EXCHANGE 25 THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO- AND -LENTO- BY EDWARD W. NICHOLS A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF YALE UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY PRESS OF THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY LANCASTER, PA. 1914 THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO- AND -LENTO- BY EDWARD W. NICHOLS A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF YALE UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY PRESS OF THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY LANCASTER, PA. 1914 PREFACE. This dissertation has been slightly altered from its origina form, the principal change being the addition of the section on Semantic Reciprocity. I am indebted to Professor E. P. Morris for the idea which I have endeavored to work out; to Dean Oertel for careful and detailed criticism of the entire paper; to Professor E. W. Hopkins for assistance with the Sanskrit examples; and to Professor C. U. Clark for some valuable sug- gestions. I take this opportunity of thanking all these gentlemen for their interest and advice. INTRODUCTION. 1 1. The purpose of this dissertation is to show (i) that an ad- jectival termination in Latin may have a wide range of semantic variability, determined primarily by (a) the stem to which it is attached, (b) the noun which the adjective limits; and secondarily (c) by the more remote context; and (2) that there may be a large number of semantic equivalents for such a termination, determined in each instance by the factors (a), (&), and (c) above. Nearly every adjective suffix occurs in several different semantic categories, and each semantic category is represented by a number of suffixes.* If semantic categories (Bedeutungs- klassen) are to be established under which suffixes may be sub- sumed, they must of necessity be large and abstract. But each concrete suffix has its meaning determined largely by the forces mentioned above; hence the necessity for examination of a great number of examples before making any general statement about the semantic value of a termination. The idea developed in the following pages may be found in Morris, 'Principles and Methods in Latin Syntax* (1901), Chap. IV, and is concisely stated by Brugmann, V. G., II, 1(1906), p. 663: "Die Formantien geben an und fur sich kaum mehr als die ganz allgemeine adjektivische Beziehung, die genauere Art dieser Beziehung ist durch die Bedeutung des Grundworts bestimmt worden. So fallen oft zwei Formen mit demselben Formans wegen verschiedenen Begriffs des Stammnomens ver- schiedenen Bedeutungsklassen zu. Aber auch darauf kam es an, zu welchem Substantivbegriff das Adjektiv attributiv oder pradikativ in Verbindung trat, und hierdurch kann auch dasselbe Adjektiv als verschiedenen Bedeutungsklassen zugehorig er- scheinen, z. B. 'agger niveus 1 'ein Damm oder Wall, der aus * These phenomena parallel those of case-suffixes; vid. Oertel and Morris, Harvard Studies, XVI (1905), p. 85. 2 THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND Schnee besteht, Schneedamm,' und ' eguos niveus' 'ein Pferd, das wie Schnee aussieht, schneeweisses Pferd/ 'lyra eburna 1 'Leier aus Elfenbein,' und 'digitus eburnus' ' elfenbeinweisser Finger.'" 2- The term 'semantic content* applied to suffixes throughout this paper denotes the meaning of a suffix in some particular context. For the general meaning of a suffix which is of course an abstraction, the term 'semantic area' (Gebrauchssphare) is perhaps as good as any, and will be used in that sense where necessary. The suffix oso has a semantic area; in the sense here employed it has no semantic content until placed in a definite context which determines such content. 3. The suffixes chosen for investigation are oso and lento . The results obtained, however, are chiefly based on oso . This fact is due partly to the greater frequency of adjectives in oso , partly to their wider range of use in individual words. The material for investigation has been gathered from the follow- ing authors: Catullus, Caesar, Cicero, Cato, R. R., Comic Frag- ments (Ribbeck), Horace, Juvenal, Livy, Lucretius, Plautus, Propertius, Quintilian, Sallust, Tacitus, Tibullus, Terence, Tragic Fragments (Ribbeck), Varro, R. R., Vergil, Vitruvius. The mass of examples is so great that it has not been necessary to include any doubtful readings. Over this literature each instance of any adjective in oso or lento has been examined, and many adjectives in to . Adjectives in other terminations have been included only for purposes of illustration ; and many examples have been taken from Pliny and Columella, though from these no systematic collection has been made. Adjectives in oso , lento , and to examined are: Actuosus I instance, acerosus, I, aerosus, 2, aestuosus, 13, aerumnosus, n, aluminosus, 2, alsiosus, 3, ambitiosus, 45, (in- ambitiosus, i), animosus, 31, annosus, 20, aquosus, 30, araneosus, 5, argillosus, 3, argumentosus, I, artificiosus, 25, aurosus, 2, axitiosus, 2, bellicosus, 24, bellosus, I, belluosus, I, bibosus, I, : .- SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO- AND -LENTO-. 3 bituminosus, 4, bucculentus, I, cadaverosus, i, caenosus, i, calamitosus, 42, caliginosus, 4, callosus, I, captiosus, 10, cariosus, 2, cerebrosus, I, cicatricosus, 4, citrosus, I, clamosus, 3, clivosus, 5, confragosus, 17, contumeliosus, 21, copiosus, 52, corpulentus, 2, cretosus, 5, criminosus, n, cruentus, 107, (incruentus, 24), cuniculosus, I, curiosus, 22, (percuriosus, 2), damnosus, 36, desidiosus, 4, detrimentosus, I, dictiosus, I, dolosus, n, dumosus, 2, ebriosus, 5, elleborosus, 2, esculentus, 3, exitiosus, 20, fabu- losus, 12, facinerosus, 21, factiosus, 10, famosus, 27, fastidiosus, 9, febriculosus, I, fistulosus, I, flagitiosus, 14, (perflagitiosus, i), flexuosus, i, fluctuosus, I, formidolosus, 31, formosus, 182, fragosus, 3, fraudulentus, 9, frondosus, 12, fructuosus, 47, fruticosus, 3, fucosus, 2, fumosus, 14, furiosus, 63, funestus, 6, generosus, 50, glareosus, 2, globosus, 8, gloriosus, 74, gratiosus, 39, gravedinosus, I, gulosus, i, harenosus, 14, hederosus, I, herbosus, 15, herniosus, I, honestus, 70, (inhonestus, 8), hircosus 1, ieiuniosus, I, ignominiosus, 17, imaginosus, I, impendiosus, I, imperiosus, 20, importuosus, 4, ingeniosus, 54, (peringeniosus, i), iniuriosus, 6, inlecebrosus, I, inopiosus, I, insidiosus, 21, invidi- osus, 74, iocosus, 28, iugosus, 2, iuncosus, i, labeosus, I, labori- osus, 24, lacertosus, 4, lacrimosus, 10, lapidosus, 9, latebrosus, 8, lacunosus, 3, libidinosus, 32, licentiosus, I, lienosus, 3, lignosus, 3, limosus, 15, litigiosus, 10, lucrosus, 4, litorosus, I, luctuosus, 29, (perluctuosus, i), luculentus, 19, ludosus, I, luminosus, 2, lus- citiosus, 2, lutosus, 4, lotiolentus, I, lutulentus, 4, luxuriosus, 29, maculosus, 15, malitiosus, 15, mammosus, 3, medicamentosus, 2, mendosus, 10, meticulosus, 2, montosus, 7, monstruosus, 2, morosus, II, (submorosus, i), morbosus, 8, muscosus, 6, mulie- rosus, 4, nebulosus, 9, negotiosus, 10, nemorosus, 10, nervosus, 4, nimbosus, 6, nivosus, 7, nodosus, 9, numerosus, 18, nitrosus, 2, obliviosus, 3, obnoxiosus, 2, obsequiosus, I, odiosus, 74, (perodiosus, 2, subodiosus, i) officiosus, 25, (inofficiosus, 2) onerosus, 1 1, operosus, 28, opiniosus, I, opulentus, 103, orbitosus, i, otiosus, 70, obstrudulentus, I, palmosus, I, pannosus, 2, paludosus, 2, peculiosus, I, pecuniosus, 23, perniciosus, 89, pecorosus, I, perfidiosus, 12, pedicosus, I, peminosus, i, peri- culosus, 95, pilosus, 8, piscosus, 6, pituitosus, I, pisculentus, 3, THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND plagosus, I, plumosus, 2, pomosus, 3, podagrosus, 2, ponderosus, 4, portuosus, 3, portentosus, 2, pretiosus, 31, probrosus, 13, pro- cellosus, 3, prodigiosus, 8, pruinosus, 6, pulverulentus, 14, pestilentus, I, purulentus, I, quaestuosus, 18, rabiosus, 6, radi- osus, I, ramosus, 9, religiosus, 98, rorulentus, 3, rixosus, I, rubricosus, 3, rugosus, 9, ruinosus, 6, repudiosus, I, robiginosus, I, ructuosus, I, sabulosus, 2, saetosus, 5, saeptuosus, I, salivosus, 3, salebrosus, I, saltuosus, 3, sanguinolentus, 19, scelerosus, 4, scelestus, 8, scopulosus, 2, scruposus, 4, scruplosus, 2, seditiosus, 58, senticosus, I, sententiosus, I, sinuosus, 5, siticulosus, I, somniculosus, 2, seniosus, I, spatiosus, 17, speciosus, 34, spinosus, 8, spumosus, 7, squamosus, 7, stercorosus, I, stomachosus, 4, strigosus, 2, strumosus, I, studiosus, 69, (perstudiosus, i), sumptuosus, 17, superstitiosus, 23, suspiciosus, 19, temulentus, 22, tenebricosus, 5, tenebrosus, 6, torminosus, I, torosus, 2, tortuosus, 8, truculentus, 20, tumultuosus, 14, turbulentus, 51, varicosus, I, vadosus, 6, ventosus, 5, ventriosus, 5, venustus, 10, (invenustus, 4), verbosus, n, vetustus, 22, villosus, 7, veternosus, I, vinosus, 7, vinulentus, 15, violentus, 45, virosus, 2, vitiosus, 92, ulcerosus, 3, uliginosus, 4, umbrosus, 37, undosus, 2, vultuosus, I. Total, 3587. 4- For the determination of the semantic content of oso and lento two factors, as observed above, are especially to be studied: the stem on which the adjective is formed, and the noun which it limits. Occasionally the more remote context furnishes a third determining factor.* The first part of this paper aims to determine the semantic content of oso and lento in various contexts, to show their great variety. No emphasis should be laid on the exact English wording given in the various translations. Translation is simply the imperfect medium through which the fact that the *The etymology of oso and lento is of no importance for the purposes of this dissertation. That of oso is as yet disputed. See Brugmann, V. G M II, I, 355. P- 464, and 536, p. 664. Also Lindsay, Lat. Lang. pp. 352-3. It should be said that no attempt has been made either to trace the historic development of the various uses of oso , or to discuss the use of adjectives in oso from a stylistic standpoint. The suffix is treated here from the semantic aspect only. SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO- AND -LENTO-. 5 termination has varying semantic content is indicated. It is further to be noted that the different translations are not neces- sarily mutually exclusive. 5. Before proceeding to the business of precise delimitation of the suffixes, it might be well to dissect one or two examples, so that the method of determination may be seen. In this way the reason for the translation used will be clearer. The word 'ventosus' as used by Tacitus, G., V, 3, means 'exposed to winds.' The sentence is "terra umidior qua Gallias, ventosior qua Noricum aspicit." The wind does not necessarily blow all the time ; but when" it does the land is swept by it. The meaning 'exposed to' is forced on oso by 'ventus' and 'terra.' In Ovid, Fasti, IV, 392, 'primaque ventosis palma petetur equis,' oso means 'swift as.' The word 'ventus' connotes several qualities, either one of which may furnish the tertium quid comparationis between 'ventus' and another noun. Conse- quently the precise content of oso cannot be known until the noun limited is known. In Pliny, N. H., XVII, 5, 'terrain cariosam cave,' while the noun is 'terra,' as above, the meaning of oso is certainly not 'exposed to.' So in the following example of 'vinosus,' "laudibus arguitur vini vinosus Homerus." Hor., Ep. I, 19, 6. The meaning is 'addicted to wine.' It is not 'under the influence of wine, intoxicated.' Why? In the first place the verse quoted is opposed to that interpretation, for Homer's 'laudes vini' are not the work of a drunken man. Further, the opening sentence of the epistle is discussing not temporary conditions but permanent habits; "prisco si credis, Maecenas docte, Cratino | nulla placere diu nee vivere carmina possunt | quae scribuntur aquae potoribus." 'Aquae potoribus* here is paralleled by and opposed to 'vinosus,' that is, 'vmi po tores.' So the 'male sanos' of verse 3 indicates a permanent state, and "vina fere dulces oluerunt mane Camenae," denotes a continued habit also. The various elements, then, the stem on which the adjective is formed, the noun limited, and the more remote context, must in each instance be examined before the exact interpretation of an adjective termination is attempted. CHAPTER I. 6. THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY OF oso AND lento . Oso (or where words of that termination may be used lento ) may mean : I. 'Causing/ "lacrimoso non sine fumo | udos cum foliis ramos urente camino." Hor., Serm. I, 5, 80. "caepis omnibus odor lacrimosus." Pliny, N. H., XIX, 6, 32. It may be noticed here that both noun limited and stem are required to determine fully the causative force, "et scopulos lacrimosis vocibus implent."* Verg., Aen., XI, 274. Here the causative force is not so distinctly felt. The reason is, that there is nothing which absolutely defines it. The cries may 'cause tears,' or be ' accompanied by tears,' or both, "finis vitae eius nobis luctuosus, amicis tristis, extraneis non sine cura fuit." Tac., A., XLIII, I. "aurum autem et argentum in urbibus et privatim et in focis invidiosa res est." Cic., L., II, 45. "damnosus pecori curris, damnosir oagris." Ov., Am., Ill, 6, 99. Ovid is speaking of a river. 'Causing* is of course recognized as an active meaning of oso . It may not be so generally recognized that an adjective usually passive becomes active upon being used with a suitable noun. " ut Terentiam unam omnium aerumnosissimam sustentes tuis ofiiciis." Cic., A., Ill, 23, 5. "si . . . nee tarn aerumnoso navigavissem salo." Cic., T., Ill, 67. For a complete definition of causative force by more remote context and contrast the following example will suffice: "sine virtute certe, nullo modo; virtus autem actuosa, et deus vester * It is interesting to note here a Sanskrit parallel to ' lacrimosis vocibus ' : "tato bdspdkuldm vdcam Damayantl . . . pratydharanfi." MBh., Ill, 2177, "then Damayanti uttering a tearful voice." In Sanskrit the termination dkula is regularly used with nouns as here with 'bdspa,' 'tear' to form ad- jectives. It is one of the many adjective-forming elements that will be noted as parallel to oso . 6 SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO- AND -LENTO-. 7 nihil agens." Cic., N., I, no. The contrast with 'nihil agens' determines the active force of oso beyond any doubt. II. 'Suffering,' the passive meaning is also very common.* "non patitur hominem calamitosum uno malo adflictum uno in luctu perire." Cic., Sulla, 91. But with a different noun an active meaning may occur: "sed vis calamitosa est quam illis intulerunt." Cic., Phil., XIV, 9. "accipe, aerumnosam et miseriarum compotem mulierem retines." Plaut., Epid, 559. III. 'Fraught with.' "Video quanta et quam periculosa quaestio . . . temptetur." Cic. Cluent., 157. "exercitum novo periculoso itinere inter exteras gentesduceret." Livy, XLIII, I. The question here arises, why translate 'fraught with' rather than 'causing'? The answer is, that the 'iter' does not neces- sarily cause 'periculum' but may do so. So in "morbi per- niciosiores pluresque sunt animi quam corporis." Cic., T., Ill, 5. The 'morbi' of the mind do not necessarily cause 'pernicies,' but may. This meaning is borne out in "post ludos contiones sedit-iosae tribunorum plebis fuerunt, obiurgantium multitudi- nem." Livy, IV, 35, 5. "Unde seditiosa colloquia et inter paganos corruptior miles." Tac., I, 53. 14. "per conciliabula . . . seditiosa disserebant de continuatione tributorum." Tac., 3, 40, 10. "sive culpa sive infelicitate imperatorum tarn igno- miniosa clades accepta esset." Livy, V., 9, I. IV. ' Mixed with.'f " (aes) fit et e lapide aeroso, quam vocant * Aulus Gellius (IX, 12) pointed out the difference between the active and passive force of oso , but did not indicate what made the difference: "ut ' f ormidolosus ' dici potest et qui formidat et qui formidatur, ut 'invidiosus' et qui invidet et cui invidetur, ut ' suspiciosus ' et qui suspicatur et qui sus- pectus est, ut.'ambitiosus' et qui ambit et qui ambitur, ut item 'gratiosus' et qui adhibet gratias et qui admittit, ut 'laboriosus' et qui laborat et qui labori est, ut pleraque alia huiuscemodi in utramque partem dicuntur, ita 'infestus' quoque ancipiti significatione est. nam et is 'infestus' appellatur, qui malum infert cuipiam, et contra cui aliunde impendet malum, is quoque 'infestus' dicitur." t From the Rig Veda two different compounds have been chosen to illus- trate the meaning of oso , 'mixed with.' They are "srita,' past participle of the verb 'Sri,' 'to mix'; and 'sakhi,' 'friend,' or 'companion.' The stem on which the adjective is formed is in each instance 'go,' 'cow,' but here used 8 THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND cadmean." Pliny, XXXIV, 2. " (aurum) aerosum contrahit se, hebetaturque et difficulter feruminatur." id., XXXIII, 29. "tantum nivosae grandinis deiecit ut omnibus omissis procum- berent homines tegminibus suis magis obruti quam tecti." Livy, XXI, 58. V. 'Living in' is justified by "tu mihi iuratus per numina matris aquosae." Ovid., Her., 3, 53. Briseis is speaking to Achilles, and Thetis is 'aquosa.' "ille paludosos memoret servire Sicambros.' Prop., IV, 6, 77. VI. 'Growing in.' "fortunate senex, ergo tua rura manebunt et tibi magna satis, quamvis lapis omnia nudus limosoque palus obducat pascua iunco." Verg., Eel., I, 48. 'iuncus limosus' means 'the rush that grows in the marsh.' It may be worth noticing that here again the shift of meaning is quickly marked upon a change of the noun limited, "neque figi limosa humo poterant (aquilae)." Tac., i, 65, 20. To get the meaning 'growing in' two things are required, (i) a noun limited, meaning some sort of plant, (2) a stem for the osus adjective that shall mean soil, or ground. Presumably adjec- tives like ' montosus ' or ' iugosus ' in that sense might be expected to supply an example, but none have been found. "tu modo duritiam silvis depone iugosis." Ov., Her., 4, 85. "quis probet in silvis Cererem regnare iugosis." id., Am., I, 1,9. In these examples the emphasis is rather such as to make the correct translation 'hilly woods,' or 'hills and woods.' Here can be plainly seen the fact that oso is practically a function of the adjective stem and the noun limited. VII. 'Clear as.' " crystallusque meas ornet aquosa manus." Prop., IV., 3, 52. in the special sense of 'milk.' " gosritd matsara ime somdsah," "the soma- drinks mixed with milk are maddening." R. V., I, 137, i. Also "somam pibati gosakhdyam," ib., V, 37, 4. "he drinks soma mixed with milk." There is a quite different use of 'gosakhi' in " stotd me gosakhd sydt," R. V., VIII, 14, I, "my worshipper would be rich in cows." For this meaning of 'gosakhi' no precise parallel has been found in Latin, for ' pecorosus ' has not been found limiting a word meaning a person. On the other hand, 'pecuniosus' is usually used with such words, and thus has been found to mean only 'possessing money,' as 'gosakhi' here means 'possessing cows.' SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO- AND -LENTO-. 9 The gem 'crystallus' is clear as water. A case like this gives a good opportunity to point out the fact that in all instances where the stem of an adjective denotes some substance that has several qualities of equal or nearly equal prominence, some one quality forms the tertium quid comparationis between the stem of the adjective and the noun limited. Which quality this shall be is in each instance deter- mined, so far as has been observed, by the noun limited. Water is wet, fluid, unstable, and numerous other things. None of these qualities has anything to do with a gem. Water is also theoretically clear; this clearness furnishes the bridge from the idea of gem to that of water. (See examples under 'ventosus* below.) VIII. 'Round as,' as is found in globosus. Here the quality of roundness in 'globus' is so marked that this meaning is the only one met with, "quae (mundi volubili- tas) in globosa forma esse non posset." Cic., N., II, 49. "et globosum (i. e. mundum) est fabricatus quod (7v>eupoei6es Graeci vocant." id., Tim., 17. "terra solida et globosa et undique ipsa in sese nutibus suis conglobata." id., N., II, 98. "quae (stellae) globosae et rotundae . . . circulos suos orbesque conficiunt celeritate mirabili." id., R., VI, 15. "globosos turbines | exis- tere istos undis concursantibus." id., N., II, 89. " scilicet esse globosa (corpora) tamen cum squalida constant | provolvi simul ut possint et laedere sensus." Lucr., II, 469. In every case the tertium quid comparationis is the same the roundness of the 'globus.' This is the dominant quality. IX. 'Provided with.'* * Some Sanskrit parallels to such words as ' pecuniosus ' or ' copiosus ' may be noted here. The word 'dhana,' 'wealth,' is used with the terminations vat, in, and stha (the latter a verbal from the root stha), in suitable contexts without any difference in semantic content. MBh., 12, 3331, "angam etan mahad rajye, dhanino ndma, bhdrata." "This is a great thing in a state, rich people namely." The passage continues, "kakudam sarvabhutanam dhanastho, na'tra samsayah," "Top of all creatures is the rich man, no doubt." 1 Dhanasthah ' here equals 'dhaninah' above except, of coufrse, for the difference in number. Further, M., 40, 3, 40, speaking of sons " dhanavanto, yafasvinah . . . dharmisthd jivanti ca iatam samah," "Wealthy, glorious, law-abiding, and who live a hundred years." Here ' dhanavantah' is equivalent to 'dhani- nah' and 'dhanasthah 1 above. There seems not much difference between 10 THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND "oppido longe maximo ac copiossimo." Caes., B. G., I, 23. "L. Memmius, numquid copiosior, cum copiosissimam urbem funditussustulisset?" Cic., O., II, 76. "Antiochae, . . . celebri quondam urbe et copiosa." id., Arch., 3. "mercatura, si tenuis est, sordida putanda est; sin magna et copiosa, . . . videtur iure Optimo posse laudari." id., O., I, 151. It is interesting to note how by a change of noun limited 'copiosus' becomes a quite different word. "vestra oratio in causis . . . potest esse vehemens et gravis et copiosa." Cic., D., I, 80. "Quos . . . Gn. Pompeius copiosa oratione et gravi secum . . . contendere iubebat." id., Balb., 59. "ilia elegantissima viri Crassi copiosa magis quam sapiens oratio 'eripite nos ex servitute.'" P., V, 41. To a theorist who looked for a bridge across the gap, it might be interesting to note such examples as: "mihi, non copioso homini ad dicendum." Cic., Caecen., 64. Here the 'ad di- cendum' takes the meaning of 'eloquent' out of 'copiosus,' and leaves it 'well provided' or some such meaning. It would be easy to leave out 'ad dicendum,' and put the whole force of the meaning ' eloquent ' into ' copiosus.' The change would be similar to that which takes place when 'sermo' absorbs all the force of 'sermo religiosus.' A second example is "quorum Graecorum copiosior est lingua quam nostra." A well-equipped tongue must be eloquent. To determine the historical development of meaning here would require a detailed semantic study of ' copiosus ' beyond the limits of this article. 'Opulentus' has this meaning usually, "cum ad praedam opulentissimae gentis ire vidissent." Livy, XL, 57. "urbs maxima opulentissimaque Italiae." id., VII, 31. "virtute ac dis volentibus magni estis et opulenti." Sal., Jug., 14. "qui ignoratione virtutis . . . opulentos homines et copiosos . . . esse optimos putant." Cic., R., I, 51. Note here the content of copiosus is determined by opulentus. X. 'Subject to.' "dicimus gravedinosos quosdam, quosdam torminosos, non quia iam sunt, sed quia saepe." Cic., T., IV, 27. these words and mahadhana' in R., II, 36, 3, "vanijaS ca mahddhandh," "and rich merchants." SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO- AND -LENTO-. 11 The phrase 'non quia iam sunt, sed quia saepe' shows that ' gravedinosus ' and ' torminosus ' are here used of those who sometimes have, but are not necessarily at the time of speaking afflicted with, the diseases in question. XL 'In need of.' This is the obvious meaning of oso in "senex hie elleborosus est certe," Plaut., Most., 952, and of "quaeso, sanus es? elleborosus sum," id., Rud., 1005-6. He who is insane needs hellebore for his cure. XII. 'Celebrated in.' This is the meaning of oso in "Ulixem quidem opinantur longo illo et fabuloso errore in hunc Oceanum delatum." Tac., G., III. So also in "vel quae loca fabulosus | lambit Hydaspes." Hor., Carm., I, 22, 7. And in "me fabulosae Vulture in Apulo | . . . palumbes." id., Ill, 4,9- The wanderings of Ulysses, the river Hydaspes, and the doves, are all 'celebrated in story.' That there is any difference in semantic content between oso in 'fabulosus' and in 'famo- sus' (see XIII below), is, in the examples quoted, due to the stems. In 'fabula' there is, in the instances given, some of the verbal force of 'fari' which is absent in 'fama.' A thing is not 'celebrated in' 'fama,' the 'fama' is itself the celebration. It is by careful examination of examples such as these that the slight and almost indefinable psychological differences that determine the content of verbal symbols can be best seen. XIII. 'Known to.' "famosam veneficiis Martinam." Tac. 3, 7. "Placentiae, famosam mulierem, cuius amore deperiret in convivium accersitam scribit." Livy, XXXIX, 43. "eaque velut censura in Sariole- num Voculam et Nonium Actianum et Cestium severum acerrime incubuit crebris apud Neronem delationibus famosos." Tac., IV, 41 . "quod moechus foret aut sicarius aut alioqui | famosus." Hor., Serm., I, 4, 5. "tandem nequitiae fige modum tuae | famosisque laboribus." id., Car., Ill, 15, 3. XIV. 'Composed of.' "dives curalio fragili et lacrimoso electro." Verg., Cir., 434. Here according to the story the electrum was made of the tears of Phaethon's sisters. 12 THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND "verbera pellitus saetosa movebat arator." Prop., IV, I, 25. The whips used at the Lupercalia were hair whips. ! 'non pudet herbosum ' dixi ' posuisse moretum.' ' Ov., Fast., IV, 367. XV. 'Fond of, addicted to.' This meaning is found in 'vinosus,' 'virosus,' 'mulierosus.' "sit quoque vinosi Teia Musa senis." Ov., Ar. Am., Ill, 330. "cur anus hoc faciat, quaeris? vinosior aetas | haec erat." id., Fast. Ill, 765. "laudibus arguitur vini vinosus Homerus." Hor., Epist., I, 19, 6. " virosa non sum, et si sum non desunt mihi qui ultro dent." Afranius, Divortium, VIII. " hunc (Stilponem) scribunt ipsius familiares et ebriosum et mulierosum fuisse." Cic., Fa., 10. "homo mulie- rosus confert me alio ilico." Afranius, Vopsicus, XVI. " addidit (mulierosum) esse Socratem." Cic., Fa., 10. "memini quae plagosum mihi parvo | Orbilium dictare." Hor., Epist., II, I, 70. It may be worth noting here as an instance of the semantic field to which some adjectives are limited by the stem, that in general none of the adjectives in XV (or XVI) is used except with a word denoting a person or persons ; and of course ' virosus ' is used to limit some woman's name, or might be used of a collective noun meaning women; while mulierosus applies only to men.* XVI. 'Under the influence of.' Where ' vinosus ' is used of one actually intoxicated, it has the definite semantic content given here. Hor. Ep. I, 13, 14, may be quoted here as it is only the name Pyrrhia that is in doubt, and the meaning of ' vinosa ' is plain: "ne forte sub ala | fascicu- lum portes librorum ut rusticus agnum | ut vinosa glomus furtivae Pyrrhia lanae." So lento in ' vinolentus ' and 'temulentus ': " haec utrum esse vobis consilia siccorum an vinolentorum . . . vi- dentur?" Cic. Leg. Agr., I, i. "cum in publico epulatus rever- teretur domum temulentus, prosequentibus mollibus viris." Livy, XXXIII, 28. The man comes home drunk. The definite semantic content is given by the whole setting. "Vitellius . . . medio diei temulentus et sagina gravis." Tac., I, 62, 8.f * Sanskrit parallels 'mulierosus' with a compound of ' strV 'a woman,' and 'kdma,' 'passion.' T.S., 6.1.6.5, " strikdmd vdi Gandharvdh," "the Gandharvas are fond of women." f Fay's etymology of ' vinolentus,' K. Z., 1912, has been noted but is not of SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO- AND -LENTO-. 13 "vocem Claudii, quam temulentus iecerat, . . . metuens." Tac., 12, 64. "Vitellius ... ad omnis nuntios . . . trepidus, dein temulentus." id., Ill, 56, 8. "visa inter temulentos arma cupidinem sui movere." id., I, 80, 8. Enough examples have been given to show the specific meaning of "under the influence of liquor*' attached to temulentus. "pressa voce et temulenta." Cic., sen., 13. Here 'te- mulentus ' is simply a transferred epithet. XVII. 'Prone to/ "ego P. Claudium arbitror . . . civem . . . libidinosum." id., Phil., VIII, 1 6. "cum te . . . tyrannum libidinosum . . . praebueris." id., Verr., I, 82. "libidinosa et intemperans adulescentia effetum corpus tradit senectuti." id., C., 29. " Carthaginienses fraudulent! et mendaces non generesed natura loci." id., Leg. Agr., II, 95. "malitiosum? non negas. fraudu- lentum? iam id quidem arrogas tibi et praeclarum putas." id., Quint., 56. In the examples given here the persons concerned are not at any particular moment specified under the influence of passion or perpetrating any fraud ; but they are inclined to act under the influence of passion or fraud or deceit as the case may be. XVIII. 'Afflicted with.' " podagrosi estis, ac vicistis cochleam tarditudine." PL, Poen., 532. "sed tamen podagrosis pedibus essel; Eutychus." id., Merc., 595. "insomnis siquis est vel seniosus, hac eadem curatione sanum fades." Cato, R. R., 157, 8. "est limus salivae sub lingua rabiosi canis." Plin., XXIX, 5, 32. "nam dudum uxorem aiebat rabiosam canem." Plaut., Men., 936. "hac rabiosa fugit canis, hac lutulenta ruit sus." Hor., Epist., II, 2, 75. "Hegio istic homo rabiosus habitus est in Aulide." Plaut., Capt., 547. In each of these examples it is to be noted that to get the meaning 'afflicted with* two things are necessary: first, a stem for the adjective denoting some kind of disease; second, some noun limited which must be affected by the disease. importance for this discussion. There is further an interesting parallel in Sanskrit for these 'vinum' words, which will be noticed in chapter II of this thesis under the termination biba. 14 THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND In IX above ' gravedinosus ' means, as was pointed out above, 'subject to' and the exact semantic content was defined by the context. So here "vicistis cochleam tarditudine" makes it clear that the person addressed is laboring under the disease at that very time. XIX. There is a shift of meaning to 'diseased in' (sc. spleen) in 'lienosus.' This fact is of course due to the change of the stem from the name of the disease (XVIII) to the name of the organ diseased, "sicut Pyrrho regi pollex in dextro pede cuius tactu lienosis medebatur." Plin., N. H., VII, 20. XX. 'As tough as.' "haec fert in Aegypto Syriaque . . . lignosum fructum, maiorem galla, asperum tactu." Plin., XXIV, 42. "sylvestri folia elelisphaci, alta, ramis lignosis." id., XXV, 73. In the first case 'lignosum' must mean 'tough as wood,' because toughness is what is always thought of when fruit is spoken of as woody. In the second case the meaning is clear; the branches of the shrub are like wood in consistency, not soft or pithy. XXI. 'Near.' "callais sappirum imitatur, candidior, et litoroso mari similis." Plin., XXXVII, 10, 56. This is a peculiarly good instance of the exact delimitation of semantic content by the limited noun and the remoter context. 'Litorosum mare' might mean "a sea with a shore," though this would be a rather pointless phrase; the callais is a precious stone, the turquoise; it is like sapphire, but clearer and like the sea the sea 'with a shore' is an impossible meaning and the meaning must be 'near the shore.' XXII. 'Open, or exposed to.' This is a common meaning of ventosus. " ubi satis foderis turn fornaci locum facito, uti quam altissima et quam minime ventosa siet." Cato, R. R., XXXVIII, 3. "terra umidior qua Gallias, ventosior qua Noricum aspicit." Tac., G., V, 3. "et est ven- tosissima regio inter Cyclades." Livy, XXXVI, 43. "stabula idoneo loco ut sint, ne ventosa, quae spectent magis ad orientem." Varro, R. R., II, 2, 7. "nam loca declarat sursum ventosa patere." Lucr., VI, 468. SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO- AND -LENTO-. 15 XXIII. 'Tossed by.' In some cases 'ventosus' used with a noun denoting the sea means more than 'open to'; "qui mare temperat | ventosum." Hor. Carm., Ill, 4, 46. Here the exact definition comes through 'temperat.' "aut ubi ventosum super- aris naufragus aequor." Ovid, Ibis, 593. Here 'naufragus' requires a stronger term than 'open to' in 'ventosus.' XXIV. 'Fickle as.' "pars altera regiae adulationis erat quos aes alienum et despe- ratio rerum suarum eodem manente statu praecipites ad novanda omnia agebat; quosdam ventosum ingenium quia Perseus magis aurae popularis erat." Livy, XLII, 30. "non ego ventosae plebis suffragia venor." Hor., Epist., I, 19, 37. "Romae Tibur amem ventosus Tibure Romam." id., I, 8, 12. "extraordi- narium imperium populare ac ventosum est." Cic., Phil., XI, 17. XXV. 'Swift as.'* "primaque ventosis palma petetur equis." Ovid., Fasti, IV. 392. "idem non frustra ventosas addidit alas." Prop., II, 12, 5. The combination of swiftness and fickleness may be found in "tu levis es, multoque tuis ventosior alis." Ovid, Am., II, 9, 49. The reference is to Cupid, and he is fickle, while the wings are swift. It might seem an easy thing to find such shifts of the tertium quid comparationis in words like 'ventosus' which combine several qualities of about equal prominence; but ex- amples have not been forthcoming. The four meanings of 'ventosus' given above are worthy of notice. Each one is carefully limited by stem and noun. 'Swift- ness' and 'fickleness' are more peculiarly thought of as inherent in the stem 'vento'; because these are qualities belonging to wind. Yet here the fact that with a change of context the content changes, shows clearly that both factors stem and noun limited must be taken into consideration. So with the meaning 'tossed by,' or 'open to.' Sea and land cannot put these contents into oso without a proper stem for the ad- * Sanskrit parallels 'ventosus equus' by a construction in which 'ventosus' is represented by a compound 'vata,' 'wind,' and 'vdja,' 'swiftness.' MBh., 3, 2898, "haya vatavajdh," "wind-swift horses." The word ' valavega,' com- posed of 'vdta' and 'vega,' 'swiftness,' is usually the name of a hero, but in MBh., 5, 3595, is used as an epithet of Garuda. 16 THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND jective. The sea may be tossed by the wind, but there must be wind to toss it; and 'mare litorosum' gives a quite different force to oso from 'mare ventosum.' So 'campus aquosus' gives a different content to oso from 'campus ventosus.' It may here be pointed out again, at the risk of repetition, that to impose any one general meaning on oso , or even on 'ventosus,' is a begging of the question. The general meaning, where it can be imposed, is imposed by the neglect of the dis- tinctive elements in any definite context. In particular in the case of such expressions as 'equus ventosus,' without the proper tertium quid comparationis, there is no possibility of correct interpretation. XXVI. 'Susceptible to, injured by.' "seritur autem semine melius quam radice aut surculo, semine quoque non sine negotio; plantaria transferuntur ... sic et Adonium . . . utrumque aestate : alsiosa enim admodum sunt, ut sole tamen nimio laedantur." Plin., XXI, 10, 34. Here the slips are liable to injury by either heat or cold, "stabulatur pecus melius ad hibernos exortus si spectat, quod est alsiosum." Varro, R. R., II, 3, 6. XXVII. ' Fit for.' "omnis autem aqua calida ideo quidem est medicamentosa." Vitr., 193,4. " haec avis scribitur (conchas) . . . evomere atque ita eligere ex eis quae sunt esculenta." Cic., N., II, 124. "in ea parte oris qua esculentis et potulentis iter natura patefecit." id. 141. In each instance the substances spoken of are fit for medicine, for food, or for drink as the case may be. XXVIII. 'Clothed in.' "pannosus vacuis aedilis Ulubris." Juv., X, 102. "paucis pannosis linea lanterna." Cic., A., IV, 3, 5. In these examples "pannosus" denotes "clothed in shabby garments." XXIX. 'Smelling of.'* "si ligno contigatur vas, adustum et fumosum fieri putant," *See Sanskrit parallel, R.V., I, 162, 15. "Agntr . . . dhumdgandhih," 11 Agni smelling of smoke." SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO AND -LENTO-. 17 i. e., defrutum. Plin., XVIII, 31, 74. "vestemque citrosam." Naev., I, 10. Baeh. Frag. Poet. Rom. (vid. Macr., 3, 19, 5.). XXX. 'Colored like/* "obrepsisti ad honores errore hominum, commendatione fumosarum imaginum, quarum simile habes nihil praeter colorem." Cic., Piso, I. XXXI. 'Full of.' This is the meaning most commonly given to oso in grammars and dictionaries. Yet oso denoting actual physical fulness is rare. The two following examples are perhaps as good as any to illustrate that meaning: "et in primis terram fac ut esse rearis | supter item ut supera ventosis undique plenam | speluncis, multosque lacus multasque lacunas | in gremio gerere et rupes, deruptaque saxa," Lucr., VI, 537. "alii ventosis follibus auras | accipiunt." Verg., Aen., VIII, 449. In the latter example, however, oso means rather 'contain- ing* than 'full of/ There are further very many instances in which by some ingenuity oso can be translated 'full of in some metaphorical sense. In Cic., N., I, 54, "quis enim non timeat . . . curiosum, et* plenum negotii deum?", oso is paralleled by ' plenus ' but ' plenus ' is here of course not physi- cal. There are, however, instances in which oso is tran- slated by commentators as ' full of ' where it seems hard to find a justification for the translation even though it be regarded as metaphorical. For instance, 'fabulosus' in Tac., G., V, 3, "ceterum et Ulixen quidam opinantur longo illo et fabuloso errore in hunc Oceanum delatum" is translated as 'full of legends/ But the 'error' is not full of legends in any sense, literal or figurative. If the phrase 'full of is to be used at all, it would be more proper to say that the legends are ' full of ' the 'error,' but the expression would never have occurred here, were it not for the preconceived notion that oso must in some fashion be connected with the adjective 'full.' *The following Sanskrit parallels are noted: MBh., 13, 3769. "dhumrd dhenuh" "smoke-colored cow." Here the suffix ra performs in Sanskrit the function performed in Latin by oso . ' Varna ' in Sanskrit means 'color'; and this word is added to dhilmra, which may already mean "smoke- colored," without any change of semantic content. MBh., 3, 16348, " rksandm dhiimravarnanam" "of the smoke-colored bears." 18 SEMANTIC VARIABILITY The consideration of the semantic variability of oso and lento might be extended. The difference of semantic content is great; and careful examination of all concrete instances of the occurrence of these terminations shows an almost infinite di- versity. The aim of the first part of this dissertation, however, is to set forth a number of examples in which the differences are clear and striking. It is not desirable to create differences where none exist, to force into wider divergence very minute differences which might offer some chance for discrimination in translation or, generally, to dwell too strongly on every slightest variation. To do this would lead to a separate statement of each of the three thousand odd examples. It is believed that the conclusion so far reached is, that it is useless to load oso , lento , or indeed any other termination, with a large and general meaning, and then try to force the suffix into that meaning in each particular instance of its occurrence; and that the true way to consider such a termination is as a transparent and fluid thing -that takes shape and color from its environment. CHAPTER II. 7- THE SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF oso AND lento . The first feature of comparison between case suffixes and adjective terminations lies in the fact that a variety of semantic content may be found in one suffix according to its context. The second is, that several terminations may be used with one and the same semantic content, also according to context. That is, there are many contexts where the necessary content is simply forced upon the termination. The result is then, that any termination in such context must have the required meaning. The number of suffixes that thus clearly interchange with oso and lento is, as far as has been discovered in this investiga- tion, fourteen; to which has been added one example wherein the prefix in equals oso . This identity of semantic content may be seen most clearly where the same stem uses two or more terminations with the same or a similar noun limited. Equivalence may be shown in those instances where one stem confines itself to one termination, while a similar stem uses a different termination with the same or a similar noun limited. Examples of each kind are considered valid for the purpose of demonstrating parallelism with case suffix phenomena, and are used indifferently wherever con- venient. 8. The following terminations are used with semantic content equivalent to that of oso as illustrated in the parallel passages quoted. I. bili. "nee vero dubito quin exitiosum bellum impendeat." Cic. f A., IX, 9, 2. "bellum terra et mari comparat, non iniustum ille quidem, sed cum pium, turn etiam necessarium, suis tamen civibus exitiabile, nisi vicerit, calamitosum, etiamsi vicerit." id., A., X, 4, 3. 19 20 THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND These two examples go well together. There is no difference between 'bellum exitiosum' and 'helium exitiabile.' The termination bill is often regarded as a passive termination; add it to a stem 'exitio,' and use it to limit a noun 'bellum,' and it can no more retain a passive force than wax in a mould can retain an independent shape. So in the second example though 'calamitas' and 'exitium' are words of the same general type, and though 'exitiosus' is a good Ciceronian adjective, 'exit- iabile' is used to limit 'bellum' followed immediately after by 'calamitosum.' The only possible difference in the 'exitiabile' and 'exitiosum' quoted is that 'exitiabile' is followed by a dative. But 'exitiosum' may be followed by a dative also; as in "quibus a servis atque a servorum ducibus caedem fieri senatus et bonorum rei publicae exitiosum fuisset." Cic., Plane., 87. "bellum Hernumduris prosperum, Chattis exitiosius." Tac., 13, 57. "exitiosum ad versus veteranos proelium." id., I, 68. "(proelium) his, rursus illis exitiabile," id., Ill, 22. "exitia- bilem in suos, infensum rei publicae animum obiecit." id., 6, 24. "morbo exitiabili correptos." id., 16, 5. "quod reus . . . sibi exitiabile intellegit." id., 3, 15. "exitiabile id rei publicae, ingratum militi." id., II, 69. "exitiabilis superstitio." id., 15, 44. "quod maxime exitiabile tulere ilia tempora." id., 6, 7. "ne vana et reo non profutura, intercessori exitiosa inciperet." id., 16, 26. "nee cuiquam mortem Germanici exitiosam esse." id., 3, 8. "desererent regem saevum in pace et adversis proe- liorum exitiosum." id., 6, 36. "pestilentia gravis incidit in urbem, . . . quae tamen magis in morbos longos quam in pernici- abiles evasit." Livy, XXVII, 23. "pestilentia coorta minacior tamen quam perniciosior." id., IV, 52. "morbi perniciosiores pluresque sunt animi quam corporis." Cic., T., Ill, 5. The following examples are of bill and oso used on similar stems limiting the same noun or similar nouns. "quae (opiniones) honestae, quae laudabiles, quae gloriosae sint." Cic., F., II, 77. "quod tale . . . (est) id etiam glo- riosum, si vero gloriosum, certe laudabile; quod laudabile autem, prof ecto etiam honestum." id., T., V, 43. " quid habet ista res aut laetabile aut gloriosum." id., T, I, 49. SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO AND -LENTO-. 21 II. ri , li . "in quo genere omnia (i. e. animalia) magis exitialia si suum genus edere antequam noceant." Plin., Nat. Hist., X, 72, 93. ''perditae civitates, desperatis omnibus rebus hos solent exitus exitiales habere ut damnati in integrum restituantur, vincti solvantur, exules reducantur, res iudicatae rescindantur." Cic., Verr., II, 12. "pars stupet innuptae donum exitiale Minervae." Verg., Aen., II, 31. In each case there is an active meaning in the -alis adjective, as in 'exitiosus* and ' exitiabilis ' above. "erat forte brumae tempus et nivalis dies." Livy, XXI, 54. "insignis annus hieme gelida ac nivosa." id., V, 13. "maxime tamen curavit historiae fabularis notitiam." Suet., Tib., 70. "Marsyas amnis fabulosis Graecorum carminibus inclytus." Curt., Ill, I. "tuus videlicet salutaris consulatus, perniciosus meus." Cic., Phil., II, 15. "hie magna quaedam exoritur, neque ea naturalia sed artificiosa somniorum interpretatio." id., Div., I, 116. "duo enim genera divinandi esse dicebas, unum artificiosum, alterum naturale." id., II, 26. "ea genera divi- nandi, non naturalia sed artificiosa dicuntur." id., I, 72. III. eo , aceo , uceo . The word 'robustus* is used in the sense of 'oaken.' "eo capitulum robustum indito." Cato, R. R., 18. "robustam materiam." Col., 2,15. "robusto carcere." Plaut., Cure., 5, 692. "robusti caudices." Plin., XI, 37, 55. "robusta repa- gula." Ov. Met., V, 120. In the same sense are used "axibus roboreis." Col., VI, 19, i. id., VI, 30, 2. In these examples to is used in the orthodox sense of eo . "nascitur (smyrion) et in saxosis collibus et in terrenis." Plin., XXVII, 109. "gignuntur in sinu Adriatici maris, non procul a Timavo fonte, saxoso colle." id., XIV, 8. "phyllon a Graecis vocatur herba in saxosis collibus." id., XXVII, 100. "reliquae tres, quae orbem terrarum implevere fama, sane conspicuae undique adnavigantibus, sitae sunt in parte Africae monte saxeo sterilique inter Memphim oppidum et quod appellary diximus Delta." id., XXXVI, 16. "erat inter ceteram planitiem mons saxeus." 22 THE SEMANTIC VARIABILITY AND Sal., Jug., 92. In Ovid occur "sanguineus" and " sanguinolen- tus" with no distinction. "si manus haec aliquod posset commitere crimen, | morte foret dominae sanguinolenta meae." Her., XIV, 60. " sanguineaque manu crepitantia concutit arma." Met., I, 143. "haec san- guineum sucum emittit." Plin, N. H., XXV, 6, 32. "colores vinis quattuor, albus, fulvus, sanguineus, niger." id., XIV, 9, n. "ille color vere sanguinolentus erat." Ov., Am., I, 12, 12. The word 'spumeus' interchanges with 'spumosus.' "ad medicinae usus antiqui Tarentinum (sal) maxime lauda- bant, ab hoc quemcumque e marinis, ex eo genere spumeum prae- cipue." Plin., XXXI, 86. "(torrens) spumeus et fervens." Ov., Met., Ill, 571. "magna differentia et in coloresuci: san- guineus moris, cerasis, cornis, uvis nigris; idem albis candidus, lacteus in capite ficis, in corpore non item, spumeus malis, nullus Persicis, cum praesertim duracina suco abundent." Plin., XV, 28. " pauca cum (i.e. pulmonem) , ut dictum est, habent aquatilia, cetera ova parientia exiguum spumosumque nee sanguineum." id., XI, 188. "dant sonitum spumosi amnes et in aequora cur- runt." Verg., A., XII, 524. " (quid ferret aut) recusaret collis, quid campestris positio, quid cultus, quid silvester ager, quid hum- idus et graminosus, quid siccus et spurcus." Col., I, praef. 25. "hoc pius Aeneas misso certamine tendit | gramineum in cam- pum." Verg., Aen., V, 287. "pannosus vacuisaedilis Ulubris." Juv., X, 1 02. "dum ne deterius sapiat pannucia Baucis." Pers., IV, 21. "spelunca alta fuit, vastoque immanis hiatu | scrupea." Verg., A., VI, 238. "inde Aetnam montem advenio in scruposam specum." T. F. Pac. Niptra, VI. IV. estro. " palustribus locis atque uliginosis nati, habent ungulas molles." Varro, R. R., II, 8, 5. "(locis) montuosis . . . et silvestri- bus." Cic., Lael., 68. In this example one might naturally expect 'silvosis' instead of ' silvestribus ' ; both by analogy -with 'montuosis,' and because if the idea of 'abundance' so often said to belong to oso were really inherent in it, it would seem more appropriate that oso should be joined with 'silva' than with 'mons.' But Cicero has used the two ter- minations with no apparent difference. SEMANTIC EQUIVALENTS OF -OSO- AND -LENTO-. 23 "saltus duo alti angusti silvosique sunt." Livy, IX, 2. The following example repeated from the preceding section is too striking to be omitted here: "(quid ferret aut) recusaret collis, quid campestris positio, quid cultus, quid silvester ager, quid humidus et graminosus, quid siccus et spurcus." Col., I, praef., 25. In this example 'silva,' 'humor,' and 'gramen,' are used to form adjectives with the terminations respectively estro , do , and oso , all limiting the noun 'ager/ It would be impossible to find any difference in the semantic content of these terminations in the sentence quoted except such as is imposed upon them by the character of the stems to which they are attached, "a Cypselis via decem milium fere silvestris, angusta, confragosa excipiebat." Livy, XXXVIII, 40. V. undo , cundo , tundo . "quae (stellae) globosae et rotundae . . . circulos suos orbesque conficiunt celeritate mira- bili." Cic., R., VI, 15. "nee . . . hunc ipsum mundum pro certo rotundum esse dicitis." id., N., II, 48. " Epicurus dicit se non posse intellegere qualis sit volubilis et rotundus deus." id., N., II, 46. "(animantem) globosum (deus) .est fabricatus, quod