Q 
 
 181 
 
 C765s
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 Presented by Associated Electrical 
 Industrie, (Woolwich) Ltd from the 
 
 former Obach Library o f Siemens 
 Brothers & Co. Ltd Woolwich S.E.18.
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 THE NEW CHEMISTRY. Second Edition. With 
 
 Thirty-one Illustrations. 53. 
 
 Being Vol. IX. of the International Scientific Series. 
 For full particulars of which see list at end of Vol. 
 
 ' The science it contains is popular science in the best sense of the 
 term. The great ideas of modern chemistry are presented with 
 singular clearness and with very varied illustration.' LANCET. 
 
 "The book is a great absolute gain to scientific literature, and will 
 be read with like profit by the student and by the man of ripe 
 chemical knowledge, to whom it presents a complete picture of the 
 present state of chemical theories.' WESTMINSTER REVIEW. 
 
 ' Mr. Cooke's style is clear, his matter weighty, and his method 
 intelligible. , He bases his theories on the law of Avogadro respect- 
 ing molecules, and thence leads his hearers or readers on through 
 various easy steps to the very heights of the science of chemistry. ' 
 
 STANDARD.
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE 
 
 r.v 
 
 JOSIAH P. COOKE, JUN. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY IN HARVARD COLLEGE 
 
 An Addrest delivered Jul 
 
 of IiistruMitn^ii Chemistry at Harvai 
 
 HENRY S. KING & CO., LONDON 
 1876
 
 (All rights reserved)
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 You have come together this morning to begin 
 various elementary courses of instruction in chemis- 
 try and mineralogy. As I have 'been informed, 
 most of you are teachers by profession, and your 
 chief object is to become acquainted with the ex- 
 perimental methods of teaching physical science, 
 and to gain the advantages in your study which the 
 large apparatus of this university is capable of af- 
 fording. 
 
 In all this I hope you will not be disappointed. 
 You, as teachers, know perfectly well that success 
 must depend, first of all, on your own efforts ; but, 
 since the methods of studying Nature are so differ- 
 ent from those with which you are familiar in 
 literary studies, I feel that the best service I can 
 render, in this introductory address, is to state, as 
 clearly as I can, the great objects which should be 
 kept in view in the courses on which you are now 
 entering. 
 
 By your very attendance on these courses you 
 
 1288713
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 have given the strongest evidence of your appreci- 
 ation of the value of chemical studies as a part of 
 the system of education, and let me say, in the first 
 place, that you have not overvalued their import- 
 ance. The elementary principles and more con- 
 spicuous facts of chemistry are so intimately asso- 
 ciated with the experience of every-day life, and 
 find such important applications in the useful arts, 
 that no man at the present day can be regarded as 
 educated who is ignorant of them. Not to know 
 why the fire burns, or how the sulphur-trade affects 
 the industries of the world, will be regarded by the 
 generation of men among whom your pupils will 
 have to win their places in society, as a greater 
 mark of ignorance than a false quantity in Latin 
 prosody or a solecism in grammar. 
 
 Moreover, I need not tell you that physical 
 science has become a great power in the world. 
 Indeed, after religion, it is the greatest power of 
 our modern civilisation. Consider how much it 
 has accomplished during the last century toward 
 increasing the comforts and enlarging the intel- 
 lectual vision of mankind. The railroad, the steam- 
 ship, the electric telegraph, photography, gas lights, 
 petroleum oils, coal-tar colours, chlorine bleaching, 
 anaesthesia, are a few of its recent material gifts to 
 the world ; and not only has it made one pair of 
 hands to do the work of twenty, but it has so im- 
 proved and facilitated the old industries, that what 
 were luxuries to the fathers of our republic have 
 become necessities to our generation. 
 
 And when, passing from these material fruits, 
 you consider the purely intellectual triumphs 
 of physical science, such as those which have 
 been gained with the telescope, the microscope,
 
 THE BACONIAN METHOD. 
 
 and the spectroscope, you cannot wonder at the 
 esteem in which these branches of study are held 
 in this practical age of the world. 
 
 Now, these immense results have been gained 
 by the application to the study of Nature of a 
 method which was so admirably described by Lord 
 Bacon in his ' Novum Organon,' and which is now 
 generally called the experimental method. What 
 we observe in Nature is an orderly succession of 
 phenomena. The ancients speculated about these 
 phenomena as well as ourselves, but they contented 
 themselves with speculations, animating Nature 
 with the products of their wild fancies. Their 
 great master, Aristotle, has never been excelled in 
 the art of dialectics ; but his method of logic applied 
 to the external world was of very necessity an utter 
 failure. It is frequently said, in defence of the ex- 
 clusive study of the records of ancient learning, that 
 they are the products of thinking, loving, and hating 
 men, like ourselves, and it is claimed that the study 
 of science can never rise to the same nobility 
 because it deals only with lifeless matter. But 
 this is a mere play on words, a repetition of the error 
 of the old schoolmen. 
 
 Physical science is noble because it does deal 
 with thought, and with the very noblest of all 
 thought. Nature at once manifests and conceals an 
 Infinite Presence : Her methods and orderly suc- 
 cessions are the manifestations of Omnipotent Will ; 
 Her contrivances and laws the embodiment of 
 Omniscient Thought. The disciples of Aristotle so 
 signally failed simply because they could see in 
 Nature only a reflection of their idle fancies. The 
 followers of Bacon have so gloriously succeeded 
 because they approached Nature as humble stu-
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 dents, and, having first learned how to question 
 Her, have been content to be taught and not sought 
 to teach. The ancient logic never relieved a moment 
 of pain, nor lifted an ounce of the burden of human 
 misery. The modern logic has made a very large 
 share of material comfort the common heritage of 
 all civilised men. 
 
 In what, then, does this Baconian system con- 
 sist ? Simply in these elements : i. Careful obser- 
 vation of the conditions under which a given phe- 
 nomenon occurs ; 2. The varying of these conditions 
 by experiments, and observing the effects produced 
 by the variation. We thus find that some of the con- 
 ditions are merely accidental circumstances, having 
 no necessary connection with the phenomenon, 
 while others are its invariable antecedent. Having 
 now discovered the true relations of the phenomenon 
 we are studying, a happy guess, suggested pro- 
 bably by analogy, furnishes us with a clue to the 
 real causes on which it depends. We next test our 
 guess by further experiments. If our hypothesis 
 is true, this or that must follow ; and, if in all points 
 the theory holds, we have discovered the law of 
 which we are in search. If, however, these necessary 
 inferences are not realised, then we must abandon 
 our hypothesis, make another guess, and test that 
 in its turn. Let me illustrate by two well* known 
 examples : 
 
 The, of old, universally accepted principle that 
 all living organisms are propagated by seeds or 
 germs (omnia ex ovo) has been seriously questioned 
 by a modern school of naturalists. Various ob- 
 servers have maintained that there were conditions 
 under which the lower forms of organic life were 
 developed independently of all such accessories,
 
 PASTEUR'S EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 but other, and equally competent naturalists, who 
 have attempted to investigate the subject, have ob- 
 tained conflicting results. 
 
 Thus it was observed that certain low forms of 
 life were quite constantly developed in beef-juice 
 that had been carefully prepared and hermetically 
 sealed in glass flasks, even after these flasks had 
 been exposed for a long time to the temperature of 
 boiling water. ' Here,' proclaims the new school, 
 ' is unmistakable evidence of spontaneous genera- 
 tion ; for, if past experience is any guide, all germs 
 must have been killed by the boiling water.' 'No,' 
 answer the more cautious naturalists, ' you have not 
 yet proved your point. You have no right to as- 
 sume that all germs are killed at this temperature.' 
 
 The experiments, therefore, were repeated under 
 various conditions and at different temperatures, 
 but with unsatisfactory results, until Pasteur, a dis- 
 tinguished French physicist, devised a very simple 
 mode of testing the question. He reasoned thus : 
 ' If, as is generally believed, the presence of invisible 
 spores in the air is an essential condition of the de- 
 velopment of these lower growths, then their pro- 
 duction must bear some proportion to the abundance 
 of these spores. Near the habitations of animals 
 and plants where the spores are known to be in 
 abundance, the development would be naturally at 
 a maximum, and we should expect that the growth 
 would diminish in proportion as the microscope in- 
 dicated that the spores diminished in the atmo- 
 sphere/ 
 
 Accordingly, Pasteur selected a region in the 
 Jura Mountains suitable for his purpose, and re- 
 peated the well-known experiment with beef-juice, 
 first at the inn of a town at the foot of the moun-
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 tains, and then at various elevations up to the bare 
 rocks which covered the top of the ridge, a height 
 of some 8,000 feet. At each point he sealed up 
 beef-juice in a large number of flasks and watched 
 the result. He found that while in the town the 
 animalcules were developed in almost all the flasks, 
 they appeared only in two or three out of a hundred 
 cases where the flasks had been sealed at the top 
 of the mountain, and to a proportionate extent in 
 those sealed at the intermediate elevations. What, 
 now, did these experiments prove ? Simply this, 
 that the development of these organic forms was 
 in direct proportion to the number of germs in the 
 air. It did not settle the question of spontaneous 
 generation, but it showed that false conclusions had 
 been deduced from the experiments which had been 
 cited to prove it 
 
 A still more striking illustration of the same 
 method of questioning Nature is to be found in the 
 investigation of Sir Humphry Davy on the compo- 
 sition of water. The voltaic battery which works 
 our telegraphs was invented by Volta in 1 800 ; and 
 later, during the same year, it was discovered in 
 London, by Nicholson and Carlisle, that this re- 
 markable instrument had the power of decompos- 
 ing water. These physicists at once recognised 
 that the chief products of the action of the battery 
 on water were hydrogen and oxygen gases, thus 
 confirming the results of Cavendish, who in 1781 
 had obtained water by combining these elementary 
 substances ; oxygen having been previously dis- 
 covered in 1775, and hydrogen at least as early as 
 1766. It was, however, very soon also observed 
 that there were always formed by the action of the 
 battery on water, besides these aeriform products,
 
 DAVYS EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 an alkali and an acid, the alkali collecting around 
 the negative pole and the acid around the positive 
 pole of the electrical combination. In regard to 
 the nature of this acid and alkali there was the 
 greatest difference of opinion among the early ex- 
 perimenters on this subject. Cruickshank supposed 
 that the acid was nitrous acid, and the alkali am- 
 monia. Desormes, a French chemist, attempted to 
 prove that the acid was muriatic acid ; while Brug- 
 natelli asserted that a new and peculiar acid was 
 formed, which he called the electric acid. 
 
 It was in this state of the question that Sir 
 Humphry Davy began his investigation. From 
 the analogies of chemical science, as well as from 
 the previous experiments of Cavendish and Lavoi- 
 sier, he was persuaded that water consisted solely 
 of oxygen and hydrogen gases, and that the acid 
 and alkali were merely adventitious products. This 
 opinion was undoubtedly well founded ; but, great 
 disciple of Bacon as he was, Davy felt that his 
 opinion was worth nothing unless substantiated by 
 experimental evidence, and accordingly he set him- 
 self to work to obtain the required proof. 
 
 In Davy's first experiments the two glass tubes 
 which he used to contain the water were connected 
 together by an animal membrane, and he found, 
 on immersing the poles of his battery in their re- 
 spective tubes, that, besides the now well-known 
 gases, there were really formed muriatic acid in one 
 tube and a fixed alkali in the other. Davy at 
 once, however, suspected that the acid and alkali 
 came from common salt contained in the animal 
 membrane, and he therefore rejected this material 
 and connected the glass tubes by carefully washed 
 cotton fibre : when, on submitting the water as
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 before to the action of the voltaic current, and con- 
 tinuing the experiment through a great length of 
 time, no muriatic acid appeared ; but he still found 
 that the water in the one tube was strongly alka- 
 line, and in the other strongly acid, although the 
 acid was, chiefly at least, nitrous acid. A part of 
 the acid evidently came from the animal mem- 
 brane, but not the whole, and the source of the 
 alkali was as obscure as before. 
 
 Davy then made another guess. He knew that 
 alkali was used in the manufacture of glass ; and it 
 occurred to him that the glass of the tubes, decom- 
 posed by the electric current, might be the origin 
 of the alkali in his experiments. He therefore 
 substituted for the glass tubes cups of agate, which 
 contains no alkali, and repeated the experiment, 
 but still the troublesome acid and alkali appeared. 
 Nevertheless, he said, it is possible that these pro- 
 ducts may be derived from some impurities exist- 
 ing in the agate cups, or adhering to them ; and 
 so, in order to make his experiments as refined as 
 possible, he rejected the agate vessels and procured 
 two conical cups of pure gold, but on repeating the 
 experiments the acid and alkali again appeared. 
 
 And now let me ask, who is there of us who 
 would not have concluded at this stage of the in- 
 quiry that the acid and alkali were essential pro- 
 ducts of the decomposition of water ? But not so 
 with Davy. He knew perfectly well that all the 
 circumstances of his experiments had not been 
 tested, and until this had been done he had no 
 right to draw such a conclusion. He next turned 
 to the water he was using. It was distilled water, 
 which he supposed to be pure, but still, he said, it 
 is possible that the impurities of the spring-water
 
 DAVY'S EXPERIMENTS. 13 
 
 may be carried over to a slight extent by the steam 
 in the process of distillation, and may therefore 
 exist in my distilled water to a sufficient amount 
 to have caused the difficulty. Accordingly he eva- 
 porated a quart of this water in a silver dish, and 
 obtained seven-tenths of a grain of dry residue. 
 He then added this residue to the small amount of 
 water in the gold cones and again repeated the 
 experiment. The proportion of alkali and acid 
 was sensibly increased. 
 
 You think he has found at last the source of the 
 acid and alkali in the impurities of the water. So 
 thought Davy, but he was too faithful a disciple of 
 Bacon to leave this legitimate inference unverified. 
 Accordingly he repeatedly distilled the water from 
 a silver alembic until it left absolutely no residue 
 on evaporation, and then with water which he 
 knew to be pure, and contained in vessels of gold 
 from which he knew it could acquire no taint, he 
 still again repeated the already well-tried experi- 
 ment. He dipped his test-paper into the vessel 
 connected with the positive pole, and the water was 
 still decidedly acid. He dipped the paper into the 
 vessel connected with the negative pole, and the 
 water was still alkaline. 
 
 You might well think that Davy would have 
 been discouraged here. But not in the least. The 
 path to the great truths which Nature hides often 
 leads through a far denser and a more bewildering 
 forest than this ; but then there is not infrequently 
 a blaze on the trees which points out the way, al- 
 though it may require a sharp eye in a clear head 
 to see the marks. And Davy was well enough 
 trained to observe a circumstance which showed 
 that he was now on the right path and heading 
 straight for the goal.
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 On examining the alkali formed in this last 
 experiment, he found that it was not, as before, a 
 fixed alkali, soda, or potash, but the volatile alkali, 
 ammonia. Evidently the fixed alkali came from 
 the impurities of the water, and when, on repeating 
 the experiment with pure water in agate cups or 
 glass tubes, the same results followed, he felt as- 
 sured that so much at least had been established. 
 There was still, however, the production of the 
 volatile alkali and of nitrous acid to be accounted 
 for. As these contain only the elements of air and 
 water, Davy thought that possibly they might be 
 formed by the combination of hydrogen at the one 
 pole and of oxygen at the other with the nitrogen 
 of the air, which was necessarily dissolved in the 
 water. In order, therefore, to eliminate the effect 
 of the air, he again repeated the experiment under 
 the receiver of an air-pump from which the atmos- 
 phere had been exhausted, but still the acid and 
 alkali appeared in the two cups. 
 
 Davy, however, was not discouraged by this, 
 for the blazes on the trees were becoming more 
 numerous, and he now felt sure that he was fast 
 approaching the end. He observed that the 
 quantity of acid and alkali had been greatly 
 diminished by exhausting the air, and this was all 
 that could be expected, for, as Davy knew perfectly 
 well, the best air-pumps do not remove all the 
 air. He therefore for the last experiment not 
 only exhausted the air, but replaced it with pure 
 hydrogen, and then exhausted the hydrogen and 
 refilled the receiver with the same gas several 
 times in succession, until he was perfectly sure 
 that the last traces of air had been, as it were, 
 washed out. In this atmosphere of pure hydro-
 
 EXPERIMENTAL REASONING. 15 
 
 gen he allowed the battery to act on the 
 water, and not until the end of twenty-four 
 hours did he disconnect the apparatus. He then 
 dips his test-paper into the water connected with 
 the positive pole, and there is no trace of acid ; 
 he dips it into the water at the negative pole, 
 and there is no alkali ; and you may judge 
 with what satisfaction he withdraws those slips of 
 test-paper, whose unaltered surfaces showed that 
 he had been guided at last to the truth, and that 
 his perseverance had been rewarded. 
 
 The fame of Sir Humphry Davy rests on his 
 discovery of the metals of the alkalies and earths 
 which first revealed the wonderful truth that the 
 crust of our globe consists of metallic cinders ; but 
 none of these brilliant results show so great scien- 
 tific merit or such eminent power of investigating 
 Nature as the experiments which I have just de- 
 tailed. I have not, however, described them here 
 for the purpose of glorifying that renowned man. 
 His honoured memory needs no such office at my 
 hands. My only object was to show you what is 
 meant by the Baconian method of science, and to 
 give some idea of the nature of that modern logic 
 which within the last fifty years has produced more 
 wonderful transformations in human society than 
 the author of Aladdin ever imagined in his wildest 
 dreams. In this short address I can of course give 
 you but a very dim and imperfect -idea 
 have called the 
 
 reasoning. Indeadfycvu- -cannot form any clear 
 ception of it, un/iL^some humble 
 attempted to use he method, each one 
 and you have co 
 quire such experief
 
 1 6 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 My object, however, will be gained if these 
 illustrations serve to give emphasis to the following 
 statements, which I feel I ought to make at the 
 opening of these courses of instruction state- 
 ments which have an especial appropriateness in 
 this place ; since I am addressing teachers who 
 are in a position to exert an important influence on 
 the system of education in this country. 
 
 In the first place, then, I must declare my con- 
 viction that no educated man can expect to realise 
 his best possibilities of usefulness without a practi- 
 cal knowledge of the methods of experimental 
 science. If he is to be a physician, his whole suc- 
 cess will depend on the skill with which he can use 
 these great tools of modern civilisation. If he is to 
 be a lawyer, his advancement will in no small mea- 
 sure be determined by the acuteness with which he 
 can criticise the manner in which the same tools 
 have been used by his own or his opponent's clients. 
 If he is to be a clergyman, he must take sides in 
 the great conflict between theology and science, 
 which is now raging in the world, and, unless he 
 wishes to play the part of the doughty knight Don 
 Quixote, and think he is winning great victories by 
 knocking down the imaginary adversaries which his 
 ignorance has set up, he must try the steel of his 
 adversary's blade. 
 
 Let me be fully understood. It is not to be ex- 
 pected or desired that many of our students should 
 become professional men of science. The places 
 of employment for scientific men are but few, and 
 more in the future than in the past they will natur- 
 ally be secured by those whom Nature has endowed 
 with special aptitudes or tastes usually the signs 
 of aptitudes to investigate her laws. That our
 
 TRUE AIMS OF STUDY. 
 
 country will always offer an honourable career to 
 her men of genius, we have every reason to expect, 
 and these born students of Nature will usually fol- 
 low the plain indications of Providence without en- 
 couragement or direction from us. 
 
 It is different, however, with the great body of 
 earnest students who are conscious of no special 
 aptitudes, but who are desirous of doing the best 
 thing to fit themselves for usefulness in the world ; 
 and I feel that any system of education is radically 
 defective which does not comprise a sufficient train- 
 ing in the methods of experimental science to make 
 the mass of our educated men familiar with this 
 tool of modern civilisation : so that when, hereafter, 
 new conquests over matter are announced, and 
 great discoveries are proclaimed, they may be able 
 not only to understand but also to criticise the 
 methods by which the assumed results have been 
 reached, and thus be in a position to distinguish 
 between the true and the false. Whether we will 
 or not, we must live under the direction of this 
 great power of modern society, and the only ques- 
 tion is, whether we will be its ignorant slave or its 
 intelligent servant. 
 
 In the second place, it seems fitting that I 
 should state to you what I regard as the true aims 
 to be kept in view in a course of scientific study, 
 and to give my reasons for the methods we have 
 adopted in arranging the courses you are about to 
 begin. 
 
 In our day there has arisen a warm discussion 
 as to the relative claims of two kinds of culture, 
 and attempts are made to create an antagonism 
 between them. But all culture is the same in 
 spirit. Its object is to awaken and strengthen the 
 B
 
 i8 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 powers of the mind ; for these, like the muscles of 
 the body, are developed and rendered strong and 
 active only by exercise ; while on the other hand 
 they may become atrophied from mere want of 
 use. Science culture differs in its methods from 
 the old classical culture, but it has the same spirit 
 and the same object. You must not, therefore, ex- 
 pect me to advocate the former at the expense of 
 the latter ; for, although I have laboured assiduously 
 during a quarter of a century to establish the 
 methods of science-teaching which have now be- 
 come general, I am far from believing that they 
 are the only true modes of obtaining a liberal 
 education. So far from this, if it were necessary 
 to choose one of two systems, I should favour the 
 classical ; and why ? 
 
 Language is the medium of thought, and can- 
 not be separated from it. He who would think 
 well must have a good command of language, and 
 he who has the best command of language I am 
 almost tempted to say will think the best. For this 
 reason a certain amount of critical study of language 
 is essential for every educated man, and such study 
 is not likely to be gained except through the great 
 ancient languages ; the advocates of classical 
 scholarship frequently say, cannot be gained. I 
 am not ready to accept this dictum ; but I most 
 willingly concede that in the present state of our 
 schools it is not likely to be gained. I never had 
 any taste myself for classical studies ; but I know 
 that I owe to the study a great part of the mental 
 culture which has enabled me to do the work that 
 has fallen to my share in life. 
 
 But while I concede to all this, I do not believe, 
 on the other hand, that the classical is the only
 
 CLASSICAL CULTURE. 19 
 
 effective method of culture ; you evidently do not 
 think so, for you would not be here if you did. But, 
 in abandoning the old tried method, which is known 
 to be good, for the new, you must be careful that 
 you gain the advantages which the new offers ; and 
 you will not gain the new culture you seek unless 
 you study science in the right way. In the classi- 
 cal departments the methods are so well established, 
 and have been so long tested by experience, that 
 there can hardly be a wrong way. But in science 
 there is not only a wrong way, but this wrong way 
 is so easy and alluring, that you will most certainly 
 stray into it unless you strive earnestly to keep out 
 of it. Hence I am most anxious to point out to 
 you the right way, and do what I can to keep you 
 in it ; and you will find that our courses and 
 methods have been devised with this object. 
 
 When advocating in our mother University of 
 Cambridge, in old England, the claims of scientific 
 culture, I was pushed with an argument which had 
 very great weight with the eminent English scho- 
 lars present, and which you will be surprised 
 to learn was regarded as fatal to the success of the 
 science triposes then under debate. The argument 
 was, that the experimental sciences could not be 
 made the subjects of competitive examinations. 
 Some may smile at such an objection ; but, as 
 viewed from the English standpoint, there was 
 really a great deal in it, and the argument brought 
 out the radical difference between scientific and 
 classical culture. 
 
 The old method of culture may be said to have 
 culminated in the competitive examinations of the 
 English universities. We have no such exami- 
 nations here. Success depends not simply on
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 knowing your subject thoroughly, but on having it 
 at your fingers' ends, and those fingers so agile that 
 they can accomplish not only a prodigious amount 
 of work in a short time, but can do this work 
 with absolute accuracy. For the only approach we 
 make to an experience of this kind, we must look 
 to our athletic contests. It may of course be 
 doubted whether the ability, once in a man's life, 
 to perform such mental feats, is worth what it costs. 
 Still it implies a very high degree of mental cul- 
 ture, and it is perfectly certain that the experi- 
 mental sciences give no field for that sort of mental 
 prize-fights. It is easy to prepare written exami- 
 nations which will show whether the students have 
 been faithful to their work, but they cannot be 
 adapted to such competitions as I have described 
 without abandoning the true object of science cul- 
 ture. The ability of the scientific student can only 
 be shown by long-continued work at the laboratory 
 table, and by his success in investigating the 
 problems which Nature presents. 
 
 We have here struck the true key-note of the 
 scientific method. The great object of all our 
 study should be to study Nature, and all our 
 methods should be directed to this one object. 
 This aim alone will ennoble our scholarship as 
 students, and will give dignity to our scientific 
 calling as men of science. It is this high aim, 
 moreover, which vindicates the worth of the mode 
 of culture we have chosen. What is it that en- 
 nobles literary culture, but the great minds which, 
 through this culture, have honoured the nations to 
 which they belong ? 
 
 The culture we have chosen is capable of even 
 greater things ; not because science is nobler than
 
 IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE. 
 
 art, for both are equally noble ; it is the thought, 
 the conception, which ennobles, and I care not 
 whether it be attained through one kind of exercise 
 of the mental faculties or another ; but we are 
 capable of grander and nobler thoughts than Plato, 
 Cicero, Shakspeare, or Newton, because we live in a 
 later period of the world's history ; when, through 
 science, the world has become richer in great ideas. 
 It is, I repeat, the great thought which ennobles, 
 and it ennobles because it raises to a higher plane 
 that which is immortal in our manhood. 
 
 If I have made my meaning clear, and if you 
 sympathise with my feelings, you will understand 
 why I regard culture as so important to the indi- 
 vidual and to the nation. The works of Shakspeare 
 and of Bacon are of more value to England to-day 
 than are the memories of Blenheim or Trafalgar ; 
 and those great minds will still be living powers 
 in the world when Marlborough and Nelson are 
 only remembered as historical names. 
 
 I therefore believe that it is the first duty of a 
 country to foster the highest culture, and that it 
 should be the aim of every scholar to promote this 
 culture both by his own efforts and his active in- 
 fluence. A nation can become really great in no 
 other way. We live in a country of great possi- 
 bilities ; and the danger is that, as with many men 
 I have known in college, of great potential abilities, 
 the greatness will end where it begins. The scholars 
 of the country should have but one voice in this 
 matter, and urge upon the Government and upon 
 individuals the duty of encouraging and supporting 
 mental culture for its own sake. 
 
 The time has passed when we can afford to 
 limit the work of our higher institutions of learning
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 to teaching knowledge already acquired. Hence- 
 forth the investigation of unsolved problems, and 
 the discovery of new truth, should be one of the 
 main objects at our universities, and no cost should 
 be grudged, which is required to maintain at 
 them the most active minds, in every branch of 
 knowledge, which the country can be stimulated to 
 produce. 
 
 I could urge this on the self-interest of the 
 nation as an obvious dictate of political economy. 
 I could say, and say truly, that the culture of 
 science will help us to develop those latent re- 
 sources of which we are so proud ; will enable us 
 to grow two blades of grass where one grew before; 
 to extract a larger per cent, of metal from our ores ; 
 to economise our coal, and in general to direct our 
 waiting energies so that they may produce a more 
 abundant pecuniary reward. I could tell of 
 Galvani studying for twenty long years, to no 
 apparent purpose, the twitching of frogs' hind-legs, 
 and thus sowing the seed from which has sprung 
 the greatest invention of modern times. Or, if our 
 Yankee impatience would be unwilling to wait half 
 a century for the fruit to ripen, I could point to the 
 purely theoretical investigations of organic chemis- 
 try, which in less than five years have revolu- 
 tionised one of the great industries of Europe, and 
 liberated thousands of acres for a more beneficent 
 agriculture. This is all true, and may be urged pro- 
 perly if higher considerations will not prevail. It is 
 an argument I have used in other places, but I will 
 not use it here ; although I gladly acknowledge the 
 Providence which brings at last even material fruits 
 to reward conscientious labour for the advancement 
 of knowledge and the intellectual elevation of man-
 
 CONDITIONS OF CULTURE. 
 
 kind. I would rather point to that far greater 
 multitude who have worked in faith for the love of 
 knowledge, and who have ennobled themselves and 
 ennobled their nation, not because they have added 
 to its material prosperity, but because they have 
 made themselves and made their fellows more 
 noble men. 
 
 I come back now again to the moral of all this, 
 to urge upon you, as the noblest patriotism and 
 the most enlightened self-interest, the duty of 
 striving for yourselves and encouraging in others 
 the highest culture in the studies you have chosen, 
 and this culture with one end in view to advance 
 knowledge. I am far, of course, from advising you 
 to grapple immaturely with unsolved problems, or, 
 when you have gained the knowledge with which 
 you can dare to venture from the beaten track, to 
 undertake work beyond your power. Many a 
 young scientific man has suffered the fate of Icarus 
 in attempting to soar too high. Moreover, I am 
 far from expecting that all or many of you will 
 ever have the opportunity of going beyond the 
 well-explored fields of knowledge ; but you can 
 all have the aim, and that aim will make your 
 work more worthy and more profitable to your- 
 selves. Every American boy cannot be President 
 of the United States, but if, as our English cousins 
 allege, he believes that he can be, the very belief 
 makes him an abler man. 
 
 We have dwelt long enough on these gene- 
 ralities, and it is time to come down to common- 
 places, and to inquire what are the essential 
 conditions of this scientific culture which shall fit 
 us to investigate Nature ; and the first thought 
 that occurs to me in this connection may be ex-
 
 24 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 pressed thus : Science presents to us two aspects, 
 which I may call its objective and its subjective 
 aspect Objectively it is a body of facts, which 
 ave have to observe, and subjectively it is a body 
 of truths, conclusions, or inferences, deduced from 
 these facts ; and the two sides of the subject should 
 always be kept in view. 
 
 I propose next to say a few words in regard to 
 each of these two aspects of our study, and in re- 
 gard to the best means of training our faculties so 
 as to work successfully in each sphere. First, then, 
 success in the observation of phenomena implies 
 three qualities at least, namely, quickness and sharp- 
 ness of perception, accuracy in details, and truth- 
 fulness ; and on its power to cultivate these qualities 
 a large part of the value of science, as a means of 
 education, depends. 
 
 To begin with the cultivation of our perceptions. 
 We are all gifted with senses, but how few of us use 
 them to the best advantage ! ' We have eyes and 
 see not ; ' for, although the light paints the picture 
 on the retina, our dull perceptions give no attention 
 to the details, and we retain only a confused 
 impression of what has passed before our eyes. 
 ' But how/ you may ask, ' are we to cultivate this 
 sharpness of perception ? ' I answer, only by 
 making a conscious effort to fix our attention on 
 the objects we study, until the habit becomes a 
 second nature. I have often noticed with sur- 
 prise, the power which uneducated miners fre- 
 quently possess, of recognising many minerals 
 at sight. This they have acquired by long ex- 
 perience and close familiarity with such objects, 
 and such power of observation is with them so 
 purely a habit that they are frequently unable to
 
 POWERS OF OBSERVATION. 25 
 
 state clearly the grounds on which their conclusions 
 are based. They recognise the minerals by what 
 in common language is called their looks, and they 
 notice delicate differences in the looks to which 
 most men are blind. It is, however, the business 
 of the scientific mineralogist to analyse these looks, 
 and to point out in what the differences consist; so 
 that by fixing his attention on these points the 
 student may gain, by a few hours' study, the power 
 which the miner acquires only after long ex- 
 perience. 
 
 The chief difficulty, however, which we find in 
 teaching mineralogy is, that the students do not 
 readily see the differences when they are pointed 
 out, or, if they see them, do not remember them 
 with sufficient precision to render their subsequent 
 observations conclusive and precise. This either 
 arises from a failure to cultivate the powers of ob- 
 servation in childhood, or the subsequent blunting 
 of them by disuse. Ladies will scout the idea 
 that a brooch of cut-glass is as ornamental as 
 one of diamond, and yet I venture to assert 
 that there is not one person in fifty, at least of 
 those who have not made a study of the sub- 
 ject, who can tell the difference between the 
 two. The external appearance depends simply 
 on what we call lustre. The lustre of glass is vit- 
 reous, that of the diamond adamantine, and..I.Ic. 
 of no other distinction which it is more difficult 
 students to recognise than this,,. Those^of you' who 
 study mineralogy will experience this 'difficulty, and 
 it can be overcome only by giving careful attention 
 to the subject. The teacher-can do nothing more 
 than put in your hands the specimens which 
 trate the point, and you must study these spec
 
 26 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 until you see the difference. It is a question of 
 sight, not of understanding, and all the optical 
 theories of the cause of the lustre will not help you 
 in the least toward seeing the difference between 
 diamond and glass, or anglesite and heavy spar. 
 
 Another illustration of the same fact is the con- 
 stant failure of students to distinguish by the eye 
 alone between the two minerals called copper-glance 
 and gray copper. There is a difference of colour 
 and lustre which, although usually well marked, it 
 requires an educated eye to distinguish. 
 
 Mineralogy undoubtedly demands a more care- 
 ful cultivation of the perceptions than the other 
 branches of chemistry ; but still you will find 
 abundant practice for close observation in them all. 
 I have often known students to reach erroneous 
 results in qualitative analysis by mistaking a white 
 precipitate in a coloured liquid for a coloured pre- 
 cipitate ; or by not attending to similar broad dis- 
 tinctions which would have been obvious to any 
 careful observer ; and so in quantitative analysis, 
 mere delicacy of touch or handling is a great 
 element of success. 
 
 But I must pass on to speak of the importance 
 in the study of Nature of accuracy in detail, which 
 is the second condition of successful observation of 
 which I spoke. We must cultivate not only accu- 
 racy in observing details, but also accuracy in fol- 
 lowing details which have been laid down by others 
 for our guidance. In science we cannot draw cor- 
 rect conclusions from our premises unless we are 
 sure that we have all the facts, and what seemed at 
 first an unimportant detail often proves to be the 
 determinating condition of the result ; and, again, 
 if we are told that under certain conditions a cer-
 
 TRUTHFULNESS IN WORK. 27 
 
 tain sign is the proof of the presence of a certain 
 substance, we have no right to assume that the sign 
 is of any value unless the conditions are fulfilled. 
 A black precipitate, for example, obtained under 
 certain conditions, is a proof of the presence of 
 nickel, but we cannot assert that we have found 
 nickel unless we have followed out those details in 
 every particular. 
 
 Of course, we must avoid empiricism as far as 
 we can. We must seek to learn the reasons of the 
 details, and such knowledge will not only render 
 our works intelligent, but will also frequently enable 
 us to judge how far the details are essential, and to 
 what extent our processes may be varied with safety. 
 We must also avoid trifling, and above all 'the 
 straining at a gnat and swallowing a camel,' as is 
 the habit with triflers. Large knowledge and good 
 judgment will avoid all such errors ; but, if we 
 must choose between fussiness and carelessness, 
 the first is the least evil. Slovenly work means 
 slovenly results, and habits of carefulness, neatness, 
 and order, produce as excellent fruits in the labora- 
 tory as in the home. 
 
 Last in order but first in importance of the 
 conditions of successful observation, mentioned 
 above, stands truthfulness. Here you may think 
 I am approaching a delicate subject, of which even 
 to speak might seem to cast a reproach. But not 
 so at all. I am not speaking here of conscious de- 
 ception, for I assume that no one who aspires to be 
 a student of Nature can be guilty of that. But I 
 am speaking of a quality whose absence is not 
 necessarily a mark of sinfulness, but whose pos- 
 session, in a high degree, is a characteristic of the 
 greatest scientific talent. As every lawyer knows,
 
 28 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 he is a rare man whose testimony is not coloured 
 by his interests, and a very large amount of self- 
 deception is compatible with conscious honesty of 
 purpose. 
 
 So among scientific students the power to keep 
 the mind unbiassed and not to colour our observa- 
 tions in the least degree, is one of the rarest, as it is 
 one of the noblest of qualities. It is a quality we 
 must strive after with all our might, and we shall 
 not attain it unless we strive. Remember, our ob- 
 servations are our data, and, unless accurate, every 
 thing deduced from them must have the taint of 
 our deception. We cannot deceive Nature, how- 
 ever much we may deceive ourselves ; and there is 
 many a student who would cut off his right hand 
 rather than be guilty of a conscious untruth, who 
 is yet constantly untruthful to himself. Every 
 year students of mineralogy present to me written 
 descriptions of mineral specimens which particula- 
 rise, as observed, characters that do not appear on 
 the specimens given them to determine, although 
 they may be the correct characters of some other 
 mineral. 
 
 There is usually no want of honesty in this, but, 
 deceived by some accident, the student has made a 
 wrong guess, and then imagined that he saw on the 
 specimen those characters which he knew from the 
 descriptions ought to appear on the assumed mineral. 
 So, also, it not unfrequently happens that a student 
 in qualitative analysis, who has obtained some hints 
 in regard to the composition of his solution, will 
 torture his observations until they seem to him to 
 confirm his erroneous inferences ; and again the 
 student in quantitative analysis, who finds out the 
 exact weight he ought to obtain, is often insensibly
 
 SUBJECTIVE ASPECT OF STUDY. 29 
 
 influenced by this knowledge in the washing and 
 ignition of his precipitate, or in some other way 
 and thus obtains results whose only apparent fault 
 may be a too close agreement with theory, but 
 which, nevertheless, are not accurate because not 
 true. It is evident how fatal such faults as these 
 must be to the investigation of truth, and they are 
 equally destructive of all scientific scholarship. 
 Their effect on the student is so marked, that 
 although he may deceive himself, he will rarely 
 deceive his teacher. That he should lose confi- 
 dence in his own results is, to the teacher, one of 
 the most marked indications of such false methods 
 of study, but the student usually refers his want of 
 success to any cause but the real one his own un- 
 truthfulness. He will complain of the teacher, or 
 of the methods of instruction, and may even per- 
 suade himself that all scientific results are as 
 uncertain as his own. As I have said, mere 
 ordinary truthfulness, which spurns any conscious 
 deception, will not save us from falling into such 
 faults. Our scientific study demands a much 
 higher order of truthfulness than this. We should 
 so love the truth above all price, as to strive for it 
 with single-hearted and unswerving purpose. We 
 must be constantly on our guard to avoid any 
 circumstance which would tend to bias our minds 
 or warp our judgments, and we must make the at- 
 tainment of the truth our sole motive guide and end. 
 It remains for me, before closing this address, 
 to say a few words on what I have called the sub- 
 jective aspect of scientific study. Science offers us 
 not only a mass of phenomena to be observed, but 
 also a body of truths which have been deduced 
 from these observations ; and, without the power
 
 30 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 of drawing correct inferences from the data ac- 
 quired, exact observations would be of little value. 
 I have already described the inductive method of 
 reasoning, and illustrated it by two noteworthy ex- 
 amples, and, in a humbler measure, we must apply 
 the same method in our daily work in the labora- 
 tory. We must learn how to vary our experiments 
 so as to eliminate the accidental circumstances, and 
 make evident the essential conditions of the pheno- 
 mena we are studying. Such power can only be 
 acquired by practice, and a somewhat long ex- 
 perience in active teaching has convinced me that 
 there is no better means of training this logical 
 faculty than the study of qualitative chemical 
 analysis in which many of you are to engage. 
 
 The results of the processes of qualitative ana- 
 lysis are perfectly definite and trustworthy ; but they 
 are only reached by following out the indications of 
 experiments which are frequently obscure, and even' 
 apparently contradictory ; reconciling by new ex- 
 periments the seeming discrepancies, and, at last, 
 having eliminated all other possible causes of the 
 phenomena observed, discovering the true nature 
 of the substances under examination. 
 
 The study of mineralogy affords an almost 
 equally good practice, although in a somewhat 
 different form. By comparing carefully many 
 specimens of the same mineral, you learn to dis- 
 tinguish the accidental from the essential characters, 
 and on this distinction you must base your infer- 
 ences in regard to the nature of the specimens you 
 may be called upon to determine. A single remark 
 occurs to me which may aid you in cultivating this 
 scientific logic. 
 
 Do not attempt to reason on insufficient data. 
 Multiply your observations or experiments, and,
 
 REASONING FACULTIES. 
 
 when your premises are ample, the conclusion will 
 generally take care of itself. Are you in doubt in 
 regard to a mineral specimen ? Repeat your obser- 
 vations again and again, multiply them with the 
 aid of the blow-pipe or goniometer, compare the 
 specimen with known specimens which it resembles, 
 until either your doubts are removed, or you are 
 satisfied that you are unequal to the task; and 
 remember that, in many cases, the last is the only 
 honest conclusion. 
 
 Are you in doubt in regard to the reactions of 
 the substance you are analysing, whether they are 
 really those of a metal you suspect to be present ? 
 Do not rest in such a frame of mind, and, above 
 all, do not try to remove the doubt by comparing 
 your experience with that of your neighbour : but 
 multiply your own experiments ; procure some 
 compound of the metal, and compare its reactions 
 with those you have observed, until you reach either 
 a positive or a negative result. 
 
 Remember that the way to remove your doubts 
 is to widen your own knowledge, and not to depend 
 on the knowledge of others. When your know- 
 ledge of the facts is ample, your inferences will be 
 satisfactory, and then an unexplained phenomenon 
 is the guide to a new discovery. Do not be dis- 
 couraged if you have to labour long in the dark 
 before the day begins to dawn. It will at last 
 dawn to you, as it has dawned to others before, 
 and, when the morning breaks, you will be satis- 
 fied with the result of your labour. 
 
 Moreover, I feel confident that such experience 
 will very greatly tend to increase your appreciation 
 of the value of scientific studies in training the 
 reasoning faculties of the mind. This, as every- 
 one must admit, is the best test of their utility in
 
 3 T. SCIENTIFIC CULTURE 
 
 a scheme of education, and it is precisely here that 
 I claim for them the very highest place. It has 
 generally been admitted that mathematical studies 
 are peculiarly well adapted to train the logical 
 faculties, but still many persons have main- 
 tained that, since the mathematics deal wholly 
 with absolute certainties, an exclusive devotion to 
 this class of subjects unfits the mind for weighing 
 the probable evidence by which men are chiefly 
 guided in the affairs of life. 
 
 But, without attempting to discuss this ques- 
 tion, on which much might be said on both sides, it 
 is certain that no such objection can be urged 
 against the study of the physical sciences if con- 
 ducted in the manner I have attempted to describe. 
 These subjects present to the consideration of the 
 student every degree of probable evidence, accus- 
 toming him to weigh all the evidence for or against 
 a given conclusion, and to reject or to provisionally 
 accept only on the balance of probabilities. More- 
 over, in practical science, the student is taught to 
 follow out a chain of probable evidence with care 
 and caution, to eliminate all accidental phenomena, 
 and supply, by experiment or observation, the 
 missing links, until he reaches the final conclusion 
 an intellectual process which, though based 
 wholly on probable evidence, may have all the force 
 and certainty of a mathematical demonstration. 
 
 Indeed, that highly-valued scientific acumen 
 and skill which enables the student to brush away 
 the accidental circumstances by which the laws of 
 Nature are always concealed until the truth stands 
 out in bold relief, is but a higher phase of the same 
 talent, which marks professional skill in all the 
 higher walks of life. The physician who looks
 
 BEAUTY OF NATURE. 33 
 
 through the external symptoms of his patient to 
 the real disease which lurks beneath ; the lawyer, 
 who disentangles a mass of conflicting testi- 
 mony, and follows out the truth successfully 
 to the end ; the statesman, who sees beneath the 
 froth of political life the great fundamental prin- 
 ciples which will inevitably rule the conduct of the 
 State, and thus foresees and provides for the coming 
 change ; the general, who discovers amid the con- 
 fusion of the battle-field the weak point of his 
 enemy's front : the merchant, even, who can inter- 
 pret the signs of the unsettled market employ 
 the same faculty, and frequently in not a much 
 lower degree, that discovered the law of gravita- 
 tion, and which, since the days of Newton, has 
 worked so successfully to unveil the mysteries of 
 the material creation. 
 
 Moreover, I hope that you will come to value 
 scientific studies, not simply because they cultivate 
 the perceptive and reasoning faculties, but also be- 
 cause they fill the mind with lofty ideals, elevated 
 conceptions, and noble thoughts. Indeed, I claim 
 that there is no better school in which to train the 
 aesthetical faculties of the mind, the tastes, and the 
 imagination, than the study of natural science. 
 The beauty of Nature is infinite, and the more we 
 study her works the more her loveliness unfolds. 
 The upheaved mountain, with its mantle of eternal 
 snow ; the majestic cataract, with its whirl and 
 roar of waters ; the sunset cloud, with its blending 
 of gorgeous hues, lose nothing of their beauty for 
 him who knows the mystery they conceal. On the 
 contrary, they become, one and all, irradiated by 
 the Infinite Presence which shines through them, 
 and fill the mind with grander conceptions and 
 C
 
 34 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 nobler ideas than your uneducated child of Nature 
 could ever attain. 
 
 Remember that I am not recommending an ex- 
 clusive devotion to the natural sciences. I am only 
 claiming for them their proper place in the scheme 
 of education, and I do not, of course, deny the un- 
 questionable value of both the ancient and the 
 modern classics in cultivating a pure and elevated 
 taste. But I do say that the poet- laureate of Eng- 
 land has drawn a deeper inspiration from Nature 
 interpreted by science than any of his predecessors 
 of the classical school; and I do also affirm that 
 the pre-Raphaelite school of painting, with all its 
 grotesque mimicry of Nature, embodies a truer and 
 purer ideal than that of any Roman fable or Grecian 
 dream. 
 
 And what shall we say of the imagination ? 
 Where can you find a wider field for its exercise 
 than that opened by the discoveries of modern 
 science ? And as the mind wanders over the vast 
 expanse, crossing boundless spaces, dwelling in 
 illimitable time, witnessing the displays of im- 
 measurable power, and studying the adaptations 
 of omniscient skill, it lives in a realm of beauty, of 
 wonder, and of awe, such as no artist has ever at- 
 tained to in word, in sound, in colour, or in form. 
 And if such a life does not lead man to feel his own 
 dependence, to yearn toward the Infinite Father, 
 and to rest on the bosom of Infinite Love, it is 
 simply because it is not the noble in intellect, not 
 the great in talent, not the profound in knowledge, 
 not the rich in experience, not the lofty in aspira- 
 tion, not the gifted in imagery, but solely the pure 
 in heart, who see God. 
 
 Such, then, is a very imperfect presentation of
 
 SUPERFICIAL STUDY. 
 
 what I believe to be the value of scientific studies 
 as a means of education. In what I have stated I 
 have implied that, for these studies to be of any 
 real value, the end must be constantly kept in view, 
 and everything made subservient to the one great 
 object. 
 
 To study the natural sciences merely as a col- 
 lection of interesting facts which it is well for every 
 educated man to know, seldom serves a useful pur- 
 pose. The young mind becomes wearied with de- 
 tails, and soon forgets what it has never more than 
 half acquired. The lessons become an exercise of 
 the memory and of nothing more ; and if, as is too 
 frequently the case, an attempt is made to cram the 
 half-formed mind in a single school-year with an 
 epitome of half the natural sciences natural phi- 
 losophy, astronomy, and chemistry, physiology, 
 zoology, botany, and mineralogy, following each 
 other in rapid succession these studies become a 
 great evil, an actual nuisance, which I should be the 
 first to vote to abate. The tone of mind is not only 
 not improved, but seriously impaired, and the best 
 product is a superficial, smattering smartness, which 
 is the crying evil not only of our schools, but also 
 of our country. 
 
 In order that the sciences should be of value in 
 our educational system, they must be taught more 
 from things than from books, and never from books 
 without the things. They must be taught, also, by 
 real living teachers, who are themselves interested 
 in what they teach, are interested also in their 
 pupils, and understand how to direct them aright. 
 Above all, the teachers must see to it that their 
 pupils study with the understanding and not solely 
 with the memory, not permitting a single lesson to
 
 SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 be recited which is not thoroughly understood, 
 taking the greatest care not to load the memory 
 with any useless lumber, and eschewing merely 
 memorised rules as they would deadly poison. The 
 great difficulty against which the teachers of natural 
 science have to contend in the colleges are the 
 wretched tread-mill habits the students bring with 
 them from the schools. Allow our students to 
 memorise their lessons, and they will appear re- 
 spectably well, but you might as easily remove a 
 mountain as to make many of them think. They 
 will solve an involved equation of algebra readily 
 enough so long as they can do it by turning their 
 mental crank, when they will break down on the 
 simplest practical problem of arithmetic which re- 
 quires of them only thought enough to decide 
 whether they shall multiply or divide. 
 
 Many a boy of good capabilities has been irre- 
 trievably ruined, as a scholar, by being compelled 
 to learn the Latin grammar by rote at an age when 
 he was incapable of understanding it; and I fear 
 that schools may still be found where young minds 
 are tortured by this stupefying exercise. Those of 
 us who have faith in the educational value of 
 scientific studies are most anxious that the students 
 who resort to our colleges should be as well fitted in 
 the physical sciences as in the classics, for otherwise 
 the best results of scientific culture cannot be ex- 
 pected. As it is, our students come to the university, 
 not only with no preparation in physical science, 
 but with their perceptive and reasoning faculties so 
 undeveloped that the acquisition of the elementary 
 principles of science is burdensome and distasteful : 
 and good scholars, who are ambitious of distinction, 
 can more readily win their laurels on the old fa-
 
 TRUE END OF LABOUR. 37 
 
 miliar track than on an untried course of which 
 they know nothing, and for which they must begin 
 their training anew. 
 
 We have improved our system of instruction in 
 the college as fast as we could obtain the means, 
 but we are persuaded that the best results cannot 
 be reached without the cooperation of the schools. 
 We feel, therefore, that it is incumbent upon us, in 
 the first place, to do everything in our power to 
 prove to the teachers of this country how great is 
 the educational value of the physical sciences, when 
 properly taught ; and, secondly, to aid them in 
 acquiring the best methods of teaching these sub- 
 jects. It is with such aims that our summer courses 
 have been instituted, and your presence here in such 
 numbers is the best evidence that they have met a 
 real want of the community. We welcome you to 
 the university and to such advantages as it can 
 afford, and we shall do all in our power to render 
 your brief residence here fruitful both in experience 
 and in knowledge ; hoping also that the university 
 may become to you, as she has to so many others, 
 a bright light shining calmly over the troubled sea 
 of active life, ever suggesting lofty thoughts, en- 
 couraging noble endeavours, and inciting all her 
 children to work together toward those great ends, 
 the advancement of knowledge and the education 
 of mankind. 
 
 LONDON' : PRINTED BY 
 SPOTTISWOODB AND CO., NEW-STRI
 
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 WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY, Professor of Sanskrit and Com- 
 parative Philology in Yale College, New Haven. Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 5.?. Copyright Edition. 
 
 ' Sure to command the attention and interest of every student of language. . . . 
 The author begins by denning language as ** the means of expression of human 
 thought," then describes the way in which each individual has to learn his mother 
 tongue. This leads him on to describe the conservative and alterative forces which 
 change the outer form and inner content of words and so bring about the growth of 
 language. ' A cademy. 
 
 'The keen common sense of Professor Whitney clears the jungle of mystification, 
 and by giving an open view of the ground of discussion at once indicates the way by 
 which to reach the truth. ... A masterly review of the various methods by which 
 language is enriched and embellished." Examiner. 
 
 MONEY and the MECHANISM of EXCHANGE. 
 
 By Professor W. STANLEY JEVONS. Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. 5^-. 
 
 ' A very readable and interesting we may almost say amusing treatise on what is 
 usually a very dismal and bewildering subject Money.' Saturday Review. 
 
 'A collection of facts relative to the past and present monetary systems of the 
 
 world will prove a useful addition to the literature bearing on financial 
 
 subj ects. ' A tkenceunt. 
 
 The NATURE of LIGHT. With a General Account of 
 Physical Optics. By Dr. EUGENE LOMMEL, Professor of Physics 
 in the University of Erlangen. With 188 Illustrations and a 
 Spectra in Chromolithography. 5-r. 
 
 ANIMAL PARASITES and MESSMATES. By Mon- 
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 FORTHCOMING VOLUMES. 
 
 The FIVE SENSES of MAN. By Professor BERNSTEIN, 
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 FERMENTATIONS. By Professor SCHUTZENBERGER, Director 
 of the Chemical Laboratory at the Sorbonne. Crown 8vo.
 
 List of Scientific Publications. 
 
 FIELD and FOREST RAMBLES of a NATURALIST 
 
 in New Brunswick. By A. L. ADAMS, M.A. With Notes and 
 Observations on the Natural History of Eastern Canada. Illus- 
 trated. 8vo. cloth, I4_r. 
 
 ' Both sportsmen and naturalists will find this work replete with anecdote and 
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 ' Will be found interesting by those who take a pleasure either in sport or natural 
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 The SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES of LONDON. By 
 
 BERNHARD H. BECKER, i vol. crown 8vo. 5-r. 
 
 * This is an interesting and useful volume. Mr. Becker's book is all that can be 
 desired ; his descriptions are carefully and well written, and his criticisms for the 
 most part just.' Spectator. 
 
 ' These sketches are popularly written, and are calculated to excite in many minds 
 a desire for further information. Daily News. 
 
 STUDIES of BLAST FURNACE PHENOMENA. 
 
 By M. L. GRUNER. Translated by L. D. B. GORDON, F.R.S.E., 
 F.G.S. DemySvo. ^s. 6d. 
 
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 signed. 'Morning Post. 
 
 'A most valuable treatise.' Leeds Mercury. 
 
 'A most valuable addition to a branch of scientific literature, which is of the 
 highest importance not only in a technical aspect but also in a purely scientific view.' 
 
 Westminster Review. 
 
 The EXPANSE of HEAVEN : a Series of Essays on the 
 Wonders of the Firmament. By R. A. PROCTOR, B.A. With 
 a Frontispiece. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 ' A very charming work ; cannot fail to lift the reader's mind up " through nature's 
 work to nature's God." '-Standard. 
 
 ' Full of thought, readable, and popular.' Brighton Gazette. 
 
 OUR PLACE among INFINITIES : with Essays on 
 ' Astrology' and the ' Sabbath of the Jews.' By R. A. PROCTOR, 
 B.A., Author of 'The Expanse of Heaven.' Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 A CLASS BOOK of CHEMISTRY, on the Basis of the 
 New System. By EDWARD L. YOUMANS, M.D. With 200 
 Illustrations. 
 
 FIRST BOOK of ZOOLOGY. By EDWARD S. MORSE, 
 Ph.D., late Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Zoology in 
 Bowdoin College. With numerous Illustrations.
 
 Henry S. King (fs Co.'s 
 
 An ESSAY on the CULTURE of the OBSERVING 
 
 POWERS of CHILDREN, especially in Connection with the 
 Study of Botany. By ELIZA A. YOUMANS. Edited, with Notes 
 and a Supplement, by JOSEPH PAYNE, F.C.P., Author of 
 ' Lectures on the Science and Art of Education ' &c. Cr. 8vo. zs.bd. 
 
 * This study, according to her just notions on the subject, is to be fundamentally 
 based on the exercise of the pupil's own powers of observation. He is to see and 
 examine the properties of plants and flowers at first hand, not merely to be informed 
 of what others have seen and examined. 'Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 FIRST BOOK of BOTANY. Designed to cultivate the 
 Observing Powers of Children. By ELIZA A. YOUMANS. With 
 300 Engravings. New and Enlarged Edition. Crown Svo. 55. 
 
 ' It is but rarely that a school-book appears which is at once so novel in plan, so 
 successful in execution, and so suited to the general want, as to command universal 
 and unqualified approbation, but such has been the case with Miss Youmans' First 
 Book on Botany. ... It has been everywhere welcomed as a timely and invaluable 
 contribution to the improvement of primary education.' Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS of MAGNETIC DECLINATION 
 
 made at TREVANDRUM and AGUSTIA MALLEY in the 
 Observatories of his Highness the Maharajah of Travancore, 
 G.C.S.I., in the years 1852 to 1860. Being Trevandrum Mag- 
 netical Observations, Volume I. Discussed and Edited by JOHN 
 ALLEN BROUN, F.R.S., late Director of the Observatories. With 
 an Appendix. Imp. 4to. cloth, ^3. 3.5-. 
 *,* The Appendix, containing Reports on the Observatories and 
 
 on the Public Museum, Public Park and Gardens at Trevandrum, 
 
 pp. xii. 1 1 6, may be had separately. 2is. 
 
 ' The title of the work, which is a handsome volume, quarto, 600 pages, at fir 
 ight would appear to indicate a dry collection of tables and figures. Some of these, 
 course, are necessary ; but in addition to them, there is a considerable amount of 
 
 most interesting matter to the general reader in the descriptions of the adventures and 
 troubles of a scientific man in Southern India, while the magnetician and physicist will 
 find much to occupy his attention in the various results which Mr. Broun has so 
 clearly brought out in his discussion of the observations, and in the description of the 
 very ingenious instruments he constructed and employed in his researches.' 
 
 G. M. WHIPPLE, in the Academy. 
 
 CURRENCY and BANKING. By Professor BONAMY 
 PRICE, Professor of Political Economy in the University at Oxford. 
 I vol. crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 The HISTORY of the EVOLUTION of MAN. By 
 
 Professor ERNST HAECKEL. Translated by E. A. VAN RHYN 
 and L. ELSBERG, M. D. University of New York, with Notes and 
 Additions sanctioned by the Author. Post Svo.
 
 List of Scientific Publications. 
 
 The HISTORY of CREATION : a Popular Account of the 
 Development of the Earth and its Inhabitants, according to the 
 Theories of Kant, Laplace, Lamarck, and Darwin. By Professor 
 ERNST HAECKEL, of the University of Jena. The Translation 
 revised by E. RAY LANKESTER, M.A., F.R.S. With Coloured 
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 and Animals. 2 vols. post 8vo. 32^. 
 
 HANDBOOK of COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. By 
 
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 MANKIND : a Scientific Study of the Races and Distribution of 
 Man, considered in their Bodily Variations, Languages, Occupa- 
 tions, and Religions. By Dr. PESCHEL. 
 
 A TREATISE on RELAPSING FEVER. By R. T. 
 
 LYONS, Assistant-Surgeon, Bengal Army. Post 8vo. 75. 6d. 
 
 ' A practical work, thoroughly supported in its views by a series of remarkable 
 cases. ' Standard. 
 
 CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH PSYCHOLOGY. By 
 
 Professor TH. RIBOT. Large post 8vo. qs. An analysis of the 
 views and opinions of the following metaphysicians, as expressed 
 in their writings : James Mill, Alexander Bain, John Stuart Mill, 
 George H. Lewes, Herbert Spencer, Samuel Bailey. 
 
 ' The task which M. Ribot set himself he has performed with very great success.' 
 
 Examiner. 
 'We can cordially recommend the volume.' Journal of Mental Science. 
 
 HEREDITY : a Psychological Study of its Phenomena, its Laws, 
 its Causes, and its Consequences. By Professor TH. RIBOT. 
 I vol. Large crown 8vo. gs. 
 
 HEALTH and DISEASE, as influenced by the Daily, Seasonal, 
 and other Cyclical Changes in the Human System. By EDWARD 
 SMITH, M.D., LL.B., F.R.S. A New Edition. 7*. 6d. 
 
 PRACTICAL DIETARY for FAMILIES, SCHOOLS, 
 
 and the LABOURING CLASSES. By EDWARD SMITH, 
 M.D., LL.B., F.R.S. A New Edition. 3.?. &/.
 
 Henry S. King 6 Co.'s 
 
 CONSUMPTION in its EABLY and REMEDIABLE 
 
 STAGES. By EDWARD SMITH, M.D., LL.B., F.R.S. A New 
 Edition. TS. 6d. 
 
 SENSATION and INTUITION. By JAMES SULLY. 
 Demy 8vo. loj. 6d. 
 
 ' The materials furnished by a quick and lively natural sense are happily ordered 
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 parts of the book where, with abundant ingenuity and no mean success, Mr. Sully 
 endeavours to throw some light of cosmic order into the chaos of aesthetics.' 
 
 Saturday Review. 
 
 ' The writer of such an essay (on Belief) must be ranked as a psychologist of no 
 common order.' Professor BAIN in the Fortnightly Review. 
 
 ' His remarkable collection of studies in psychology and aesthetics Two 
 
 essays concerned with the aesthetic aspects of human character and its artistic repre- 
 sentation display a fine critical tact joined to no common analytical power.' 
 
 Professor CROOM ROBINSON in the Examiner. 
 
 The PLACE Of the PHYSICIAN. Being the Introductory 
 Lecture at Guy's Hospital, 1873-74 ; to which is added ESSAYS 
 ON THE LAW OF HUMAN LIFE, AND ON THE RELATION BETWEEN 
 ORGANIC AND INORGANIC WORLDS. By JAMES HINTON, late 
 Aural Surgeon to Guy's Hospital. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY for PRACTICAL USE. By various 
 Writers. Edited by JAMES HINTON. Second Edition. With 50 
 Illustrations. 2 vols. crown 8vo. I2s. 6d. 
 
 ' We never saw the popular side of the science of physiology better explained than 
 it is in these two thin volumes.' Standard. 
 
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 arned by the 
 
 ' We heartily commend these essays as setting forth in a style that may be compre- 
 hended by all, a number of physiological lessons that ought to be lear 
 
 ' This is an admirable collection of essays on various physiological subjects, written 
 for the most part in such a manner as to be perfectly i 
 
 >us physiological subjects, written 
 ' intelligible to the general reader. ' 
 Land and Water. 
 
 ' We strongly recommend this book to non-professional readers, from the lucid and 
 logical manner in which the physiological problems of everyday life are stated." 
 
 Nature. 
 
 The QUESTIONS of AURAL SURGERY. With Illus- 
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 i Questions of Aural Surgery " more than maintains the author's reputation 
 ful clinician, a deep and accurate thinker, and a forcible and talented writer.' 
 
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 List of Scientific Publications. 
 
 An ATLAS of DISEASES of the MEMBRANA 
 
 TYMPANI. With Descriptive Text. By JAMES HINTON. 
 Post 8vo. 6. 6s. The Drawings in this volume are entirely done 
 by hand, and the author is able to say of them that they have been 
 executed with a fidelity and perfectness that has at least equalled 
 his most sanguine expectations. 
 
 ' By far the best and most accurate that has ever yet been published. The draw- 
 ings are taken from actual specimens, and are all coloured by hand.' Lancet. 
 
 CHOLERA : how to Avoid and Treat it. Popular and 
 Practical Notes. By HENRY BLANC, M.D. Crown 8vo. 45. 6d. 
 
 ' A very practical manual, based on experience and careful observation, full of 
 excellent hints on a most dangerous disease.' Standard. 
 
 The PRINCIPLES of MENTAL PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 With their Applications to the Training and Discipline of the 
 Mind, and the Study of its Morbid Conditions. By W. B. 
 CARPENTER, LL.D., M.D., F.R.S., &c. Illustrated. 8vo. i2s. 
 
 ' We have not dealt with the two main views elaborated in this valuable 
 
 book, from the first of which, together with the inferences which Dr. Carpenter draws 
 as to the sources of our knowledge of necessary truth, we mainly dissent, but with 
 the latter of which we cordially agree. Let us add that nothing we have said, or in 
 any limited space could say, would give an adequate conception of the valuable and 
 curious collection of facts bearing on morbid mental conditions, the learned physio- 
 logical exposition, and the treasure-house of useful hints for mental training which 
 make this large and yet very amusing, as well as instructive book, an encyclopaedia 
 of well-classified and often very startling psychological experiences.' Spectator. 
 
 The COMMON-SENSE MANAGEMENT of the 
 
 STOMACH. By G. OVEREND DREWRY, M.D. Fcap. 8vo. 
 Price 2s. 6d. 
 
 ' This little book appears to us to be a very excellent manual on a highly important 
 subject. It is written in a clear and simple style, and in its occasional touches of 
 humour recals the manner of the famous Abernethy.' Graphic. 
 
 ' It is well written, sensible and practical rather than scientific, and may be read 
 with profit by every one whether in Or out of health. If we are well, he tells us, if 
 we don't know it already, how to keep well.' Glasgow Herald. 
 
 ' A trustworthy family guide for the preservation of health. 'Nonconformist. 
 
 ' Dr. Drewry has written a little book on the management of the stomach, which 
 certainly justifies the promise of common sense conveyed in the title.' 
 
 Saturday Review. 
 
 "The author holds common sense views on the subject on which he has written ; 
 and as he has stated many important facts in very plain language, we can recommend 
 his book as a sound and safe guide to the dyspeptic.' Morning Advertiser. 
 
 ' The principles in self-management according to his common sense manual are 
 undoubtedly sound.' Record.
 
 io Henry S. King 6 Co.'s Scientific Publications. 
 
 LONGEVITY; the Means of Prolonging Life after 
 
 Middle Age. By JOHN GARDNER, M.D. Third Edition, revised 
 and enlarged. Small crown 8vo. 4^. 
 
 ' Much useful information will be found in its pages.' Medical Press. 
 
 ' The hints here given on health, and suggestions on longevity, evidently based on 
 experience of a lengthened extent, are, to our mind, invaluable.' Standard. 
 
 ' Dr. Gardner's directions are sensible enough, and founded on good principles. 
 The advice given is such that any man in moderate health might follow it to 
 advantage, whilst no clap-trap is introduced which might savour of quackery.' 
 
 ' It is full of valuable information, and abounds in a very uncommon qualit 
 common sense.' Edinburgh Daily Review.
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 Los Angeles 
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