the way in which some American hardware is shipped are voiced in a letter on this sub- ject from another export merchant, wJio declares that his foreign customers very frequently complain of the poor quality of the cardboard boxes which are used for con- taining shelf hardware, padlocks, etc., which frequently arrive torn or crushed. This is attributed both to the fact that the cardboard used is too light in weight and to the fact that the cartons are not quite filled, leaving empty spaces which make crushing almost inevitable, be- sides permitting the contents to rattle about. If cartons are not quite full they should be firmly wadded with tis- sue or waste paper. Of course, damage to a cardboard box which is intended for shelf display purposes is quite a serious handicap to the free development of further and larger business. Naturally all such cartons of hardware ought to be very firmly packed inside of the wooden cases. Complaint it seems is also sometimes received as to inadequate waterproofing protection of cases of hard- ware. To this is attributed the spots of rust which are frequently found and interfere seriously with the sal- 408 EXPORT PACKING ability of the goods. Furthermore, one export merchant protests against the use of thoroughly inadequate cases in the packing of very expensive lines of hardware, and rightly believes that the more valuable the contents the greater the care which ought to be devoted to their pro- tection. Examples of Actual Practice.— It is worthy of note that by no means a small percentage of hardware ex- ports is dispatched in kegs and barrels instead of in cases. This form of package is probably preferred in most instances because a keg or barrel is considerably cheaper than a suitable export packing case. Shipments in this form of container will be found discussed in a special chapter dealing with barrelled goods. In this connection one of the largest manufacturers of cast-iron cistern pumps in the United States declares that while his shipments are customarily exported in barrels, for which a charge is made only about one-half of what would be necessary if packing cases were used, yet he has one customer in Europe to whom these common cast-iron pumps are shipped entirely naked. In this particular case, the explanation is that the merchandise is trans- ported by a direct steamship line plying between New York and the city where the customer is located, and the line in question is one of the oldest and most careful steamship companies in the world paying special atten- tion to the handling of cargo of all sorts. The customer in this instance believes that he suffers less loss from breakage when the pumps are shipped naked than the cost even of barrels amounts to. Of course, instances like this are not to be considered as precedents. All goods, hardware and everything else, must always in the absence of special agreements with customers be shipped with the fullest and most adequate protection possible. From the experience in letters received from a great many dif- ferent manufacturers of various kinds of hardware, a few extracts may be made as illustrating the practice and pol- icy of large shippers who have been exporting their goods for a great many years. SI/ of South Bend Chilled Plow Co. Boxing Plow Parts. Shows the box before being nailed up. Prairie hay is packed around plow handles, beaviK, etc., to prevent scratching of paint. It is likewise used for packing between cast parts. The case is filled full of hay before nailing. Courtesy of South Bend Chilled Plow Co. A Carload op Goods Ready for Shipment. ^09 ('ou)ttsij 0} Uoudcll-Pratt Co. Packing of Small Tools. These ca^es are lined with specially prepared waterproof paper. Tools are packed in strong paper covered cartons. Courtesy o] Case of Small Tools. iitt tv. Banding for this case is of moderately heavy grade fttrap with turned edges. Shipping marks and case numbers are stenciled in 2" letters. 410 THE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 411 One prominent manufacturer writes: **As we man- ufacture over 2,000 different tools, no two of which are of the same size and shape, it is necessary for us to carry in stock a large assortment of packing cases of various sizes in order to avoid the all too common error of ship- ping in cases involving an excessive amount of waste space. Summing up our experience of nearly thirty years in export shipping, w^e believe it is necessary for ex- porters to study continually both qualities and styles of cases, method of packing, case lining, style of band iron used and method of applying, as well as the stenciling and handling of the packages. **We use in every instance new cases of pine in order to save weight and get maximum strength. Our largest cases measure 37%" x 26" x 123/4" and all our cases of the larger sizes are made from Ys" stock in what is known by box manufacturers as Style No. 3 (with mitered cleated ends). Our smaller cases (see cuts page 410) are made in the regular manner, but when they are used for shipping hack saw blades the box ends are made of plump 2" lumber and the sides, top and bottom run from yg" to 1". (This case, as shown in the photograph, measures approximately 291/2" x 12%" x 5%" and is a very durable and satisfactory package.) ^^Then we line all of our export cases with a specially prepared paper which is waterproof and keeps out both water and moisture, does not tear too easily and above all does not stain or soil pasteboard cartons with oil or smut. ** Whenever waste space is unavoidable in a case it is carefully filled with crumpled bogus paper. We never use'excelsior, hay or straw, as any of the three will break up into small particles and get into the pasteboard car- tons with the tools, thereby making all the cartons untidy when they are opened for the inspection of purchasers. Bogus paper is a very cheap grade of paper which will crumple up easily and make a soft but weight repelling packing. **A11 items which we manufacture except small ones, such as nail sets, gimlet bits, screwdrivers, etc., are 412 EXPORT PACKING packed one each in a strong paper covered carton. Be- fore packing each tool is wrapped in waxed or anti-rust paper. The smaller items, nail sets, etc., are packed in similar fashion except that they are put up in lots of half dozen or one dozen to a pasteboard carton. ** Unless the cartons stand up a very little above the sides of the case, it is customary with us to place one, two or three thicknesses of corrugated paper over the entire contents in order to keep all the cartons in place and avoid the possibility of shifting, then the cover is nailed down with cement coated nails used in sufficient quantities to draw the cover tight all around the case. **For banding cases we use a moderately heavy grade of iron with turned edges and apply with a small hand machine which stretches bands tight before nailing. ** Stenciling shipping marks and case numbers is done with 2" letters, the forwarding agent's name and address with a smaller stencil, as will be rioted in the photograph supplied. In our experience we have found that this is one of the most important points quite often overlooked when cases are stenciled for export shipment. Great care should be taken (a) to see that stencils of the proper size are used, (b) to place the markings in good position on the case, (c) to use a good grade of water repelling stenciling ink. * ' Other photographs supplied by another prominent manufacturer (see page 415) are self-explanatory. This manufacturer again advises the use of good quality white pine lumber in making cases, believing it light and very durable. He also urges the use of waterproof ink in marking cases ; one that will not wash off or smudge. Packing Saws.— Advices have been received from two different manufacturers of saws in regard to the methods employed by them in export packing. One manufacturer writes that '^we use matched lumber yg" thick, line with waterproof paper, and bind with iron strapping %" wide drawn very tight. The goods are firmly blocked inside the box by means of cleats, etc., and articles liable to breakage are carefully packed in excelsior. The out- THE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 413 side ends of our cases are reenforced by cleats of %" lumber, as illustrated in the attached sketches/' A second manufacturer of saws uses heavier material as will be observed from the letter which follows : * ^ On the larger saws for mills we go over each saw with a solution to guard against rust and the saws are packed in cases lined with keep-dry paper. Cases are all strapped with either iron or wire as they are usually heavy and all are made of lumber at least 1" thick. 5fee/ bands ya'tvide alJw^y around at ends, nailed on Also extra band across at midd/p Court eay of E. C. Atkins d Company. Method of jxacking saws. **0n our hand saws and saws for the hardware dealer, where it is important that the polish on the saw should not be dulled, we use a special preparation which we have developed ourselves which lacquers the saw and prevents rust without in any way interfering with the polish. **Our problem is to pack our goods in such a way that they will not rust and yet without interfering with the appearance of the saw, and also to pack in cases having sufficient strength to stand hard usage, as most of our products are extremely heavy for their sizes and we have found it necessary to study carefully the correct quan- tities of each article to be put into a case. We find it necessary to watch our packing force closely so that there will be no deterioration in the quality of material used and the extreme care necessary to ensure the ar- rival of goods in satisfactory condition." 414 EXPORT PACKING Weighing Apparatus. — It is not always the concerns with the largest apparent consumer demand for their goods, nor again those manufacturing a line with ^* staple '' characteristics that distinguisli themselves pre- eminently in the field of export packing. In the course of the very extensive investigation that preceded the writ- ing of the book, the writer was impressed many times with the work that is being done and that has been done for many years by organizations active the world over, it is true, but that do not take up the first page of the newspaper every day. The above paragraph is particularly true in its ap- plication to the export work of one or two factories man- ufacturing weighing apparatus and scales. One of these factories has been in the export business for more than half a century and its activities have been characterized by a consistent effort to solve the export problem. It is interesting to note that this particular organization has proceeded along most commendable lines in determining what is and what is not adequate export packing, for fac- tory practice has been constantly checked up with results in the foreign field. The export package, therefore, in this particular case, represents an admirable blending of the technical viewpoint of the manufacturers and the practical utilitarian opinion of the consignee and user of the apparatus. A well known company sends several photographs illustrating its method of knocking down and pack- ing its weighing machines for export which are repro- duced on pages 416 and 419. Writing in this regard the company in question remarks : ^ ' Our method of packing the Scales illustrated and other varieties, is the outgrowth of our factory practice covering a good deal more than half a century, and with it have been incorporated many valuable suggestions resulting from the assistance and co- operation of numerous correspondents and customers in a large volume of business with foreign countries. There has been a very limited amount of breakage reported in any of our shipments.'' The captions attached to the Courtrsu of Greenfield Tap d Die Corp. Standard Case for JScrew Plates. l^hows waterproof envelope always employed in this case. Courtesy of Greenfield Tap d Die Corp. Packing of Screw Plates. Shows method of placing screw plates in waterproof envelope. Courtesu of Greenfield Tap d Die Corp. Case Beady to be Closed. The waterproof envelope is here shown folded and ready to 6e sealed. 415 Courtesy of The Ho ice Scale Co. Portable Platform Scale Packed. Portable platform scale dismounted and placed in an uncovered case. Courtesy of The Howe Scale Co. Packing of a Counter Scale. Counter scale knocked down and packed in case. 416 THE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 417 several cuts reproduced will be found self-explanatory. The Packing of Shotguns. — A prominent exporter states : *^ We use the greatest care in packing, first cover- ing our guns with oil, after which they are wrapped in oil paper and then receive a second wrapping in strong packing paper. Following this they are packed in in- dividual corrugated paper cartons of good weight and strength. The stock and barrels are knocked down and are so arranged in the cartons that they cannot shift about or rattle in course of transit. Finally, these individual cartons are packed in a strong and well made wooden case. For distant points like Australia we line our cases with tin but for nearby points like Cuba and Mexico we do not consider the tin lining necessary. Our cases are made of strong, heavy, matched boards and have ade- quate iron strapping at both ends.'' The Packing of Handles. — A house doing an interna- tional business in handles writes: *^Our axe, pick, sledge and similar handles are usually packed in closed cases, each containing ten dozen handles when they are destined for Europe and South American countries, but for Australia and New Zealand the cases usually con- taining only six dozen. Short handles, such as hammer and hatchet handles, are packed from twelve to twenty dozen to a case. All of our cases are made from sound lumber, its thickness depending on the style and quantity of handles to be packed. * We always use cement coated nails and strap our cases with band iron. Occasionally we ship handles in heavy burlap bags tied with two or three ply sisal rope. We have had practically no trouble because of faulty packing and no claims for loss of goods on arrival in foreign countries." The Packing of Forks, Hoes and Shovels.— A large manufacturer of forks, hoes and rakes states that ''in packing forks, hoes and especially garden rakes some waste space cannot be avoided even though cases are made to fit the length of the tools as closely as possible. Hoes, for example, are laid in the case in the following way : A few hoes are laid with heads fitting one over an- 418 EXPORT PACKING other, then a few more laid in the opposite direction, their heads fitting one on top of another, the ends of the sec- ond group or bundle being close up to the heads of the first. This leaves more or less vacant space between the bundles and our customers are always urged to order separate handles for repair purposes or small tools with which this space can be filled. Such smaller articles can usually be packed with the larger tools without increasing the size of the cases and thus both freight and packing charge is saved, as we pack the smaller tools without charge when they can be packed with other goods and do not necessitate a larger packing case/' A large shipper of hay forks, rakes and handles sends the following description of his practice in shipping these commodities: **Hay forks, rakes and handles are usually packed loose from ten to twenty dozen in a case weighing gross from 360 to 900 pounds. The cases are made of from %" to %" lumber dressed on both sides, lined with oil paper and having from two to three bands of iron around each case, the number depending upon the weight of the case. We also pack handles in skeleton crates containing from ten to twelve dozen, and sometimes in bundles without crating, containing two dozen or twenty- five handles each. * * A house making a specialty of the manufacture of shovels, which has had wide experience in export work, sends two photographs, reproduced on page 420, which sufficiently explain the packing of the shovel blades. Handles are usually not packed in the same case with the blades as no vacant spaces are left in this style of pack- ing. The handles are usually tied together and shipped separately and, in fact, the shovels themselves are some- times bound together with wire and shipped in burlap bundles. The Packing of Small Apparatus.— A good example of the fashion in which small apparatus may properly be shipped for export is to be observed in the reproduction of a photograph (page 423) of a case containing 50 water meters. The manufacturer describes this case as 419 These cases contain packed with blades hut are shipped separately ('nin-f(H!/ SS. immt ta corer find bottom, wuide to pretent A \ f Moton ore pmdked Comrte99 of Bifmr Motor Appliance Co. Packing of Motobs. te wmUrproof p mpt r mmd pimced te oepmrmte eomportmentt. **^^ of emoeo to fU mmt wmder Otmftimt. 434 TEE PACKING OF SMALL APPARATUS 425 liable to exposure are greased and each machine is then securely packed in Safepack waterproof paper. We use %" steel binding around the ends of the cases which are nailed with 8-penny cement coated nails. The photograph shows the compartments w^hich are made to hold each machine and the blocks to support shafting or extended parts.'' The Packing of Sewing Machines. — A large manufac- turer of sewing machines in sending photographs of how his goods are packed (see pages 427, 428 and 435), writes: ^'All of our machines before being packed for export are treated with an anti-rust preparation which protects all the bright parts while the goods are in tran- sit. Hand machines are packed individually in strong wooden boxes made to fit the machine and two, three or four are crated together with wooden cleats. Foot machines are packed flat, knocked down, in strong wooden cases lined with waterproof paper, each machine com- plete in its case. For some of our customers who so de- sire, certain models of our foot machines are packed two machines to a case, thus effecting some saving in weight and measurement. In fact, we employ various methods of packing as meeting the wishes and ideas of our agents in various foreign markets. **A11 of our packing cases are very strong and well made and it is seldom indeed that we hear of one of them being seriously damaged while in transit. In fact, we think that this operates against us m some cases because, as occasionally happens, a package containing a sewing machine drops out of a steamer's sling when being loaded or unloaded and strikes the dock or the deck of the ship. The case itself may withstand the shock though some of the iron castings therein may possibly be broken, and in such cases the customer is sure to take the position that the damage resulted from poor packing because there is no outside evidence of damage on the case. Fortunately, however, we have little trouble of this nature, and while we assume no responsibility for the safe delivery of the goods after they have left our hands in gobd condition. 426 EXPORT PACKING we have always maintained a liberal policy with respect to furnishing a reasonable number of parts without charge to replace damages.** In connection with export shipments of sewing ma- chines, a prominent New York export merchant calls at- tention to a complaint in this respect received from a foreign customer, who states that out of a recent ship- ment of 24 machines four arrived in broken condition. This correspondent attributes the breakage to the fact that sufficient cushioning material was not used in pro- tecting the castings of the frames, and strenuously com- plains of the loss of sales and profits because of the dam- aged and useless condition of the machines when they were received. He is of the opinion that all iron castings ought to be nested in all-around packing of excelsior or some similar material, at least 1" and preferably 2" in thickness. In this same connection attention may be directed to the instructions issued by the General En- gineer Depot of the United States Army, which have been referred to in the chapter devoted to the packing of machinery, in the course of which it is to be remarked that these instructions provide that all castings forming parts of machines must be thus cushioned when they approach closely to the walls of the exterior case. Electric Fans and Motors.— A large manufacturer writes in regard to his packing that 8-inch fan motors are usually packed 18 in a case, the blades, guards and guard supports 36 sets in a case, which is always securely strap ironed. Nine-inch motors are usually packed 12 in a case, the blades, guards and guard supports 24 sets in a case, while 12 and 16-inch fan motors are usually packed six in a case and the blades, guards and guard supports 24 sets in a case. Twelve and sixteen-inch ventilating fans are packed singly, each complete fan in a strap ironed box, three of these individual boxes being crated securely together. In the packing of ceiling fans the motors are packed in- dividually in iron strapped cases, the ceiling canopy, hook and insulated hanger being packed in the box with the mmmmammmmm Courtesy of Bijur Mntor \i,i,ii.ni^ :S^ to"? i:'«. 00 00 O O 436 EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 437 floated on top and bottom cushions and between walls of excelsior, or other similar material. The Japanese are said to have a way of packing glassware which makes a compact and fairly safe package, each article being wrapped in grass or straw, and nested whenever possible. It must always be remembered, in the packing of highly fragile commodities of any description, that ship- ping cases containing such goods will be subject to pre- cisely the identical treatment to which cases of hardware or any other commodities are subject, in loading aboard steamers, unloading into lighters, rough handling on shore, etc. The warning signal ^* Glass — Handle With are,'' no matter how big the letters with which it is sten- ciled on the outside of a case, cannot be relied upon to influence the heart or the hand of the longshoreman in the United States or in any other country, even if he understands the English language, which in our export markets is rarely the case. Shipments of glass or simi- larly fragile goods are likely to have dropped upon them at any time a ton or two of steel rails, lard, or something else, or just as likely to fall out of ships' slings onto decks or quays as are cases of boots and shoes. Shipping cases must be so constructed, and the contents so pro- tected, that our customers in other countries will be fully satisfied with their trade with us, and contrast our methods favorably with those of competing manufactur- ers in other countries. Export Packing of Sheet Glass. — Before the war, English and Belgian window and plate glass virtually controlled the markets of the world, and considerable Bel- gian glass was imported by the United States. The English packing was commended by importers in some markets for its ample cases of heavy lumber, usually from 12 to 16 plates being put into a case, tissue paper separating the plates, and preventing scratching. A layer of wood shavings was usually employed in the bottom of the case, and a smaller layer placed on top, and shavings stuffed tightly all around. From 8 to 10 of these smaller cases were then packed in the large outside container, 438 EXPORT PACKING tightly stuffed all around with straw, and finally strongly banded with iron strapping. Breakage resulting when this style of packing was employed is described as being insignificant. Belgian manufacturers packed their sheet glass tightly in a light case similar to that usually em- ployed by American manufacturers in their domestic trade. This was enclosed in a strong, heavy outside case, of sufficient size that ample cushioning was provided on all sides of the inside case, which contained the glass. Thus any blows received were distributed in such a man- ner that the glass itself was practically uninjured. Some importers have recommended that instead of having the walls of the inside case parallel with those of the outer case, it should lie diagonally, with two corners touching the outside case, but the two opposite corners thoroughly cushioned. This fashion of packing is thought by some, when the cushions are ample and properly made, to re- duce still further the risk of damage from shocks. Through the courtesy of a large American manufac- turer, there are reproduced on page 436 three cuts which illustrate clearly the different packages which this manufacturer has adopted. The company states that the lumber employed in the packing cases is nisuafly North Carolina pine, but occasionally hemlock and chest- nut, from %" to 1" for the sides, and from 1" to 11/4'' for the ends, top and bottom, when single cases are employed. Double export cases are the same, so far as the outer case is concerned, but lighter lumber is em- ployed for the inner case, usually %" thick for the sides, %" to 1" for the ends and bottom, and %" for the top. Hay or straw is used by this manufacturer in packing plate glass and window glass, and very often excelsior is used in the packing of mirrors. All glass is embedded in heavy packing ranging from V to 3" in thickness, around bottom, top, ends and sides. Paper placed be- tween the plates prevents the immediate contact of the glass, and is used in packing both mirrors and plate glass. In the case of mirrors, there is also always an envelope of waterproof paper, and when mirrors are shipped to EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 439 tropical countries, cases are tin-lined, as a final precau- tion against moisture. Cases are well battened, and en- circled with substantial iron strapping. Further and more detailed particulars are supplied as follows: window glass is packed in cases containing from 50 to 100 square feet each. GTross weights of in- dividual cases vary somewhat, but average about as follows : 50' cases — single strength 85 pounds per case double strength 110 " " " IOC cases — single strength 150 " " " double strength 200 " " " Cases containing 60', 70', 80' and 90' vary proportion- ately in gross weight. Hay or straw is used as a bedding. Thickness of packing depends on the size of the glass and case, and varies from %" to lY/ on all sides. Packing cases for export, as a rule, are determined by allowing 1/4" for each three lights, single, or 12 to the inch ; and 14" for each two lights, of double, or 8 to the inch — allowing %" packing space on each side, or ly/' to the case. No head is cut any less than 2%", which would mean that on the larger sizes there might be a little more tlian 1%" packing space. The cases are 2" higher than width of the glass, and 6" longer than the length. However, this does not hold good on the smaller sizes. On the 14", 15", 16" and 18" widths the case is 1" higher, but on the 20" and above, 2" higher. Solid lumber, usually 1/2" thick, is employed for the sides, and %" to %" for the top, bottom and ends. Cases measuring over 70 united inches have battens at the top, bottom and sides, and frequently on the ends. In* packing cases of 100 square feet in 40" bracket, or less, there are two compartments in the case, separated by a wood partition. When figuring on export orders, it is necessary first to know what the gross weight is to be, and then to deter- mine the proper number of feet to be packed in each case. For instance, the following table should be considered, in which 750 pounds has been taken as the gross weight of the case, and the sizes worked out accordingly. 440 EXPORT PACKING In making single solid cases, all the lumber should be very sound, and of 1" thickness. It should be in the rough, with the exception of the lid, one side of which should be planed for stenciling. There should be a 2" cushion of straw on the bottom, top and both ends, and on the sides there should be 1" of straw between the glass and the box. INFORMATION FOR FIGURING SIZE OF BOXES FOR EXPORT SHIPMENTS SINGLE SOLID CASES Gross Weight Case Size of Glass Lts. Per Box Size Each 14 Lts. Inside Dimensions Outside Dimensions Width Height Length Width Height Length Width Height Length 750# 750# 24"x60" 24"x60" 14 10 5" 4" 24" DOU 24" 60" BLE SOL 60" 7" ID CAS Ou 13" In 6" 28" ES tside C 35" side C 28" 64" ase 70" ase 64" 11" Ou 17" In 9" 30" tside C 37" side C 30" 68" ase 74" ase 66" For the double solid cases the same size glass and same gross weight have been used, and in arriving at fig- ures for size of boxes the procedure shown above and in accordance with table mentioned is followed. The out- side box should be made of 1" sound, rough lumber, and the ends, bottom and lid of the inside box should be made of 1" rough lumber, and the sides of %" rough lumber. Rails and braces should be of 1" rough lumber. In pack- ing a double, solid box for export, a 2" cushion of straw is first placed in the bottom of the outside box. The in- side box is then placed inside of it, and straw is packed all around the ends and sides, which makes a 2" cushion of straw between the inside and the outside box. A 2" cushion of straw is placed in the bottom* of the inside box, and the glass then placed in this box. Ten lights would measure about 3Vt" in width (which may be called 4"), 24" high and 60" long. Straw is then packed all around the glass and on the top of the glass, which makes a 2" cushion of straw on the bottom, ends and top, and a 1" cushion on the sides between the glass and the box. The lid is then put on the inside box. Another cushion of straw 2" thick is placed on the top of the lid of the in- ■:3 l^fi^ 5^ ^pai^^f>c^:t«-,« Courtesy of Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. Packing of Tumblers. Shows ware before packing. Note that tumblers are each wrapped in paper. Those at the left are to he packed nested and flat, while those at the right are to he packed singly and up and down. Courtesy of Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. Method of Packing Small Bottles. Case is divided by partition and lined with felt paper, between each row and each layer of bottles. ' 441 Felt paper is placed Courtesy of Haeel-Atlas Glass Co. Method of Packing Fruit Jars. Case is lined with waterproof paper to protect metal parts of jars Felt paper is wound around each jar and is placed between each layer of jars. Courtesy of Parke. Doris rf Co. Packing of Pharmaceutical Products. Illustration at left shows method of packing peroxide in individual cartons, 3 dozen hemg put in heavy carton packer. Rix Utrqe cartons fill case. Illustra- tion at right shows packing of long-necked, square bottles in cases of 6 dozen each. Each bottle is provided with straw sleeve, and 1 dozen bottles are packed to a carton. 442 EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 443 side box, the lid of the outside box is nailed on, and one side of the lid of the outside box is planed for stenciling. It is customary to pack polished plate glass and mir- rors in cases from 100 to 500 or 600 square feet each, de- pending on destination. Both single and double casing is used for mirrors, but rarely for plate glass. The gross weight of case packed varies according to the quan- tity of gla'ss in the case. When packed in single cases, the gross weight is estimated at from 4y2 to 5i^ pounds per square foot of glass contained in the case. When packed in double cases, the gross weight is increased from 50 to 75 per cent. Packing of Bottles, Table Glassware, Etc. — A prom- inent American manufacturer of milk bottles states that he packs his products in crates containing 6 dozen quarts, 6 dozen pints and 12 dozen half-pints, similar to the crates employed for domestic shipment, except heavier and stronger. Bottles are protected each from its neigh- bor by a padding of felt paper, usually the ordinary carpet paper being employed. A large manufacturer and exporter of bottles and fancy glassware submits a number of excellent photo- graphs, reproduced on pages 435, 441, 442, and in writing regarding the company's packing, states : **When we first started to ship to the export trade our packing was un- doubtedly very crude, but we have not at any time lost sight of the advantage of properly protecting our ware, with the result that we have been able to standardize our packages in such a way as to give maximum protection to the contents. As we ship to practically every port in the world in considerable quantities, with a rare claim for breakage, we have come to the conclusion that our pack- ages are sufficient protection to the ware and will carry without damage to the contents, unless the shipment is roughly handled en route, in which case, on account of the brittle nature of the product, damage of course can be expected. We have made test shipments to various parts of the world, having the shipments returned to the factory for inspection by our factory people, and all of 444 EXPORT PACKING the test shipments made were returned to the factory with practically no breakage. In addition to test ship- ments which we have made from time to time, we have checked up with our clients the condition of the shipments when delivered, and the invariable report is that the cases were in good shape and the contents without breakage sufficient to justify a complaint. While we feel that our packages at the present time are substantial' in every way, and fully protect the ware, yet we are not altogether satisfied, and we are constantly experimenting with new packages, and it is our hope that some time in the future we will be able to develop a package to our own satisfac- tion and the satisfaction of our trade, which will be ideal for a product such as ours. As we have a reputation to maintain, not only at home, but in the foreign fields, this matter is given close attention at all times, and the super- vision at the factory is very close, so you will understand that we are in the foreign market to stay and that it will be our endeavor at all times to maintain the standards already set, and increase the efficiency of our packages wherever possible. **We have tried various materials, such as excelsior, wheat and oat straw, but we have found, in connection with these articles, that if the ware is packed and allowed to remain in stock for a period of two to three months, the packing dries out to such an extent that it becomes very brittle, and when shipped to the export market the natural action in the shifting of the cargo causes the packing materials to pulverize and fall to the bottom of the case, allowing very little protection for the ware. This has reference to our tumblers, opal jars and small bottle shipments, and to offset this we decided that each tumbler should be wrapped separately in heavy paper, the opal jars, where packed in bulk, to be wrapped three to a package, and that an entirely different protection was required for the small flint bottles. In addition to wrap- ping each tumbler separately and nesting where possible, the rows are supported, as the photographs will show, by an insulation of refuse grass which is secured from EXFOBT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 445 tlie carpet factories in the Northwest, and which is very tough and will not break up as is the case with the straw. The rows of opal jars as packed in the case are also insulated by the insertion of the same grade of material, which, on account of the thickness of this insulation, fully protects the ware under normal transportation con- ditions. * ' The packing of the small bottles for inks, pomades, and shoe polishes was very difficult, and we finally de- cided to test our packages, protecting the ware with in- dented felt paper strips cut to the size of the articles, which strip is entwined around the bottle and protects it on all sides. The bottles are packed in tiers, and each tier is separated one from the other by a pad of indented felt paper, and the cases lined throughout with the same material. **The packing of our jars for jams and preserves was also very difficult, and it was found that the use of hay or straw would not fully protect the ware, so the felt paper packing used identically the same way as the small bottle packages was decided on, and we have for the past three years been using this type of package. As the photographs will show, all cases where a cap is fitted to the jar or bottle are lined throughout with a waterproof paper, so as to prevent moisture getting to the caps and causing corrosion. **You realize that it is practically impossible to pro- cure lumber at this time to meet certain standards to which we endeavor to adhere, and at times we are forced to use an inferior grade. Our specifications provide for hardwood lumber, and we endeavor to secure the best grade of this type that the market can produce. Our cases are made up in %" lumber, heavily reenforced at the ends to make the case as rigid as possible, so as to withstand hard knocks. The factories all use cement- coated nails, and in addition to the nailing of the cases they are all iron-bound, as a further protection.'* A New York export house, doing business with South Africa, draws attention in a letter to the possible effect 446 EXPORT PACKING on a manufacturer's export business of the indifference or ignorance displayed in the attention given to the ques- tion of packing glassware for export.. A South African customer recently described to this merchant his experi- ence in importing American lamp chimneys. One manu- facturer simply packed the chimneys in straw or excel- sior, and the loss, through breakage, on every shipment was considerable. Another American house was found which packs each chimney in a carton, and ships, care- fully packed, in cases of 6 dozen each, with the result that there is scarcely a chimney broken in any shipment which has been received. It is not difficult to judge where this importer's future orders will be placed. South Afri- can importers Have also complained, according to this merchant, of the American packing of fruit jars, there still being considerable loss from breakage in shipments received from some manufacturers. Another New York exporter, doing business with the northern coast of South America, where harbor and land- ing conditions are not of the best, suggests that barrels or cases containing glassware should not exceed from 125 to 150 pounds each, in order to facilitate handling on ar- rival and in inland transportation, and while the outside containers must be strong, yet in these countries they must be as light as possible to avoid payment of excessive duties, and so made that they can be readily opened for examination at the custom houses without entailing un- necessary destruction of the cases. This exporter be- lieves that excelsior is the best material for stuffing or interior packing because of its lightness and elasticity, claiming that where cheap hay is used it often mats to- gether and allows motion, with consequent breakage of the contents. It is believed that bottles, if possible, should be wrapped in porous paper. Another American export house writes that there has been a distinct improvement in the American packing of glassware, but that there still continues a considerable amount of breakage, especially when glassware is merely packed in hay or straw in casks or barrels. This ex- Caurteny of E. H. Squibb d iSons. Packing op One-Pound Glass Bottles. Bottles are packed in corrugated partitions with a 2" outside layer of ex- celsior and an additional layer of excelsior on top. Case is lined with water- proof paper. Courtesy of E. R. Squibb d Sons. Packing op Bottles Containing Tablets. Case contains cartons of medicinal tablets in bottles. The cartons on top of the case shmo corni gated packing between hottles. Extra protection i« afforded by a 2" layer of excelsior. 447 Method of Packing Courtesy of Henry Heide. Hard Candies. Glass jars containing hard candies packed in two layers of SG each. Mats of corrugated paper are laid on hottom and around sides of case, between layers, and on top of case. Corrugated partitions are used between jars. OSUSE rSTE UCQ HACtA ARfllBA MUM DE CAT. 18 TINTA COMMfERClAL Courtesy of S. 8. Stafford, Inc. Method of Packing Writing Inks, Case at left contains one dozen quart bottles enclosed in cartons of corrugated board and strong brown paper. Corrugated board mats line sides, top and bottom. Case at right contains four layers of S6 small bottles eaeh separated by corrugated board. Top, bottom, and sides of case are likewise lined with this material. 448 EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 449 porter advocates the use of corrugated paper as an en- velope for bottles, and thinks that much thicker paper ought to be employed than is usually the case, and that the smaller and particularly the more expensive goods should be carefully done up in packages, with the num- bers and contents of each written on them, to facilitate identification and checking, as well as assisting in pre- venting damage. Packing of Cut Glass and Crockery.— Some time be- fore the war a German concern engaged in importing American cut glass complained rather bitterly that al- though the outside packages, when received, appeared to be intact, yet there was a large amount of breakage in every shipment, which it attributed to the fact that the straw employed for the packing of these goods was not sufficient in amount, and was not spaced accurately all around each article and throughout the whole extent of the package. The casks and barrels seemed to be suf- ficiently strong, but not enough thought had been given to the effects on the interior packing of the long voyage and the unusual treatment which shipping cases have to undergo when forwarded by rail, lighter, steamer, river boat, etc. A prominent exporter of cut glass writes that his products are always wrapped individually in paper, each wrapper bearing a number and description, to facilitate checking of invoices at the other end. This exporter al- ways ships cut glass in barrels, believing there is less danger of breakage when forwarded in barrels rather than in cases. This matter will be found referred to in the special chapter devoted to shipments of barreled goods. The barrels employed are lined with waterproof paper, and the greatest care is exercised in separately padding each individual item, while packing all snugly and tightly. In the packing of chinaware either cases or barrels are employed — ^barrels usually, unless there are a number of square or cartoned packages in the assortment. The different pieces of chinaware are separated by layers of 450 EXPORT PACKING excelsior and placed on top of a bed of excelsior in the bottom of the barrel or case, and a similar layer finishes the top packing. If the china has gilt decoration it is first wrapped in paper, in order that the decoration may not be scratched. English shippers are said to be very particular in the protection given to all gold decorations, usually employing a fine grade of tissue paper. They usually employ straw instead of excelsior, and more often cases than barrels, probably because barrels are not quite so common or cheap as they are in this country. Packing of Products in Glass Containers. — Under this heading there may be considered a very large class of American products of wide variety, ranging from per- fumery and toilet preparations to medicines, drugs, ink, confectionery, jams, pickles and other foodstuffs. All commodities packed in glass containers should have even more attention devoted to their proper protection for overseas shipment than would naturally be devoted to the same bottles or other containers if shipped empty, for the reason that the additional weight of the filled bottles or jars introduces a further element of risk, and further- more, these products are usually intended for counter or shelf display purposes, and hence they must arrive with attractive exteriors as well as with complete, undamaged and salable contents. Furthermore there must be con- sidered, in the packing of such commodities, the very great danger of pilferage, and in that regard reference should be made to other pages in this volume, in which protection against pilfering is more particularly dealt with. One of the prominent American manufacturers of pharmaceutical products allows the reproduction of ex- cellent photographs (see page 442) which give a good idea of the export packing which this manufacturer supplies. In further describing his packing he writes: *^The first photograph represents a standard case of 18 dozen Hy- drogen Peroxide in 4-ounce bottles. As to outside pack- ing, this case is made up of Ys" wood, reenforced at ends with 4" strips, as shown in the photograph. Each case is EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 451 strapped with a wide metal strapping, which is nailed every four inches. It is to be noted that all four sides of the case are made up with the least possible number of boards. As to the inside packing, each bottle is placed in its individual carton, 3 dozen packages being placed in a heavy carton packer with inner corrugated lining and corrugated partitions, within which each of the in- dividual cartons fits snugly; the entire arrangement pre- vents movement of the packages, and also should one of the bottles by any chance become broken it is held in place by the corrugated partitions, thus preventing the move- ment and consequent breaking up of the balance of the contents while en route. Six cartons fit into the wooden case, which is practically built around them in such a snug fashion as to obviate necessity for straw or hay packing in between the sides. To take up the slight space which sometimes occurs in the top of the case, sheets of corrugated carton are simply laid in before the cover is nailed on. *'The second photograph represents a 12-ounce long neck, square bottle, and these, because of their size, are packed in standard shipping cases of 6 dozen each, put up in heavy corrugated cartons of 1 dozen bottles. In packing these we use an individual straw jacket or sleeve for each bottle ; 12 fit snugly within the carton, which has an inner corrugated liner for added protection, and for preventing movement while en route, the jacket acting as a cushion between the bottles. A straw mat is placed in the bottom and on top of bottles in each packer. '* Another well known manufacturer of pharmaceutical products submits several photographs of his export pack- ing, reproduced on page 447, whose captions are self-ex- planatory. In these photographs there are to be noted the corrugated partitions dividing glass battles, the 2" outside layer of excelsior, the lining of waterproof paper, or hermetically sealed tin, etc. A New York export merchant, in writing regarding shipments of bottled goods for export, points out that corrugated sleeves or cartons can only be successfully 452- EXPORT PACKING employed for packing bottles when the bottles are not so heavy that they are likely to break or flatten out the cartons. This result not only iujures the salability of the goods, but allows the bottles very quickly to work loose and knock each other to pieces, and of course as soon as one bottle breaks all the rest are in danger. This exporter states that English manufacturers successfully used sawdust in packing small boxes, practically elimin- ating breakage. One of the complaints received regarding the ship- ment of American food products in jars has been that the partitions used in dividing the interior of cases into pigeon-holes have not been strong enough, or firmly enough fastened, and preferably should extend from the top to the bottom of the box. A well known American manufacturer of confection- ery supplies a photograph (see page 448), explaining that the cases illustrated measure about 2i^ cubic feet, con- taining hermetically sealed glass jars in two layers of 36 each, the case weighing, gross, about 80 pounds. A mat of corrugated paper is laid on the bottom of the case, around all of the sides, and finally over the top, and cor- rugated paper partitions separate the jars so that they cannot rattle one against another, and the two layers of jars are separated by mats of corrugated paper. This manufacturer uses iron bands around each end and around the middle of his cases. It is suggested, however, that more thorough protection along lines just above indicated might conduce to safety in transit. A manufacturer of writing inks submits photographs of his packing (see page 448), explaining that his quart bottles are enclosed in cartons made of corrugated board and strong brown paper, sealed top and bottom. The case itself, of strong, substantial lumber, is lined with cor- rugated board mats — top, bottom and sides. Two cases, each containing 1 dozen quarts, are strapped together with strong iron strapping, to make a single shipping package. The pint and half-pint sizes are similarly packed, only 4 cases of each are strapped together into /^'^m a) a) '•■,«) Courtesy of The Carter's Ink Co. Another* Method of Packing Fluids. Bottles containing fluids or semi-fluida separated by sheaves of excelsior or partitions of corrugated board. VOLUME OF OLD FORM OF PACKING S-l7andPS-17 S-19andPS-20 S-21 S-14 Bulb Sizes Bulb Sizes Bulb Size Bulb Size VOLUME OF NEW FORM OF PACKING COMPARATIVE VOLUME OF 1000 LAMPS IN THE OLD AND NEW FORMS OF PACKING Cmirte»y of International General Electric Co. Method op Reducing Volume op Package. This drawing shows graphically the saving effected by a change in paclclng methods. 453 Courtesy of International General Electric Co. (1) Methods of Packing Electric Lamps. Tfie new bundle, at left, wrapped in kraft paper presents, iriih its neat, secure compactness, a decided advantage over the old form of string-tied bundle. Courtesy of Internationul Utntral Electric Co, (2) New and Old Form of Bundles in Standard Box. The paper bundle is better adapted to the square package than is the bundle tied with string. Note the uniform distribution of excelsior and the elimina- tion of the wasteful corners in the improved method shown at left. 454 EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 455 a single package. Other bottles, square in shape, are themselves quite strong, but are protected by 4 walls of corrugated board. They are packed in 4 layers of bot- tles, each layer containing 36, and layers are separated by corrugated board, with which also the entire case is lined. Another manufacturer of inks, library paste, and other office preparations, illustrates his export packing by a photograph, reproduced on page 453, which shows both interior and exterior packing of glass bottles con- taining liquids or semi-fluids, having sheaves of excel- sior, or separated by partitions of corrugated board. All goods are iron strapped, and cement nails and all pos- sible precautions are employed. Packing of Incandescent Lamps.— The effort in ex- port packing of incandescent lamps has constantly been directed toward the problem of decreasing bulk just as far as such might be consistent with safety. The com- modity in this case is extremely fragile, and the filament of the lamp is in turn fragile, it being quite possible ta have a shipment go through without breaking the lamp, but with a considerable number of the filaments broken. The vital necessity for a proper package was thus quickly recognized, and one of the large makers of lamps lias spent thousands of dollars in experimental work at the Forest Products Laboratory, at Madison, Wisconsin, and in its own laboratory, for the purpose of discovering the proper package. The European practice differs considerably from the American, for the custom abroad has been to ship in large quantities in one container, whereas the American system makes a practice of shipping in small packages which are then enclosed in a large case. Indeed, the American package does not differ for domestic or foreign ship- ments, except to the extent that in foreign shipments the cartons are enclosed in cases, and we understand that foreign shipments have recently also been made in car- tons. A large manufacturer and shipper of incandescent lamps, to whom the author is indebted for the cuts shown 456 EXPORT PACKING with this article, sends the following information : * * The best method of packing lamps for export shipment is, and has ever been, a very live subject with our engineers. Next to having a thoroughly satisfactory product to ex- port, the most important consideration in foreign busi- ness is properly packing the product. Consequently this is a subject to which we are giving constant and careful thought, with a corps of experts devoting their entire time to this one problem, and conducting hundreds of tests and experiments in their effort to discover and adopt the very best methods. ** There are many factors entering into this problem, but generally speaking the two most important ones are : (1) Prevention of breakage. (2) Reducing size of pack- age to the lowest possible minimum. ** Heretofore we have wrapped our lamps in what was kno^vn as a * Champion' wrapper, consisting of a flat sheet of single-faced corrugated paper to which was glued a fly-sheet of manila paper, slightly wider and longer than the corrugated paper sheet. The lamps were rolled up in this wrapper, the manila fly-sheet tucked in at the ends, and the so-called * bread and butter' sizes of lamps — 60 watt and smaller — were then tied in bundles of 25 with a piece of string. The standard method was then to place four of these bundles, or 100 lamps, in a corrugated paper package (although wooden boxes were used when necessary). A different size of corrugated paper pack- age was used for practically every different size lamp. ** These facts are more or less familiar to every one who may read this article, but for purpose of comparison with the new method, it is well that they be mentioned here. *' While this method of packing gave the lamps very good protection, there were certain features about it that were not the best, everything considered. For example : *^(1) The so-called 'Champion' wrapper was bulky, heavy, relatively expensive, and did not permit the lamps to nest. The last mentioned objection necessitated a rel- atively large package. EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 457 '^(2) The tying of lamps in bundles with string was insecure. In removing the bundles from the package the string frequently came off, causing inconvenience, and possibly some breakage. ' ' (3) The bundles of lamps being round, did not prop- erly fit the packages, which were square. This meant a great waste of space at the corners of the package. ^^ (4) The use of the many sizes of packages had ob- vious disadvantages. ' ' To discover a more satisfactory method of packing than that described above, eliminating the disadvantages of that method without sacrificing the protection to the lamp, has been our object, and with this end in view hun- dreds of tests have been conducted. We have been suc- cessful in developing a method that we consider vastly superior to the previous standard. Briefly, the new method is: *'(!) The lamp is wrapped in what is known as a *Mid-ge' wrapper, consisting of a sheet of flat unfaced corinigated paper to which is attached a fly-sheet of Kraft tissue paper. Both the corrugated and fly-sheets are practically the same size as those in the 'Champion* wrapper, but in the *Mid-ge* wrapper (a) They are lighter in weight; (b) The new wrapper permits the lamps to nest, economizing space; (c) It is less expensive than the 'Champion.' *'(2) The ends of the 'Mid-ge' wrapper, being of Kraft tissue, are twisted, giving decidedly more protec- tion to the tips of the lamps than the 'Champion' wrap- per, whose fly-sheet was manila and could not be twisted, but had to be tucked in. "(3) The lamps, after being placed in the 'Mid-ge' wrapper, instead of being tied in bundles with string, are wrapped in Kraft paper, of which the ends are held together by gummed paper tape, giving a neat, compact, secure bundle, conforming in shape with the box. Fig. 1 illustrates very clearly the difference in general appear- ance and shape of the bundles of lamps in the Kraft paper and tied with a string. Fig. 2 shows how decidedly 458 EXPORT PACKING better the paper bundle is adapted to the square paper package than the bundle tied with string, permitting a uniform distribution of excelsior and eliminating the wasteful corners. See page 454. '^(4) The ^Mid-ge' wrapper permits the lamps to nest, as they naturally should. The advantage of this from a shipping standpoint is evidenced by the fact that 30 S-19 bulb lamps in ' Mid-ge ' wrappers can be packed in the same space as 25 in * Champion' wrappers. Table No. 1 shows some interesting comparisons of sizes of pack- ages required for the ^Mid-ge' and for the 'Champion' wrappers, with the saving in space effected with the former. *^ (5) By some changes in standard package quantities we have been able to reduce to a very low minimum the number of sizes of standard paper packages that will be used. Hereafter we will pack S-14, S-17, S-19, S-21, PS-17 and PS-20 bulb lamps (possibly other sizes) in the same size package. There will be other similar consolidation of sizes. This has the following distinct advantages: (a) A reduction in weight and volume per thousand packed lamps, and a consequent saving in transportation charges and, in some cases, in duty charges, (b) A more flexible general warehouse stock, from a storage and a shipping standpoint, (c) The bundles of lamps will all be of prac- tically the same size, which means that shipments of less than standard package quantities from agents' and sub- companies' stocks, can be quickly and efficiently packed and handled by placing the compact paper bundles of several different sizes of lamps in the one size standard package designed especially to fit the lot. This is an obvious advantage, (d) Where crating is necessary, but one size of crate will be required. The table No. 1 con- tains some very interesting figures on the saving in volume per thousand packed lamps effected by this con- solidation of package sizes into one standard size. * ' This saving in volume is shown in the drawing here- with (page 453). The new wrappers and paper pack- ages will retain their same advertising value and will be Courtesy of Willard Storage Battery Co. First Process in Packing Storage Batteries. Batteries are first placed in a light frame holding an average of five. For detailed description of the packing, see text. Courtesy of Willard Storage Battery Co. Shipping Case for Storage Batteries. The crate is placed in the shipping case and floated in excelsior. 459 Court* f<)i of Wilhtrd Sfoi^ttjr llnltirji Co. Anotiieu Method uf L'acking Batteries. Batteries packed according to speciflcationa of the United Stated War De- partment. Each battery placed in separate compartment and floated in excelsior. Courtesy of National X-Ray Reflector Co. Method of Packing Glass Reflectors. Reflectors are packed in standard cardboard cartons, each reflector contained in its own compartment. Excelsior is packed into each compartment , and the cartons are floated in excelsior when put in case. 460 EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 461 marked with a description of the lamps as in the past. '*In closing, it might be of interest to state that our engineers were fortunate enough to get the permission of the Department of Agriculture of the United States Government, to conduct many of their tests in a special box testing machine in its Forest Products Laboratory. These and many actual shipping tests have demonstrated conclusively the superiority of the *Mid-ge' wrapper method of packing from a standpoint of protection to the lampa. Other advantages we have attempted to point out in thi-s article.'* SAVING IN VOLUME BY NEW PACKING METHOD. TABLE NO. 1. Old Method (Champion Wrapper) Nbw Method (Mid-ge Wrapper) Per Cent Standard Outside Volume Standard Outside Volume Reduction Bulb Package Dimensions per 1000 Package Dimensions per 1000 Lamps in Volume Size Quantity Standard Lamps Quantity Standard New over Package Package Old S-H 100 14 xl4 x23 26.09 cu.ft. 250 I7y2 xl7Hx27 19.14 cu.ft. 26.6 ' S-17 100 161^x16^x24 36.68 cu.ft. 144 17J^xl7Hx27 33.22 cu.ft. 9.43 S-19 100 17Hxl7»/ix27 47.85 cu.ft. 120 17Hxl7>ijx27 29.87 cu.ft. 16.6 S-21 100 18HxlSHx31 61.39 cu.ft. 100 17^x17^x27 47.85 cu.ft. 22.0 PS-17 100 16>ixl6Jix24 36.68 cu.ft. 144 17>^xl7Hx27 33.22 cu.ft. 9.43 South American importers have reported that Euro- pean manufacturers of electric lamps have usually packed in excelsior or straw, and have added pads of burlap on the exterior covers, with the intention of thus reducing the effect of shocks. This method of packing, however, is said to be gradually giving way to an imita- tion of the more modern American packing of lamps. The specifications for packing of the General Engi- neer Depot of the United States Army include the fol- lowing: ''Incandescent lamp bulbs or lamp and lantern globes will be shipped in boxes of not over 25 cubic feet, all dimensions approximately the same. Two inches of excelsior will separate the contents from the inside of the boxing; a flat double-faced corrugated board will sepa- rate layers. Incandescent lamps will be cased in corru- gated paper cylinders, and placed carefully so as to com- fortably fill the layer; excelsior will be used where 462 , EXPORT PACKING necessary for firm packing. Alternatively, well packed cartons will be boxed, and a space of two inches clear between cartons and box will be filled with excelsior or similar material. The excelsior will be in a compact and even bed, with no lumps. ' ^ Packing of Sundry Electrical Supplies.— Export pack- ing of the electric storage battery, of the rubber cell type, presents an interesting problem, for we have here a com- modity that is fairly fragile and at the same time com- paratively heavy. The need, therefore, is for most care- ful protection against breakage and also for cases of sturdy construction that will guarantee safety to the con- tents under rough handling. A house that has developed an excellent export trade sends the photographs shown on pages 459 and 460 and comments on them as follows: *'In photograph *A' you will find that the batteries are placed in a light frame holding on the average five batteries. You will note on the photograph that the batteries are separated from each other with corrugated paraffined cardboard, so as to minimize the jarring as much as possible. The card- board is also put lengthwise in the crate, as you can see one in the photograph tilted up, purposely projecting. The next crate in the same photograph shows the bat- teries placed in the crate with the cardboard tucked snugly around. The third crate shows two sheets of tough waterproof paper laid on top of the batteries, and as the fourth crate shows, a quantity of excelsior is placed on top and nailed down securely; thus you can see the batteries are firmly held in the crate, being in addition protected by the excelsior from rough handling. You will note on this picture that the crate has side boards extending a few inches, which serve as handles. The object of this you can see on referring to the second illustration *B,' which shows the actual shipping case made of %" lumber. The handles on the crate serve for the packers to lift the crate with the batteries and place it in the packing case, on the bottom of which a quantity of excelsior has been placed ; then the handles are sawed EXPORT PACKING OF FRAGILE GOODS 463 off and excelsior is packed around with a paddle, as shown in the illustration where the man is just in the act of forcing this excelsior in between the sides of the case and the crate. After the excelsior has been well packed around, a quantity is put on top of the crate and the^ cover boards nailed down, after which the steel bands are fastened and the marking stenciled. ^We allow a space of about 21/2 to 3 inches for the packing of the excelsior. **As we have received many favorable comments on this manner of packing', which has been adopted after many experiments and variations in our methods, we feel that this is the most satisfactory way of shipping bat- teries abroad. ^'The third photograph (page 460) might prove of interest also, as it shows the packing of batteries shipped under government specifications during the war. You can see from this picture that each battery is put into a separate compartment, there being ample room allowed for the packing of excelsior. These cases were made of 1" lumber, reenforced with steel bands, and then painted across the corners in certain colors so that this would automatically determine for what branch of the army they were intended. The photograph shows these bat- teries ready for shipment." An American export house writes that one of its cus- tomers has complained of an instance where a manufac- turer shipped battery charges and storage battery plates in one case, divided by a partition which was supposed to be solid, but which became loosened, and in consequence some of the charges were broken. This customer believed that the two kinds of articles should have been packed separately. This exporter also directs attention to the necessity of always carefully insulating all electrical devices made of porcelain with some sort of a cushion between the individual pieces which are quite fragile. An official report recently received from Cuba declares that it is bad policy to ship elaborate glass chandeliers demounted, or in any respect knocked down, because the lower expense involved in freight rates is 464 EXPORT PACKING more than offset by the cost of erecting, because Cuban dealers are not equipped to produce fine results in com- plicated work of this description. Some simple chande- liers and fixtures may be shipped knocked down, when it is possible to assemble them easily in local Cuban estab- lishments. From China a complaint was recently received regarding a shipment of glassware for electrical fixtures sent out in cases made of %" lumber, with ends of %" stuff. Not only were the cases too light, but the lumber was of bad quality, and almost all of them arrived in broken condition. Indirect lighting bowls are often shipped three to a barrel, and although barrels arrived without apparent external damage, the contents are fre- quently broken, and importers believe it would be much safer to ship each bowl separately packed in a suitable case, with plenty of excelsior. A well-known manufacturer sends photographs shown on pages 460 and 465, and writes: **We are sending you with this letter two photographs showing the methods of packing that we employ in our factory for export shipments. This particular shipment is one that is going to London, and consists of glass reflectors used for illumination of store windows and interiors by means of indirect illumination. One photograph, as you will note (page 465), shows five boxes all ready for shipment, with markings; the other photograph (page 460) shows box partly packed. You will note that the wooden box contains smaller cardboard cartons which are nested in excelsior. The method of packing the individual paste- board cal-ton is illustrated in the low^er left hand corner of the photograph. In this particular case the cardboard carton has four compartments, in which the individual reflectors are nested, between the cardboard partitions and layers. We believe that the photographs, with the following descriptive notes, will be of service : **As stated above, the individual reflectors are packed in standard cardboard cartons, with partitions and com- partments that hold the separate reflectors apart. This cardboard carton is the same as used for domestic ship- Courtesy of National X-Ray Reflector Co. Cases Containing Glass Reflectors. Note the strips on ends and middle of sides which tend to take jar occasioned by rolling or tipping of cases. For detailed description see text. Courtesy of Eastman Kodak Co. Packing of Photographic Goods. Note the double ends of cases. The material packed is separated from the walls of the case, and each piece from every other piece, by thick layers of excelsior. This case contains glass graduates. 465 Courtesy of Eastman Kodak Co. Soldering a Tin Lining for Case. The tin lining provides an hermetically sealed package. Courtesy of Oeo. Borgfeldt at top of label identifying Courtesy of Henry Heide. Packing op Confectionery. Tin cans containing candies likely to he affected hy dampness are packed in wooden cases with thirty k lb. or siMeen 7 Ih. cans to the case. A thin cardboard is placed between cans to keep lithographed label from scratching. Cases are lined with heavy paper. 529 530 PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 531 the chief officer, were well handled, and no fault could be found with the method or care taken, yet in every net of cases three or four were broken, and the cans came out, running the risk of puncturing from nails or dents in the cases, and a few, of course, disappeared in the gar- ments of the roustabouts. Cases in this shipment were made of good material, nailed with 11/2" smooth bright wire nails. Herein lay the fault. Such nails were driven through the tops and bottoms into the ends of the cases, entering with the grain of the wood, and were unable to stand the strain of 48 cans against either the top or the bottom. A four-penny cement-coated nail should have been used, with band iron, with which all such shipping cases ought always to be strapped for overseas trans- portation. This agent states that importers in Porto Eico are charged more for strapped cases than for those with iron bands, although increasing the cost of packages merely for strapping them must come from a lack of knowledge or consideration on the part of manufacturers. Just as heavy nails seem to be used for strapped as for unstrapped cases, and the saving through the use of lighter nails will offset the cost of the strap. Iron strapped cases require, a much lighter nail than a case without straps. A large American house specializing in shipping evaporated vegetables and fruits, states that it has found a very successful export packing of such commodities, sealed in tin cans, to consist of a light case with four or five wires, in place of the ordinary end strapping". This concern states that it has not yet received a single com- plaint regarding this style of packing. Packing of Cereals.— A very large international ship- per of cereals states that its products are often shipped in one-pound ten-ounce tin cans, 51/4" high by Sy^' in diameter, hermetically sealed, packed 36 tins to a wooden case. The cases are made of hardwood lumber — sides, tops and bottoms 1/2", ends %". Each end has two cleats, 2"xV2", running the full depth of the case, and every case is bound with nailed steel straps around each end. 532 EXPORT PACKING Packing of Biscuits.— Humidity would be strictly a calamity as related to export shipments of crackers and biscuits, and so we see exporters of these products adopt- ing every precaution to guard against this peril. Pre- cautionary measures, however, do not mean alone pro- tection of the goods, so far as the immediate container is concerned, but also imply suitable outer casing and rugged substantial packing as a whole. The author is indebted to a large exporter for the photographs of this chapter (see pages 529, 541), and for the following comment: ^^ Goods exported by us to nearby and for- eign lands, including the Near and Far East, are packed in hermetically sealed tins, and in addition we export our famous carton package goods, but only to such points where climatic conditions are favorable. The tins vary in size, containing from 21/2 ounces to 10 and 12 pounds. They are sealed by means of an inner lid of tin soldered to a flange or rim which projects inside of the box from the top, thus preventing damage from moisture, insects, etc. A slip cover goes on over this, fitting tight around the edge of the box. The smaller tins, as shown in photograph No. 1 are wrapped together in heavy paper glued at both ends, in units of 6 or 12, according to the size of the tin. Each tin is encased with a photographic label showing a reproduction of the biscuit at both ends*. The larger tins, shown in photograph No. 2, are wrapped separately, to prevent tin from getting wet and rusting. Each tin is labeled with the company label and an addi- tional *name strip' at the top of the label, to identify the contents. The case in the picture contains three layers of tins, 48 in all, each with net weight of four pounds. The size of the case is 19 cubic feet.'' One of the complaints received from foreign cus- tomers in regard to American goods, relates to the fact that some American shippers of biscuit have not given sufficient attention to the size of the packages in which biscuits are packed. Boxes measuring inside from 2^/2' to 3" are made to hold biscuits only 2%" in diameter, thus allowing a play to the contents which is quite likely PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 533 to damage a biscuit in a 10,000-mile journey. Since these unit packages may not be opened for months after they have been shipped, or even months after they have been received, the annoyance and ill feeling caused when the damage is discovered is so much the more intensified. Confectionery.— An examination of the literature on the subject of American export trade in confections will show constant stressing of the importance of packing. The composition of American confections and the styles of sweetmeats seem to meet foreign demand satisfac- torily, but there is apparently a good deal of dissatis- faction with reference to the way in which the goods are packed. It would seem that the American export trade in this class of goods could be very materially increased by proper attention to and consideration of the needs of the foreign buyer in the matter of packing. The author presents with this chapter two photo- graphs (pages 448, 529) furnished by a house doing a constantly increasing trade abroad, the comment on these illustrations being as follows: *' Candy for export to South America or other southern countries, is always packed either in glass jars or in tin cans to prevent spoiling by heat and moisture. The jars are used when the candy is intended for sale direct to the consumer, a jar or so at a time; they are hermetically sealed by a vacuum process, and will remain air-tight indefinitely, until opened, but not afterwards, as the cover has to be punctured in order to open. If the dealer wishes to sell in bulk, or if he lives in a particularly damp climate, his order is packed in tins with screw tops, so that he can sell a part of the contents and yet keep the remainder in good condition in the same container. Tin cans are packed in wooden cases, with 30 four-pound or 16 seven- pound cans to the case. Gross weight, with four-pound cans, about 175 pounds ; measure, 4% cubic feet. Gross weight, with seven-pound cans, as shown in picture, about 145 pounds ; measure, about 3 cubic feet. Certain kinds of candies, such as jelly beans, Jordan almonds, licorice lozenges, hard candies and other kinds which are affected 534 EXPORT PACKING by dampness are always packed in tin. A thin card- board is placed between cans to keep the lithographed label from scratching. Cases are lined with heavy paper. The case is covered and strapped in the same way as for the above. Address, etc., is put on by means of a machine-cut stencil.'' (See also cut page 448, Chapter XVI.) Some exporters of confectionery, doing a large busi- ness with China, advise the present writer that all candy shipped to that market is first wrapped in oil paper, and instead of being shipped in the usual pails, is put up in cans holding 40 pounds each, made of the lightest possible tin and said to weigh 3 pounds less than the ordinary kerosene tin. These special tins have been requested by Chinese customers, probably in order to save porterage charges, since it is understood that the tins are individ- ually transported by porters to interior points after having been distributed to various provincial cities by the Shanghai importers. Four of these tin cans, weigh- ing 40 pounds each, are packed in a case as strong, sub- stantial and securely strapped as the manufacturers can make it. At first, round cans were used, but this manu- facturer has learned the advantage of using square tins, and now has manufactured for him especially square tins with screw tops in the usual style, to hold the contents above noted. Packing House Products.— One of the largest Amer- ican packing houses supplies a number of photographs showing the fashion in which packing house products in tins are packed for export. Photographs on page 530 show cases of tins such as contain lard, oleomargarine, etc. The case is made of heavy pine, reenforced at each end, and so designed that if dropped on one end the strain will be equally distributed. The tins are protected by coarse shavings intended to prevent the denting or break- age of the individual containers. Metal straps are used at each end of the case to secure the boards and to strengthen the ends. The photograph on page 530 shows three distinct Courtesy of Sw-ift d Co. Packing op Cotton Seed Oil Export packages made to withstand rough handling. Cases arc cxceptionaUjf heavy. Tins are made to fit snugly and are protected by layers of shavings above and b( neath. Courtesy of Wash'hum-CrosT)y Co. Thirty Seven Methods of Packing Flour. Tins shown are of 4. 7, I'l, 22, 25, 28, S.n, H, 50, 55 and 110 pounds. In addition there are half-barrels and barrels with toire. fiat and wooden hoops, as well a^ osnaburg, cotto^i, jute, and drill saeks of various sizes and weights de- manded by foreign customers. This shows the extent to tohich one firm meets its customer's requirements. 535 - ■s f ■IF" ■ ^P ^P E " /i^jM ijgH "^ : •% ■■■■' ■J _7 ™^'jjf| 5 ii f ";- if« iif' f K - } < 3 ''^ 1 '•! ^ ; i 1 m •1 i ^ % ,'1' 't ■i' 3;; 7 't .' Tf •I m ■fff" PI ^T?) ( { Li ''!* H 1!- lU ^" pn \ — J - -1— H M r---. Courtesy of E. R. Squihh and Sons. Packing of Ether. Case containing 200 one-quarter pound tins of ether in regulation carton. Case is tin lined, but photograph was taken before top was soldered on. Courtesy of E. R. Squihh ,i,id .^<,n8. Case Containing Bicarbonate of Soda. Case contains y^ Ih. tins some of which are packed flat to show manufac- turer's label. Excelsior is used only to fill vacant spaces. 536 PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 537 styles of packing, the case in the center containing four tins only, instead of 25. This is constructed of the same heavy lumber, and protected with similar iron straps, but in this instance the corners are reenforced from the in- side instead of the outside. Still another style of packing lard for export is illus- trated in cut 3, page 530. This case is made for shipping to countries where packages are handled very roughly and are subject to being dropped on their heads or other- wise. The partitions shown are necessary in order to keep the weight of one tin from resting on another. In one case it will be noted that the larger tins are sepa- rated each by a partition, while in the other case the smaller tins have one partition only, near the center of the box. These distribute the weight more evenly to avoid damage. In both of these cases it will be noted that, in addition to the iron strapping at each end, an extra strap has been put about the middle of the cases, which not only strengthens the cases but prevents bulging from any cause and consequent sifting out of the shavings used for additional protection. Cut on page 535 shows the method of shipping cotton- seed oil in tins intended for destinations where rough handling is to be expected, because there exist no con- veniences for unloading into lighters other than slings and ropes. The cases shown are exceptionally heavy and the tins fit as snugly as possible and are protected by coarse shavings, of which there is a layer both at top and bottom of the tins. The ends of the cases are pro- tected by iron straps. Packing of Flour.— Exports of wheat flour in 1919 amounted to nearly $300,000,000, and whereas this was in a sense a record, the exports of this commodity have for many years run into large figures. Although the demand recently has been one due to urgent necessity, this fact has not in any measure caused experienced flour export- ers to depart from carefully thought out export methods, and from the policy of doing everything possible to please customers and literally follow instructions. 538 EXPORT PACKING There are few commodities which present a greater variety of packing than is the case for flour, and in this instance, like so many others, the standard packing methods are the result of following the customers' instructions, which in turn are dictated by local condi- tions or local necessity. Thus in the case of one well- known exporter, to whom the author is indebted for the photograph used with this text, there are no less than thirty-seven different packages used in the ordinary for- eign trade routine. This variety is the result of many years' experience, and each package corresponds to some requirement of a foreign country, or in the case of the large, more or less regular sacks, to the lack of requirement. While American flour is usually exported either in barrels or in bags, yet there is a considerable demand for this product in tins, to meet which one of our largest millers provides a great variety of tins, some of which are illustrated on page 535. The tins in question are pro- vided in many different sizes, as individual customers in different markets of the world may request and instruct. Thus those illustrated in the photograph include tins of 4, 7, 14, 22, 25, 28, 33, 44, 50, 55 and 110 pounds. Some of these denominations are, it will be noted, intended for countries using the metric system of weights. Other sizes are intended for retail packages in very hot, damp tropical countries, and usually in parts of such countries very difficult of access, where packages must be small and light for ease of transportation, and tin containers are essential for the preservation of the flour in retail estab- lishments. Chemical Products. — Photographs supplied by a prominent manufacturer of chemical and pharmaceutical products illustrate methods adopted for packing such products in tins. An accompanying photograph (page 536) shows a case containing 200 quarter-pound tins of ether, each tin in the usual carton. Cases are tin-lined, and packed; the top is next soldered on, guarding against the corrosion of the tin containers through the PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 539 action of sea water or sea air, and resulting leakage. Another photograph shows a case of bicarbonate of soda in quarter-pound tins. A feature of this packing is that the manufacturers, lay some of the rows of cans flat in order to display their labels, excelsior being used only to fill in vacant spaces. A third photograph (page 549) from another house, represents a standard case of 12 one-gallon tins of anti- septic fluid. It will be noted from this photograph that 4 tins are placed in each carton, 3 cartons — that is, 12 one-gallon tins — making a secure and compact ship- ping case. Particularly to be observed is the fact that inside of each carton of 4 tins a wooden block has been placed, in order to prevent the shifting of the cans while en route, which would result in throwing their full weight upon the handles, crushing them down, and pos- sibly cutting into the cans themselves, thus causing loss from leakage. Packing of Compressed Hops. — As a rule deteriora- tion in any one of its various forms is taken care of by different sorts of glass or metal containers which pre- vent contact with the infecting microbes of the air, the containers themselves presenting us with the packing problem. In the case of hops, however, the packing case may be at one and the same time the shipping container and the means of preserving the delicacy and value of the commodity. A high quality of hops is alone obtained by air-drying at a low, even temperature, the air being, fanned through the mass and the moisture removed by forced air draught. Drying hops by artificial heat depreciates the quality of the oils, converts the soft resins into hard resins, and destroys to a great extent the brewing value of the hops. It is these oils and resins that the export package of hops must conserve, and the flavor and aroma must be preserved in spite of transportation hazards and climatic perils. A house with a large export business describes its ex- port package as follows (see cuts, page 549) : 540 EXPORT PACKING **Our Style N'o. 250 packing: — These hops are first pressed into cakes or slabs 16" square by IVi" thick, and .weigh 8 pounds net, and 44 of the cakes are packed in tin- lined wooden cases. To offer additional protection against damage, the case is lined with a heavy paraffin kraf t paper. This packing protects the hops against loss of flavor. The case can be shipped to any climate with- out danger of hops being damaged by the aroma from other merchandise. **Our packing No. 251: The hops are pressed the same as in packing No. 250, except that 7 cakes are packed in one tin containing 56 pounds net^ — 3 tins per case, making a total net weight per case of 168 pounds. This package is especially suited for the Central and South American markets where the exporter or jobber buys in case quantities, and wants a package that can be unpacked and redistributed in small quantities with- out exposing contents to damage from climatic conditions or insects. The cost of this extra packing does not exceed 3 cents per pound. The maximum weight per cubic foot can be shipped in these cases. This we claim as a very big improvement over the old method of packing hops for export shipment, and it is meeting with the hearty approval of the trade in all sections of the world. ^ ^ Printing Inks in Export Tins. — The author esteems himself fortunate to have the following interesting and very highly valuable communication written for this vol- ume by 0. L. Peabody: **The packing of printing inks for the export market is a subject that requires careful study and considerable experience if results satisfactory to the consumer are to be obtained. The best of packing materials should be used. Every care must be taken that cans, cases and all other packages are made of good quality material and heavy enough to stand the rough usage to which the pack- ages are subjected in traveling long distances. *^ Export shipments are subject to a large number of handlings; such as the inland trip to tidewater, cartage at the port of shipment, possibly to a warehouse and later 541 '-^^ Courtesy of Geo. H. Morrill Co. Packing op Printing Inks. (Left) Shows method of wrapping cans in paper to protect labels, water- proof case lining and wooden packing case. (Right) Case ready far shipment showing method of strapping, nailing and stencilling. Courtesy of Oeo. H. Morrill Co. Partly Packed Case of Printing Inks. Rolls of cans, packed in paper, are firmly bedded in shavings. A waterproof case lining is likewise used. 542 PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 543 to the steamer, also loading into the vessel, generally in a sling with many other materials. The same process is repeated at the other end of the journey where the situ- ation is sometimes complicated by the fact that it is neces- sary to lighter the cargo. In the final analysis, many of the shipments are carried on pack animals into the in- terior of the country. On account of the various han- dlings, small packages are preferable to larger ones because they are easier to handle and are proportionately stronger. * * Every batch of ink which my company manufactures has not only the number and name of the ink, but also a serial grinding number. This grinding number refers to the particular batch of ink in question. A small sample of this batch is kept and also a full and complete record of what went into the batch and all other facts concerning it, so that if at any time later the company is furnished with the grinding number, full and complete information about the batch may be had and also, which is more im- portant still, a sample of the actual batch of ink in ques- tion is available. Every package of ink turned out by our company carries this grinding number either by per- foration in the band around the can, a perforated metal tag attached to the package, or by stenciling. This has been found to be a very valuable feature. The name and number of the ink are shown on the label. '*Ink is packed in i/o, 1, 5 and 10-pound cans. Cans for the same quantity of ink may vary greatly, but this is unavoidable. Care is taken to select cans such that the pound. of ink completely fills the can. This is necesr sary in order to avoid having the ink flow about in the can and mixing into the ink any skin that is formed. Therefore it happens that while a number of cans may contain one pound of ink, the sizes of the various cans vary considerably. Although this necessitates carrying in stock many different sizes of cans, this bad feature is amply compensated for by the fact that when each can is full the ink reaches the customer in good condition. There is a wax paper placed on the top of the ink ^fter 644 EXPORT PACKING the can is filled, the cover is put on, and the can is then banded with a substantial paper band, after which it is labeled. Three things in connection with the banding and labeling are noteworthy: first, the character of the labels; for it is to be noted that the labels are designed to be characteristic and serve as a trademark or means of identification of the inks, no matter where the cans may go, and each can also carries the label of the representa- tive who handles the ink; second, the grinding number perforated in the band which is also an important fea- ture; third, liquids are packed in screw top cans, which are also. banded and labeled, as are all of the cans of our manufacture. **The wooden cases in which all cans (and tubes) are shipped are very important in export shipments. The case used is of special construction as shown in cut page 542. Attention is called particularly to the fol- lowing: the small size of the case, 27%" x 17%" x I51/2", outside dimensions ; the thickness of the wood from which the case is made, — %" stock; the way the case is con- structed, — particularly the cleats on the end and the way they are built in connection with the rest of the case (cut page 542 shows this feature, which gives a corner which protects the cleat, making it practically impossible for the cleat to be pulled off, and also holds the cover in position) ; best results are obtained by using sufficient nails, but not too many, coated nails being the best. *'In order to make the cases as waterproof as possible, a heavy manila paper bag lining is used. This lining is made of two thicknesses of manila paper with a tar prep- aration between, making a practically waterproof paper. The lining is made the exact size of the inside of the case so that it drops down into the case without folds or creases. This lining is shown at the left in cut page 542. The rolls of cans are placed in the case as shown in cut page 542, and shavings, which are much better than saw- dust, because they do not sift out, are packed carefully around each roll of cans and tamped down solidly, which gives a very firm packing of the cans in the case. A case PACKING OF TINNED GOODS 545 so packed is shown in cut page 542. The lining is then folded over as shown in the same cut, and the cover nailed on the case. *^ After the case is nailed, it is strapped with iron, as shown in cut page 542. This strapping is put on with a special machine wliich draws it so tight that the strapping absolutely cuts into the wood at the comers, after which it is sealed with a special seal, as shown on the top of the box, cut page 542. A nail is driven through the strap- ping and through each board of the case. . This not only holds the strapping securely, but discourages pilfering.. The case is then ready for stenciling. ** Great care should be used in stenciling cases in order that it may be easily read, and so that there can be no question as to any of the lettering on the case. This is also shown in cut page 542. **Five and ten-pound cans are packed in the same size cases in a similar manner. The cases are comparatively small, because printing ink is a relatively heavy material, and it is founil that the smaller the cases, the stronger they are and the better they travel. These cases have been used for export shipments for the past twelve years without a complaint from any customer on account of faulty packing. ** Years of experience and many experiments have shown the methods described to be fundamentally neces- sary and correct for the successful packing of printing inks for export. They are fundamental for all export packing. The principal object is that the goods shall reach the ultimate consumer in an attractive form, pack- ages unbroken and in good condition, and this latter statement is especially true of the labels.'* CHAPTER XX EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS THE neat and attractive fashion in which a large and increasing variety of American goods of all descriptions are put up in cartons for the retail trade show-window and shelf and counter display, has attracted the admiration of foreign merchants all around the world and the envy of European manufacturers of similar products. The English trade papers especially have repeatedly urged on British manufacturers an imita- tion of American practices in thus packing shelf and counter goods. The packing of such goods in cartons for export shipment, therefore, involves primarily the deliv- ery of the contents of cases to customers in distant lands in the salable and attractive condition in which they leave the original shipper, that is, in the condition in which the maker of the goods intends and expects they will arrive and be placed on display by retail dealers, no matter where situated. At first blush it might be thought that packing for ex- port shipment of such commodities as are now under con- sideration would involve no special problems, — that all anyone would have to do would be to take the individual cartons, stow them away in the case, nail it up, and for- ward it. But on maturer consideration it will be recog- nized that there are a great many considerations which ought to have thoughtful attention. In the first place the strength of the cartons employed when goods are despatched to overseas markets ought, in many instances, to be superior to the somewhat flimsy cardboard occasion- ally used with some products for domestic sales purposes. In intimate connection with that consideration comes the question of the size of cartons, and the packing of the goods themselves within the cartons. As has been re- 546 EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 547 peatedly pointed out in this volume, waste of space in foreign shipments means increased freight charges on the goods, and if an unnecessary freight cost, even of 2 per cent on the value of the goods, can be avoided it is ob- viously highly desirable that the shipper should adopt every possible measure to affect this saving and space reduction. Many cartoned goods are shipped for ex- port in identically the same fashion in which they are supplied to trade here at home. In the latter trade it is obviously of no moment at all whether the contents of a carton fit exactly or snugly, or whether there may be half an inch in length, breadth, or thickness which is unoccupied bj^ the contents. This waste of space may, however, be a highly important matter in export ship- ments; take, for example, a case containing 60 or 100 cartons of no matter what product, and if there is a waste of space in each carton of half an inch in length and a quarter of an inch in height, it is not difficult to figure out that the unnecessary cubic space occupied by a case con- taining such a quantity of cartons would easily measure a total of two or three cubic feet. This might mean pay- ing unnecessary freight and other charges of as much as two or three dollars on the case in question, and this un- necessary charge might amount to a total of 2 per cent of the value of the contents. Furthermore, if the contents of a carton do not exactly fill it there is certain to be a good deal of play and rubbing or knocking of the contents in the course of repeated handlings before the shipment reaches its ultimate foreign destination, and hence if the cartons themselves are not strong and substantial they are not likely to arrive in immaculate condition. On all of these accounts, therefore, most careful thought ought to be given to the desirability of special cartons for export. Of course shipping any commodities in cartons is not the most economical possible fashion of so despatching them by steamship. The packing in cartons inevitably involves the use of considerably greater shipping space than would be necessitated were the same commodities 548 EXPORT PACKING packed in bulk, without the use of cartons. However, im- porters and retail merchants in other countries prefer to pay the higher freight charges involved when goods are forwarded in attractive cartons. These materially assist in increasing sales at retail, and no American manufac- turer should contemplate shipping in bulk when this ele- ment of attractiveness of the package is an important one — at least, unless his foreign customers specifically urge and instruct the abandonment of the carton. In- stances have been known where, in certain Latin Ameri- can markets, where differing rates of duty apply to cases containing mixed commodities, importers have instructed that the goods themselves be packed separately, in bulk, and that the cartons in which the goods are ordinarily shown and sold at retail be separately shipped, in order that the importer, after securing reduced import duties through such shipment, might properly repack the goods in the cartons after receipt in his warehouses. Before passing on to other considerations affecting the packing of goods in cartons, it should be noted that the interior packing of cartons should be designed to pre- vent any rubbing or similar damage to their contents. These should fit closely, or if not, be adequately pro- tected by wrappings or stuffings of tissue paper or other materials, as the nature of the contents might require. This applies particularly when contents do not exactly fit the cartons. It would appear to be true that most manufacturers and shippers of commodities now under consideration employ stock cases for their export shipments. In the domestic trade the commodities in question may be and probably usually are sold in standard quantities, a dozen or a gross of one article, 50 or 100 of another article, per- haps 48 or 60 pairs of shoes, and so on. Stock cases adapted for such standard quantities may be entirely suitable for export work, but a good many foreign orders involve shipment in other than standard quantities, and very frequently may involve shipment of odd quantities of assorted goods. In such instances stock cases ought Courtesy of Parke, Davis d Co. Packing of Antiseptic Fluid. standard case of 12 one goUon tins. Four tins are placed in each carton, and three cartatis fill case compactly. Each carton contains a wooden block to prevent shifting of tins. Courtesy of E. Clemens Horst d Co. Packing of Compressed Hops. (Left) Hops are pressed into cakes 16" square by l^i" thick and weighing 8 lbs., H cakes being packed in tin lined case. (Right) Another method of packing hops. Seven cakes are packed in one tin containing 56 lbs., three tins being packed to a case. 549 Courtesy of Hanan d Son. Packing of Shoes. Case contains a waterproof lining which i^ folded down over too to vrevent damage by moisture. (Jourtesy of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. Packing of Assorted Lead Pencils. The shipment is carefully protected by paper linings, iron straps, and the open spaces filled with excelsior. 550 EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 551 not to be supplied unless they exactly fit the quantities of cartons which are to go forward. It is much better to have special cases built rather than attempt to stuff with excelsior or paper the vacant spaces, which may be left by packing in a stock case a miscellaneous assortment. Furthermore, stock cases ought, of course, never to be used unless they are of weight and character entirely suit- able for export shipments — that is to say — of the descrip- tion which has elsewhere and at numerous points in this volume been described and strongly emphasized. Waterproof linings for cases to contain goods in car- tons, and in many instances hermetically sealed tin linings for such cases, are peculiarly necessary; and sometimes soft linings or cushioning between the walls of the case and the cartons, or even between the rows or layers of cartons are equally important, since the preser- vation for arrival in attractive condition of the appear- ance of handsome cartons is a prime desirability in almost all such shipments. For similar reasons special care must be taken, in nailing on the covers of such cases, to guard again nails entering within the case and per- forating or otherwise damaging the cartons with which they come in contact. Almost all goods ordinarily shipped in cartons are peculiarly the objects of solicitude on the part of pil- ferers, who prey on export shipments on dock and on board of steamers, in no matter what part of the world. Shoes^ confectionery, foodstuffs — all these, and in gen- eral most cartoned goods, must be very thoroughly pro- tected by every known device against the danger of pilfering, and in this connection study should be made of the special chapter in this volume devoted to this subject. Export Packing of Shoes.— In the packing of leather shoes it is of prime importance to protect* the goods against moisture, and this is commonly done by thor- oughly waterproofing the case and securing the goods against all possible contact with dampness. In certain cases, such, for example, as the export package of a well- known company to whom thanks are due for photographs 552 EXPORT PACKING reproduced on page 550 the case may be tin or zinc lined, a practice that is very general with shipments going to South America. Furthermore, the usual requisites of stout cases is more than required in this case because of the danger of pilfering. This last point is extremely important in the case of shoes, for we have here an ideal class of merchandise for the pilferer. Of use to anybody in any country, easily concealed and transported, equally easily disposed of, every effort should be made to see that safety seals are placed on the cases and that the contents of the shipment are as fully disguised as possible. A large company, other than the one mentioned above, states: **As regards information relative to the way our shoes are packed, we beg to state that, first, we check the shoes on to our packing table prior to having them placed in the cases ; then, as they are placed in the case they are rechecked. This practically precludes mistakes in our count. **The cases are made of selected gum, free of knot holes or knots, having I/2" sides, yg" heads, and the heavier case is reenforced with %" strips 4" wide all around. The shoes themselves are packed in a waterproof liner made of two layers of heavy paper with a thin coating of waterproof substance between the layers. This paper comes in the shape of bags, which are fitted into the case, and the shoes are placed inside the bag. When the required number of shoes are in the case, the bag is folded down on the top in such a way as to prevent against water seeping in through the openings. The lids of the cases are then nailed on securely with coated wire nails and strapped all around with %" metal strips, the ends of which are inserted through a patent seal, and a nail driven through that seal. We place no identification marks on our cases to show what is contained therein, nor does our name appear thereon in any place. We thus eliminate the feature of having the cases show that they contain shoes^ and since we have followed this method our percentage of pilferage has materially decreased.*' EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 553 A third large shoe exporter states: *'In forwarding our shipments to foreign countries we have found in our experience that a number of different methods are re- quired, according to the point of destination. For in- stance, on shipments to the West Coast of South America the risk of theft and pilferage is very high, and shipments are, therefore, packed with the view to avoid this extra risk. As you no doubt know, most of the goods arriving at West Coast ports are lightered from the steamers, as wharfage facilities are few, and this process adds greatly to the chance of pilferage. For this reason our shipments to the West Coast are first packed in ordinary wooden cases such as are used for shipment in this country, and are then repacked in heavy %'' stock wooden cases, which are ordinarily known as dry goods cases. These cases are strapped at both ends and sealed, and as an extra precaution a wire band and seal are placed around the center of the case. Each separate board is nailed individually ; also the strapping is nailed to each board. On shipments to the East Coast, the cases are lined in the usual manner with waterproof paper. The strapping and sealing are the same. This method we have also applied on our shipments going to the continent of Europe. **You are, no doubt, familiar with certain require- ments which call for packing out of the ordinary. We have been requested at times to wrap our wooden cases in burlap, which cannot be tampered with without show- ing traces. ^^Our patent leather shoes are generally packed in parchment paper, which is the best protection against the wearing off of the varnish used on the patent leather. However, on shipments to some of the Central American countries where the climate is damp, we use, in addition to the oiled paper, cotton-batting paper, which we have found gives good results in all cases." A variation of the usual fashion in the packing of shoes for export is reported from Cuba, where certain manufacturers, probably by agreement with their whole- 554 EXPORT P4CKING sale customers on that island, are accustomed to packing 12 single cartons of shoes in one large pasteboard or fibre carton, securely wrapped with paper, and tied, and labeled with description, number of pairs of each size, etc., in order that the wholesale distributor may easily reship small lots to his retail customers in the country. The cartons are of course enclosed in a suitable shipping case. As an instance of bad packing, a New York firm of foreign freight contractors tells of a shipment which it encountered, typical of many, which brought to light an appalling indifference to packing for export. The ship- ment in question consisted of some 1,500 cases of shoes, originating in Chicago and destined to a point in Eou- mania. The shoes were packed in cases made of lumber which was not any thicker than an ordinary egg case, and were only strapped with very thin wire. The shipment, upon arrival in New York, was naturally in very bad condition, practically every case having to be recoopered, involving considerable expense. This firm calls attention to the fact that in this particular instance the shipment was very poorly packed even for a domestic movement, and that if it had been allowed to proceed without recoop- ering, on the assumption that the steamship company would accept it in such a condition, the shoes would have arrived at destination in very bad shape indeed. Packing of Rubber Boots and Shoes.— A large manu- facturer of rubber footwear states: ^^ Rubber footwear for domestic consumption is packed in cardboard boxes, usually 24 pairs to the case. For export we have been using a specially constructed case of 1" material, cleated, and with reenforced ends. We have never had trouble on our shipments that have been packed in the special ex- port cases. The standard domestic containers are very unsatisfactory. We also ship the goods in bulk, remov- ing the cardboard boxes wherever it is possible, which shows an economy of 40 per cent in the shipping space. Our trade is supplied with a list showing the cubic meas- urements, and the gross and net weights of the various Courtesy of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. Case op Lead Pencils. In this instance the case contains a shipment of lead pencils all of the same grade and size. Courtesy of Geo. H. Morrill Co. Packing of Printers' Ink in Tubes. Collapsible tubes are placed in printed cartons and solidly packed with saw- dust. Four 14 lb. tube cartons are then placed in a large carton, making an attractive 1 lb. package of J, tubes, each in its separate carton. 655 Courtesy of Oeo. Borgfeldt d Co. Packing of Novelties and Toy Sewing Machines. (Left) Christmas tree ornaments in boxes, whieh are sectioned to prevent breakage. Boxes must he closely packed to prevent jostling. Oiled paper lining is used to prevent injury to painted decorations. (Right) Toy sewing machiius are wrapped in paper, to prevent injury to the mechanism, excelsior is not used inside the carton, it is however placed between each two layers of boxes. Courtesy of Geo. Borgfeldt d Co. Packing of Dolls. Dolls are easily broken. Each doll is tightly fitted into box with corrugated paper and excelsior, enough excelsior being used to give spring should box be dropped. Boxes packed in even rows and spaces between well filled with excelsior. 656 EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 557 rubber shoes packed under the two methods described. **We have simplified our replies to general inquiries so that it is covered in one paragraph, which reads as follows : 24 pairs to case — women's 33^ cubic feet 24 " " " men's 5 100 " bulk women's 5 " " 100 " " men's 8 ''The objection to packing most goods in bulk is due to the condition under w^iich they arrive at destination. The Europeans have had sufficiently cheap labor in the past to pay particular attention to the finish of their goods, with the net result that American goods packed closely to conserve space almost invariably lay the manu- facturer open to a question as to the finish of his goods, due to the condition under which they arrive. ''It is our experience that it is advisable to take addi- tional space and have the goods arrive at destination in the best manner possible, dividing the cost per ease by the number of units contained therein. This shows only a small additional cost to have the goods in proper con- dition. It is our judgment that the American manufac- turer would do well to study first the condition in which his goods will arrive in the foreign market, and then the economy in space that it is possible to obtain when the goods are properly packed.'* Another large shipper of rubber footwear informs us that goods are shipped 24 pairs to the case, each pair in a carton, and wrapped in tissue. The lumber is %" white pine, and the effort is made to keep the case as light as possible. The cases are not sealed, and well-nailed straps have been found sufficient protection against pilfering, although every effort is made to keep identifying marks off the cases. Rubber boots are packed 12 pairs to the case, with the same carton and tissue covering as in the case of rubber shoes. All rubber goods go as measure- ment cargo. In the case of shipments to Great Britain it has been found unnecessary to strap cases, although ship- 558 EXPORT PACKING ments are confined to one or two of the largest trans- Atlantic lines. Cereals in Cartons.— A large manufacturer and ship- per writes that cereals are exported both in cartons and in tins. In regard to former packing this manufacturer states: '^Packed in shells or cartons, 7 15/16" x 414" x 3%", made from .033 chipboard, and firmly glued on both ends. Wrappers are pasted or glued all over, making an air-tight package. The packages are shipped in nailed and wire-bound cases, 36 packages to the case, and weigh 2 pounds each. The nailed case has %'' sides, tops and bottoms, and I/2" ends, each end having two outside cleats 2" x %", running the full depth of the ends. Wire- bound cases are made from I14" hardwood, veneer, and are reenforced on sides with cleats measuring %" x 15/16", which run full length and depth of side. There is also a batten 2" x %" down the center. The case has four 14-gauge wires running the long way of the case, and fastened with staples 3" apart. The same goods are shipped in 1-pound packages, 72 packages to the case, in the same way.'' Confectionery in Cartons.— A good deal of American confectionery of various descriptions is exported in car- tons, especially to such nearby markets as the West Indies. No little discrimination seems, however, to be called for in determining upon carton shipments for such products. Unless cases are lined with tin and hermetic- ally sealed, it would seem doubtful that the confectionery in cartons would arrive in desirable, even in salable, condition in most foreign markets, above all when such shipments have to pass through hot, tropical or semi- tropical waters. Even if cartons are packed in her- metically sealed, tin-lined cases, still there is always to be remembered the possible deterioration of the confection- ery merely through the effects of heat, and this applies to American confectionery more than any other, because of the use by our manufacturers of cane sugar, or more often glucose, neither one of which will withstand heat as does the beet-root sugar usually employed by Euro- EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 559 pean manufacturers of such products. , The latter, it may be said, far more generally employ tins, and far more sel- dom utilize the carton, than do American manufacturers. An exporter of confectionery writes : ^ * Half-pound cakes of Oriental chocolate are each wrapped in tin foil and a regular trade label, as used in the stores on this side of the water. They are packed in 7-pound cardboard boxes, and if necessary to make the cakes fit tightly, cor- rugated paper is laid between them and the sides of the box. Sixteen boxes are packed in each case, a strong wooden case being used, and the cases, except as noted below, are lined with waterproof paper. Net weight, 112 pounds ; gross weight, about 140 pounds ; size, 2.10 cubic feet. * * If the goods are being shipped to a very hot climate a layer of tin is used for lining instead of the waterproof paper. The tin is made to the inside measure of the packing case, and a tin cover is soldered on, so that it forms, to all intents and purposes, a tin inner case fitting close inside the wooden case. Cases are banded with two iron straps pulled tight and nailed.'' Sundry Cartoned Goods.— An example of the mixed packing of different kinds and sizes of goods in cartons may be noted in the accompanying reproduction of pho- tographs containing lead pencils (see pages 550, 555). It will be noted that in one instance pencils are all of one grade, and exactly fill the case, while the other case is not filled, and the open spaces have been stuffed with ex- celsior. An illustration of the packing of collapsible tubes which are used with so many different kinds of products, and enclosed in cartons, is to be noted in the photograph supplied by a large manufacturer of printers' ink which is reproduced on page 555, and in regard to which the manufacturer writes: ** Ordinarily one-quarter and one- half pound lots of ink are packed in collapsible tubes. The tubes used are made of good quality burnished metal, and are filled on a special tube filling machine, after which the end is crimped over and the tube is labeled, 560 EXPORT PACKING presenting the appearance as seen in photograph, where a tube is shown in the foreground. Each tube is then placed in a printed carton and the carton 'filled and solidly packed with sawdust, as indicated in the picture. Four of the one-quarter pound tube cartons are then placed in a large carton, making a very attractive one- pound package composed of four tubes, each in its sep- arate carton. This carton is shown in photograph.*' A description of tlie wooden cases employed by this par- ticular manTlf acturer is given under the head of printers ' ink in the chapter devoted to the packing of tinned goods. Examples of novelties of various descriptions, toys, etc., shipped in cartons, and the packing for export be- lieved desirable in such instances, are to be observed in three photographs (see page 556). The shippers describe their packing of these cases for shipment in the following language: **The accompanying photograph shows the packing of a case of Christmas tree ornaments. It will be observed that the cartons are divided into sections, to minimize the risk of breakage. These cartons must be packed into the outer case just closely enough to prevent jostling, but equal care must be taken not to pack too tightly. Note the oil paper lining of the case, which is always used for export when anything is packed that may be subject to damage from moisture. ** Another photograph illustrates the packing of a case of dolls, which are very breakable, being made of plaster pulp, a brittle composition containing plaster of Paris. Each doll is fitted tightly into its carton with cor- rugated paper and excelsior, so that it cannot move. Enough excelsior is used in each carton to give spring, should the case be dropped. The boxes are packed in even rows, the spaces between being well filled with ex- celsior. **The third photograph shows the packing of toy sewing machines, each in an individual carton, the toys being wrapped in paper. A thick layer of excelsior is placed between each layer of cartons, but no excelsior is used inside of the cartons themselves to guard against EXPORT PACKING OF GOODS IN CARTONS 561 dust injuring the mechanism of the toys. The tilting of the case, as shown in the photograph, should be noted.'' This shipper states that nothing except dry goods is ever packed in his plant without tilting the case or barrel. CHAPTER XXI EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS COMMODITIES shipped for export in barrels are almost limitless in variety and include some kinds of merchandise for which the use of barrels in domestic shipments by rail within our own borders would arouse no end of astonishment. Barreled goods, as re- lated to the problem of export packing, comprise not only liquids of every description, from alcohol to lubri- cating oils, commodities in powdered form, from flour to chemicals, and commodities in solid condition, such as rosin, but also include many forms of hardware prefer- ably shipped for export in barrels, to say nothing of such products as wire nails, glass, crockery and all sorts of products, from tobacco to sausage casings. There are certain quite obvious requirements apply- ing to the overseas transportation of barreled goods of any description, whether in tight barrels or slack barrels, or whether in tierces, half barrels, kegs or in pails or other packages to be classified in a general way under the heading of barrels. Such considerations include, for example, protection against leakage of liquids and pro- tection against siftin'g of powdered contents. Other things to be considered which may not at first im- mediately suggest themselves, include protection against pilfering of contents from barrels, for valuable contents may be pilfered from barrels as greedily as from cases, and even in shipments of such a commodity, apparently far from tempting to thieves, as sausage casings, com- plaints have been received from abroad of extensive pil- fering from the center of barrels. As in all export shipping, manufacturers or others who forward their goods in barrels, ought to study atten- tively conditions in the markets to which their goods are 562 EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 563 despatched, as this may possibly affect the character of barrels to be shipped. For example, there are some for- eign countries in which barrels, when emptied of their original contents, are w^orth more locally than their original cost at point of shipment. Therefore, there is a great advantage in supplying sufficiently good barrels to ensure their arrival in good condition and without dam- age, in order that the buyers of the merchandise thus shipped may realize highest possible prices for the con- tainers, and thus be better pleased with the merchandise and with the services of the American concerns from w^hom purchases have been made. In the Amazon district of Brazil, for example, it has been said that oak barrels with hickory hoops are worth twice as much as they cost in New York, while soft w^ood barrels with flat hoops, arriving with heads split, are worth nothing at all and more than once have caused rejection by the importer of an entire shipment. Parenthetically, it should be noted that some European barrels, particularly barrels from France, command considerably higher prices at second hand than do American barrels at second hand, because of their superior quality over American barrels. Furthermore, the protection afforded by hardwood bar- rels against damage, and particularly destruction by rats on shipboard or while lying exposed on wharves, is also and always a highly important consideration. Another illustration of the desirability of studying local conditions in markets to which barreled goods are shipped, is suggested by a report made a few years ago from one of the Central American republics that it is often advantageous to perforate the barrels and then fill up the holes soundly so as effectively to prevent the leakage of liquids or greases, because in some of the Latin American republics import tariff laws impose a duty on sound and water-tight barrels in addition to the duty on their contents, and the duty on the barrels them- selves may be saved if, nominally at least, the barrels have been spoiled by the perforations which have been suggested. However, this is a rather fine point which 564 EXPORT PACKING requires some technical study because barreled goods are quite as often in Latin America charged import duties on the basis of gross weight. Such a considera- tion as this supplies another argument for the close and intimate consultation of manufacturer or exporter with local clients in each foreign market. Another recommendation which has been made by a New York export house shipping largely to the Far East is that in all shipments of oils or other liquids to tropical countries, or by steamships passing through unusually hot waters, considerable room should be left in barrels for the expansion of the liquids, which may be caused by the heat, as otherwise leakage is sure to occur and has frequently been experienced in the past. Complaints as to the leakage of liquids are by no means rare and will frequently appear in other paragraphs in this chapter. Some steamship companies, according to the New York exporter just quoted, have of late refused to accept dyes in barrels because of the heavy losses incurred from sift- ing and leakage and the damage done to neighboring cargo. It is" said that the greatest number of complaints as to shipments in barrels come from defective "heading up," and that difficulties experienced are much more notable in barrels that have not been completely finished in cooperages and made to be filled at the bung. Climatic conditions in the country to which a ship- ment may be destined, or seasonal conditions at time of shipment and at time of expected arrival of the goods abroad, may require consideration by exporters. Leakage of oils when shipped in the winter and the contents are congealed has been reported as only three- quarters of 1 per cent, whereas, in summer, leakage of the same oils ranges up to II/2 P^r cent. In dry, hot weather the wood of the barrels dries out and iron hoops sometimes become loosened and even fall off. Facilities for loading, unloading and storage at port of shipment and port of discharge may enter into this question also, since it is clear that if barrels containing liquids are properly sheltered on wharves or in warehouses from the EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 565 direct rays of a very hot sun considerable reduction in risk from leakage is likely to result. Considerable difference of opinion exists among ex- porters as to the desirability of barrels as export con- tainers. One important New York merchant expresses the opinion in a letter that although in principle barrels are poor containers, yet they are peculiarly adapted for the shipment of such articles as china and glassware, offering better protection for such contents than could be obtained from a case of the same weight and size. This exporter further remarks : ^ * In packing articles in barrels, however, care should be taken to prevent sifting or leakage. Reenforcing the heads, lining with water- proof paper (when dry contents are in question) and con- structing them with tongued and grooved staves assist in preventing sifting. Placing extra hoops on barrels containing liquids and reenforcing the heads are addi- tional ways of guarding against leakage.'' However, another New York export merchant argues strongly that the use of barrels should be discouraged whenever possible in export shipments, declaring that there is an immense waste of space in packing, and that meats, fruits, chemicals, in fact, all kinds of merchandise should be by preference otherwise packed than in barrels. This clearly is a problem which each manufacturer must study and determine for himself as affecting his indi- vidual products and the conditions surrounding his pack- ing and shipping. Illustrations of practice and policy in shipping for export in barrels will certainly be of interest and should offer many hints and suggestions to manufacturers. Cer- tain typical commodities may be selected in this connec- tion and the following include extracts from letters of manufacturers and shippers bearing on this subject. Packing House Products.— The great variety of prod- ucts produced and exported by large packing houses in Chicago and elsewhere in the United States, involves the use of all kinds of packages, among them barrels possibly taking first place. One of the principal American pack- 566 EXPORT PACKING iiig houses sends us a photograph (see cut page 567), and writes as follows regarding its own manufacture of the necessary containers of this description : **The millions of barrels, boxes, pails, tubs and other containers used by us annually in the shipment of packing house products come from two sources. Pails and tubs, some boxes and tin cans are manufactured by the com- pany. A goodly number of barrels, boxes and cans are purchased from outside sources. **Many packing house products come under the head- ing of perishable goods, which makes it important that there be no unnecessary delays in shipping them. Fur- thermore, a great number of containers are required each year. In view of these two facts, it has been natural for this company to establish its own box, barrel, pail and tin can shops, because in so doing it does not have to depend exclusively upon outside sources of supply for containers. **An interesting feature of this story on containers for packing house products is to be found in connection with foreign shipments of goods — the types of containers and the way they are built. For instance, in taking care of the South American trade we ship from the United States a great many barrels in the form of shooks, these shooks being reassembled after they reach the various plants in the Latin American countries. By shipping the barrels in knocked-down form, a great deal of cargo space can be saved. By shipping the shooks instead of the fin- ished barrels, all available space in the cargo can be utilized. '* White oak shooks, taking a 34" stave and holding around 54 gallons, are used in the South American trade, which required 150,000 to 200,000 barrels a year during the war. **As for the principal products put in barrels, among these may be mentioned lards, oleo oil, greases, fats, tal- lows, various kinds of meats, and fruit juices. *^For shipping oleo oil and lard the tierces used are made from white or red oak, with 34" stave, 2V' head, 567 Courtesy of Swijt A Co. Tierces for Provisions. Made to contain either pure lard, lard compounds or oils. Wood is carefully selected oak with 8 galvanised iron hoops, well driven and fastened. Courtesy of Swift *(■ Co. Packing op Pickled Meats. Meats in brine are packed in barrels, half barrels, and tierces. Wood is care- fully selected. Hoops are galvanized iron protecting package on long journeys m tropical climates. 568 EXPOBT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 569 and six steel hoops. Their capacity is 50 to 52 gallons. *' Thirty-gallon barrels are principally utilized for pork. These are constructed of ash, with 30" stave, 18" head and bound with six galvanized iron hoops. **In addition to these, half and quarter barrels, with a capacity of 100 and 50 pounds, respectively, are em- ployed. Before the war 250,000 half -barrels of spruce a year were used for export lard, a considerable amount of which went to Germany. *^ Mince meat is packed in 100 and 150-pound barrels, and in 50-pound tubs, which have inside dimensions of 14%" at the top, 11-%" at the bottom, and a depth of 11 3/16". * ' The shipments of casings require packages of 20 to 150 pounds capacity, the larger ones being of white oak, while for the smaller container a good, tight, hardwood package is used. **A11 of the foregoing containers are in the class known as tight barrels. However, for the exporting of lard, glue, soap and similar products, containers known as slack barrels are also used. These barrels come in two sizes, having 30" and 34" staves, the larger ones being employed for glue. About 150,000 barrels of each size were pressed into service last year. ^* These slack barrels are built in our own cooper shop at the Union Stock Yards in Chicago. About 250,000 lard half-barrels are also turned out there annually. Slack cooper shops are operated at most of the other packing plants of the company, stock for these containers being bought on the open markets and practically the entire output of a large Minnesota company is required each year. This company manufactures pails and tubs, draw- ing on the basswood, birch, pine and other Minnesota woods for jthe material. In these containers are shipped lard, pork, casings, dressed meat, pigs' feet, soap, jelly, sausage, tripe and similar packinghouse products. Lard pails holding from one to fifty pounds are manufactured in the Chicago plant having a capacity of 60,000 of these pails a day.'' 570 EXPORT PACKING Another of our largest shippers of provisions, in writing of the different packages in which the company's products are exported, calls attention to cut on page 568, representing a tierce or large barrel in which pure lard, lard compound or oils may be shipped. This is made of carefully selected oak, is free as possible from seed or worm holes, and is protected at the ends with galvanized iron hoops well driven and fastened so that they cannot slip, with the shrinkage of the package, which they are quite certain to do if exposed to dry heat, with consequent serious leakage. Barrels used in the exporting of pickled meat, that is, meat in brine, include half barrels, barrels and tierces, are illustrated in cut on page 568. The wood is carefully selected and the hoops are of galvanized iron to secure protection in long journeys to interior tropical countries of South America. Some European importers have complained of certain American shipments of lard in wooden pails where the rims of the pails project and in consequence rub against each other and covers are frequently loosened or even lost. It is recommended that the practice of the larger packers be followed, that is, that the cover be nailed inside the outer rim of the pail. Oils in Barrels.— A prominent exporter of cotton oil writes: **A11 of our oils for export are packed in hard- wood iron-bound barrels. In normal times we are able to guarantee out-turn weights within 1 per cent, and could do it today were it not for the fact that owing to conges- tion in certain European ports ships have been held up indefinitely or the oil allowed to lie on the wharves for weeks at a time before consignee could. take possession of same. This has been a war condition which has caused us to withdraw any guarantee of out-turn weights, but with the return to normal conditions we are of the opinion that by using the same care that we have heretofore in the selection of our cooperage that we can again guaran- tee out-turn weights. Very much depends on the manner of stowing the oil on the ship, and when we have a ship- EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 571 ment of any importance we endeavor to have one of our men supervise, for our own protection, the stowing of the oil.'* Another exporter of cotton oil says that : * * The large percentage of cotton seed oil shipped abroad goes in strong, hardwood, export barrels which carry the oil safely to destination ; and, as this package has been used with satisfaction to all concerned for many years, there remains very little to be said about it. These barrels are made of thoroughly seasoned white oak, iron bound, and contain about 375 to 380 pounds net, weight about 450 pounds gross, and measure about 12 cubic feet. *'We can also ship in any size barrel required or can ship the oil in tins of any style or size either plain or decorated. We also put our oil up in the French style of bottles, quarts, pints, and half pints, packing any num- ber to the case that may be required.'' European importers of American cotton seed oil have recommended that care be taken to prevent too much absorption of the oil by the barrels, through leaving con- tents too long in the containers or through the use of shooks which are too new or of too soft wood. Top covers of barrels containing all sorts of oils, cotton seed oil as well as mineral oil, sometimes dry up and crack during the voyage, and leakage results. A shipper writes in regard to sundry oils: *^Our standard package for shipments of coal tar oils and ben- zol is a 110-gallon drum, weighing about 175 pounds for the package itself and measuring 31" maximum diameter by 41" maximum height. In special cases we sometimes ship wooden barrels and once in a great while we employ two 5-gallon cans to a special export case, but in general, as above stated, the standard 110-gallon size drum is the package we employ on such shipments.*' Flour in Barrels.— Flour exported in barrels is shipped in a variety of very different containers depend- ing upon the market of destination, but even more upon the wishes and instructions of the customers. The various barrels used by one of the largest exporters of 572 EXPORT PACKING flour, as shown in cut on page 535, include the following: Half barrels with four wire and four flat hoops; half barrels with ten flat hoops ; half barrels with ten hickory hoops. Barrels are made with twelve flat hoops, with four wire and four flat hoops, or sometimes with twelve hickory hoops. This flour exporter declares that he has no knowledge of why his customers in some instances prefer one kind of barrel and in other instances another kind. He follows instructions in regard to all the kinds of barrels enumerated as suitable for export purposes. However, it is to be noted that some of the barrels shown in the photograph supplied (see page 535) have re- enforced heads, others no such additional protection. If that protection is required in one instance, it would seem that it might be desirable in all instances. A large New York concern shipping flour chiefly to Europe urges that all flour barrels be lined with paper and have a double lining at top and bottom. Only in this way, it is stated, can satisfactory shipment be ensured. Portland Cement in Barrels.— The American practice in exporting cement is to ship in barrels, although the common British practice involves almost exclusively shipments in bags, and it is worthy of note that the Brit- ish cement enjoys a tremendous sale throughout the world, exceeding the volume of American exports of these products many times over. This fact certainly does not arise from any considerably cheaper first costs of cement in the United Kingdom than in the United States, and what part of it may be due to superior British ship- ping facilities or what effect on delivery costs shipment in bags rather than barrels may have, are questions which American shippers might study with advantage. It is a well known fact that superior shipping facilities from Great Britain, at least as they existed prior to the great war, enabled British exporters frequently to forward cement at insignificant freight costs, when it was possible to find steamers for a desired destination which happened to be short of cargo and were willing to take cement in bags as ballast at very low freight rates. Courtesy of Edison Portland Cement Co. Method of Packing Cement. Special export package devised by this firm. Note that statues of barrel have been removed and cement is standing tcithotdt support. Dead air space is entirely eliminated. Courtesy of Lehigh Portland Cement Co. Barrels Used for Cement Shipment. (Left) Staves are tongued and grooved. Barrels reen forced with steel hoops and lined with waterproof paper. (Right) Note method of reenforcing head of barrel. 573 Courtesy of Atlas Portland Cement Co. Construction of Barrel. Shows use of harrel-raising machine. Stares are set up in circular form and head placed in form at bottom. Top is drawn together by wire frame and head hoops adjusted, then barrel is placed over heater. Courtesy of Atlas Portland Cement Co. Method of Tightening Barrel Hoops. Shores trussing machine tchich automatically drires hoops into place and tightens barrel 574 EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 575 The reports of the Department of Commerce, of the United States, show that in 1919 there were exported some 2,463,689 barrels of hydraulic cement valued at $7,516,019. At present, exports of American hydraulic cement are chiefly to Latin America, but the writer knows of certain aggressive plans now being carried out by manufacturers that will doubtless increase very mate- rially the export volume of this commodity. A cement manufacturing company, prominent in ex- port shipping, sends a photograph of a special export package which it has devised for its own shipments (see cut page 578) and calls attention to the fact that the staves of the barrel have been removed and that the cement is standing without support, this being due to the fact that dead air space has been entirely eliminated, re- ducing the possibility of breakage of the barrel to a minimum. The cement on the top of the barrel has been loosened with the finger which shows that this process of compacting does not cause the cement to cake. Before the package illustrated was determined on a most elaborate series of experiments were made with barrels filled with cement, and these experiments covered the travels of the barrel, from the time it left the mill until the cement was removed for construction purposes in some distant country. All the shocks, strains, drops, vibrations, knocks and jolts of loading into the freight car; the handling incident to lightering, including the severe drop from the sling to the vessel's hold ; the move- ment of the barrels during the ocean voyage as well as the unloading at the port of destination and transporta- tion from that point, were carefully investigated. From the correspondence in the above case, it is evi- dent that the method of compressed packing followed has produced satisfactory results. However, other prom- inent shippers and manufacturers of cement are satisfied to send their goods abroad by filling the barrels in the usual way, merely tapping the barrel in order to settle the contents. This method seems to give egually satis- factory results. 576 EXPORT PACKING Another large company writes : ** We believe we have perfected a barrel which assures, under normal condi- tions, safe transportation to destination. **We have erected, solely for the benefit of our foreign trade, our own cooperage plant .which is equipped with the most efficient machinery made for the manufacture of cement barrels. By this process the staves are tongued and grooved and the barrels heavily reenf orced with steel hoops, while additional reenforcements are provided for the head. Every barrel is carefully lined with water- proof paper so that the cement is protected against any possible damage from moisture while in transit. (See cuts page 573.) * * In shipping Portland cement you can readily under- stand the necessity for perfect packing. Cement is ground so fine that a minimum of 78 per cent must go through a 200-mesh screen, with 40,000 holes to the square inch. This makes a product almost finer than water and unless our barrels are in good shape, it would naturally mean sifting, breaking and a dissatisfied cus- tomer at the other end. **We purchase sawed oak staves one-half inch thick, and prior to their entering the cooperage they are kiln dried. The duration of drying is entirely dependent upon the condition of the staves at the time they are being prepared for use. After leaving the kiln the staves are carefully inspected and only such material as passes a most rigid inspection enters the cooperage. These staves are then put through the various machines, first cutting to lengths, second slotting the ends to provide for the barrel heads, trimming the edges, placing tongues and grooves along the edge of each stave, etc. '^We purchase I51/2" yellow pine heads one-half inch thick, cut and beveled ready for use. Our hoop material is received in rolls and at our own cooperage the material is cut to lengths, punched, riveted and stretched to con- form to the bilge of the barrel. ^*The staves are set up in a form around the barrel bottom and are drawn together by means of a cable after EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 577 which temporary hoops are placed over each end. The barrels are then placed over a slow coal fire heating drum which gives their permanent shape. From the drums the barrels go to the heading machine where the heads are placed. The permanent hoops follow and are driven into place by machine, right after which the barrels are deliv- ered to the nailing machine where the hoops are secured in position. The finished barrels then go to the labeling and stenciling department after careful inspection, and are then delivered to the filling department where the head is removed, the barrel lined with a glazed water- proof paper, filled and reheaded. **This is, of course, a brief description, but gives the main processes entered into in our cooperage plant where we have a capacity of 5,000 barrels a day.*' A third large exporter sends photographs (see pages 574, 579), and writes: ^^In the manufacture of barrels for our cement there are used from 16 to 18 wooden staves, depending upon the width, of one-half inch thick- ness, heading 16" in diameter, and all barrels are hooped with four steel hoops. The heads are reenforced by head stiffeners, or what are known as export strips. '^In the manufacture of these barrels, the staves, when received in carload lots, are placed in large dryers and thoroughly dried. This requires from several days to a week, depending on the condition of the staves when received. ** After drying, all staves are taken to the cooper shops and put through" crozing machines which chamfer the ends and cut the grooves which hold the heads in place. They are then delivered to the setting up or raising machines, where they are made up in barrel shape in the following manner : **The staves are set up in a circular form and a head is placed in the form at the bottom. The top is then drawn together by means of a wire frame and the head hoops placed around it, after which the barrel is placed over a heater which keeps the barrel in shape and helps to further drv it. 578 EXPORT PACKING * ' From the heater, the barrels are sent to the tappers who slip two bilge hoops thereon. These tappers also examine the barrels to see if there are any broken staves, knot holes or other defects, and if any are detected the barrels are returned to the setting up machines for replacement. ** After inspection the barrels are run through the trussing machines, where the hoops are automatically driven in place, and the barrel is made tight. Here again any barrels that develop any defects are thrown out. ^* Beyond this machine are the trimmers who place the export strip on the outside of the end of the barrel which is headed. This export strip is nailed in place and further strengthened by a piece of angle iron on each end which extends over the edge and is thoroughly nailed. **In this condition the barrels are transferred to the packing houses to be filled with cement, after which the second head is put in place and another export strip fastened in a similar manner to the one previously put on. Here also head liners are nailed in place and all marking for shipment is done. Our standard barrels are absolutely uniform in size and the quality is as near per- fect as is possible to make them, rigid inspection being enforced at all times.'* Iron and Steel Products in Barrels and Kegs.— A typical example of export shipment of iron and steel products is found in the large foreign business which manufacturers of wire nails enjoy. A large shipper states: *^We use a lining of heavy waterproof tar paper which protects the nails from moisture. We put a steel cleat on the top and bottom of the keg. This makes a very substantial packing and the complaints of broken packages are nil.'' (See cut page 579.) A house making a specialty of the manufacture of wire products gives the following data in reference to its export shipment: Steel wire nails are packed in strong wooden kegs lined with pitch paper and bound securely with special steel hoops. All kegs have steel cleats on the ends as an additional protection against damage by (JuurtAsy oj Atlas I'urthind Ccmcut Co. Completed Cement Barrel. Constructed of 16 to 18 wooden atavea, Vj" thick, heading 16" in diameter. All barrels are rccnforccd with k steel hoops, and head stiffcncrs. Couritsy oj rutsburgh Steel Co. Packing of Wire Nails. steel wire nails are packed in strong wooden kegs lined with pitch paper and bound securely with special steel hoops. Kegs hare steel cleats on ends as additional protection against damage by rough handling during transhipment. 579 Courtesy of Col. J. N. Wolfson. Results of Poor Packing. Kegs containing bolts and nuts weighing two to three pounds each, the hands of the kegs being missing on arrival at Manila. Courtesy of E. R. Squibb and Sons. Drugs and Chemicals in Barrels. An export drum, light in weight but very firm, containing 100 lbs. of boric acid powder. Note strong paper lining. 580 EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 581 rough handling during transhipment. The kegs contain nails usually weighing 100 pounds, 112 pounds and 1331/3 pounds net. Nails are also furnished in kegs weighing from 45 to 99 pounds net, or in cardboard lined jute can- vas bags weighing 56 pounds or 112 pounds each, gross weight. However, kegs and bags of special weight can also be furnished. Blued lath nails are packed in kegs which are care- fully lined with special antiseptic paper. This insures the receipt of the nails by the consumer in the same per- fectly sanitary condition in which these sterilized nails leave the mills. Lathers and others who carry nails in their mouths are thus protected, as the nails are kept free from all injurious substances from the moment of their complete sterilization until the keg is opened by the consumer. Complaints of foreign buyers of American wire nails are chiefly directed against the use of kegs of too light weight, which sometimes burst in transit; and perhaps criticism is even more frequent of the insecurity of the fastening of the heads of the kegs which are quite often broken. A prominent manufacturer of chain always ships his products up to 1-inch in heavy oil barrels well coopered. Another manufacturer, when shipping in barrels, always lines them with waterproof paper and sprinkles over the chain a non-hydrating product in order to prevent rust in transit. When heavy commodity like chain is shipped in barrels, care should be taken to use small sizes of barrels when shipping to the West Coast of South America or other points where landing facilities are not of the best. Wire finer than No. 30 gauge, tinned wire, lacquer finish or light coppered and annealed wire are usually packed in strong barrels made from gum staves, reen- forced with wire hoops and special cleats on each head for additional protection. The barrels are lined with heavy tarred paper ; then strong packing or kraf t paper, each coil of wire being paper wrapped. Merchandise to the value of $25,000 to $30,000 was 582 • EXPORT PACKING recently reported as lying unclaimed in the custom house at Manila because arriving without means of identifica- tion owing to the mutilation or destruction of frail con- tainers. Note in the accompanying photograph (page 580) several kegs which contain bolts and nuts weighing two to three pounds each, bands of the kegs being missing and the heads broken. A large New York exporter shipping to the Dutch East Indies comments on shipments of bolts, nuts and rivets in barrels which are too light for their contents. He believes that this sort of merchandise should be shipped in packages weighing not more than 200 pounds, and in barrels, because of the great extra charge for shipments in boxes. A New York firm shipping to Japan complains that shipments of box strapping have been received packed 600 pounds in a light sugar barrel. This firm states that it is hardly possible to roll a sugar barrel containing this weight of steel across a room without practically destroying the container. It is easy to imagine, there- fore, the condition of such a shipment after being handled three or four times, particularly in the loading slings of an ocean carrier. Only the heaviest hardwood barrels are strong enough for 600 pounds of contents. An exporter gives the following details of his ship- ments: **We make large quantities of spring steel which we furnish in coils wound ribbon fashion, each coil weigh- ing approximately 60 to 80 pounds. This material is oiled, wrapped in paper and then packed in oil barrels, as we have found that oil barrels make the best package for export; for a box, no matter how strongly it is reen- forced, if dropped from a wagon on the corner, will come apart. Furthermore, a box is frequently made of green wood and when put into the hold of the vessel becomes damp and often rusts the steel, whereas the oil barrels are made of heavy oak, properly dried and seasoned, and on account of having contained oil are more nearly rust- proof than any package we know of and they are further- more very strong. We can pack in each barrel about a EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 583 thousand pounds and the barrel can be rolled and there- fore handled much easier than a box weighing consider- ably less.'' In connection with shipments of such commodities, the following specifications issued by the General Engineer Depot of the United States Army are to be noted: ^'Hardware, nails, bolts, etc., should be packed in small cases or kegs made of first class material with heads reenforced by double heads, flush with the chime, with grain in the heads at right angles, well nailed together, banded with not less than four straps %"x .015 inch, se- cured in place by removing the two outer hoops, drawing the straps down and fastening them beyond the two hoops, after which the two hoops are replaced and se- cured in position. ** Alternatively, the heads shall be secured by small strips of wood around the edge, called *head lining,* a steel cleat, meeting the approval of the Depot, crossing the grain of the head and supporting it, such cleat to have ends extending under the end band and well down the sides and well secured.'' ^^ Where practicable the weight of the keg and its con- tents shall be under 125 pounds. ^'For steel products, oil barrels, or equal, shall be used. **Wood filling will fill the end level with the chime and support it, its direction shall be across the board of the head. Inside the head a second head shall be placed, 1%" thick, its boards extending at right angles to the boards of the head. The heads shall be carefully secured to the sides, at least three bands 1" x .030 inch will cross the head and be secured under two hoops at each end and to the sides. Sundry Products in Barrels.— Manufacturers of drugs and chemicals ship such powdered materials as boric acid in light but very strong export. drums, so-called, which are really straight-sided barrels. In such cases a strong paper lining is used, as illustrated in photograph repro- duced on page 580. 584 EXPORT PACKING Other chemicals shipped in barrels include, for ex- ample, acetic acid, shipped in barrels usually weighing about 490 pounds gross, 78 pounds tare, 412 pounds net, measurements being 211/2" head, 25" bilge and 34" height. Soda ash is packed in barrels having elm and gum staves, hardwood heads, and steel and iron hoops, lined with crinkly paper bags with heads reenforced by a strip of hard pine across the heads and strapped on with steel straps. It is also sometimes shipped in bags. All dry acids, aniline dyes, potash* and, in general, chemicals in the dry state when shipped in barrels or casks, should be protected by linings of strong tough paper. What are sometimes called rough products shipped in barrels include glucose, where expansion of the con- tents and consequent leakage is to be guarded against by especially strong hoops. Rosin barrels ought to be stronger than they sometimes are and special attention given to the heading. Old barrels ought not to be used for rosin and some attention ought to be paid to the use of lighter barrels than those sometimes employed, in view of complaints received of excessive tare on this American product in comparison with rosin received from other sources. Complaint is also made of the shipment of American plaster to Australia, the barrels often not being sufficiently strong and arriving in bad condition. In ship- ments of tobacco it has been observed that the wood employed was hastily dried, making it quite brittle, and as the contents are heavy it is not surprising that barrels frequently reach destinations in damaged con- dition. More hoops and T)f a better grade may profitably be employed and special attention given to the heading up of the barrels. Cut glass is usually packed in barrels because it is so heavy. To contain the contents of a barrel weighing 26 pounds a box weighing about 60 pounds is necessary. Furthermore, a manufacturer argues, the danger of breakage is less when barrels are used because they are easier to handle, and because if dropped there is only one <'<,iirfrgy of Oeo. Bargfeldt d Co. METifOD OF Packing Cut Glass. Packed in bnrrtls because of its weight. Danger of breakage is less than if packed in case xince if barrel is dropped there is only point of contact with ground. Barrels are tipped for ease in packing by tilting in box containing slanting board as rest. Courtesy of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. Packing of Flake Graphite. Barrels are first lined with double paper lining, after which graphite is put in and paper folded over top. Top of barrel is put on and double cross heads as shaken are nailed on both top and bottom, iitraps of barrel hoop iron are bound around barrel and over cross heads. 585 Courtesy of Joavvh h Packing of Graphite Crucibles. I)U (0. Nested in thick cushions of out straw, which possesses maximum spring. Straw is carefully tamped down. Courtesy of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. Packing op Graphite Facings. The general method of packing is similar to that used in packing flake graphite. 586 EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 587 point of contact with the ground instead of many. For ease in packing, barrels are tilted into a box containing a slanting board, which acts as a rest, as illustrated in photograph on page 585. It is needless to remark that the very greatest care should be taken in packing any kind of glassware to see that hay, straw or other packing materials perfectly sepa- rate each article and that a heavy cushion of such mate- rials protects the contents from sides and heads of the barrels. China and crockery may be wrapped in tissue paper before being packed and, if very delicate, in cor- rugated paper sleeves before being imbedded in the cushioning material in barrels. In this general regard much fuller information will be found in the special chap- ter in this volume devoted to the packing of glass and fragile goods in general. Incandescent electric lamps have been shipped by Dutch manufacturers in hogsheads containing from 400 to 500 lamps each. These were packed as follows : First a layer of straw was placed on the bottom of the cask; the lamps, enclosed in a corrugated sleeve and a paper wrapper, were placed on end ; over them a light layer of straw and a corrugated board, then another layer of straw, another layer of lamps, and so on, the sides of the casks being lightly lined. In addition to the interior packing, a twisted straw rope was placed on each end of the cask to serve as a buffer and absorb shocks. The advantage of packing in hogsheads is believed to consist in the saving of considerable freight charges when large quantities are shipped, although it is confessed that Dutch packing is not so advantageous as American pack- ing for rehandling and distributing to dealers in other countries. A domestic practice which ought not to be carried into the export trade is found in the practices of some manu- facturers of leather counters or stiffenings for shoes, which are shipped in barrels with one head only, the other being merely covered by a single or possibly a double thickness of burlap. This is not a satisfactory 588 EXPORT PACKING method of shipping any products whatsoever by ocean steamship to foreign countries. There is the greatest danger of the burlap top being torn and contents being lost. A large manufacturer of graphite products submits photographs showing packing in barrels which appear on pages 585, 586. One of these is a barrel containing flake graphite. The barrel is first lined with double paper lining, the graphite put in and paper folded over the top of the contents; the barrel is reenforced with double cross-heads, nailed top and bottom, over which and around the barrel extend straps of hoop iron. An- other photograph shows graphite crucibles packed in hogsheads, very carefully nested in thick cushions of oat straw, which is found to have more spring in it and to afford much better protection against breakage. This straw packing is tamped down and made very solid. Yet another photograph supplied by this manufacturer shows a barrel containing graphite facings. It is double lined with paper and the heads are protected with double cross- heads reenforced with strap iron. Specifications for Barrel Containers.— The following regulations prescribed by the Interstate Commerce Com- mission for shipments in bulk in wooden barrels, half barrels and kegs, while designed to apply to domestic shipments of inflammable liquids, may yet be recom- mended as generally desirable practice for all kinds of liquids for export shipments: ** Material from which the barrel, half barrel, or keg is constructed must be oak, or other suitable hardwood, thoroughly kiln jiried ; provided that kegs of a capacity not greater than 18 gallons may be constructed of soft wood if the thickness of staves and heads is one-eighth of an inch greater than that required for the oak kegs. '*The staves and heads must be not less than the fol- lowing thickness when the barrel, half barrel, or keg is finished : **For barrels (capacity over 32 gallons and not over 55 gallons), 11/16 inch. EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 589 *^For half barrels and kegs (capacity over 18 gallons and not over 32 gallons), % inch. **For kegs (capacity 5 gallons and not over 18 gal- lons), 9/16 inch. **For kegs (capacity under 5 gallons), % inch. *"rhe hoops must not be less in number nor smaller in size than the following: For barrels (capacity over 32 gallons and not over 55 gallons), six hoops : Head hoops, 1 11/16 inches by 17 gauge ; quarter hoops, 1 7/16 inches by 18 gauge ; bilge hoops, 1 11/16 inches by 17 gauge. **For ha4f barrels and kegs (capacity over 18 gallons and not over 32 gallons), six hoops: Head hoops, II/2 inches by 19 gauge ; other hoops, I14 inches by 19 gauge. *'For kegs (capacity 5 gallons and not over 18 gal- lons), six hoops: Head hoops, I14 inches by 19 gauge; other hoops, IVs inches by 19 gauge. *'For kegs (capacity under 5 gallons), four hoops: Head hoops, 1 inch by 20 gauge ; other hoops, Yg inch by 21 gauge. *^Bungholes and other openings must be provided with secure closing devices that will not permit leakage through them. Compressed, tapered wooden bungs must be covered with a suitable coating and must have a driv- ing fit into a tapered hole. They should be soaked in hot water for about one minute before driving into the bunghole. **The barrels, half barrels and kegs must be coated on the inside with glue, asphaltum, or other coating suit- able to prevention of leakage of the contents. When glued, there must be used at least two coats of good com- mercial glue so as to insure a uniform covering of the inside surface and averaging in total at least one-half pound to each barrel, and for half barrels and kegs an amount proportional to their inside surfaces. * * Barrels, half barrels and kegs which have been used at least once must be thoroughly recoopered when neces- sary, and must be reglued with at least one coat of glue before each refilling. Badly bulged or warped heads must be replaced. 590 EXPORT PACKING *' All slack barrels, half barrels, and kegs are divided into classes limited both^as to capacity and weight of contents as follows : ** Class A. Capacity not over 10 gallons, and to con- tain not over 100 pounds net weight. ** Class B. Capacity not more than 17 gallons, and to contain not over 150 pounds net weight. The average container of this class is the ordinary 12 1/^ by 18 inches keg. ** Class C. Capacity not more than 25 gallons, and to contain not over 200 pounds net weight. The average container of this class is the ordinary half flour barrel, 131/2 by 24 inches. ** Class D. Capacity not more than 35 gallons, and to contain not over 400 pounds net weight. The average container of this class is the ordinary flour barrel, 17% by 28 inches. ** Class E. Capacity not more than 45 gallons, and to contain not over 600 pounds net weight. The average container of this class is the ordinary sugar barrel, 19% by 30 inches. ** Class F. Capacity not more than 55 gallons, and to contain not over 750 pounds net weight. The average container of this class is practically the ordinary oil bar- rel, 201/2 by 34 inches. **The material from which the barrels, half barrels, and kegs are constructed must be of good hardwood (except when specifically provided otherwise), thoroughly kiln dried, and must be free from knots. **The staves must be not less than the following thick- ness: Hardwood — Classes A, B and C, six staves to 2 inches (cut or sawed) ; Classes D and E, % inch each (cut) or five staves to 1% inches (sawed) ; Class F, 7/16 inch. ** Softwood — Classes A and B, 7/16 inch; Classes C, D, E and F, softwood not allowed. * * The heads must be not less than the following thick- ness: Oak, beech, maple, and red gum, 7/16 inch for all classes; basswood, cottonwood, tupelo gum, and other EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BARRELS 591 similar woods, l^ inch for all classes. Softwood: 9/16 inch for classes A and B. Softwood not allowed for heads of classes C, D, E and F. The heads of classes D, E and F must be cleated or battened across the cants with cleats not less than 4 by % inch. *^The hoops shall not be less in number than the fol- lowing. Wooden hoops : six hoops for classes A and B ; eight hoops for classes C and D ; twelve hoops for classes E and F. Steel hoops: four hoops for classes A, B, C and 1); six hoops for classes E and F. The hoops shall not be smaller in size than the following : Wooden hoops — thickness 5/16 to 3/16 inch and width 1% inches, inside measurement, for all classes. Steel hoops — For classes A and B, head hoops 1% inches by 23 gauge ; bilge hoops 1% inches by 23 gauge ; for classes C and D, head hoops, 1% inches by 21 gauge; bilge hoops 1% inches by 23 gauge; for classes E and F, head hoops 1% inches by 21 gauge ; bilge hoops 1% inches by 23 gauge ; quarter hoops, 1% inches by 23 gauge. Gauge mentioned refers to United States standard. **If desired, half of the wooden hoops may be replaced by steel wire hoops, the wire to be directly under the wooden hoops (between the hoop and the bilge) and to be not less than No. 11 gauge for classes A, B, C and D, and not less than No. 9 for classes E and F. **If desired, the standard wooden hoops may be replaced by oval bark hoops (so-called half-round), three circumferences of w^hich will be required to take the place of one standard hoop. **If the Brainerd steel hoop is used, the rolled edge shall be included in measuring the width of the hoops. **A11 steel hoops must be nailed or bradded in place, except wire hoops, which must be stapled, and all wooden hoops must be nailed or stapled in place with at least four nails, brads, or staples in classes A, B, C and D, and six nails, brads, or staples in classes E and F. **The ends of wooden hoops must be joined with at least one staple clinched on the outside and with at least two additional nails or staples clinched on the inside. 592 EXPORT PACKING **Both heads must be headed up in the usual manner before shipment and must not be closed by gunny sacking, boarding, or other like methods. * * The heads must fit into a croze or notch in the staves and in addition there must be an outer lining hoop to hold the heads in place. These lining hoops must extend en- tirely around the inside of the chime and must be held in place by nails at intervals of about 5 inches. **For paper bags, used as inner containers for kegs, the paper must be crimped or creped parallel to the axis of the bag. The crimping must be such that the crimped paper will stretch at least 25 per cent of the original length without tearing. * * The crimped paper must have a tensile strength not less than 32 pounds parallel to the crimp, and not less than 28 pounds across the crimp. These tests to be made on strips 3 inches long and 1 inch wide. '*The crimped paper must be impervious to water at a temperature of 80° F. Tests of imperviousness to be made by folding the paper into cones as for filtering pur- poses. The cones are filled with water at 80° F. to a depth of 2 inches ; no water must come through the cone during a period of 24 hours. * * The bags must be made with seams turned over not less than % inch. The seams must be stitched midway between the inner and outer edges. The length of the stitches must not exceed % inch. **The bags must be of sufiicient diameter to fit sides of kegs without stretching. * * The bags must be of sufficient length, so that when placed in keg and filled to capacity of keg and the end of the bag closed by tying, there will be not less than 3 inches length above the tie." CHAPTER XXII EXPORT SHIPMENTS IN BAGS, BUNDLES AND WITHOUT PACKING IN this chapter we have for brief consideration several forms of export shipments which may not at first seem to require any special study, and are essentially different in many respects from shipments in cases, crates or bales. However, shipments in bags or bundles, and even shipments that are sent overseas without any packing whatsoever — that is, bare or naked shipments, as they are variously distinguished — do involve certain considerations which should require study. First of all, in such shipments, as in any other, there is the natural desire of every shipper that his merchandise arrive in the hands of his foreign customers safely and in the best possible condition. No matter what forms shipments may take, it has always to be remembered that they will undergo many different handlings before they reach the point of destination overseas. Protection given must be adequate to accomplish this result of safe and sound de- livery, and also sufficient to insure delivery with a mini- mum loss of contents of bags or bundles. Moreover, the method adopted must insure the arrival, intact, of units or combinations of units which may be shipped naked, and their deliveries to the prospective consignees. Shipments in Bags Many different commodities included in the commerce of the world are customarily shipped in bags, including, for example, flour, corn meal, rice, seeds, sugar, coffee, rubber, jute, cork, fertilizers, bone meal, cottonseed meal, com cake, beans, peas and similar vegetables, asbestos, china clay, soda ash and some other chemicals, etc. 593 594 EXPORT PACKING The first consideration affecting shipments in bags is the quality and texture of the material used for the sack- ing. This obviously must depend to a large extent upon the value of the contents. Certainly American cotton bags have won an enviable reputation throughout the world, and are most highly prized by other countries for overseas shipments. The bags themselves are imported in large quantities from the United States — very espe- cially by countries exporting valuable seeds, for example. However, the price of the bags under discussion is such that they are not commonly regarded as possible con- tainers for commodities of low or even of average values. In shipping many low-grade commodities it is necessary sometimes to employ second-hand and even patched bags, but when this is done care should be exer- cised to select for any one shipment only those bags having as nearly as possible a uniform appearance. It is often necessary for foreign buyers to re-sack products •received from overseas, because of the dirty and unsalable condition in which bags are received. So doing does not contribute to the importer's good temper or to his kindly feeling toward American shippers. And, then, too, constant chafing inevitably involved in the course of a sea voyage must always be remembered, and the frequent rehandling of goods shipped in no matter what containers. It has been reported from Porto Rico, for example, in regard to shipments of flour to that island, that the average shipment is handled by carriers at least four times, and very often twice four times, be- fore arriving at destination. Texture of Bagging Important.— The texture of the bagging employed is frequently important, for probably considerably more than one-half of all claims made on shippers for short weights are traceable to the sifting of the contents of bags placed in old or loosely woven sack- ing. Meal, flour, grain, rice, seeds and similar commodi- ties shipped in old bags of coarse texture almost always involve rather serious losses from sifting. It has been estimated that waste in many shipments amounts to from BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 595 2 per cent to 5 per cent, largely or chiefly because of sifting from loosely woven bags ; therefore the tissue of the bagging should be well woven, but nevertheless it must not be stiff or hard, but, on the other hand, elastic and supple, ta conform readily to the contents. Losses claimed on arrival weights, when not due to sifting because of the loose texture of bags, are almost always to be traced to the poor sewing of bags. One critic complains that in sewing up bags it is too often the custom to begin three or four inches from each side ear, with the result that when the sewer loosens the sack, gaps develop in the space left between the first stitch and the ear, out of which the contents are bound to work. It is advised that the first stitch should be taken not over one inch from the ear. However, there are not always two ears left on the bag; frequently there is one only, and that in the center. Irish importers of flour and meal have suggested that the tops of sacks be sewed more closely, and with more stitches, and that the ear be not placed too near the center of the top. The ears are often used as handles, and the bags are less liable to burst when the ear is on the side than when it is placed in the center. Use of Double Bags.— Damage to bags from the use of longshoremen *s hooks is evidently to be expected and is probably unavoidable. Partly on this account, double bags are frequently to be advised, in order that if the outer bag be torn by hooks or by rough handling the inner bag will still protect the contents. Another reason for the employment of double bags, applying especially to ship- ments of flour, is that the inner sack will be preserved in a fairly clean condition by the exterior sack, and there- fore that the merchandise will arrive in suitable condition for immediate resale. Inner bags may be sometimes of paper, sometimes of cotton, sometimes of jute — depend- ent upon the commodity shipped — whether, for example, fine wheat flour or common vegetables — paper linings fre- quently being employed inside the burlap bags in the shipment of soda ash. 596 EXPORT PACKING One of the largest American exporters of flour, in speaking of shipments of that commodity in bags or sacks, states that a great variety of such containers is employed according to the requirements and conditions of different foreign countries or of sundry foreign import- ers. Flour is sometimes packed in 20-pound cotton sacks, 98-pound Osnaburg sacks, 49-pound cotton sacks, 140- pound jute sacks, 200-pound Osnaburg sacks, 97-pound drill sacks, 196-pound Osnaburg sacks, 132-pound drill sacks. Cotton sacks employed for the small bags some- times demanded, include 7-pound, 24i/2-pound oblong and 24%-pound square, 12-pound, 25-pound and 40-pound containers. Cotton sacks holding 126 pounds are also em- ployed with an outer sack of jute. The largest and more or less regular sacks are usually employed when no par- ticular requirements are given by customers. The small bags are grouped in bundles and packed in burlap. The larger sacks are shipped as they are (see cut, page 535). Osnaburg is regarded as the most desirable material for flour bags of the common shipping weight of 200 pounds. Lighter materials have not proven satisfactory for such weights. A large shipper states that corn meal is exported in 98-pound cotton sacks and 196-pound Osna- burg cotton bags. The meal is kiln dried before being shipped. Wrong Use of Bags.— Bags have sometimes mis- takenly been used for the shipment of all sorts of com- modities for which they ought never to be employed. For example, from Manila it is reported that not long ago a lot of railway spikes were shipped to that port in quan- tities of several hundred pounds in a flimsy jute sack. The natural and inevitable result was that the sacks arrived all torn and gaping, with a fairly large percent- age of their contents missing. Reference has been made, - in the chapter in this volume devoted to shipments in barrels, to the customary English practice of shipping Portland cement in bags. That practice may easily be understood, while the queer twist in a shipper's mind which would induce him to dispatch two or three hundred BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 597 pounds of iron spikes in a bag is not comprehensible. Commodities for which bags are suitable overseas ship- ping containers may easily be distinguished by mere superficial study of the principles of ocean freighting. Proper marking and addressing of shipments in bags requires very careful attention, in order that marks may not be obliterated, worn off, or in any way lost or made unreadable upon arrival in foreign ports. Such marking is, however, similar in all respects to the marking of bales, which will be found discussed at length in other pages of this volume. Shipments in Bundles Under the heading of ** Bundles'' there must be in- cluded several more or less dissimilar ways of shipping; for example, here we have merchandise which is merely wrapped in burlap or some similar material, making what are sometimes rather loosely referred to as bales, but which are to be distinguished from bales, properly so-called, which term ought to be restricted to compressed merchandise; nor can bundles be classified under the heading of *'Bags,'' which term should be restricted to shipments such as those just above described. Moreover, in addition to burlaped bundles, we have shipments of numerous commodities tied up in bundles with rope or with wire, and shipped without other protection, or with slight protection, which is not intended to be of a per- manent character, or which may never arrive at destina- tion. When shipping goods for export in bundles, abso- lutely no protection is given the merchandise, as a prominent New York export merchant points out in a letter, and therefore only those articles which are prac- tically indestructible should ever be forwarded in this manner. General remarks applying to the packing of all sorts of goods refer equally to the shipments in bundles, but especial stress should be placed on the following features 598 EXPORT PACKING of such shipping. Marks or addresses must be of such a character that the bundles will reach the right consignees without question or debate. No tags should be employed which are merely tied to a bundle in the forlorn hope that they might still remain attached when destination is reached. Remarks applying to addressing of bales apply equally to bundles which are covered with burlap. When bundles have no outside wrapping, the addresses should be stenciled, if possible, on the merchandise itself, or other distinguishing marks employed to which reference will shortly be made under the head of * ' Bare or Naked Shipments." Great care must be exercised in the tying together of articles into bundles. A New York export merchant emphasizes this in writing: '^Bundles should be tied very securely so that one piece cannot slip out, and so cause the undoing of the entire bundle.'' Many com- plaints are received as to the use of old rope or twine in fastening together bundles which, in such instances, often arrive in miscellaneous bulk condition and not in the original shipping state. Wire or iron bands should prefer- ably be used, twisted, or drawn very tight when small arti- cles are shipped, such, for example, as barrel staves. The usual bands around the circumference of the bundle may advantageously be supplemented with other bands run- ning lengthwise, to prevent the dropping out of some of the interior contents and thus loosening the entire bundle in the course of the many handlings which such ship- ments, like any overseas shipments, necessarily receive. If rope or twine is employed, liberal use of it should be made, each round carefully, tightly and individually knotted. The very slight extra expense required is well worth while. All bundles should, of course, be so made as to occupy the least possible cubic space, the only exception to be recognized being certain shipments in bundles of rather fragile merchandise which requires packing or cushioning with excelsior, grass or straw, the safe arrival of the jcontents being of even greater importance than the saving of cubic space. Furniture in Bundles.— Writing to the author regard- BUNDLED AND NAKED SHIPMENTS 599 ing his practice in export shipping, a manufacturer states : ' ^ Furniture is sometimes packed for export in bundles, especially when shipped to countries in which duties are assessed on the basis of gross weights-7-that is to say, chiefly to some of the Latin American countries — and in these cases extraordinary precautions are usually taken to protect the goods both from damage and with adequate waterproofing materials. Burlap of suitable quality is usually laid out, spread with excelsior to a depth of five or six inches or more (aScniitari/ Mf(j. Co. Crating of Bath Tubs. As many as six roll rim bath tubs can be nested in one crate. Courtesy of Thomas Maddock's /Sows Co. Sanitary Ware Packed for Shipment. Carefully crated in open slat crate, slats are not more than IVa" or 2" apart. 674 PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 675 shipper, ^4here are two methods of exporting bicycles. Some distributors strip the frames entirely, shipping the bicycle frames in crates and all equipment in cases. We do not advocate that plan ourselves, believing that it costs more for ocean space when the wheels of the bicycles are boxed together with the accessories. ^* We have found almost universal satisfaction in ship- ping our bicycles in crates, one machine to a crate and then we fasten four crates together, putting extra straps of tough wood around the four crates, supported with steel strapping. We strip the bicycles before crating them in the following way: The handle bars, pedals, saddles and stems are removed. These are packed and shipped as accessories in a separate box. The bicycle stands in the crate upon the rubber tires which are in- flated. The enamel frames are carefully wrapped accord- ing to the spiral method with tough paper. This paper must not be too stiff but must conform closely to the part wrapped. All bright parts of the bicycle should be heavily vaselined to prevent rusting or corrosion by sea fog and moisture. *' Bicycles shipped in that way take up the minimum space. They are easily handled, as four machines crated together will not make a package of a total gross weight of over 300 pounds. The crates are so made that the wood strips of which they are composed afford adequate protection to the machines or contents. *^In some instances, where we know the machines are going a long distance, for instance, to India and then up country, we have removed the rubber tires from the bicycles and shipped them in separate case. We do not regard this as a necessity, ordinarily, unless there may be a possibility of a long exposure of the rubber to arti- ficial heat in the steamer or a trip overland, as standing in the sun will affect the rubber. ' ' Watches.— Among the products of the American fac- tory that have won an enviable place for themselves in the trade of the world the story of the watch offers a great deal that is significant and informative. The mer- 676 EXPORT PACKING chandising methods of the American watch manufacturer are not alone novel and aggressive but they are based on quality goods and the argument is a quality argument. The export development has brought with it close attention to the requirements of a good export package, and the success attained proves that the problem has been practically solved. The author can remember being shown, several years ago in Europe, an export package of American watches, and the French jeweler who dis- played them stated that it was the most satisfactory export packing method with which he was acquainted. Since this time great improvement has been made, to such an extent that last year one American watch com- pany shipped 9,000 packages of various types and styles abroad and the complaints for **ill packing could easily be counted on one hand and our claim losses for theft, etc., as far as the writer can understand, were less than five.'' In connection with shipments of watches reference should be made to the special chapter on parcel post shipments as well as observations elsewhere in this vol- ume relating to the protection of all shipments against pilfering. With reference to export packing of watches a well- known house sends us photographs (see page 673) and states: **Our watches are placed first in individual boxes, either so wrapped with tissue paper that there is no play in the box or lying in a nest in the box which prevents the watch banging against the side of the box. The individual boxes are then placed in cartons holding twelve each and packing is placed between the sides of the individual boxes and the side of the carton which cuts down the play to a minimum. '*If the shipment is to go by freight, the watches are packed in a heavy wooden case, which is first lined with a tar-lined paper bag. At least one inch space is left at all sides of the case for packing. After the case is nailed, wire strapping is put around the center and ends. Tin- lined cases are furnished at cost, if desired.'' PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 677 Describing its export packing methods, another com- pany doing a very large international business writes as follows: '*We never use second-hand cases, all cases being constructed to fit the merchandise shipped rather than trying to make the merchandise fit into what- ever cases we happen to have. This, of course, means extra expense, but when you figure that a customer wishes his merchandise delivered to him in proper con- dition and does not look for broken or damaged material, the slight extra cost in packing is more than compensated for by a satisfied client. * ' Our heavier material, such as clocks and automobile parts, are packed in y^" pine stock cleated at each end and set in tin lined, hermetically sealed cases, the outside of the case being nailed with from seven to nine nails and the case strapped with iron strapping at each end and around the middle. These cases are strapped in such a way that should they drop on any one corner, as cases are apt to do, they will not split open, the nailing and cleating being such that all goods are protected.'* Silverware. — In reference to export shipments of sil- verware a well-known house writes: **Our cases are always of new lumber %" in thickness — average size of the case 28" x 13" x 12" and should we use a larger size case, it is double cleated at the ends. The contents of the case are protected by a covering of heavy waterproof tar paper which is sealed tight before the cover of the case is put on.** Further reference to shipments of silverware and similarly valuable merchandise are to be noted in connec- tion with advice elsewhere given relating to protection against pilfering. Hats.— A letter received from a large exporter says: *'A11 hats, whether for export or domestic shipment, are first packed in round paseboard cartons, from one to six hats being packed in each. The hats are held in place in the cartons by a pasteboard stay placed between each hat. Strips of tissue paper are also placed between each hat to prevent rubbing. The process of this inner pack- 678 EXPORT PACKING ing is completed by covering the entire top of the carton with tissue paper before the lid is put on. ** Export shipments by freight. The cartons are packed in cases made of new, sound lumber of a thickness of %", strengthened by a batten 3" wide and y^" thick, around the entire ends of the case. The case is lined with waterproof paper and is further protected with Glardon clips and angle irons. The angle irons are placed around both ends of the case at a distance of about 6" apart. The case is completed by placing an iron strapping 1" wide securely around both ends. *^This is our usual method of packing our export ship- ments for freight, but on shipments to the Argentine Republic and to the West Coast of South America, and South Africa, in addition to the above, the case is lined with zinc, the top and bottom being soldered so that it is absolutely waterproof. Apart from the question of ex- pense, this we consider the best method of packing. ''In shipping to countries where the duty is levied on the gross weight, the question becomes one of lightness consistent with safety. For these countries we use a veneer case protected by battens and iron straps as de- scribed above. *^ We also ship in zinc or tin cases crated with wooden slats placed about 6" apart all around the case.'' Moving Picture Films.— Except to Brazil and Eng- land, moving picture films are packed as follows : Each reel is wrapped with tissue paper and placed in a tin container about 101/2" in diameter. The cover of the con- tainer fits down tight, but it is not sealed or fastened in any way. On each container is pasted a label giving the title of the film and the number of the reel. The containers are packed one on top of the other in a square case of North Carolina pine %" lumber. From five to thirty-two containers are packed in a case, accord- ing to the size of the order. The case is lined with tin and after the containers have been packed, a piece of tin is soldered on to the top edges of the lining for a cover. The lining consists simply of square pieces of tin, one to PACKING SUNDRY COMMODITIES 679 every side of the case and overlapping at the comers and sealed, the top edges being bent inward about an inch to support the tin cover. The cover of the wooden case is then nailed on, two opposite sides of the case are cleated, and two wire straps are nailed around the case near the edges. Almost the same method is used in packing for Brazil, but no tin containers are used, since there is a duty of $10 each on such cans in that country. Each reel is first wrapped in tissue paper, then in waxed paper, and the reels are then laid on top of each other in the tin-lined case. Films going to England are packed in galvanized iron cases with w^ooden lining about one-quarter of an inch thick. Only seven reels are packed in a case. The cover is hinged and has two padlock fastenings and on top of the case is a handle for convenience in lifting. The wooden lining of this case is fastened into the tin with bolts. Picture Moldings. — A large exporter of picture mold- ings writes: '^In taking up this matter in detail, we find that due to the different methods and customs prevailing, especially in some of the South American countries, we have to adopt three methods of packing: First are the standard sized wooden cases which are used generally; second are our special wooden cases of short lengths or light weight for shipment to South American countries where transportation is usually by pack animals; third, packing in bundles for shipment to countries where duties are paid by the gross weight. ** Standard method of packing. As our moldings all run in three standard lengths, namely, 8', 10' and 12', we have standardized the largest percentage of our packing in three cases of the following dimensions : Box No. 1 — outside measurement is 8' 6" x 26" x 14" ;inside 8' 2" x 24" X 12". Box No. 2— outside 10' 6" x 26" x 14" ; inside 10' 2" X 24" X 12". Box No. 3— outside 12' 6" x 26" x 14" ; inside 12' 2" x 24" x 12". The sizes of the above boxes are practically the same on all shipments, due to 680 EXPORT PACKING the fact that the majority of the molding is sold in large quantities and each pattern or similar patterns can be packed together. **Both ends of these boxes are made of two thick- nesses of inch lumber ; the sides are of one-inch lumber and the top and bottom are cleated with strips 4" x 1", the open places between cleats being boarded up solid with one-half inch birch lumber, which we find the most satis- factory for making cases, as it is very tough. **The boxes are lined with heavy waterproof paper, and the molding is packed solid so that there will be no play or shifting inside of the boxes. After the box is packed it is then strapped with steel fasteners. **When large moldings are packed in cases, they are always tied two together face to face with excelsior cushions in between, as large moldings are not so easy to pack solidly and have a greater tendency to shift in the box, thus rubbing the faces and spoiling the molding. **We can give no standard weight of these cases, but they will average from 550 to 750 pounds each, depending upon the kind of molding packed in same. ** Second sjpecial method of packing wooden cases. These cases are made the same as the above with the exception that they are limited to 5-foot lengths and to 160 pounds gross weight. These are for shipment prin- cipally to Colombia, South Amisrica, where it is necessary to transport cases overland via pack mules.'* To some countries, especially countries in Latin America, and above all to Venezuela, where duties are paid on the basis of gross weights, picture moldings are sometimes shipped in bundles, to which reference is made in the special chapter devoted to shipments of that de- scription. CHAPTER XXVI FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS WITH the extension of our parcel post conventions throughout the world, the United States will doubtless soon be able to place at the disposal of shippers the same facilities which the United Kingdom has for many years been able to offer to exporters in that country. Shipments by parcel post are in many cases to br preferred to other forms of shipment, because of the lack of formalities and the ease of passing such packages through custom houses and comparative quickness of transmission. Again, there are a great many commodi- ties usually sent out in small packages for which the par- cel post is an ideal, in fact, an essential way of shipping. In 1913 parcel post packages could be sent from the United States to only forty-four countries of the world, and the limit of weight was eleven pounds. Today the American parcel post service extends to more than one hundred and eighty nations and colonies, and to fifteen of these countries one may send parcels up to twenty-two pounds in weight and to one, Panama, up to fifty pounds. In 1912 there were dispatched from the United States 2,270,215 pounds of export parcel post matter. In 1913 there was an increase of 600,000 pounds and in 1914 about 500,000 pounds. Immediately after the signing of the armistice, our Post Office Department concluded parcel post arrange- ments with eighteen foreign countries with which there had been no conventions up to that time, and some of the very important markets of the east, south and west were opened up to American foreign parcel post business. In rapid succession came conventions with Spain and her colonies and with Great Britain and France whereby the American parcel post system was extended to every coun- 681 EXPORT PACKING try in the world which was reached by the parcel post arrangements of these two nations. In a very short time our service was extended to about one hundred and eighty countries as against forty-four in 1912. The volume of matter sent by parcel post shows a corresponding in- crease, namely, from 2,270,215 pounds sent in 1912 to 17,102,131 pounds in 1919. In the first quarter of the fiscal year of 1920 the post office sent out more than 6,000,000 pounds by parcel post or more than was dis- patched in the combined years of 1912 and 1913. Indeed, so great has the volume of foreign parcel post business become that our Post Office Department will probably ask for a deficiency appropriation of at least $1,000,000 to pay for the increased cost of steamship transportation. Since the whole question of packing for foreign parcel post shipments primarily depends upon the parcel post arrangements of the country of destination and the con- vention of our own country with that other country, the very first step in filling an order is to investigate these regulations. Shippers should always have close at hand for ready reference the latest edition of the United States Official Postal Guide. This is published in the form of a cloth bound volume in July of each year, and there are monthly supplements which keep detailed information and the official instructions up to date. The annual sub- scription to the Guide with supplements is $2.25 and the source of supply the Post Office Department, Washington, D. C. Shippers who are not in possession of the Official Postal Guide will always find it and its monthly supple- ments available for consultation at their local post offices. The regulations affecting the dispatch of parcel post packages to foreign countries are numerous and vary with the different countries of destination. Sometimes regulations define the merchandise which is prohibited for transmission to certain countries. Occasionally there are instructions as to certain special packing which is obligatory as regards some commodities. Special sizes and weights of parcels which are allowed and the rates of postage which apply to shipments to all countries are FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 683 enumerated. In the case of a few countries parcel post packages may only be addressed to certain specified cities or post offices. Regulations also refer to the necessary customs declarations and in a few instances to the con- sular invoices which must accompany packages shipped by parcel post. All of these instructions will be found clearly set forth in the Official Postal Guide under the heading of the countries of destination, and should be carefully investigated in the case of each parcel post shipment. When to Use Foreign Parcel Post.— In general, small quantities of merchandise may preferably be forwarded by foreign parcel post whenever individual units of ship- ment come within the weight limits of 11 pounds, or 22 pounds, or whatever the official limit may be for the country of destination. Individual units, or any combina- tion of them, can be packed in a parcel, the weight of which must not exceed the official limit. Any number of such parcels can be dispatched to cover the quantity to be forwarded. Up to a certain point it will usually be found cheaper to foi^ard limited quantities of merchan- dise by parcel post than by freight or by the so-called ** foreign expresses," and as has above been hinted, par- cel post shipments arrive as promptly, to say the least, as do freight shipments. When, however, it is a question of shipping a considerable quantity of merchandise, the point will ultimately be reached when freight rates or ** foreign express'* rates for the quantity of merchandise in question will compare more than favorably with the parcel post charges. In this connection it is to be borne in mind, that in some countries there is a delivery charge imposed on the consignee applying to each parcel post package in addition to the United States postage which has been prepaid, and in some countries there is a surtax which the consignee must pay, in the case of Australia amounting to 12 cents per parcel, over and above other charges. Considerations such as these may affect the shipper's choice of the means by which he will forward his goods to the best satisfaction of his customer. 684 EXPORT PACKING It may also here be pointed out that samples of no commercial value ought not to be dispatched by parcel post unless such samples have been specifically requested by foreign merchants. When a parcel post package ar- rives in a foreign post office, if it contains dutiable goods, the consignee is called upon to pay the usual import duties. He will not be pleased to do so if a sample has been sent without his knowledge or permission, at least, unless the sample is something which he wants, and may very likely refuse to take delivery of the parcel. Shippers may be reminded that there is available the ''sample post^^ which is preferable for use when samples have no commercial value and weigh less than 12 ounces. Simi- larly, advertising matter and catalogues should be sent preferably as ''printed matter'' rather than by parcel post in order to avoid excessive customs duty charges. On the other hand, it is sometimes prohibited to ship val- uable articles in the regular mails. Fountain pens shipped to Japan are subject to duty in that country and will not be accepted in the regular mails from the United States but must be forwarded by parcel post. Grcneral Regulations.— While quite impossible in this chapter to reprint the elaborate and detailed regulations applying to foreign parcel post shipments, it may be de- sirable at this point to resume briefly a few of the general instructions issued by the Post Office Department. A parcel may not be posted in a letter box or package box but must be taken into the post office or post office station and presented to the officer or clerk in charge. The postage in all cases must be prepaid by means of postage stamps, which must be affixed to the parcel. The general postage rate is 12 cents for each pound or frac- tion of a pound, consequently if a parcel weighs even a quarter of an ounce over a pound, another full rate must be prepaid or the parcel will not be dispatched from the United States. The general rate of 12 cents per pound, or fraction thereof, is broken in exceptional cases, applying to parcel post packages intended for a good many countries which are reached from the United States FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 685 by dispatch from here through the intermediary of an- other country (for example, Great Britain or France), and charges for the transportation over the territory of the other country are therefore imposed by it. Such charges, in addition to the postage, must be paid by the senders by means of United States postage stamps affixed to each parcel post package concerned at the time of mailing. Customs duties on parcels which may be imposed by foreign countries of destination cannot be prepaid by the senders in this country. They are collected from the addressees when the parcels are delivered. An exception to this rule is found in the provisions for the prepayment of customs duties on catalogues and advertising circu- lars shipped to Australia and the Union of South Africa. Printed catalogues or other advertising circulars are subject to customs duties in Australia and the Union of South Africa, even when forwarded in single copies ad- dressed to individuals, when the weights of such packages exceed certain specified limits. This is a very important matter to manufacturers who wish to get their catalogues into the hands of possible buyers of their goods in these countries, without imposing a penalty on their prospec- tive customers for the privilege of receiving the manufac- turer's advertising matter. There are also duties on catalogues and printed advertising material in Canada, New Zealand and other countries of the world, but such duties apply to bulk shipments, and such shipments are usually to be regarded as similar to shipments of general merchandise and the same necessity does not exist of landing in the hands of the addressees without charge. The duty on catalogues sent to Australia and South Africa may, unlike any other kind of customs duties, be prepaid by the sender in this country in the following ways : In the case of Australia, customs duty stamps may be purchased from the Australian Customs Representa- tive in New York City, from whom also full information, the details of the duty required by different weights of packages, etc., may be obtained. In the case of the Union 6S6 EXPORT PACKING of South Africa, the shipper in this country may obtain customs duty stamps of that Union from the office of the High Commissioner of the Union of South Africa, 72 Victoria Street, London, S. W. Details as to the amounts of duty to be thus prepaid will be found in the United States Official Postal Guide. Any article absolutely prohibited admission to the regular mails for any country is also inadmissable to par- cel post mails for that country, but no article is excluded from parcel post mails solety because it is dutiable in the country of destination. A letter of communication of the nature of personal correspondence must not accompany, be written on or enclosed with any parcel, but an open bill or invoice may be enclosed in a parcel. ^■No parcel may contain packages addressed to per- sons other than the person named in the outside address of the parcel itself. ' ' This official regulation, it should be noted, applies to * addressed' packages within a parcel. There is nothing in the regulations to prohibit the send- ing of several packages separately wrapped and serially numbered, within a general parcel even when these sep- arate packages may be intended for different consignees, in regard to which a separate letter to the original con- signee of the whole parcel may have given instructions regarding separate deliveries. Parcel post packages are only accepted for transmis- sion to certain specified cities or post offices in the case of a few countries of the world. In general, the parcel post system reaches all post offices in countries to which the parcel post extends. However, notably in China and Brazil (see official regulations), there are comparatively few points to which the parcel post is delivered. If it is desired to ship parcels intended for other destinations in these countries than the cities officially listed, then ar- rangements must be made with the consignees in those countries to take delivery of such parcels at the officially designated post offices. The United States Post Office De- partment will not accept parcels for destinations in FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 687 Brazil outside of seven specified post offices in that conn- try, unless the address side of each such parcel is marked ** Sender's Kisk'' or ''Delivery Arranged/' Re^stration of Parcels.— Parcel post packages for most countries of the world may be registered (for excep- tions see Official Postal Guide), and whenever possible they should be registered. Shippers of parcels to most countries for which registration is possible may, if they so request it, receive a return receipt from the addressee of the parcel without special charge therefor. Further- more, and a point which is not always understood by all shippers, even when parcels are not registered, the sender f»ARCCL POST BcrwccN UNfTCO STATES AwoLoloTTlbl-a f Form of CUSTOMS OECLARATIOfl •sor CX>»T«NT8 yu.rx •PER CfcM'. •T«*l ' AT,. .>.„^ t £50 00 t •aso.oo t tHTMi :riH_. . .. "^^ \ Smiiii.EToy/r,..2..3bne^ .U. Sis ■• CF«nn2*Cet 7- Customs Declaration, lorm 2966, which must be attached to all parcel post packages for foreign countries. may obtain a receipt from the United States post office for the packages which he delivers to the post office for transmission by foreign parcel post mails. The office of mailing will, if requested, fill out and date stamp a ** cer- tificate of mailing'* without charge, and it will supply duplicate and triplicate of the same certificate at a charge of one cent each. These proofs of actual mailing of par- cels may be extremely important and even valuable. Insurance of Parcel Post.— The official regulations de- clare that "parcel post packages to foreign countries (in- cluding Mexico and Panama) cannot be insured.'' It should be understood, however, that this official regula- 688 EXPORT PACKING tion applies only to government insurances. All parcel post packages may be insured through certain marine in- surance companies, some of which specialize in this form of insurance. The matter of insurance should be care- fully considered in packing, for the average insurance policy contains' a clause limiting the company's responsi- bility per package, that limit usually being lower for countries to which packages cannot be registered. This limit ought never to be exceeded by the value of the goods because in case of loss the insurance company's respon- sibility is limited to the amount of the policy. On this THE ADDRIS9 OT THE PARCEL SHOULD BE WRITTEN OH THI«, AS WEU. AS OM THE PARCEL ITSELF. . ^I?.u£.^....31ks.:5f-...Jr.-_„Lb nparl^Qo SOI Reverse side of Form 2966. account, it is often advisable to pack a consignment in several separate packages, even though otherwise one package alone might have been sufficient. Customs Declarations.— A *' Customs Declaration," Form 2966 (which will be furnished on application at the post office or station), must be properly and fully filled out, stating the actual contents, value, etc., of the parcel. General terms such as ** merchandise'^ or ** samples'' will not answer ; contents must be accurately described in the English language, although an interlineation in another language, if desired, may be furnished. The ^* Customs Declaration" must be firmly attached to the cover of the parcel, but not pasted or affixed so that it will seal the FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 689 package and prevent examination of the contents without damaging the cover. In addition to being tied by means of a cord passing through the eyelet, the tag should be bound flat to the parcel (with the front or *' declaration '* side facing out) so that the tag cannot be used as a handle to lift the package while in transit. A special ** Customs Declaration, *' Form 2967, must be attached to parcels for France and certain French colonies, in addition to the regular Form 2966. In the case of some countries two or more copies of the Cus- toms Declaration, either Form 2966 or Form 2967, are required. BOTH SIDES OP THIS FORM MUST BE FILLED IN.) TO BE mXED OUT AT TBS Declaration lor the Frencli Customs. (T>S'0 DECLARATIONS MUST ACCOMPANY EACH PACKAGE.) FOU OF PACXAfiE AND NATOIte OF ITS COMTENTl o OOMTAINING CX»NTtNTS ^^ . taaaaiM ri|Ktt|M. Natwe •rUerchukdiM. _»*»"< W^tf ^atfi^i*. ffif a.r »*.*x lo1^i 2&. LeettW ^Vioefe i^ox dJ •J A, 7..,i b.iltalHPiiM £*!*.. !he Tr>v Cc ' . Srr Special Customs Declaration, Form 29(37, which must be attached to all parcel post packages for France, in addition to Form 2966. Customs Declarations take the place of certified in- voices in most parcel post transactions, and they must therefore accurately describe the contents of parcels, and state their exact and correct value. Much complaint has been received from foreign post offices as to the incorrect declaration of the contents of parcels. The values must be the current values of the finished articles. Over-valua- tion involves expense and inconvenience to the addressee ; under-valuation leads to the confiscation of the parcel and its contents. Each parcel must have its own Customs Declaration attached, describing the contents and giving the value for that individual package, and no package will 690 EXPORT PACKING be accepted by the post-office without the Customs Dec- laration, properly filled out, being attached. If possible, information should be obtained from the customer as to the manner of declaring the shipment according to the laws of the country of the customer ; the classifications and rate of duty on the merchandise en- closed, with the specified paragraph under which it is enumerated in the tariff laws, whenever, as is the case in many Latin American republics, penalties are imposed for wrongful declarations. The Customs Declaration tag (reproduced in this chapter) is the only formality which must be complied with in the case of parcel post ship- ments. No filing of .shipper 's declaration at custom house Wwrm N«. 2967 -N«. 2 Bis. {BOTH SIDES OF THIS FORM IMUST BE FIIXED IN.) Parcel-Post Between The United States and France. DECLARATION FOR THE FRENCH CUSTOMS. ^TWO DECLARATIONS MUST ACCOMPANY EACH PACKAGE.) Tk stjBk, resi&ig at ...2..0.O. JB.roadi,wav....,.J:l.c^...Yc>r.k..,£d:Y,, ^ declares Ikal Ik seods to Mr. ITean .^.U.JQd.St ^ A 34, 3ou\.£Vax.ci. dfcs. Tia.lLeT\fe..,ll*rus^l:ra«tiec'«"b^ ^^<^M IB drtsil «3 Ik otW sWe, or^iMii^ » St.aifes., ....„ ..^ iwti a>iis tl'ar ihf tastoms larmaliiies i* eaoiBlp; , iij Franre) of r'V. Reverse side oi Form 2967. or other similar formalities are required, as is necessary in shipping goods by freight. No erasure or amendment should be made in the en- tries relating to the description, number, value, etc., of contents of the package. A separate entry should be made of each kind of article or goods, describing pre- cisely in each instance the quality, quantity by number, measurement and net weight (in grams when packages are destined for countries using the metric system). Addressing Packages.— Every parcel must be plainly addressed in ink, giving the name and full address of the person for whom the parcel is intended. It should bear FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 691 the words ** Parcel Post** conspicuously in the upper left- hand comer and the name and address of the sender in such a position that it will not be mistaken for the address of the parcel. The standard specifications of the War Department for marking packages are worthy of note in this connection. *^ Marks may be applied in the form of printed labels marked with waterproof ink in letters not less than one-fourth inch high. At least two labels, containing all markings, should be glued to each package, one on each end. Such labels to be made of sul- phite paper, sulphate kraft paper, or other approved paper, and should be applied with hide glue, fish glue, or casein glue. After being glued, the addressed label should be brushed over with a coating of formaldehyde.'* The official post office regulations applying to parcel post shipments to Russia provide for certain special ad- dressing which perhaps may profitably be taken into con- sideration in general regarding parcel post shipments. ** Parcels covered with oil-cloth must be provided with a stout linen-backed label securely sewn to the cover by stitching along the edges and diagonally across the label, on which a clear space not less than 5 inches by 3 inches has been left for affixing official labels. The parcels may be addressed on the rest of the label. If addressed on the cover itself, the address must be painted on the cover, preferably with white paint. The name and address of the sender must be shown on the cover of every parcel. * * All mail articles addressed in German, Russian, Greek, Turkish, Hebrew or Chinese characters, even if they bear in English, ^* Germany,** *' Russia,** *^ Greece,** '* Turkey** or '* China,'* etc., should have an interlined translation of each address in English, or in lieu of these two addresses, the names of the post office and country of destination in Roman or English characters, print or script. Packing for Foreign Parcel Post.— There is no little complaint of insufficient packing in our own domestic par- cel post mails. The necessity for extra strong and thor- oughly secure packing for foreign parcel post is doubly 692 EXPORT PACKING to be emphasized. In the past few months repeated com- plaints have been received by the United States Post Office as to the condition in which our parcel post pack- ages have arrived at foreign destinations. It is alleged that at one time 500 damaged packages were received in London from this country, damaged in consequence of poor wrapping and packing and improper preparation for transmission overseas. Similar complaints have been received not only from far distant points like China and Australia, but from Central America and even from Canada. In the first place, it should be understood by shippers that our parcel post mails are usually sent from this country in ordinary mail bags. Some European coun- tries ' ship their parcel post packages in hampers and cases. This is sometimes done in the American mails but more frequently ordinary mail sacks are employed. A hamper or a case protects the packages within from rough handling. There is no such protection when mail bags are employed, which are thrown about in the way to which everybody is accustomed : from the mail wagon to the wharf, from the wharf, into the ship, with scores or perhaps hundreds of other bags and packages on top, lugged and dragged about and finally stored on board ship, which, when it arrives at the foreign port, reverses the operation and the sacks are thrown helter-skelter and violently from the ship on board a lighter or on to a wharf, with the natural and inevitable consequence that all light parcels included in these bags, whether made of wood or pasteboard, are morally certain to be damaged if not completely smashed and their contents possibly lost or destroyed. The natural disposition of a shipper is to pack a parcel post package as light as possible in order to save postage, but only soft articles which will stand crushing should ever be shipped in any containers not strong enough to stand up under the rough usage just above de- scribed, no matter if a few cents' extra postage is re- quired to carry the heavier, stronger container. It must FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 693 be remembered that the friction resulting to articles con- tained in sacks stored in the mail rooms of ocean steam- ers is considerable, and even wrapping papers for news- papers and magazines should be much stronger than is normally required in our domestic mails. Another preliminary consideration in connection with the packing for foreign parcel post mails is the destina- tion of the package and the treatment which it is likely to undergo in country or destination. In some foreign countries, in China, perhaps, parcel post packages are carried for as much as fourteen days on camelback. In Central American countries mails for interior points are sent on muleback, frequently involving trips of from three to six days, fording rivers and exposed to tropical rain storms. Sacks have to be roped tightly to the ani- mals which transport the mails to prevent their slipping, and the ropes are quite sure to crush any light packages contained within the sacks, while the necessity for water- proof protection is even more emphatic in the case of parcel post shipments than it is in the case of regular freight shipments. Packa;ges Presented Open for Inspection.— The post office regulations provide that every package must be securely and safely packed so that it can be safely trans- mitted in ordinary mail sacks, and it must be so wrapped or enclosed that its contents can be easily examined by postmasters and customs officials. Boxes with lids screwed or nailed on may be used and bags closed by means of sewing, providing they are presented at the post office open for inspection and are then closed by the sender. There are, however, three or four countries for which parcels are accepted by the post office for mailing even though they are sealed and closed against inspec- tion, providing they conform to other prescribed condi- tions. This means that as a rule the outside box or other container must be easily opened for inspection, and that small boxes or packages enclosed in the outside con- tainer must also be easily opened or their contents other- wise readily inspected. cm EXPORT PACKING For example, a prominent manufacturer of fountain pens doing a very large parcel post business has an inter- esting method for packing his pens in cardboard cartons containing from six upwards. This manufacturer uses a so-called ** outlook box*' in three sizes, containing six, nine and twelve pens. The box has two openings in the cover through which the quantity of pens and clip caps may be checked without the unsealing of the carton. The upper opening shows the clip, the lower shows the holder. To prevent pilfering and unjust claims, each carton is sealed with a band bearing a list of its contents. The individual pen boxes in which fountain pens are usually sold are placed empty in layers on the top and bottom of the ** outlook box,'' thus forming a cushion which is an added protection in shipping. This feature is covered by the official regulations which read: *'The presence in an unsealed parcel of sealed receptacles containing mailable articles which cannot be safely transmitted in the unsealed receptacles will not render the parcel unmailable, provided the con- tents of the sealed receptacles are plainly visible or are unmistakably indicated by the method of packing or by a precise statement on the covers. But such sealed re- ceptacles will not be admitted to the parcel post unless enclosed in an outside cover open to inspection." Interior Preparation and Protection.— The first essen- tial in preparing merchandise for shipment by parcel post is that the contents of the whole parcel, whether in one or several packages, be individually wrapped in good .waterproof paper and adequately tied with twine fast- ened by loop knots, permitting ease in opening if re- quired. The interior packages ought not to be sealed, at least not until after presentation at the post office. Soft articles of a yielding nature, such as hosiery or clothing, should be folded to make a uniform package, tied with twine after being compressed and then wrapped with a waterproof paper, which is similarly tied, the twine run- ning at least once around the smallest dimensions of the parcel and at least twice around the larger dimensions. FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 695 The second important thing in the preparation of the interior contents of a parcel is that the contents fit very snugly and tightly. The package should be rigid. Any play that is permitted increases the danger of damage to the goods and of breakage of the exterior container. The contents themselves should be made rigid and the outside container should fit exactly, or, if any stuffing is required it should make the contents tight and absolutely prevent any shaking about in the container, while at the same time it must be light in weight, whether it is excelsior, paper wadding, or what-not, although it is clear that the effort to save twelve cents in postage by eliminating weight in package may sometimes cause a loss from damage of many times that amount. The preparation of merchandise for parcel post ship- ment sometimes involves careful consideration of import duties in the country of destination, as has been sug- gested in regard to regular freight shipments. Thus, in Latin American countries where goods pay duty on legal weight, the immediate packing around the articles them- selves may frequently be omitted with advantage. Thus, prominent exporters of jewelry call attention to the fact that in a number of Latin American countries jewelry should not be shipped attached to cards or packed in dis- play trays or boxes. Small tags may be used in place of cards and the jewelry may be wrapped in tissue paper for the immediate wrapper. The cards commonly em- ployed in the United States are rarely used by retailers in the countries in question. If boxes or trays are shipped they may either be forwarded separately or, in some cases, the net weights of the jewelry itself and of the boxes or trays may be declared separately. The following statement from the Official Postal Guide gives definite instructions as to certain forms of interior packages: **It is permissible to accept liquids, dyes, greasy substances, and similar articles inclosed in lead-sealed metal containers for those foreign countries admitting such articles in the parcel post mails, provided the containers are labeled in printing so as to show the 696 EXPORT PACKING nature of the contents, the quantity, and the name of the manufacturer or dealer, and, in addition, such containers are inclosed in substantial outside covers open to inspection. **With respect to compression or friction top metal cans or containers, it should be suggested to manufac- turers and dealers that these compression and friction top metal cans or containers be lead sealed or soldered in at least .four places, so as to render them acceptable for mailing, as indicated in the paragraph above, and thus insure the lids from being forced out of place in the course of transit. It is preferred, however, that inside containers be used that will permit closing by screw top covers with sufficient screw threads to re- quire at least one and one-half complete turns before the covers will come off, such covers, when employed, to be provided with washers, so as to prevent possible leakage of the contents.'' The Outside Container.— Official instructions to post- masters provide that '^parcels packed in thin, flimsy paper or packed in thin pasteboard boxes will not be accepted." Further than this there are no official regula- tions of a general nature but numerous hints of great importance will be found in the *' Observations'' which appear in the Official Postal Guide under the different foreign countries to which parcel post mails are dis- patched. For example, under the heading of Egypt, we find the following : ** Parcels for the Sudan must be packed in wood, tin, canvas, linen, or similar material, and not merely in brown paper or cardboard, and be securely sealed with wax or lead, preferably lead. Parcels not packed in wooden or metal boxes must be covered with canvas, linen, or similar material sewn up at the flaps and folds and secured with string sealed at the knots and ends. Wooden boxes must be of stout material, well screwed or nailed together at the sides, top, and bottom. Light and bulky articles must be packed in strong wooden cases. Parcels containing bacon, ham, honey, cheese, cakes, pud- FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 697 dings, fish, olives, butter, or other substances likely to cause damage by exuding, must, in addition to the outer packing described above, be inclosed in hermetically sealed tins or surrounded with some absorbent material, such as sawdust/' Under instructions applying to parcel post for Russia, the Guide observes : ' ' Parcels must be packed in wood, tin, canvas, linen, or similar material, and not merely in paper or cardboard, and be securely sealed with wax or lead, preferably lead. Parcels not packed in wooden or metal boxes must be covered with canvas, linen or oil- cloth (not linen faced paper) sewn up at the flaps and folds, and secured with string sealed at the ends and knots. Wooden boxes must be of stout material, well screwed or nailed together at the sides, top and bottom. To avoid delay at the Russian frontier, senders are strongly advised to tie alt parcels round with cord, seal- ing the loose ends with lead seals.'' In regard to these special regulations it should be noted that the sealing, sewing, nailing, etc., which are advised, must be done after presentation of the parcel at the mailing office. The Canadian Post Office Department not long ago issued the following: '* Ordinary brown paper wrapping and ordinary cardboard boxes, such as shoe boxes, are not sufficient, nor should thin wooden boxes be used. Strong paper cardboard or strawboard boxes are recom- mended, especially those of corrugated cardboard with laps which completely close the sides also. Strong wooden boxes, tin boxes such as are used for packing bis- cuits, and several folds of stout wrapping paper may suf- fice, according to the size and nature of the goods." In a recent statement to the present writer, the Second Assistant Postmaster General strongly deprecated the use of thin wooden boxes iii parcel post shipments. ' ' The acceptance should be discouraged, of pasteboard boxes, parcels wrapped in paper of less than a reasonable de- gree of thickness or of reasonable tensile strength, pack- ages tied with weak twine, and unstrapped wooden boxes made of material less than one-half inch thick. ' ' 698 EXPORT PACKING A well-known New York export house writes in regard to parcel post shipments that there should always be a final outer covering of cloth material of some sort which will show quickly if any pilfering has taken place. This exporter strongly favors oilcloth covers. Wood and Tin Containers.— In many instances, the use of wooden or tin outside containers is strongly to be recommended, yet, whenever possible, precautions should be taken that any such containers should be so prepared that the corners and edges will not be likely to damage other parcels with which they may come in contact in the mail bags, remembering the constant and long continued friction to which the contents of these bags are subjected. Wooden boxes should be stout and strong, yet of the minimum weight possible according to the contents. Light woods, such as bass or white pine, are recommended. The American Red Cross in its instructions for the preparation of overseas parcels ad- vises that ends of wooden boxes be not less than % inch thick, and sides and bottom 5/16 inch thickness as a minimum, all wood to be dressed on both sides. Cement coated nails should be used when boxes are closed by nails, the three-penny size being advised. Special regulations apply to shipment of articles made of celluloid when they are dispatched to a number of foreign countries and probably should apply in the case of all shipments of such articles. In general, the regula- tions provide that celluloid or articles made of celluloid, must be packed in strong wooden boxes and the parcel itself must be labeled celluloid in large plain black letters. Fibre and Straw Board Containers.— The very defi- nite and precise instructions issued by the Interstate Commerce Commission for the construction of fibre and strawboard containers, may very well be taken as a model for such containers, when applied to shipments of parcel post packages overseas, even though the original instructions were designed to apply solely to domestic shipments of inflammable liquids. These specifications are, it is true, very exacting, but, as has been repeatedly FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 699 emphasized in these pages, too much thought and care cannot be devoted to the problem of delivering merchan- dise in safe and sound condition into the hands of cur customers in other countries. Here follow extracts from the regulations referred to which may be found in full, with further details, in the official publications of the Interstate Commerce Commission. **The inside containers must be securely closed in such manner as to prevent leakage of the liquid during transit. **Each inside container must be wrapped separately in single-faced corrugated strawboard wrappers. If the inside containers exceed % pint capacity each, they must also be separated by double-faced corrugated strawboard partitions or packed separately in double-faced corru- gated strawboard cartons or boxes; provided, that con- tainers of not more than one ounce capacity each, packed in wooden boxes or double-faced strawboard cartons and cushioned when necessary to prevent breakage, may be packed in outside cases without the wrappers or parti- tions prescribed above. "^^ Fibre board or pulpboard used in making fibre board or pulpboard cases must be 3-ply or more, all plies firmly glued together, the outer ply waterproofed, and no single ply less than 0.02 inch in thickness. Solid fibre millboard used in making cases must be composed of not less than 50 per cent of sulphite fibre and must be water- proofed throughout. **When the glued ply fibre board or pulpboard used in making cases is not less than 0.10 inch in thickness, having a resistance of not less than 275 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, and an inner mantle of glued ply fibre board or pulpboard is arranged and constructed to closely fit inside the case, this mantle having a resist- ance of not less than 175 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, the combined capacity of all containers in the case must not exceed 6 quarts. ^'The mantle shall be made in one piece of glued ply fibre board or pulpboard or double-faced corrugated 700 EXPORT PACKING strawboard, and shall be accurately fitted to the inside of the container with a close-fitting edge but arranged longitudinally along the center of one of the sides (not heads) of the cases. This flush edge butt to be located approximately midway between the top and bottom edges of said side of case. **When the solid fibre millboard, composed of not less than 50 per cent sulphite fibre used in making cases is not less than 0.08 inch in thickness, having a resistance of not less than 320 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, the combined capacity of all containers in the case must not exceed six quarts ; provided, however, that the two ends shall consist of scored and flanged solid fibre millboard not less than 0.08 inch in thickness, having a resistance of not less than 320 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, and each of these heads or ends shall be reenforced by a straight, unflanged piece of solid fibre board of the same thickness and strength of the heads or ends. The reenf orcing board shall be secured to the case ends by metal stitching around the edges and through the center, spaced not more than 3 inches apart. **A11 cases constructed of solid fibre millboard which is composed of not less than 50 per cent sulphite fibre, that contain more than a total of 6 quarts, shall have placed transversely in the center of their length a dia- phragm or division with scored and flanged connection to the sides, top and bottom of said case. This intermediate transverse diaphragm shall be composed of solid fibre millboard not less than 0.08 inch in thickness, having a resistance of not less than 320 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test. ^ ' The heads of all glued ply fibre board or pulpboard cases must be formed of four laps of length within % inch of short dimension of head. When the short dimen- sion of head is greater than one-half of the long dimen- sion, one of the short dimension laps must be cut at center of case, and one of the long dimension laps must be scored in the center to bend over the shortened lap. * * Cases constructed of glued ply fibre board or pulp- FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 701 board or of solid fibre millboard composed of not less than 50 per cent sulphite fibre must be creased, not cut, to produce a reenforcing fillet on the inner side of fold. This requirement will apply alike to flanged ends and flanged intermediate transverse diaphragms as well as to the sirje members. **Tlie side lap of glued ply fibre board or pulpboard cases must be at least IV2 inches wide, double stitched, or giued and stitched, with flat wire not less than % inch wide and of suitable thickness, with stitches spaced not more than 2i/^ inches apart. Machine used must be capable of driving the wire through the fibre board so that the stitching, when completed, will be perfect. ** Cases constructed of solid fibre board composed of not less than 50 per cent sulphite fibre where the total contents do not exceed 6 quarts shall have the side lap not less than. 1 inch wide, single stitched with flat wire not less than % inch wide and of suitable thickness, with stitches spaced not more than IV2 inches apart. Machine used must be capable of driving the wire through the solid fibre millboard so that the stitching, when com- pleted, will be perfect. The heads of all glued ply fibre board or pulpboard cases must be closed with animal glue coated on the entire contact surfaces. ** Cases constructed of solid fibre millboard composed of not less than 50 per cent sulphite fibre must have heads flanged out, both flanges being stitched to the case, sides, top, and bottom, with flat wire not less than % inch wide and of suitable thickness spaced not more than 1% inches apart. The width of flanges on heads and diaphragms must be not less than 1 inch, including fillet. *^ Rivets, if equal or superior in strength to the wire stitching, may be used. ** Double-faced corrugated strawboard used in making double-faced strawboard cases, must be of corrugated strawboard, with inner and outer facings of fibre board or pulpboard, both facings having proper bending quali- ties, firmly glued to the corrugated sheet, with the outer facings waterproofed. 702 EXPORT PACKING **When the outer facing of the double-faced corru- gated strawboard is not less than 0.018 inch in thickness, having a resistance of not less than 85 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, and the inner facing is not less than 0.018 inch in thickness, having a resistance of not less than 85 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, the combined board having a resistance of not less than 200 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, and an inner mantle of double-faced corrugated strawboard is ar- ranged and constructed to closely fit inside the case, this mantle having a resistance of not less than 175 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, the combined capacity of all containers in the case must not exceed 6 quarts. **The mantle shall be made in one piece of double- faced corrugated strawboard, and shall be accurately fitted to the inside of the container, with a close fitting edge butt arranged longitudinally along the center of one of the sides (not heads) of the case. This flush edge butt to be located approximately midway between the top and bottom edges of said side of case. **Each double-faced corrugated strawboard case shall be made out of one piece of material. The edge connec- tion of the side to the end must be close fitting and be secured by a single cloth or sealing strip not less than 2 inches in width and having a resistance of not less than 120 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, extending the entire length of the seam and secured by animal glue to the box. Double cloth sealing strips may be used if the inner strip is made not less than IVo inches wide and the outer strip not less than 2i/^ inches wide, each cloth having a resistance of not less than 60 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, each thickness extending the entire length of the seam, the inner being firmly glued to the case, and the outer being efficiently and firmly glued to the inner cloth and to the case. **The heads of all double-faced corrugated straw- board cases containing a total of not more than 4 quarts, must be formed with four flaps, each pair of flaps but- ting at approximately the center line of the head. Cases FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 703 containing a total of more than 4 quarts, but not more than 6 quarts, must have the two inner flaps butt at the center line of the head and the two outer flaps each cover the entire head. Cases containing a total of more than 6 quarts, but not more than 8 quarts, must have both inner and outer flaps cover the entire area of the head; provided that cases containing a total of more than 4 quarts, but not more than 8 quarts, may consist of two complete double-faced corrugated strawboard cases, one closely fitted inside the other, the inner case made of double-faced corrugated strawboard having a resistance of not less than 175 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, and the outer case made of double-faced corrugated strawboard having a resistance of not less than 200 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, fully complying with these requirements and specifications, and with the heads of each case formed with four flaps, each pair of flaps butting at the center line of the head. * ' Heads must be closed with animal glue coated on the entire contact surface. '*A corrugated strawboard case of the triple slide telescope type is approved for the transportation of inflammable liquids in quantity not exceeding 4 quarts in one outside container and must be constructed as follows : * ^ Each case shall be of the triple slide telescope type, each slide being made of one piece material with seams and closing edges secured by single cloth sealing strips not less than 2 inches in width, and having a resistance of not less than 120 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, extending the entire length of the seam, and secured by animal glue to the box. Double cloth sealing strips may be used if the inner strip is made not less than 11/2 inches wide and the outer strip not less than 2y2 inches wide, each cloth having a resistance of not less than 60 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, each thickness extending the entire length of the seam, the inner being firmly glued to the case and the outer being efficiently and perma- nently glued to the inner cloth and to the case. 704 EXPORT PAi **The double-faced corrugated strawboard used must have both facings not less than 0.016 inch in thickness having a resistance of not less than 75 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test, the combined board having a resistance of not less than 175 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test. Both facings must have proper bending quality and be firmly glued to the corrugated sheet. The outer facing must be waterproofed.'* Boxes of fibre board, pulp board, solid mill board and corrugated strawboard, may not only be of the described one piece construction but may be of two piece or three piece construction, provided the material used together with the use of an inside lining or mantle conforms to the specifications above given as to strength and thick- ness. Construction may be of any of the usually accepted methods, but the joints must be made by tape, stitching and gluing as provided above. Bags.— Possibly the materials most commonly shipped by parcel post in bags are those in powder form and the great desideratum therefore is to prevent the sifting of the contents. The cloth, of whatever nature, must be closely woven, of a strength not less than 200 pounds to the square inch, Mullen test. The largest manufacturer in the United States of photographic goods states that cameras by parcel post are always packed in heavy double strawboard boxes wrapped in strong waterproof bags. Bundles in the Parcel Post.— If contents of a parcel post bundle are such as not necessarily to require a stiff outside container, they may be forwarded in a package wrapped either with burlap, Osnaburg, sheeting, a combination of paper and cloth, two or more thick- nesses of heavy waterproof kraft paper weighing not less than what is known as No. 60 or duplex waterproof wrapping paper strengthened with either cords or wire, if the instructions of the American Red Cross are to be followed. Whatever the wrapping material may be it should have a resistance of at least 120 pounds per square inch, Mullen test. The outside coyer should be folded FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 705 twice before closing at the top and fiave the ends folded down and across, the pointed end so formed being folded over and then up and tightly tied with twine fastened with a loop knot. A New York concern doing a large mail order business by parcel post states that it always uses boxes made of fibre board, wrapped in a cloth lined tarred coating material weighing 70 to 80 pounds per ream, which it is almost impossible to tear. Liquids and Semi-Liquids in the Mails.— The United States regulations provide that liquids, oil, paste, salves and other articles easily liquefiable, are admitted to the parcel post mails of many countries (for exceptions see Official Postal Guide), provided they are packed in ac- cordance with the regulations prescribed for the admis- sion of such substances to the United States parcel post mails. More detailed and specific instructions applying to foreign parcel post mails are those issued by the Belgian government which have been translated as follows : ** Liquids, oils, greases, and other articles easily lique- fiable must fulfill the following conditions : *^If they are in strong glass bottles containing 4 ounces (113.40 gr.) or less, the total quantity sent in a package can not exceed 24 ounces (680.39 gr.), liquid measure. Each bottle must be wrapped in paper or some absorbent substance, and then the whole placed in a card- board box, or in a box of similar material, and packed in a receptacle or cardboard of good quality corrugated on both sides. The corners of the receptacle must be her- metically closed and tied with string in a manner to pre- vent leakage of the liquids in case the container is broken, and the entire package must be wrapped in strong paper and tied with string. Bottles containing a maximum of 4 ounces of liquid (113.40 gr.) may he packed as outlined in the next two paragraphs. . **In the case of glass bottle^, holdir^ more than 4 ounces (113.40 gr.) the total quantity sent in a package must not exceed 16 ounces (453.69 gr.) liquid measure. The bottles must be very solid and inclosed in a block or 706 EXPORT PACKING tube of metal, wood, cardboard, or some material; and between the bottle and the tube or the block must be placed a certain quantity of cotton felt, or some other absorbent material. The block or tube, if it be of wood or cardboard, must have a thickness of at least 3 milli- meters for bottles holding 8 ounces (226.80 gr.) at the most, and of at least 5 millimeters for bottles holding more than 8 ounces. The block or tube must be rendered waterproof by the application, on the inside, of parafiBn or of some other suitable substance, and must be closed with a stopper so threaded that it will be necessary to give it at least a turn and a half in order to remove it. The cover must be provided with a washer, so that the liquid can not escape, should the bottle be broken. A number of bottles separately packed according to the foregoing instructions can be put in one package, pro- vided the maximum weight and dimensions prescribed by these rules are not exceeded. ** Bottles containing liquids can also be packed in solid receptacles well closed with wood, metal, or water- proof corrugated cardboard. A space must be left around the bottles and filled with bran, sawdust, or any other absorbent material in a sufficient quantity to absorb all the liquid should the bottle be broken. *^When the liquid is in a metal receptacle, the recep- tacle must be suitably sealed and put in a box. ' ' Watches by Parcel Post.— Packages of watches shipped by parcel post would seem to be particularly sub- ject to danger from pilfering, especially as the post office must be able readily to inspect the contents and in consequence the packages are usually sent unsealed. A large manufacturer of watches believes that his aston- ishingly small loss by pilfering is due to no small extent to the fact that his packages are relatively inconspicuous. If the packages were clustered with red wax the loss would doubtless be much greater. Watches shipped by parcel post are packed in standard containers made for the purpose of heavy corrugated paper in the manner of folding boxes. One large shipper writes : ' ' Our watches Courtesy of Waltham Watch Co. Watch Cases for Parcel Post Shipment. Watches are first packed in individual boxes uhich are placed in cartons. Cartons are vorapped in heavy, high-grade oil cloth, and then in heavy wrapping paper. Courtesy o/ Victor Talking Machine Co. Phonograph Records Packed for Parcel Post Shipment. Photograph shows a single record in envelope, the required number of- records in waxed paper, an empty fibre board container and container corded and marked for shipment. 707 708 EXPORT PACKING are first placed in individual boxes so wrapped with tissue paper that there is no play in the box, or they lie in a nest in the box which prevents the watch from bang- ing against the side of the box. The individual boxes are then placed in cartons holding 12 each, and the car- tons are wrapped in corrugated paper around which is placed a tar lined paper which is impervious to moisture, and then there is a final layer of plain paper tied with heavy twine.'' Another large watch manufacturer states in reference to shipments of watches by parcel post: **Our watch movements and cased watches are packed as follows : The movements in tin containers and the cased watches in cardboard containers, packed so many to a package, depending upon the size of the watches, the average pack- age weighing not more than 11 pounds. Of course, four to five pounds of this amount are included in the weight of the packing material of the container. The merchandise is solidly and safely packed with a wadding of tissue paper, the tissue paper being laid in the bottom of the box, the merchandise laid on that, further tissue paper carefully wadded on all sizes so that the merchandise is entirely surrounded by a wadding of tissue paper. This package, in turn, is wrapped in heavy quality high grade oilcloth in such a manner that water will not enter the cracks, and carefully tied with string, and this package again packed in high grade heavy quality wrapping paper and tied with the best quality of heavy hemp cord. All packages are shipped unsealed.'* Hats by Parcel Post.— A large exporter of hats writes : ** During the war and even up to the present time, on account of irregular freight sailings and high freight rates, most of our shipments have gone forward by parcel post. In packing for parcel post the packages must, of course, conform in weight and size with the regulations of the postal law. We have used various methods of packing for parcel post but the one we are now using and which we think gives the best results is as follows : **The round pasteboard carton containing six hats FOREIGN PARCEL POST SHIPMENTS 709 is placed in a square corrugated carton and this is placed in another corrugated carton, and then wrapped in heavy wrapping paper and securely tied with strong twine. "In shipping to Venezuela, where the difficulties of transportation are very great, we ship in oilcloth bags. In this instance, the hats are not packed in round cartons but instead a dozen or more hats are nested together and placed in the bag which is then sewed and sealed. In some instances w^e have shipped to Venezuela in tin cans but this method is too expensive. '* Fountain Pens by Parcel Post.— Perhaps the largest exporter of fountain pens states that where single pens are shipped, the pen is packed in the box in which it is regularly sold in this country and then enclosed in a strong cardboard export box, wrapped in waterproof paper and strongly tied with cord. Shipments of quanti- ties of pens at a time are packed in tough cardboard boxes especially prepared of high grade material with strong resistance. The inside packages included within the outside container are of special character, already described in this chapter as ** outlook boxes,'' all of which are sealed and each one bears the inscription, ** Please count before breaking seal. This box contains pens, packed by , examined by , caps attached regular , sterling , gold filled " Talking Machine Records.— Disk records for talking machines are frequently forwarded by foreign parcel post. Usually records are packed singly in envelopes and the required number of enveloped records wrapped in waxed paper, the entire shipment being so divided that no single complete box will weigh more than 11 pounds. The packing of one of the most important manufacturers in this line is well illustrated in the accompanying photo- graph (see page 707). This company explains that the fibre board container is constructed of 100 point fibre board with an average resistance of 285 pounds to the square inch, "Mullen Test." The outside liner is of waterproof material. The box is reenf orced with a piece of strong linen tape which is glued to the outside, thus 710 EXPORT PACKING taking much of the strain that occurs at the corners should the box be dropped. There are four flaps, top and bottom, each pair meeting completely at the center of the box. The bottom flaps are glued, the top must be left open for postal inspection. The flaps of this box are tied down with a good quality of jute twine. The markings are put on with stencil and marking ink and are afterward sprayed with a fixative to prevent smearing or rubbing. In addition to the protec- tion afforded by the top and bottom flaps, pieces of double faced corrugated board are used between the package of records and the box. Any space remaining is filled completely with these corrugated boards. The Combination Package.— The Advisory Com- mittee on International Parcel Post defines the combina- tion package as a ^'package which consists of two parts firmly attached together, both parts bearing the same address, one part being a sealed envelope containing the communication, fully prepaid at the letter rate of post- age; the other being an unsealed package containing samples of merchandise or printed matter fully prepaid at the appropriate rate of postage.'' All of which means that it is possible to send together a catalog and a letter referring thereto, or a lot of samples and a correspond- ing letter, so that letter and package will reach destina- tion at the same time. The letter only pays first class rates. These combination packages may be sent at pres- ent to some fifteen countries. The combination package may be in the form of an envelope with a binding piece for the letter, or in the form of a combined sack and envelope, and obviates the old and costly method of sending catalogs and samples first class in order to assure their arrival at the same time as a letter referring to them. This matter should be fully investigated by exporters. INDEX PAGE Abercromhie, David T 162 Abyssinia 238 Acajutla, Salvador 296 Acetic acid 584 Adelaide, Australia 240 Advertising matter on cases, 16, 43, 60, 152, 226, 483, 493, 552, 557 Aeroplanes 641, 642 Africa 239 Agricultural Machinery — Disassembling . .377,' 379, 383, 384 Electric light plants 386 General considerations ..369, 370 Hand plows 403 Instruction sheets ..378, 383, 392 Plows 374 Mowing and harvesting ma- chines 378 Threshing machines 383 Tractors 389 Windmills 385 Albania 238 Alexandria, Egypt 261 Algeria 238 Amapala, Honduras 217, 267 American Forestry 193 American Bed Cross ....698, 704 American Hussion Chamber of Commerce 295 Amsterdam, Holland 266 Antigua 250 Antofagasta, Chile 246, 251 Antwerp, Belgium 245 Arabia 238 Argentina 239 Arica, Chile 246 Armenia 295 Aruba 260 Asuncion, Paraguay 287 Athens, Greece 264 Australia ..240, 241, 242, 243, 244 AuMria 245 Automobiles — Band iron 321 Commercial cars 317, 323 Disassembling .310, 314, 322, 330 71 PAGB A utomobiles — continued Dismantling 313, 322 General considerations 304 Ideal case 313 Importance of base of case 304, 310 Knocked-down cars 306 Lining of case 317, 318, 322 Loose parts 313, 314 Packing chassis 314, 322 Packing on sides 310, 322 Protection of car 317, 323 Reducing size of case ..310, 313 Rust prevention 318 Skids 305 Standardized cases 306 Stenciling 321 Timber used 310, 313, 321, 322 Touring cars ..305, 306, 309, 310 Automobile lighting apparatus 422 Automobile starting apparatus 422 Automobile tires. See Tires. Bags — Double bags 595 For flour 596 General considerations 593, 594 Marking 597 Material for 594 Misuse of 596 Parcel post 704 Sewing 595 Sifting 594, 595 Bahama Islands 245 Bahia Blanca, Argentina 239 Bales — Baling department 171 Baling press 78, 79, 80 Banding 81, 82, 151 Compression 80, 81, 169, 170, 172, 175 Ears of 82, 151, 176 Economies of 77, 164, 165, 166, 169 Folding goods 150, 172 1 712 INDEX Bales — continued For Colombia 256 "Forming Box" 78 Goods suitable for 77, 163, 164, 176 How to make 78, 175 Insurance against hooks . . 83 Lining 81, 150, 170 Outside covering 81, 150, 170 Pilfering 175 Protection against hooks ... 82 Sewing 151 Size of 81, 149, 170 Stenciling 15, 152, 175 Waterproofing 83, 84, 150 Weight of 81, 256 Baling Press 78, 79, 80 Ball bearings 421 Banding iron. See Strapping. Barbados 250 Barbed Wire 607 Barranquilla, Colombia 256 ''Barrel and Box'' 116 Barrels — Acetic acid 584 Bolts 582, 583 Boric acid 583 Box strapping 582 Cement ..572, 575, 576, 577, 578 Chain 581 China 565 Flake graphite 588 Flour 571, 572 General considerations .... 193, 194, 199, 562, 563, 564, 565 Glassware 565, 584, 587 Glucose 584 Graphite crucibles 588 Graphite facings 588 Hardware 583 Incandescent lamps 587 Interstate Commerce Commis- sion specifications 588, 589, 590, 591, 592 Lard 570 Lath nails 581 Leakage 564, 565 Oils 209, 564, 570, 571 ' Packing 605 Packinghouse products 565, 566, 569, 570 Pickled meat 570 Plaster 584 Rosin 584 Sifting 565 Soda ash 584 Barrels — continued Spring steel 582 Tobacco 584 Wire 581 Wire nails 578 Bath tubs 669, 670, 671 Battens 72, 104 Batum 295 Belgium 245, 705 Bejize, British Honduras .... 249 Beltran, Colombia 257 Bermuda 246 Bicycles 672, 675 Bill of lading ..30, 31, 46, 59, 227 Billiard tables 511 Biscuits 532 Blaclc Sea 287 Bluefields, Nicaragua 285 Bogota, Colombia 256, 257 Bogus paper 61 Bolivia 246, 247, 473, 478 Bolts ..65, 66, 146, 147, 429, 582 Bombay, India 268 Bonaire 260 Book cloths 481 Boric acid 583 Bottles 443 Boxes — Branding 108 Cleats 50, 117, 118, 122, 125, 133, 134 Construction of 50, 110, 113, 116, 130, 184 Corner posts 89 Cribbing supports 89 Defects of 53, 189 Hardwoods 54 Ideal 54, 55 Joining 117, 132 Lumber 53, 54, 116, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 190, 191 *' Lock-Cornered" 138 Marking. See "Marking." Machinery. See chapters XIII, XIV. Nailing ...117, 123, 134, 135, 136, 137 Partitions 101 Screws 73, 74, 77 Sealing 123, 143 Shape of 90, 91 Size and weight of 86, 124 Skidding ....109, 110, 113, 114 Staples 118 Step joint 90 INDEX 713 Boa;es— continued Strapping 57, 58, 120, 121, 130, 139, 140, 141 Styles of , 121, 125 Surfacing ....117, 122, 131, 132 Waterproofing. See Water- proofing. Wire-bound 118 Wire strapping 107, 120 See various chapters. Bracing — Cases 89 Crates 67 Machinery 102 See various chapters. Branding 108 Brazil 247, 248, 249, 679, 687 Bric-d-brac 469 Breakage 30 Brisbane, Australia^ 240 British East Africa 249 British Guiana 249 British Honduras 249 British Somaliland 250 British West Indies 250 Buenaventura, Colombia 256 Buenos Aires . . 239, 246, 287, 481 Bulgaria 251 BuUy Articles — Aeroplanes 641, 642 Case construction 627 General considerations 627 Locomotives ..629, 630, 633, 634, 635, 636 Marine engines 641 Motor boats 639, 640, 641 Pilfering 629 Eailway ears 636, 639 Sling marks 628 Waterproofing 628 Bundles — Automobile tires 600 Banding iron 608 Barbed wire 607 Barrels 605 Electrical wire 608 Furniture 598, 599 Galvanized wire 607 General considerations ..597, 598 Handles 603 Hoops 603, 6'04 Iron safes 599 Lumber 603, 604 Marking 598 Parcel post 704 Picture mouldings 603 Bundles — continued Shovels 600, 603 Staves 603, 604, 605 Steel bars 605, 607 Steel sheets 607 Steel pipe 607 Steel wire 606, 607 Tags for steel goods 606 Tying of 598 "Bureau of Insular Affairs" 266, 289 Burma 211 Burro 201, 239, 246, 288 Butt joint 131, 133 Calcium Carbide 616, 617 Calcutta, India 268, 272 Callao, Peru 288 Camel 201, 238, 239, 240, 287 Canada 202, 697 Canned goods, 38, 129, 519, 528, 531 Caracas, Venezuela 302 Carbonic acid gas 618 Carboys 618, 623, 624, 625 Cartons — Cereals 558 Confectionery 558, 559 Dolls 560 Economy of space 547,551 General considerations 546, 547, 548, 551 Lead pencils 559 Printing inks 559 Rubber goods 554,557 Shoes 551, 552, 553, 554, 557 Toys 560 Waterproof case linings . . . 551 Cash registers 518 Caspian Sea 287 Cast iron 62, 426 Caustic soda 615, 616 Caution marks . . . -16, 60, 108, 109, 467, 660 Ceiba, Honduras 217 Celluloid 698 Cement ....572, 575, 576, 577, 578 Central America 203, 216, 236 Cereals 531, 558 Cerro de Pasco 211 Ceylon 268 Chains 429, 581, 611 Chandeliers 463 Checking goods 39 Chemicals 211 Chicken wire 482, 484, 659 Chile 212, 216, 246, 247 China 254, 565 714 INDEX Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela . . . 302 Cleats 50, 57, 61, 62, 70, 117, 118, 122, 125, 133, 134, 135, 148 Climatic conditions 17, 201, 203, 234 Colombia 202, 203, 216, 254, 255, 256, 257, 343, 386, 468, 473, 478, 650, 680 Colon, Panama 287 Combination parcel post pack- age 710 Combining small boxes 643, 644, 645 Confectionery 452, 533, 534, 558,559 * * Compression-on-edge test " . . 184, 185 Constantinople, Turkey 298 Constanza, Eoumania 294 Consular invoice 46 Containers. See Boxes. Coolie 254 Cooperage 191, 193, 194 Corinto, Nicaragua 285 Corner posts 89, 348 * * Comerwise-compression-test ' ' 184, 185 Costa Bica 257 Cottonseed oil 570, 571 Crackers 532 Crates — Bolting and nailing . . 65,- 66, 146 Center of gravity 147 Cleats 70, 148 Description of ...64, 125, 130, 143, 147, 149 Joining and bracing 66, 67, 68, 145 Lumber in, 64, 65, 143, 144, 145 Machinery 90, 344, 347 Scabbing 71, 72 Screws 73, 74, 77 Shape of 91 Skids 69, 72, 147, 148 Strapping 72, 149 ' ' Three Way Corner " 66 Ventilating 95, 96 Waterproofing. See "Water- proofing. ' ' See various chapters. Cresap, A. B 291 Cribbing supports 89 Crockery 449 Cuba 257, 258, 482 Curasao 260 PAGE Customers' instructions 7, 10, 18, 572 Customs duties, 18, 236. See Chapter X. Customs regulations — Abyssinia 238 Albania 238 Algeria 238 Arabia 238 Armenia 295 Australia .240, 241, 242, 243, 244 Austria 245 Bahama Islands 245, 250 Belgium 245 Bermuda 246 Bolivia 246, 247 Brazil 247, 248, 249 British East Africa 249 British Guiana 249 British Honduras 249 British Somaliland 250 British West Indies 250 Bulgaria 251 Canary Islands 251 Central America 237 Chile 251, 252, 253 China 233, 254 Colombia 254, 25.5, 256, 257 Costa Kica 257 Cuba 257, 258 Cyrenaica 297 Denmark 258 Dominican Republic -258, 259, 260 Dutch East Indies 260 Dutch Guiana 260 Dutch West Indies 260 Ecuador 261 Egypt 261, 262 Esthonia 295 Finland 262 France 262 French Guiana 263 French Indo-China 263 French Somaliland 263 French West Indies 263 Germany 264 Greece 264 Guatemala 265 Haiti ^66 Hawaiian Islands 266 Holland 266 Honduras 267 India ....268, 269, 270, 271, 272 Italy 272 Jamaica 273 Japan 274 Jugo-Slavia 274 INDEX 715 PAGH Customs regulations — continued Latvia 295 Libya 297 Lithuania 295 Madagascar 275 Madeira Islands 275 Mauritius 275 Mexico 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282 Need of studying 237 New Zealand . . 282, 283, 284, 285 Nicaragua 285 Norway 286 Panama 286 Paraguay 287 Persia 287 Peru 288 Philippine Islands ....288, 289, 290, 291, 292 Poland 292 Porto Kico 293 Portugal 293 Portuguese East Africa (Mo- zambique) 293 Portuguese West Africa .... 294 Republic of Azerbaijan .... 295 Republic of Georgia 295 Reunion 294 Roumania 294 Russia 294 Salvador 295 Siam 296 Siberia 236 Spain 296 Straits Settlements 296 Sweden 297 Switzerland 297 Tripoli 297 Tunis '298 Turkey 233, 298 Uganda 298 Union of South Africa ... 299 United Kingdom ...299, 300, 301 Uruguay 301 Variation in different coun- tries 231, 232 Venezuela 302 Cut glass 449 Cuzco, Peru 211 Cyrenaica 297 Danzig 292 Denmarlc 258 Desirade 263 '* Diagonal-compression-test" . 199 ''Diagonal-drop-test" 199 Dire-Dana 238 Djibouti, French Somaliland . . 238, 263 Dolls 560 Dominica 250 Dominican Bepublic ..258, 259, 260 Donkey. See Burro. ''Drop test" 184, 185 Drugs. See Pharmaceutical products. Drums — Calcium carbide 616, 617 Caustic soda 615, 616 General considerations 613, 614, 615 Interstate Commerce Commis- sion Specifications 618, 621, 622, 623 Printers' ink 617 Sulphuric acid 613 War Department Specifica- tions 615 Dutch East Indies 260 Dutch Guiana 260 Dutch West Indies 260 Duties. See Chapter X. Page 231. Ears on hales 82, 151, 176 Ecuador 261 Egypt 261, 696 Electric fans 426 Electric light plants 386 Electric motors 386, 429 England. See United King- dom. Eritrea 273 Esthonia 295 Excelsior 60, 61, 342,444 Facatativa, Colombia 257 Finland 262 Fitz Gerald, M. C. See chapter IV. Flour 537, 538, 571, 572, 596 "Footwear Regulation Act" of New Zealand . . . 283, 284, 285 Fountain pens 694, 709 Forest Products Laboratory — Barrels 199 Boxes 184, 186 Branches of the work 180 Experiments in 50 Furniture 494 Lumber 190 Origin of 178 716 INDEX PAGE Forest Products Laboratory — cont. Service to business .178, 179, 183 Testing methods ..183, 184, 185 Typical examples of work . 180 Forks 417 * * Forming Box" 78 Fragile goods, 39, 60, 102, 103. See also Glass, Glassware, etc. France 262 Franck, Harry A 507 Freemwitle, Australia 240 Freights — Weight basis 29 French Guiana 263 French Indo-China 263 French Somaliland 238, 263 French West Indies 263 Furniture — Bales 502, 505 Billiard tables 511 Bracing 501, 506 Bundles 598 Cases and crates 500, 506 Criticisms of packing • 489, 490, 493 Floor lamps . . .r 511 Forest Products Laboratory 494 General considerations 489 Glass 502 Knocked down furniture . . 495, 501 Lining of cases and crates . . 501, 502, 506 Manufacturing for export . . 493 Marking 505 Metal bedsteads 495 Office furniture 505, 506 Packing for South Africa . . 496 Packing for South America 499 Phonographs 512, 513,514 Pianos 507, 508, 511 Eeduction in cubic space . . 499 Steel furniture 505 Strapping 502, 505 Talking machines . .512, 513, 514 Upholstered furniture 506 Galatz, Roumania 294 Geography, 6, 17, 19, 20, 49, 201, 234 Georgetown, British Guiana . . 249 Germany 264 Ghent, Belgium 245 Girardot, Colombia 257 Glass containers. See Glass and Glassware. Glass and Glassware — Barrels 565, 584, 587 PAGE Glass and Glassware — continued Bottles ..443, 444, 445, 446, 449, 452 Chandeliers 463 Confectionery 452 Crockery 449 Cut glass 449 Furniture 502 General considerations .... 433, 434, 437 Incandescent lamps ...455, 456, 457, 458, 461, 587 Lamp chimneys 446 Pharmaceutical products . . . 450, 451 Photographic materials 468 Eeflectors 464, 467 Sheet glass ". 437, 438, 439, 440, 443 Writing inks 452, 455 Glucose 584 Graphite products 525, 588 Gravity, center of 108, 114, 147, 148, 628 Great Britain. See United Kingdom. Greece 264 Grenada 250 Guadeloupe 263, 264 Guatemala 265 Guayaquil, Ecuador 261 Haiti 266 Hams 646 Handles 417, 603 Handles of webbing for boxes 160, 161 Hardware — Complaints regarding pack- ing 406, 407, 408 Displaying in India 210 General considerations of packing 406 Miscellaneous examples .... 408 Packing of saws 412, 413 Packing of tools 411, 412 Harris Garrard 217 Harvesting machines 378 Hats 677 Havana, Cuba 257 Haivaiian Islands 266 Hazard machine 183, 185 Helsingfors, Finland 262 Hoes 417 Hoisting machinery 349, 350 Holland 266 INDEX 717 PAGE Honduras ...202, 203, 217, 218, 267, 477 Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands . . 266 Hooks, protection from, on bales 82, 176 Hoops 604 Hops 539, 540 Hosiery 481 Hudnaco 211, 212 Import duties. See Customs regulations as affecting packing, Chapter X, page 231. Also specific coun- tries. Incandescent lamps ..455, 456, 457, 458, 461, 587 Incandescent mantles 467 India 202, 203, 204, 207, 208, 209, 210, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272 "Indian Textile Journal" .... 204 Inks ..540, 543, 544, 545, 559, 617 Instruction sheets 378 Insurance 28, 29, 30, 40, 83 * * Internal-pressure-test '* 199 Interstate Commerce Commis- sion — Barrel containers specifica- tions ..588, 589, 590, 591, 592 Carboy specifications 623, 624, 625 Drums specifications 618, 621, 622, 623 Fibre and strawboard con- tainers 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704 Steel cylinder specifications 625, 626 Invoice 39, 59 Italy ; 272 Italian Somaliland 273 Jamaica 250, 273 Japan 274 Joining ....90, 117, 122, 123, 132 Jugo-Slavia 274 Keqs. See Barrels. Knit goods 481 Knots 53, 116, 127, 191 Knowlton, H. N. See Chapter III, page 48. Labels 59, 528, 545 La Dorado, Colombia 257 La Guaira, Venezuela 302 Lag screws 113 La Libertad, Salvador 296 Lamp chimneys 446 Lamps 511 La Paz, Bolivia 246 La Plata 239 Lard 534, 537, 570, 646 Lath nails 581 Latin- America 233, 235 Latvia 295 Lead pencils 559 Leakage from barrels 564 Leather ....657, 658, 659, 660, 663 Leather belting 660,663 Leather, patent 658, 659, 660 Leeward Islands 250 Les Saintes 263 Libya 297 * ' Linderman Joint " 122, 123, 131, 133 Lining. See Waterproofing. Lithuania 295 Llama 201, 246, 288 Lock-Comer 138 Locomotives ..629, 630, 633, 634, 635, 636 Lourengo Marquez, Portuguese East Africa 293 Lumber — Barrels 194, 197 Crates 64, 65, 145 Defects of 53, 189 Groups 123, 144, 192 Hardwoods 54, 329 Kind to use ..53, 127, 190, 369 Moisture in, 53, 116, 144, 157, 190 Nailing 55, 156 Packing 604 Size of 53, 54 Surfacing 117 Thickness 128, 129 Width of ..54, 116, 128, 129, 130, 131 See various chapters. Machinery — Blocking 101, 341, 342 Bracing 102, 341, 342 Crates for 90, 350 Construction of cases and crates 344, 347, 348 Disassembling 332, 333, 334, 337, 370, 374, 379 Electric light plants 386 Extra heavy machinery . . . 353 For Colombia 343 718 INDEX Machinery — continued Hand Plows 403 Hoisting machinery .... 349, 350 In India 209 Machine tools 349 Marking * 337, 634 Method in general of pack mg 60 Mining 39 Mowing and harvesting ma- chines 378 Naked shipments 610, 611 Packing list 341 Partitions in cases lOl Plows 374 Printing presses 354, 355, 356, 359, 360 Protecting bright parts ..'96, 97 Protection from moisture . . .....92, 96, 341 Protection from rust ....62, 95, 337, 338, 341, 634 Small parts 103, 338, 341 Stamping 634 Steam pumps 353 Tags 337, 341, 634 Threshing machines 383 Tractors 389 Weight of cases 343 Windmills 385 Wire-stitching machinery . . 361 Wire-working machinery . . . 362 Machine tools 349 Madagascar 275 Madeira Islands 275 Magdalena Biver, Colombia . . 257 Manchuria 254 Manila. See Philippine Islands. Maracaibo, Venezuela 302, 478 Marie Galante Islands 263 Marine Engines 641 Marking — Agree with invoice and bill of lading 59 Bags 597 Bales ...15, 152, 175 Bundles 598 Careless marking 36 Caution marks 16, 60, 108, 109, 467 Center of gravity 108 Concealed by advertising mat- ter 16 Contents on cases 40 Errors in 15, 45 Importance of 14, 44, 59, 85 Leather 658 Marking — continued Machinery 337, Marking fluid 107, Naked shipments Position of 16, 59, Requisites of 15, 45, 60, Sanitary ware Second-hand material shows old marks Size of Sling position 108, Small shipments Steamship instructions Stenciling of 16, 59, 108, 152, Tires Tractors See different chapters. See various countries. Martinique 263, Masica, Honduras Mauritius .• Maxwell Eu Mayohamha, Peru Melbourne, Australia * * Merchan dise Marks Acts," India and Ceylon 268, 269, 270, 271, *' Merchandise Marks Act" of United Kingdom '' Merchandise Marks Laws" of India "Merchandise Marks Manual" Mexico 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281 Miller, H. H. .' Mining machinery Moisture — Absorbers of . . : In lumber 53, 116, 157, Protection from. See Water- proofing. Mollendo, Peru 211, Mombasa, British East Africa Montevideo, Uruguay Motor boats 639,640, Moving picture filjns Mowing machines Mozambique Mule 201, 217, 238, 239, 246, 268 285, 287, Nails. See Nailing. Nailing — Boxes 635 666 396 264 217 275 193 212 240 272 299' 272 272 282 278 39 209 190 246 249 287 641 678 378 293 522 117 INDEX 719 PAGE Nailing — conti nue d Cement coated nails 56, 65, 117, 122, 123, 135, 141, 154 Cleats 57, 122 Crates 65, 66, 145, 146 Driving 137 Effect of different classes of woods . . 55, 156, 157 Factors in correct nailing . . 55, 134, 135, 136, 152, 153, 186 Gauge of nails 56, 117, 122, 123, 136, 154, 156 Green wood 157 Head of nail 156 Overdriving nails 56, 158 Schedule for ..55, 123, 158, 159 Spacing of nails ...56, 123, 136, 137, 146, 158 Staggered 56, 57, 146 Strapping ...58^ 140, 141 Thickness of wood . 158 See various chapters. Nails, wire nails 432 Naked shipments — Chains 611 General considerations ..608, 609 Large machinery 610, 611 Marking 609, 610 Pig iron 609 Protection against rust .... 611 War Department Specifica- tions 611, 612 National Association of Box Manufacturers 55 National Automobile Chamber of Commerce 309 Newlin, J. A 152 N. Y. Quurtermaster Depot . . 80 New Zealand ...282, 283, 284, 285 New Zealand Gazette 285 Nitric acid 618 Nicaragua 285 Norway 286 Nova Scotia 202 Numbering — Careless numbering 36 Character of 108 Consecutive 45 Errors in 16 Nuts 429 Oil Cloth 671, 672 Oils 525, 526, 527, 537, 564, 570, 571 Oleomargarine 534 Orinoco Eiver, Venezuela 302 Oruro, Bolivia 246 PacTcing for Export — Advantages of good packing 28, 29 Case, weight of 38 Cheap packing a false econ- omy '. . 9 Cheeking and weighing goods 39 Chicken wire 482 Climatic conditions . . 201 Consulting customers 28 Criticism of 27 Duties, minimizing of ..236, 273 Economy of space in . . 26, 29, 324 Expensive packing may cost more than possible losses 25 Export packing triangle .... 10 Export service 8 Extra charge for 24, 25 Factors in 4, 6, 17, 48, 85 Importance of 3, 324, 370 Indifference of manufactur- ers ,...23, 26, 27, 34, 35 Inspection before shipment . 30 Instruction sheets 377 Method of packing contents 60 Method of packing to be con- sidered 26 Muleback, for 216 New spirit in 5 Not domestic 38, 49 Packing department 19, 20, 23, 24, 374 Parcel post 691 Results of poor packing .... 86 Second-hand material ... 17, 29 Special instructions 7, 10, 26, 33, 36, 233 Special packing 232, 233 Tin, use of 43, 44 See various chapters. Packing house products ..565, 566, 569, 570, 645, 646 Packing list 45, 60, 341, 635 Pails 618 Paints 521, 522, 525 Paita, Peru 288 Panama 286 Paraguay 287 Paper 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 657 Para, Brazil 246, 247 Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana . . 260 Parcel post — Addressing 690, 691 720 INDEX Parcel post — continued Advertising matter by . . 684, 685 American Red Cross . . . 698, 704 Bags 704 Belgium 705 Bundles 704 Canada 697 Celluloid 698 "Certificate of mailing" .. 687 Combination package 710 Customs declaration 688 Customs duties 685 Egypt 696 Fibre and strawboard con- tainers 698 Fountain pens 694, 709 General considerations ..681, 682 General regulations . . . 684, 686 Hats 708 Inspection of 693, 694 Insurance 687 Interior preparation . . . .694, 695 Interstate Commerce Commis- sion specifications for con- tainers 698, 699, 700, 70l, 702, 703, 704 Jewelry 695 Liquids 705 Metal containers 695,696 Outside container 696 Packing 691, 692, 693 Registration 687 Russian parcels 691, 697 Samples by 684 Talking machine records . . 709 Textiles 482 Tin containers 698 War Department Specifica- tions 691 Watches 706 When to use 683 Wood containers 698 Partitions as shock absorbers . 101 Patras, Greece 264 Pernambuco, Brazil 247 Penang, Straits Settlements . . 297 Persia 287 Persian Gulf 287 Peru 202, 211, 212, 288 Pharmaceutical products 450, 451, 538, 539 Philippine Islands 24, 44, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292 "Philippine Tariff Act*' 289 Phonographs 512, 513, 514 Pianos 507, 508, 511 PAGE PicMed meat 570 Picture mouldings 603,679 Pig iron 609 Pilfering — Advertising matter on cases assists 16, 226 Argentina 240 Attitude of steamship com- panies 222 Australia 240 Automobiles 306, 321 Bales 175 Barrels 5B2 Canned goods 527 Cartoned goods 551 Chicken wire 482, 484,659 Claims for 223 Deck cargo 629 Dominican Republic 258 ''Foul" bill of lading .... 227 Fountain pens 694 Goods exposed to 14, 226 How it occurs 223,224 Insurance ..29, 30, 220, 221, 222 Italy 272 Losses due to 219 Methods of preventing .... 14, 43, 142, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 482 Parcel-post packages 221 Safety clips . . 142, 228, 229, 230 Salvador 296 Sealing boxes ...43, 123, 143, 228, 229, 230 Shoes 552, 553 Strapping to prevent, 40, 142, 226 Textiles 483 Tires 665 IT. S. Chamber of Commerce of the Argentine on 221 Watches 676, 706 Pirceus, Greece 264 Plaster 584 Plows 374, 403 Poland 292 Port Castries, St. Lucia 250 Port conditions • 202 Port Limon, Costa Bica .... 257 Porto Eico 293 Portugal 293 Portuguese East Africa (Mo- zamhique) 293 Portuguese West Africa 294 Potosi, Bolivia 246 Precision instruments 421 Printing presses 354, 355, 356, 359, 360 INDEX 721 PAGB Progreso, Mexico 275 Puerto Cahello, Venezuela . . . 302 Puerto Colombia, Colombia . . 256 Puntarenas, Costa Eica " 257 Bailway cars 636, 639 Becoopering ..33, 34, 35, 36, 37 Red Sea 204, 234, 239, 263 Beduction of size of case. See Shrinking the package. Chapter XII, page 324. Beflectors 464, 467 Bepublic of Azerbaijan 295 Bepublic of Georgia 295 BSunion 294 Bio de Janeiro, Brazil 247 Bio Grande do Sul, Brazil 247 Bivets 429 Bosario 239 Bosin 584 Botterdam, Holland 266 Boumania 294 Bubber goods ....29, 210, 211, 554, 557, 600 Bussia 294, 691, 697 Bust Prevention — Automobiles 318 Factors in 62, 95 Iron and steel 62 Machinery 62, 95,. 337, 338 Metal containers 96 Ventilating cases to prevent 95, 96 See various chapters. Saba 260, 261 Safe Pack Mills 78, 116, 125 Safes 599 Safety clips for pilfering 142, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229 St. Barthelemy 263 St. Eustatius 260, 261 St. Kitts 250, 261 St. Lucia 250 St. Martin 260, 261,263 St. Vincent 250 "Sale of Food and Drugs Act'* of New Zealand 284 Salonica, (Greece 264 Salvador 202, 295, 478 Sanitary war^ 669, 670,671 San Lorenzo, Honduras ..217, 267 Santiago, Chile 212 Santiago, Cuba 257 Santos, Brazil 247 Scabbim,^ 71, '72 Scales. See Weighing Ap- paratus. Screws 73, 74, 75 Sealing — Boxes ..123, 142, 143, 228, 229, 230 Safety seals 43, 142, 228, 229, 230 Straps 43 Sewing machines 218, 425, 426 Sewing of bags 595 Sheathmg 144 * * Shiplap Joint " 131 Shock absorbers ...60, 61, 98, 101 Shoes 551, 552, 553, 554, 557 Shotguns 417 Shovels 417, 600 Shrinking the package — Accomplishments 325 Advantages of ...324, 325,373 Disassembling 332, 333 How it may be done 325, 326, 329, 330 Siam 296 Siberia 236, 348 * * Side-compression-test " 199 "Side-drop-test" 199 Sifting from bags 594,595 Silk goods 482, 483, 484 Silverware 677 Singapore, Straits Settlements 296 Skids- Crates .... 69, 72, 147, 347, 350 Importance of 109, 110, 113 Slots for slinging 114 Slotting for sling 72, 114, 148 Slings, position of, shown by marking 108, 113, 628 Slushing compound . . . .96, 97, 634 Small boxes, combining 643, 644, 645 Small parts 103 Smoked meats 646 Smyrna .• 298 Soda ash 584 Somaliland. See French, Brit- ish, etc. South America 49, 202, 203, 211, 216, 522, 553, 678 Spain 296 Spring steel 582 Staggering nails 57, 66 Staples 118 Staves 604, 605 Steam pumps 353 Steel 45, 46, 208, 607 Steel bars 605, 607 Steel cylinders 625, 626 722 INDEX PAGE Stenciling 16, 45, 46, 59, 108, 321, 635 Storage batteries 462, 463 Stoves 62 Straits Settlements 296 Strapping — Automobile cases 321 Bales 81, 82, 151 Crates 72, 149 Increases strength of case . . 139 Joints of 121 Kinds 57, 104, 107, 139 Location of 58, 104, 117, 120, 140 Method of applying 57, 58, 107, 120 Nailing ..58, 104, 121, 140, 141 Nailless 58, 139, 140, 159 Packing 582, 608 Pilfering 40, 139 Stretching 58, 121, 140 Thickness and width of .... 57, 58, 120 War Department Specifica- tions 117 Wire 107, 139, 140 See various chapters. Straw 61 Stuffing material 60, 61, 98 Suez Canal 204 Sulphuric acid 613 Surfacing 117, 122, 131, 132 Sweden , 297 Switchboards 342 Switzerland 297 Sydney, Australia 240 Table glassware 443, 444 Tags 59, 337, 341, 399, 598 Talking machines ....512, 513, 514 Talking machine records 709 Tamatave, Madagascar 275 Tampico, Mexico 275 Tariffs 232, 235 Tarma, Peru 212 Tegucigalpa, Honduras ..217,267 Textiles — Bales 473, 474, 487 Book cloths 481 Case lining 473 Cases 474, 482, 485 Chicken wire in bales . . .482, 484 Criticism of American pack- ing 474, 475, 476, 477 English methods 475, 476, 477, 478 Textiles — continued General considerations 470, 471, 472 Hosiery 481 Knit goods 481 Parcel post shipments 482 Silks 482, 483, 484 Strapping cases 473, 485, 486 Tin lining 473, 483, 487 War Department Specifica- tions 474 Waterproofing 473, 482, 484, 485, 486 Three Way Corner 66, 147 Threshing machines 383 Tin plate 430, 431 Tin in export packing 43, 44, 64, 96, 417, 508, 551, 552, 558, 559, 659, 677, 678 Tinned Goods — Biscuits 532 Cereals 531 Confectionery 533, 534 Crackers 532 Economy of space 520 Flour 537, 538 General considerations ..519, 520 Graphite products 525 Hops 539, 540 Lard 534, 537, 646 Miscellaneous goods 527 Oils 525, 526, 527, 537 Paints 521, 522, 525 Pharmaceutical products ..... 538, 539 Pilfering 527 Preservation of labels .... 528 Printing inks . .540, 543, 544, 545 Square tins vs. round tins . . .520, 527 War Department Specifica- tions 520 Tires, automobile ..600, 663, 664, 665, 666, 669 Tobacco 584 Tobago 250 Toys 560 Tractors — Boxed assembled 390 Construction of cases 391 Crates 396 Dissembling ...391, 395, 396, 399, 400, 403 General considerations .... 389 Instruction sheets 392 Markings 396 INDEX 723 PAGE Tractors — continued Protection 395 Slushing 399 *' Trade Descriptions Act of Australia," 241, 242, 243, 244 Trinidad 250, 302 Tri2wli 297 Trujillo, Honduras 217 Tunis 298 Two-Trip package 646, 665 Tyloses 198 Typewriters 514, 517 Uganda , 298 Union of South Africa 299 United Kingdom, 299, 300, 301, 302 Uruguay 301 Valencia, Venezuela 302 Valparaiso, Chile 216 Venezuela ..302, 468, 478, 680, 709 Ventilating cases 95, 96 Vera Cruz, Mexico 275 War Department — Baling 149 Bands for bales 82 Boxing specifications 116 Crating specifications 143 Drums 615 Export packing in boxes, 119, 347 Goods in tins 520 Hardware in barrels 583 Incandescent lamps 461 Lumber 127 Marking specifications 152 Naked shipmeiits 611, 612 Packing machinery 333, 341 Packing wool or hair 474 Paper 657 Parcel post 691 Photographic materials 468 Protection of bright parts 337 Savings by baling 77 Savings by shrinking pack- age 324 War Department — continued Shovels 603 Size of bale 81 Steel pipe 607 Waterproof paper 62, 83 Wire-bound boxes 118 Watclies 675, 676, 677, 706 Water meters 418 Waterpi'oofing — Automobiles 317 Bales 83, 150 Cartoned goods 551 Cases 91, 92, 95, 96, 119 Cases to Australia 29 Deck cargo 628 General need of 62 Leather 658 Method of lining cases, 119, 120 Parcel post 694 War Department paper ...62, 63 Waterproof papers 63 Weighing apparatus 414 Weighing goods 39 Weights — Legal, net, gross 235, 236 Machinery 343 On eases 23, 34 See different chapters. See various countries. Willemstadt, Curasao 260 Windmills 385 Windward Islands 250 Wire 431, 581, 606, 607, 608 Wire-bound boxes 118 Wire for strapping, 107, 139, 140 Wire nails 578 Wire netting 646. Wire-stitching machinery 361 Wire-working machinery 362 Writing inks 452, 455 Yunnan 254 Zanzibar 303 Zeyla, British Somaliland 250 Zinc lining 678 >-r HA /'