b./uM^f. M1^RAK\' University of California. (xl KH' OK Received yKiTZT . iSqS- Accessions No . ^33 f^ . Class No . 7^3> ^llp S. luUffgg. ButtmanrCs Larger Greek Grammar, GREEK GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OF HIGH SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES BY PHILIP BUTTMANN, • -A . -t . TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, WITH ADDITIONS, BY EDWARD ROBINSON. 'TJRrVBIlSITT] ANDOVER: PUBLISHED BY FLAGG, GOULD,AND NEWMAN. NEW-YORK: JONATHAN LEAVITT, 182 BROADWAY. 1833. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1833, by Edward Robinson, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. ^■35 fr m]^ :4 ^'^SSS :^ PREFACE. cr The following biographical hints respecting the author of this work, will not perhaps be unacceptable to those who may make use of it ; while they may help to form a juster estimate of the nature and relative character of the present Grammar, as compared with the other writings of the same author, and with the works of contemporary Grammarians. The life of a schol- ar, and especially of a German scholar, is usually barren of in- cidents ; and it is chiefly the character and progress of his intellect- ual development, as exhibited in the various productions of, his pen, that furnish the subjects and mark the epochs of his biography. Philip Charles Buttmann was born at Frankfort on the Maine, Oct. 5, 1764. After the usual preparation, he pursued his studies at the University of Gottingen ; not without distinction, it would seem, for we soon afterwards find him as an instructor and governor in the family of the Prince of Anhalt Dessau. But he appears early to have preferred a life of private study ; avoiding in this way the re- sponsibilities and absorbing duties of a public teacher, and devoting himself without the abstractions of public obligation, to philological pursuits and investigations. With this view he fixed his residence at Berlin, where he lived for many years as a private citizen ; and where, in the free use of the treasures of the royal library, and in social intercourse and interchange of views with Heindorf and Spal- ding, at that time distinguished professors in the Gymnasia of Berlin, he arrived at those results and adopted those principles, which he has spread before the world in his various grammatical and philological treatises. The first edition of his Grammar appeared at Berlin in 1792. In 1800 he was appointed a Secretary of the Royal Libra- ry, and became at a later period one of the principal Librarians. At the same time he accepted the appointment of Professor in one of the principal Gymnasia of Berlin, that of Joachimsthal. He be- came also an active member of the philological class in the Royal Academy of Sciences ; and to this source we owe many of his smaller essays and treatises. On the establishment of the University of Berlin in 1809, he seems by choice not to have taken part in it as a reg- PREFACE. ular professor ; but the excitement inspired by the establishment of so noble an institution, and daily intercourse with the corps of dis- tinguished scholars thus collected, — as Wolf, Niebuhr, Savigny, Schleiermacher, and at a later period Bekker, Bockh, etc. — impart- ed new vigour to his exertions, and led him, if not to a wider range of study, yet to the exhibition of greater -productive power, and to a more extensive communication of the results of his researches. As member of the Academy of Sciences, he enjoyed the privilege of delivering lectures or of otherwise imparting instruction in the Uni- versity ; and of this he availed himself in respect to the private phi- lological classes. With Wolf he engaged in the publication of the Museum Antiquiiatis ; and several of the most solid articles of that work are from his pen. In 1 816 he completed the edition of Quicn- tilian commenced by his friend Spalding, and left imperfect at his decease. In 1821 he gave to the public a new and enlarged edi- tion of the Scholia on the Odyssey, discovered by Angelo Maio. Several of his smaller treatises were afterwards collected and revised by himself, and published in two volumes, entided " Mythologus," Berlin 1827-29. But the great labour of his life lies. before the world in his grammatical works ; which, from a narrow beginning, have grown up into a wide and comprehensive system. His first work appear- ed, as mentioned above, in 1792, and was litde more than an oudine of the Greek accidence. In the subsequent editions he continued to interweave the results of his investigations ; until the fourth edition assumed the character of a more complete and scientific treatise of Greek grammar. In this form it remained without any essential change of plan, but not without important additions and improvements, until the publication of the twelfth edition in 1826. In the mean time he had published at an early period an abstract of this work, made from the sixth edition, for the use of lower schools and younger pupils, under the title of Schul-Grammatik. This small- er Grammar reached its eighth edition in 1826, during the author's life-tiriie; and the ninth edition of it was issued in 1831, since his decease. This is the work formerly translated and published in this country, under the name' of Buttmann's Grammar; of which it is not too much to say, that it disappointed the expectations of our more advanced scholars by its incompleteness and want of detail; while it was found not to answer among us the purposes of early PREFACE. 6 instruction, because it already presupposes a certain amount of el- ementary philological knowledge on the part of the pupil. The truth is, that the work was adapted to a mode of instruction entirely different from that prevalent in this country ; and was intended rath- er as a manual to guide the oral instructions and explanations of school- teachers in Germany, than as a book from which the pupil should him- self derive an acquaintance with the elements of Greek grammar. But the larger Grammar, in the course of its successive editions and enlargements, had become, to use the language of the author himself, " an intermediate thing between a school-book and a work of a higher scientific character." In support of the views and principles embodied in it, the author had often felt it necessary to introduce critical discussions, which were foreign to the nature of such a work ; and which contributed to swell its size, without adding to its value for those for whom it was more particularly de- signed. Hence, so early as the year 1816, he had entered upon the compilation of a more extensive and scientific grammatical work, a complete grammatical index or Thesaurus of the Greek language, which should embody the results of the labours of his life in a form adapted to the use of more advanced scholars. This is the Aus- filhrliche Spracklehre, the " Copious or Complete Greek Grammar," so often referred to in the following pages. The first volume ap- peared in 1819 ; the second, in two parts, in 1825 and 1827. The second volume contains also a supplement of large additions and cor- rections to the first ; and a new edition of the first volume, including these corrections, was commenced during the author's life, and fin- ished in 1830 after his decease. This work, extensive as it is, em- braces only the part of grammar relating to the Forms of Words; the Syntax Buttmann did not live to Complete in the same full and scientific manner. This Thesaurus everywhere exhibits, of course, critical discus- sions and investigations, which could not have place in the preced- ing work. Other similar discussions, which did not properly fall within the plan even of the Thesaurus, — particularly those relating to the signification of words, — the author collected and published in a separate treatise entided : " Lexilogus, or Illustrations of Greek words, chiefly in Homer and Hesiod." The first volume was pub- lished in 1818; and again, together with a second, in 1825. This is often referred to in the following pages. PREFACE. The publication of these works afforded an appropriate occasion for some change in the plan of the earliest, now become the interme- diate Grammar. Accordingly, in the twelfth edition, 1826, most of the merely critical discussions were omitted, while many additional results were introduced. In this way, too, room was gained for an extension of the Syntax. In the thirteenth and latest edition, 1829, these objects were further pursued and completed ; and the work has thus become in form, that which it now professes to be in fact, viz. a body of results respecting the grammar of the Greek language, arranged with strict attention to philosophical system, as well as to accuracy, neatness, and perspicuity. Whoever consults this work, cannot fail to perceive, that its statements rest on the pro- found investigations of a penetrating, practical, and philosophic mind ; while the reasonings and documents by which these statements are supported, must in general be sought in the more copious works re- ferred to above. In the Syntax, however, this last remark applies with less force. This part of grammar has not elsew^here been treat- ed of by Buttmann ; and, as he himself remarks, would require a separate volume to do it justice. The Syntax of the present work is a collection of general principles, perspicuously and philosophical- ly arranged, and accompanied in some parts with a sufficient copi- ousness of details ; while in other portions much is left to the judg- ment and discretion of the learner. The Syntax of Buttmann must not be estimated by that which has already appeared in this country under that name. In the following pages, the Syntax occupies more than double the space devoted to it in the smaller work. Buttmann was not a mere recluse, — ^a scholar acquainted only with books, and deriving his views and principles merely by way of inference from untried theories. Himself a teacher, and living in the midst of a great capital, in daily and social intercourse with eminent scholars and practical instructors, every thing he has written bears the impress of practical application and practical utility. His works everywhere exhibit comprehensive learning, united with perspi- cuity and terseness, and with that practical sagacity and tact which are essential to the success of every teacher. In this respect he differs widely from Matthiae ; whose Grammar is a vast mass of excellent materials, which the author has not known how to reduce to order and philosophic method. In another respect Buttmann dif- fers as widely from Thiersch, viz. in that he treats of the Greek Ian- PREFACE. guage as it is found in the great body of Greek writers, with appro- priate reference to the historical changes which have taken place in it ; while Thiersch has developed a theory of what he supposes the Greek must have been in the beginning, and strives to exhibit the subsequent language in conformity with this theory. Buttmann too has engrafted his own views and principles upon the general system and technical language of former Grammarians ; while Thiersch has in a measure discarded former names and systems, and introdu- ces the pupil to a new nomenclature, if not to a new system of things. It may be matter of question with some, which of these methods is the most appropriate ; but there are probably few among practical scholars, who will not regard it as a merit in Buttmann, that he pursued such a course. In Germany, the public voice would seem to have decided this and other like questions ; for while the Grammar of Buttmann has passed through thirteen large editions, the corresponding ones of Thiersch and Matthiae have as yet reached only the second. Of the similar work of Rost, three editions have appeared. It is a popular and useful compend of Greek grammar, luminous in its arrangement and generally correct in its details ; but its statements are obviously the result of a less extensive and pro- tracted course of personal observation, than those of Buttmann. The latter years of Buttmann's life were embittered by severe physical suffering. His body was racked by rheumatic affections, which deprived him in a great measure of the use of his limbs, and finally terminated his days, Jan. 21, 1829. For several preceding winters he had been confined to his house. The writer of these lines had the pleasure of an interview with him about a year before his death. He was seated before a table in a large armed chair, bol- stered up with cushions, and with his feet on pillows ; before him was a book, the leaves of which his swollen and torpid hands were just able to turn over; while a member of his family acted as amanuensis. That book was his earliest work, the intermediate Grammar. He was in this way preparing the thirteenth edition, which he lived just long enough to complete. It is this work, with these his last cor- rections, which is here presented to the American public. In making this work accessible to his countrymen generally, the Translator hopes and believes, that he is doing service to the cause of Greek literature among us. This Grammar will go far to sup- PREFACE. ply a want, which has long been felt by those who have thirsted for deeper draughts of Grecian learning. Riper and more critical schol- ars will indeed ever find the Thesaurus of Buttmann highly useful, as also the voluminous Syntax of Matthiae ; but to all who need on- ly scientific results, without the processes of investigation, the pres- ent work cannot but prove amply satisfactory. The preceding ex- planations will show, in what sense this may be appropriately termed the Larger Grammar of Buttmann. The Translator can lay claim to no higher merit, than that of having endeavoured to give a faithful transcript of the original. A few additions have been silently made from the author's other works ; and occasionally a note or explanation which seemed necessary, has been subjoined, to which the signature of the Translator is affixed. It must not, however, be imagined, that the translation of such a work from the German is without its peculiar difficulties. A Greek phrase or particle may often be happily illustrated by a German idiom, to which there is no corresponding one in English ; while not unfrequently that may be exemplified by a single word or phrase in English, which requires a circumlocution in German. In all such cases, the Translator has endeavoured to exercise his best judgment ; and it is hoped, that the learner will not have occa- sion for complaint in this respect. The correction of the proofs has also required great labour. In this much assistance has been rendered by several young gen- tlemen connected with the Theological Seminary ; particularly by Mr H. B. Hackett, late Tutor in Amherst College, and Mr D. Crosby, Professor elect of Languages in Dartmouth College ; from both of whom the public have a right to expect much in future, for the advancement both of classical and of sacred learning in our coun- try. It may be proper to add, that the following translation was com- pleted in the year 1 829, during the residence of the Translator in Germany. EDWARD ROBINSON. Theol. Setn. Andover, > May, 1833. \ CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Sect. 1. General View of the Greek Language and its Dialects Page 13 PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. Page. Letters and Pronvnciation. 2. Greek Alphabet - . . 21 3. Pronunciation ... 23 4. Division of tlie Letters. — Vowels, Consonants ... 24 5. Diphthongs ... 26 6. Breathings, (Spiritus asper et lenis,) .... 27 7. Prosody .... 29 8. Accents .... 36 9. Kinds of Accents . . 37 10. Words named from the Accents 38 11. Place of the Accents . 38 12. Changes of the Accents . 40 13. do. do. continued 41 14. Enclitics .... 42 Sect. 15. Marks of Interpunction, etc 44 16. Mutations of the Consonants 45 17. Aspirates 18. Laws of Aspirates 19. Accumulation of Consonants 20. Juxtaposition of Mutes 21. Doubling of Consonants 22. Double Letters 23. Consonants before f/, 24. Linguals 25. The Consonant v 26. Moveable final Letters 27. Mutations OF THE Vowels 28. Contraction 29. Hiatus. — Crasis 30. Apostrophe 47 47 48 49 50 50 51 51 51 52 54 57 60 62 PART II. GRAMMATICAL FORMS AND FLEXION OF WORDS. 31. Parts of Speech. 64 NOUNS. 32. Gender 64 33. Declension 65 34. First Declension . 67 35. Second Declension 70 36. Contracted-Form of Dec. IL 71 37. Attic Dec. II. . . . 72 38. Third Declension. — Gender 73 39. Flexion .... 74 40. Changes of the Root . 75 41. Changes before Case-endings 75 42. do. do. do. continued 77 43. Flexion .... 78 10 CONTENTS. Sect. ' Pase 44. Accusative Singular . 80 45. Vocative .... 81 46. Dative Plural . . . 82 47. Syncope of Words in tjq. 83 48. Contracted Third Declension. — Gen. in -og pure . 83 49. First Form of Contraction. — Words in t]?, etc. . 84 50. Second Form of Contraction. — Words in vs, etc. . . 85 51. Attic Genitive, etc. . 86 52. Third Form of Contraction. — Words in svg . . 87 53. Attic contracted Forms . 88 54. Fourth Form of Contraction. — Neuters in as ... 89 55. Contracted Form of Compara- tives in vjVy ov . . 90 56. Anomalous Declension . 90 57. Nouns Defective and indecli- nable .... 94 58. Catalogue of Anomalous Nouns . . . . 96 ADJECTIVES. 102 59. Terminations 60. Adjectives in oi) of three and two Endings . 102 61. in ws . . 104 62. Other Adjectives of three End- ings .... 104 63. Adjectives of two Endings, and of one Ending . . 105 64. Anomalous and Defective Ad- jectives . . . 107 65. Degrees of Comparison 108 66. Particular Forms of Comparison 109 67. Comparison by wiVj lavos . 110 68. Anomalous Comparison . 110 69. Defective Comparison . 112 70. Numerals.— Cardinal Numbers 113 71. Ordinals and other Numerals 115 PRONOUNS. 72. Substantive and Possessive 116 73. The Pronoun Salva . 119 74. Adjective Pronouns . 119 75. The Articles . . . 120 76. Demonstrative Pronouns 122 77. Interrogative Pronouns . 123 78. Correlative Pronouns and Ad- jectives ... 124 79. SpeciaUCorrelatives . 125 80. Paragogic Particles . . 127 Sect. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. Page VERBS. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. .97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. Moods and Tenses. — Divis- sion of the Tenses . 128 .Augment. — Syllabic . 129 Syllabic Augment, continued 131 Temporal Augment . 132 Attic Reduplication . 135 Augment of Compound Verbs 136 Conjugation. By Number and Person . . 137 by Moods and Partici- ples . . 139 by Active, Passive, and Middle . 141 by Tenses . . 144 Ciiaracteristic . . 144 Double Themes . . 145 Formation of the Tenses 150 General Rules of Formation 151 • Future Active . . 152 First and Second Aorist Ac- tive .... 158 First and Second Perfect Ac- tive .... 162 Perfect Passive . . 166 Third Future . .169 First and Second Aorist Pas- sive . . . . 169 171 175 176 177 178 180 182 184 186 194 196 201 Contracted Conjugation 205 Paradigm . . . 206 Notes .... 212 Irregular Conjugation. — Verbs in ^t . . 216 Paradigms of Verbs in fti. — Notes .... 220 Anomalous Verbs in ^ 230 I. 'itifii, cast . . 230 II. slaa, Tjfiai,, sit . 232 Verbs w I fi v q Verbals in t ^ o g and tog Paradigms of Barytone Verbs Paradigm of tvntoj. — Prelim- inary Notes Synoptical Table Active Passive Middle Paradigms of other Barytone Verbs .... Paradigm of Verbs X fi, v q Notes on all the Paradigms Usual and Unusual Tenses CONTENTS. 11 Sect. III. £vvv(iij clothe IV. slfiij I am V. sifj,i,I go . 109. Other Irregular Verbs I. cpfjfilj I say II. xstuat, I recline III. oioa, I know Page 232 233 234 238 238 239 239 Anomaly of Verbs. 110. Syncope and Metathesis 242 111. New Themes from the Tenses 249 112. Changes of the Theme 250 113. Anomaly of Signification. Causative and Immediate 256 114. Catalogue of Irregular Verbs 261 Preliminary Notes . 261 Catalogue ... 263 Sect. Page PARTICLES. 115. Prepositions and Adverbs 309 116. Correlative Particles 312 117. Mutations of some Particles. — Anastrophe 317 FORMATION OP WORDS. 118. Derivation 319 119. Derivation by Endings. . 320 I. Verbs 320 II. Substantives 323 III. Adjectives 330 IV. Adverbs 332 120. Derivation by Composition 333 121. Species of Composition. — Accents 336 PART III. SYNTAX. 122. Definition 341 346 349 352 NOUN AS INDEPENDENT. 123. General Principles . 341 124. Prepositive Article . 342 125. construction 344 126. The Art. 6^ ^j roj as Demon- strative. — The Postpos. Art. ogj,i]/6 127. Pronouns. — Adjective Trag 128. Neuter Adjectives . NOUN IN CONSTRUCTION. 129. Subject and Predicate 353 130. Object. — Oblique Cases 357 131. Accusative . . . 359 132. Genitive ... 362 133. Dative . . . • 367 VERBS. 134. The Passive— Verbals in riog and tog . . . 370 135. The Middle . . 373 136. Perfect and Aorist Passive as Middle ... 376 137. The Tenses.— Aorist . 377 384 391 393 138. Third Future . - . 383 139. Moods. — Optative and Sub- junctive 140. The Infinitive. — General Construction 141. Infinitive with its Subject 142. with Cases.— Attraction 394 143. Construction with the Re- lative. — Attraction . 397 144. WITH THE Participle 400 145. Case Absolute . . 404 PARTICLES. 146. Adverbs, etc. . . 407 147. Prepositions . -^ . ^ 409 148. Negative Particles, ov and /i?} 415 149. Other Particles. Expletives, etc. .... 150. Various Phrases 151. Idiomatic Forms of Con- struction I. Attraction II. Anacoluthon III. Inversion IV. Ellipsis . 422 433 443 443 446 448 449 12 CONTENTS. APPENDIX A. Versification B. History op the Greek Alphabet C. Tables of Words for Declension and Conjugation ■ D. Catalogue of Regular Verbs * . I. Barytone Verbs j II. Contracted Verbs E. Technical Grammatical Expressions I. Greek . - H. English ... . . . ' F. Characters and Abbreviations in Writing . Page, 451 459 463 468 469 473 475 475 476 478 GREEK INDEX ENGLISH INDEX 480 489 INTRODUCTION. § 1. General View of the Greek Language and its Dialects. 1. The Greek language {(fcovi] JS)iXf]vrArj) was anciently spread abroad not only over Greece, but also over a large portion of Asia Minor, Southern Italy, Sicily, and still other regions, where there were Greek colonies. Like all other languages, it had its various dialects (diaXexTOi), all of which however may be referred back to two principal ones, viz. the Doric (>J Awqi^ati, Aoioig) and the Ionic (»J 'lajviaii, 'lag), which belonged to the two great Grecian tribes of the like names. 2. The Doric tribe was the largest, and sent abroad the mo.st colonies. Hence the Doric dialect prevailed in the whole interior of Greece, in Italy, and in Sicily. It was harsher, and made upon the ear, in conse- quence of the predominant long a, an impression which the Greeks call nXazicaafxog, brOad pronunciation.* It was on the whole a less culti- vated dialect. A branch of it was the Aeolic (?J AloXi-^i], AloVig) \ which, particularly in the Aeolic colonies of Asia Minor and the neigh- bouring islands (Lesbos, etc.) arrived early at a considerable degree of refinement. This however did not probably extend beyond the limits of poetry. 3. The Ionic tribe in the earlier ages chiefly inhabited Attica, and sent out from thence colonies to the coasts of Asia Minor. These colo- nies took the lead both of the mother tribe and of all the other Greeks in general improvement ; and hence the names lonians and Ionic came to be applied chiefly, and at last exclusively, to them and their dialect ; while the original lonians in Attica were now called Attics and Athe- nians. — The Ionic dialect is the softest of all, in consequence of its many vowels. The Attic {ji * AztvAri, *ATd^ig) which also was after- wards cultivated, soon surpassed in refinement all the other dialects ; avoiding with Attic elegance and address both the harshness of the Do- ric and the softness of the Ionic. But although the Attic tribe was the * See § 27. note 5. 14 § 1. GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. real mother-tribe, yet the Ionic dialect oF these Asiatic colonies is regarded as the mother of the Attic dialect ; inasmuch as it was culti- vated at the period when it varied least from the old Ionic, the common source of both. Note 1. The elegance and address of the Attic dialect is most visible in the Syntax, where it is distinguished, not only above all the other dia- lects, but also above all other languages, by an appropriate conciseness, by a most effective arrangement of the constituent parts, and by a certain moderation in asserting and judging, which passed over from the polite tone of social intercourse into the language itself. Note 2. Another source of the charm of the Attic language Hes, where very few look for it, in its individuality ; and in the feeling of affection for this and for nationolity in general, which the Attic writers possessed. However well adapted for the understanding, and for the internal and ex- ternal sense of beauty a language may be, which every where exhibits a correct logic, follows a regular and fixed analogy, and employs pleasing sounds, still all these advantages are lifeless without the charm of indi- viduality. This however consists wholly in occasional sacrifices of these fundamental laws, especially of logic and general analogy, in favour of idioms or modes of speech which have their source partly in ceitain traits of national character, and partly also incontestibly in an apprehension of those ground rules, not exactly conformed to the usage of the schools. In this way anomalous forms of expression had arisen in the Attic, as in every other language ; and these the cultivated writers did not wish to change, out of respect to antiquity and for the ear of the. people, which had now become accustomed to such forms and turns of expression ; and also, as above remarked, out of a cherished regard to individuality. When in other languages irregularities of style occur, we see at once that they result from inaccuracy or want of skill ; while among the Attics, who are so distinguished for address and skill, we perceive that they did not wish to make the correction. Indeed they felt, that by removing anomalies they should deprive their language of the stamp of a production of nature, which every language really is ; and thus give it the appearance of a work of art, which a language never can become. It follows here of course, that intentional anomalies, by which a language is made to assume the appearance of a mere plaything, can never be taken into the account ; however ready the older grammarians oflen were with this convenient mode of explanation. Note 3. Other minor branches of these dialects, such as the Boeotic^ Laconic, Thessalian, etc. are known only from single words and forms, and through scattered notices, inscriptions, etc. 4. As the common source of all the dialects, we must assume an ancient original Greek language ; of which, however, it is only through philosophical investigation, that any definite forms of words can be made out, or, to speak more correctly, presupposed. Each dialect naturally retained more or less out of this ancient language ; and, with- out doubt, each for itself must have continued to possess from it much that was by degrees lost in the others. In this single consideration we § 1. GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. 15 have at once an easy explanation, how the Grammarians can talk of Doricisms, Aeolicisms, and evep Atticisms, in the old Ionic Greek of Homer. Generally, however, it was customary to call that which was usual or frequent in any one dialect, by the name of that dialect ; even when it happened to occur in the others. In this way must be ex- plained, e. g. the so called Doricisms in Attic writers, and the Attic forms in writers who otherwise did not employ the Attic dialect.* 5. To the same ancient language belong also, for the most part, the so called poetic forms and licenses. It is indeed true that the poet contributes to the formation of a language ; and that through him a language first becomes cultivated, i. e. is formed to a melodious, expres- sive, copious whole. Nevertheless, the poet does not derive the innova- tions, which he finds necessary, simply from himself; for this would be the surest way to displease. The earliest Greek bards merely selected according to their wants from the variety of actual forms, which they found already existing. , Many of these forms became obsolete in com- mon usage ; buf the later poet, who had these old bards before his eyes, was not disposed to yield his right to these treasures. In this way, that which was originally a real idiom of the language, came to be poetic license, and is therefore properly to be reckoned among the dialects. Note 4. This is however not to be so understood, as if every single word which occurs in the older poets, was also once used in common life. The privilege, which also the modern poet even in the most copious language retains, of forming new words and of remodelling old ones, must have -belonged in a still wider extent to the ancient bard in those times of poverty. His only restriction was, that the material /row which, and the form in which, he modelled his innovations, must be drawn not from him- self, but from the existing stores and analogies of the language. Of course also the right of softening down the usual forms, which belongs even to the man of common life, cannot be denied to him in whom melody is a duty, and who is moreover fettered by metre. 6. In all cultivated nations, some one of their dialects usually becomes the foundation of the common written language, and of the language of good society. Among the Greeks this was not at first the , case. They began to improve in culture, while they were yet divided into several different states, separated both by geographical position and by political relations. Hence, until about the time of Alexander, each writer employed the dialect in which he had been educated, or that which he preferred; and thus were formed Ionic, Aeolic, Doric, and Attic poets and prose writers, of whose productions more or less are still extant. * E. g. The Doric future in aovfiaij, ^ovfiat ; the Attic form of declension in wg etc. the * Attic' |tV for ovv, and the like. See notes 10, 13, below. 16 § 1. GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. Note 5. Only the great works of poetic art, which excited universal attention, such as epic and dramatic poetry, constitute here an exception. The /r5^ authors in these walks, it is true, made use of the dialect of their own country ; but still, an imitation of them in any other dialect, — not to say that this would have required an almost equal degree of creative talent, — would not have been successful ; because the Greeks of all the tribes were now familiarized to these sounds in this species of composition, and were no longer able to separate the one from the other. That dialect, therefore, in which the first master-pieces of any particular species were written, remained the dialect of that species. See Text 10, 11. Note 6. To the Ionic dialect belong the earliest poets, Homer, Hesiod, Theognis, etc. whose language nevertheless has more of that apparently mixed character, which approaches nearest to the ancient language, and which afterwards continued to mark the language of poetry in most of its species. The proper though later Ionic is found in the prose writers, of whom Herodotus and Hippocrates are the principal; though both were of Doric origin. The Ionic dialect had already in their time acquired, in consequence ^f its peculiar softness and early culture, a certain degree of universality, especially in Asia Minor, even beyond the limits of poetry. Note 7. Among the poets of that period, the lyric writers were at home in all the dialects. The earliest and most celebrated were the Aeolic lyric poets ; and of these the chief were Sappho and Alcaeus ; from whom, however, only a few fragments have come down to us. Anacreon sung in Ionic ; of him also we have only a few remains, and these partly mere fragments, and partly of doubtful authenticity. The other lyric writers were mostly Doric ; and each created at will, as it were, his own lan- guage, out of the copious variety of forms in this widely extended dialect. Of these last, Pindar is the only one from whom any thing entire has come down to us. Note 8. Of Doric prose there is very little still extant, and that chiefly relating to mathematics and philosophy. — For the Attic writers, see the following notes. 7. In the mean time, Athens had raised herself to such a pitch of political importance, that for a while she exercised a sort of sovereignty {j^ye(.iovla) in Greece ; and at the same time became the centre of all literary and scientific culture. The democratic constitution, which was no where else so pure, secured to the popular eloquence of Athens, and to the Attic stage, entire freedom ; and this it was, in connexion with other advantages, which raised to the highest point of perfection not only these two branches of literature, but also the sister ones of history and philosophy ; and at the same time gave to the Attic language a completeness and a comprehensiveness, to which no other dialect attained. Note 9. The principal prose writers of this golden period of Attic lite- rature are Thucydides, Xenophon, Lysias, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and tho other Orators. For the Attic poets, see 10 and note 14. § 1. GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. 17 8. Greeks from all the tribes repaired now to Athens to obtain an education ; and even in those parts of literature which were most culti- vated, the Athenian master-pieces were yet considered as models. The consequence was, that the Attic dialect, which now took rank of all the others, became, in those kingdoms which arose out of the Macedonian monarchy, both the court language and the general language of books ; and was henceforth almost exclusively employed by the prose writers of all the Grecian tribes and countries. This language was now also taught in the schools; and the Grammarians decided, according to those Attic models, what was pure Attic, and what was not. The cen- tral point of this later Greek literature, however, formed itself under the Ptolemies at Alexandria in Egypt. 9. Along with this universality of the Attic dialect, began also the period of its gradual decay. On the one hand, writers mingled with the Attic much that was derived from the dialect of their own country ; on the other, instead of anomalies peculiar to the Athenians and expres- sions which seemed far-fetched, they employed the natural and regular formation; or, instead of a simple primitive word which had fallen more or less into disuse in common life, they introduced a derived one which was now more usual.* This the Grammarians (this class of whom are called Atticistsi) sought to hinder, often indeed with pedantry and exaggeration ; and proposed in their books, over against those expres- sions which they censured or accounted less elegant, others selected from the older Attic writers. And thus arose the usage, that the term Attic was understood to include only that which was sanctioned by the authority of those early classic writers, and, in a stricter sense, that which was peculiar to them ; while, on the other hand, the ordinary language of cultivated society, derived as it was from the Attic, was now called y^ocvriy common, or ^EXXrivivLri, Greek, i. e. common Greek ; and even the writers of this later period were now called oi xoivoi or ol ' EXXfjvsg, in opposition to the genuine Attics. Here however we are never to imagine a peculiar dialect; for this y.otvt] dtaXexvog, in all its principal characteristics, was and continued to be the Attic ; and conse- quently every ordinary Greek grammar has the Attic language for its chief object. Note 10. It is easy to conceive, that under these circumstances the appellation xoivog, aoivov, became a term of censure ; and that although it strictly signifies that which was common to all the Greeks, the genuine Attics themselves included, yet in the mouth of the Grammarians it desig- nated that which was not pure Attic. On the other hand, however, that * E. g. V7}ytad'air for vstv to swim, d^oTQtav for d^ovv to plough. \ E.g. Phrynichus, Moeris, Thomas Magister. 18 § 1. GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. which was called Attic, was not all for that reason exclusively of the pure Attic form, not even among the genuine Attics themselves. Many an Attic idiom was not entirely usual even in Athens, but alternated with other forms in general use, e. g. cpdolrj with q)doT, ^vv with (tw. Many Ionic forms were also not unusual among the Attics, (e. g. uncontracted forms instead of contracted ones,) of which therefore the writers, who every where consulted their ear, could avail themselves. Nevertheless, this approach to the Ionic furnishes the chief criterion of the earlier Attic in the strictest sense ; in which e. g. Thucydides wrote ; while Demosthe- nes belongs to the later Attic, which forms the transition to the kolvoL Note 11. To draw an exact and appropriate line of division, we mu^t make the later period, or the xolvoI, begin with the earliest of those au- thors who wrote Attic without being themselves Athenians. Here belong Aristotle, Theophrastus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and the other later writers ; among whom nevertheless were many who strove with great diligence to make the earlier Attic language their own ; as was the case particularly with Lucian, Aelian, and Arrian. Note 12. Among the dialects of the provinces, which mingled them- selves to a considerable degree with the later Greek, the Macedonian is particularly conspicuous. The Macedonians were a nation related to the Greeks, and reckoned themselves to the Doric tribe. As conquerors, they therefore introduced the Greek culture into the barbarous countries which they ruled. Here also the Greek language was now spoken and written ; but not without peculiarities, which the Grammarians designate as Mace- donic forms ; and as the principal seat of this later Greek culture was in Egypt, and in Alexandria its capital, the same forms are included also un- der the name of the Alexandrine dialect. — Moreover the other inhabitants of such conquered countries, who were not Greeks by birth, began now also to sipeak Greek (£1X1]%' I'Csiv) ; and hence an Asiatic, a Syrian, etc. who thus spoke Greek, was called 'EkXrjVicnfjg. From this circumstance has arisen the modern usage, according to which the language of such writers, mixed as it is with many forms that are not Greek and with many ori- ental idioms, is called the Hellenistic language. It is easy to conceive, that the chief seat of this language is to be found in the Greek works of Jews and Christians of that age, viz. in the version of the Old Testament by the Seventy, and in the New Testament ; whence it passed more or less into the works of the Fathers. — New barbarisms of every kind were introduced in the middle ages, when Constantinople, the ancient Byzan- tium, became the capital of the Greek empire and the centre of the con- temporary literature ; and hence arose the language of the Byzantine writers, and finally the present modern Greek. Note 13. In reading the ancient Grammarians, and also many of the modern ones, who have built only upon the authority of the former, it is necessary to bear in mind, in order to prevent misapprehension, that they very frequently employ the names of the dialects in general, and especially the term zoivog, without any regard to their true historical meaning. This takes place particulai'ly, where they undertake to develope etymologically and grammatically the peculiar forms of words and of inflexion which occur. In such cases they give to the simple and natural ground-form, (or what appears so to them,) the name xoLvog; but to every form aiising § 1. GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. 19 out of this by any variation, be it used by no matter what tribe, or be it merely assumed, they give the name of that dialect to which such varia- tion in general is usually ascribed. Thus they call every contraction At- tic ; every change of a into rj, Ionic ; and the like. So from noUg, the Gen. noXiog they call KOLvwg, although this form was never in common use ; the Gen. nolsog they call lonic^ because the Ionics also elsewhere inserted £ instead of other vowels ; and the Gen. noXswg they referred to the Attic, because of the termination wg, which is indeed a form more usual with the Attics ; — while the historic truth is, that noliog belonged to the Ionics and Dorics, noUog only to the poets, and nolbwg not only to the Attics, but also to all the xoLvol. And thus often in the case of a form which is derived from another more simple one, they deduce it through several other inter- mediate forms, each of which they assign to some dialect, although very frequently not one of them was ever in actual use. 10. In this general prevalence of the Attic dialect, however, poetry formed an important exception. Here the Attics were models only in one department, viz. the dramatic. Since now dramatic poetry in its very nature, even in tragedy, can only be the elevated language of real life, it was natural that on the Attic stage only the Attic dialect should be admitted ; and this was afterwards retained by all the other Greek theatres.* The dramatic poets moreover, in those parts of the drama which consisted of dialogue, and especially in those composed of trime- ters or senarii, allowed themselves, with the exception of a freer use of apostrophe and contraction, only a very few of the so called poetic licenses and exchanges of forms. Note 14. The comic poets did this least of all, as one would easily suppose. On the other hand, the tragic senarius readily adopted many Homeric forms. — It is however to be remarked, that in the department of the drama, only the works of genuine and early Attic writers have come down to us ; viz. the tragedians iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides ; and the comic writer Aristophanes. 11. For the remaining species of poetry, especially those which were composed in hexameters, as the epic, didactic, and elegiac. Homer and the other old Ionic poets who were read in the schools, continued to be the models ; and along with them, the old Ionic or Homeric language continued also in vogue, with most of its peculiarities and obsolete forms. This became therefore, (just as the Attic for prose,) the pre- vailing dialect or universal language for these species of poetry ; and remained current even in the Alexandrine and later ages, when it was no longer understood by the common people, but a learned education was necessary to the full understanding and enjoyment of such poetry. All that belongs under this head may be best included under the name of epic language ; since it took its rise wholly from epic poetry. * See note 5, above. 20 § I. GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. Note 15. The most celebrated poets of this class are, in the Alexan- drine period, Apollonius, Callimachus, Aratus ; and later, Nicander, Op- pian, Quintus, etc. 12. In the mean time, the Doric dialect was not entirely excluded from poetry, even in the later periods. It maintained itself in some of the minor species, especially in rural and sportive poems ; partly be- cause there were even here certain earlier models; and partly also because, in many of these poems, it was essential to imitate the tone and language of the countryman and of the lower classes, whose dialect was almost every where the Doric, in consequence of the very general spread of the Doric tribe. Comp. 2 above. Note 16. Hence the works of the idyllic writers, Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, are Doric ; but their later Doric differs much from that of Pin- dar. The ancient epigrams were partly Ionic, partly Doric ; but the Do- ric was here far more simple and dignified, and confined itself to a small number of characteristic Doric forms, which were familiar to the educated poets of every tribe. 13. It remains to observe, that the language employed in the lyric , parts of the drama, as the choruses and passages of deep emotion, is also generally called Doric. This Doric however consists of little more than the prevalence of the long a, especially for tj, which belonged generally to the old language, and was retained in solemn poetry on account of its dignity, while in common life it remained current only among the Dorians.* In other respects this lyric dialect approached also, in many particulars, to the epic language above described. * See 2 above. Besides the long a for tj^ this is true only of genitives in a^ as JiTjXaiSa, ^A'l'Sa, and also those in av, as Nvfi(pa.Vj Movoav, etc. Doricisms in the strict sense, however, are not to be found in these theatrical choruses; viz. infinitives in ^v and rjv^ accusatives plur. in ojg and og^ and the like. PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. Letters and Pronunciation. § 2. Alphabet. The Greeks received their alphabet mostly from the Phenicians as IS evident from the oriental names of the letters; see Appendix b! Ihe following is the Greek alphabet. Pronounced. Name. Numeral Value. ^ a a in far "AXcpa alpha 1 B 13,6 h BrJTcc beta 2 r 7.^ g hard rdfifxa gamma 3 A d d Aekra delta 4 E 6 e in met ^'JEipdov epsllon* 5 5-6 Z c ds ■ ZfJTa zeta •7 H 7} e in they f 'Hxa eta 8 e '&, 6 th sharp Srjxa theta 9 I V i in machine : '/cut a iota 10 K X Jc Kannot, kappa % 20 A I I Aa^pda lambda 30 M fl m Mv mu 40 N V n Nv nu 50 A 1 ■ X ^1 xi 60 short *0 liL^Qov omicron, i. e. short o- 70 n TT, sr P m pi 80 S 90 p Q>P r 'PftJ rho 100 2,C ^, ? s sharp ^iyiia sigma| 200 T T, 7 t Tav tau 300 T V u French " T \pd6v upsilon* 400

^.'^ The first eight letters with the Bav denoted the units ; the next eight with the KoTina, the tens ; and the last eight with the Sa^iii, the hundreds. When used as figures, the letters are marked by a stroke above, thus : a 1, ^ 2, g'6; t'lO, m'll, tyi9, x 20, xg'26; ^'100, o-' 200, o-A/T 232, etc. The thousands commence again with a, but with a stroke beneath the let- ter, as a 1000, ^/5 2000, ^al^ 2232. Note 4. There was still another ancient mode of writing numerals, cor- responding to the Latin method. In this /was assumed as unity, and then the first letters of the numerals JIsvis Jive, Jsxa ten, IIsxaTov (the old form of kxajov) hundred, XIXlol thousand, MvQiob ten thousand, were put for these numbers respectively ; thus 77 denoted 5, J 10, 77 100, X 1000, M 10,000. These letters were then combined to express different numbers, just like the Roman numerals ; except that whenever a J, 77, X, or M, was to be repeated five times, instead of this it was put only once, but en- closed in a large 77. Thus J^ 50, J^ /ll 61, ^ 500, i^5000,etc. — This was the old Attic system ; and is oflen found in inscriptions. * In some modern editions also at the end of syllables. This usage, however, if extended beyond the more common composite words, viz. those with the en- clitics and with tcqoSj shy tSy and perhaps dv?j presents great difficulties. [It is not found in any manuscript, and was first introduced partially by Henry Ste- phens, more fully by F. A. Wolf.— Tr. t This mark is commonly called Sti, and also Stigma. • Its coincidence in form with the Bav (see note 3) is only accidental. + These three Episema were originally letters of the alphabet, which after- wards became obsolete. The i-esemblance of the ^ to the later abbreviation for gt is only accidental ; as a numeral it is called Bav, and is merely another form of the digamma, F or 5, as its place in the numeral system shews, where it corre- sponds to the oriental Vao. The l., originally (p, is called Kdnira, and was derived from the oriental Koph, (Lat. Q.) which occupies the same place in the alphabet. The JSafinc'is strictly an abbreviation for an; originally, however, it § 3. PRONUNCIATION. 23 § 3. Pronunciation. 1. The ancient pronunciation can no longer be determined with cer- tainty. Among the various ways in which Greek is pronounced in modern times, there are two which are most distinguished, called the RcuMinian and the Erasmian, after their respective advocates in the 16th century. We follow the latter, because it is best supported by the internal evidence, and also by the manner in which Greek names are written by the Latins, and Latin ones by the Greeks ; see note 1. The ReucMinian method follows chiefly that of the modern Greeks, which they continue warmly to defend as the ancient and true pronunciation. Note 1. The Latin mode of writing Greek words may be seen above in the Latin names of the letters, in the following part of the present sec- tion, and in §§ 5 and 6. — The common usage of the Reuchlinian pronun- ciation is the following : ^ is pronounced like i ; the diphthong at hke e in there ; the sounds u, ol, v, and vl, are all not to be distinguished from t ; and finally, the v in the other diphthongs (except ov) is pronounced hke V or/, e. g. avjog avtos, Zsvg Zefs.* There are indeed many traces, that this method, in its chief points, is really founded on an ancient pronuncia- tion ; but this could not have been the usual one in the predominant dia- lects. This appears incontestably from the manner in which the Latins wrote Greek words and names, and the Greeks Latin ones, even after the Christian era, e.g. Oi^^r} Thebe ; Pompejus nofim^'iog ; Claudius KXavdiog. Were the modern Greek pronunciation of ol as I correct, neither the Latins could have made from Ilolag Poeas ; nor the Greeks from Cloelia KXodla ; and even KaaclXtog, Koictocq, for Caecilius, Caesar, does not decide for the pronunciation of «t like ae (e in there), since we are by no means certain in respect to the pronunciation of this Latin diphthong. 2. In respect to particular letters, the following is to be remarked : j5 and d are sounded like our b and d. — The modern Greeks give to /? the sound of our v. y before another y and the other palatal letters (j«, x> ^) ^^ sounded like ng. E.g. ay y I) g eng-gus, or likethehuX.angustus; avyxgiaig si/ncrisis, 'u^yxlarjg Anchises, ^g)ly'i Sphinx.f ^ must be pronounced like ds, i. e. with the soft s, like dz.^ In the earlier periods it was sounded like sd. was simply the old letter ^dv already mentioned, derived from the oriental alpha- bet. See Appendix B. * This mode of pronunciation is sometimes called fotacism or Racism (i as in ma- chine), because it gives to so many vowels the sound of Iota ; the Erasmian is also called Etacism (e like a in hate). t In all these cases the Latin n has the sound of our ng, and it is usually so pronounced in Sphinx; that we commonly say Jln-chises instead of Jlng-chises is an error. X This sound also passed over into the yet softer one of z, which is still tho common one among the modern Greeks. 24 §§ 3, 4. DIVISION OP THE LETTERS. |p tj is by some every where pronounced like e in there. We only know, however, that it is a prolonged £. S" is usually not distinguished from r on the continent of Europe ; an- ciently, however, it belonged to the aspirates, i.e. those letters which were pronounced with a breathing, or aspiration ; and it is also still pro- nounced by the modern Greeks like the English th sharp, as in think. V is simply the vowel z, (i.e. the continental i as in machine^ and not the consonant^ ;* hence 'lafi^ogj 'Jwvia, must be pronounced i-atnbos, I-onia. Nevertheless the Greeks employed this letter in foreign names instead of J ; e. g. 'JovXwg Julius, UofJinri'log Pompejus. y. is always expressed in Latin by c, even before e and i ; and the Latin c is also expressed in Greek by x ; e. g. Kl^iwv Cimon, Cicero Kuttgiav. This shows that the Romans pronounced their c like k before all the vowels. V at the end of words, see in § 25, n. 4. Q becomes in certain cases aspirated (rh) ; see § 6. 3. G is to be pronounced like 5 sharp, or ss. T before i followed by another vowel, is not to be pronounced sh, as in English, but retains its simple sound ; thus TalaTia Galati-a, not Gala-sha, KgiTiag Kriti-as, Bv^avriov 3uzanti-on, Tlavaixiog Panaiti'Os, Lat. Panaetius ; so also in TeQevvtog Terentius. V is often employed in Latin names to express the short u, which was wanting in Greek ; e. g. ^Pco^vkog Romulus. Comp. § 5. n. 3. — The modern Greeks pronounce it like i. (p and X ^^^ still somewhat indefinite in respect to the exact pronuncia- tion. The Greeks always expressed the Latin jf by their q), as Fahius 0a ^ tog ; the Latins, however, never reversed this, but always wrote ph for gn. Consequently, we pronounce either the Latin / or the Greek g) in a manner not exactly accurate ; and if the latter, the same holds good of x- Compare the next section. § 4. Division of the Letters. 1. The letters are divided into vowels and consonants. The vowels are subdivided only according to their quantity, for which see § 7. 2. From the consonants must first be separated the three double letters each of which is strictly two letters, for which however only a single figure is employed. For these letters, see § 22, and on ^ see also the preceding section. * The j in Latin, as also on the continent of Europe, has the consonant power of t/.-Tr. W § 4. DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 25 3. The simple consonants are divided a) according to the organ with which they are pronounced, viz. labials . . . 0, n, » — ui (like the French ui or uy in lui, tuyau). ElXel&vva Ei- leithuia, Ilithyia. «i> — au. rXaiJxog GlauJcos, Glaucus. ev — ) ( EvQog Euros, Eurus.* t]v — ) ( Tjv'^ov (from ccv'^co) euxon. ov — ou (as in you). Movau Mousa, Lat. Musa. cov is solely Ionic ; e. g. coviog outos. Note 1. The Latin usage is not however entirely fixed, especially in regard to the diphthong el. This is shewn by the different modes of writ- ing the words "^ IcpiyivEia Iphigenia, Mi'idsia Medea, "HgaxlsLXog Heraclitus, JIoXvxXsLtog Polycletus, etc. — Some few words in aia, oia, remain in Latin unchanged, except that the v probably passed over into the sound of j (or y) ; as Maia Maia, Tgola Troja. 2. From these are to be distinguished the improper diphthongs, which are formed by the so called Iota subscriptum, or Iota written under the following letters : , . «, 7], M. At present the Iota subscriptum does not change the sound of these vowels, and serves merely to mark the derivation ; originally however it was heard in the pronunciation. The ancients wrote this Iota also in a line with the other letters ; and with capital letters this is still the case ; e.g. THI ^OOIAI, T^ Goqiia, rw "Aidrj or adrj. Note 2. The ancient native Greek grammarians reckon also r}v, cav, VLy among the improper diphthongs; of which their definition is, that they are composed of a long and a short vowel, while all the others contain merely ttvo short vowels. Hence it results in regard to the pronunciation, that in order to distinguish rjv from ev, the sound of ^ must be' made to .„ . . \ * That av and sv before a vowel are still written and pronounced in Latin with V, e.g.'u!4yav7] Jilgave, Evdv Evan, is an error which has resulted from the Reuchlinian pronunciation ; only Agaue, Euan, etc. are correct, av and ev iij such cases being always diphthongs. § 6. BREATHINGS. 27 predominate ; so also in the case of tav and vi. It is moreover apparent, that the case was the same with cc, 7}, w, so long as the t continued to be heard, i. e. probably during the whole strictly classic period ; as is proved by the Latin mode of writing tragoedus, coinoedus, for xQuyajdog, }i(ofi(od6g. But it is also no less evident from the later words prosodia^ ode or oda, for nQoabjdicc, ajdi^, that at the period when these words were adopted into the Latin, the difference between w and w was no longer regarded ; and this is throughout the case at the present day. Note 3. The ov is every where sounded only as a single vowel, and is therefore strictly no proper diphthong. We leave it however in posses- sion of its ancient place, inasmuch as it differs essentially from the other improper diphthongs. In each of these only one of the two vowels is heard ; while in ov there is a mixed sound as it were of both o and v. — The short u existed also in the more ancient language, and was retained in the iEolic dialect and in the Latin, which is nearest related to that dia- lect. To mark it they employed the letters and v, which are nearly related. The Homeric ^olsa'&s belongs here; see § 114, Tab. of anom. Verbs, ^ovkofxai. § 6. Breathings. 1. With the letters are connected the two following signs, which are set over every vowel or diphthong at the beginning of a word, viz. -! Spiritus lenis, nvevfxa ipckov, the smooth breathing. — Spiritus asper, nvav^a daov, the rough breathing. The Spiritus asper is our h. The lenis stands where in other languages a word begins simply with a vowel. E. g. "O^ir^gog Homerus, tyca e§o. Both these classes of words, however, are considered in prosody and grammar simply as beginning with a vowel, no regard being had in these respects to the breathing. So in the case of the apostrophe (§ 30) and the moveable final v (§26). 2. In the proper diphthongs, the Spiritus, as also the accents, are always placed over the second vowel; e.g. EvQcnidrig, oTog. In the improper diphthongs this is not the case ; e. g. "^idrig {adrjg). 3. The Spiritus asper stands also over every q at the beginning of a word or syllable.* When q is doubled in the middle of a word, the first one takes the lenis, the second the asper, thus: qq. This is founded on a peculiarity of the ancient pronunciation, which the Latins also did not neglect in Greek words, e, g. QYiTMQ, T[vQQog, rlictor, Pyrrhus. Note 1. Both these breathings exist in other languages as distinct letters, ^e asper is the h of both ancient and modern languages ; the lenis is ih^ Alef or Elif of the orientals. Nor is this latter a mere empty sign. Every vowel which is distinctly uttered without the aid of a * In the common language all words beginning with v have also the asper. 28 § 6. BREATHINGS, preceding consonant, and consequently every one which is so uttered as to be heard entirely separate from the preceding letter,* is actually intro- duced by an audible breathing or gentle impulse ; and the ancients had more occasion to mark this impulse, inasmuch as they did not separate the words in writing. Note 2. The iEolics very frequently exchanged the rough breathing for the smooth, as did also sometimes the Ionics. Hence in the epic lan- guage occur such forms as vfifiiv for v(uv, ocXto from ulXoftai, ^jiXiog for ijXiog, etc. Note 3. Along with these two breathings the earliest language had still another aspirate, which was longest retained by the ^Eolics. This is commonly called Digamma, from its shape jP, i. e. a double JT. It was strictly a real consonant with the sound of v, and was prefixed to ma- ny words which in the other dialects have partly the asper and partly the lenis.j — In regard to the Homeric digamma, which has been so much discussed in modern times, the whole subject rests on the following remarkable fact. A certam number of words beginning with a vowel, especially the pronoun ov, ol, e, and also si'doj, soma, elnEiv, uva^/'lXtog, olvog, olxog, sgyov, iaog, sxaaxog, with their derivatives, have in Homer so often the hiatus (§ 29) before them, that, leaving these words out of the account, the hiatus, which is now so frequent in Homer, becomes ex- tremely rare, and in most of the remaining cases can be easily and natur- ally accounted for. These same words have also, in comparison with others, extremely seldom an apostrophe before them ; and moreover, the immediately preceding long vowels and diphthongs are far less frequently rendered short, than before other words (§ 7. n. 19). Hence one must conclude, that there was something at the beginning of these words, which produced both these effects, and prevented the hiatus. And since short syllables, terminating in a consonant (e. g. og, ov), are also often rendered long before these words, just as if they were in position, — and that too in cases where they are not affected by the caesura, — it follows that all these words in Homer's mouth had this breathing (v) with the power of a consonant before them ; but had lost it in the far later period when Homer's songs were reduc- ed to writing. Moreover, since during this time, and even later, these poems underwent many changes and received many additions, as is now generally acknowledged, we can hence veiy naturally account for the circumstance, that the traces of the digamma in Homer should have been thus obliterated. It is also to be considered, that the gradual disappearance of the digamma may very probably have already commenced in the time of Homer, and that many words therefore may have been sometimes pronounced with it, and sometimes without it. — These remarks are applicable also to Hesiod and the other remains of the most ancient Greek poetry ; but the later epic Writers were obviously no longer acquainted with the digamma. * E.g. if one would clearly distinguish ab-ortion from a-bortion; or would perfectly articulate the second vowel in co-operate, pre- eminent, etc JjM t See § 2. n. 3. and ref. t- Also Appendix B. i^ \ ^7. PROSODY. 29 § 7. Prosody. 1. The term Prosody, according to present usage, includes only the doctrine of quantity , i. e. the length (productio) or shortness (correp- tio) of syllables.* 2. Every word and every grammatical form had, for every syllable, with few exceptions, a constant quantity, which the pronunciation of common life followed ; and which must therefore be known in order to pronounce correctly. Note 1. We hence perceive, that it is an error to consider prosody as something entirely separate from grammar, and as belonging solely to a knowledge of poetry. This error has arisen from the fact, that we are able in general to ascertain the quantity of syllables only from the works of the poets ; since the ancient pronunciation is no longer heard. The poets however had also on this point their peculiarities and licenses ; and hence there is, in many instances, along with the fixed quantity, also a poetical one ; respecting which we shall subjoin what is most important in . the notes. 3. The quantity is denoted by the two following marks over a vowel, (~) long, ( "") short; e.g. « short a, a long «, a variable or doubtful. 4. Every syllable, which cannot be certainly proved to be long, must be assumed as short. 5. A syllable is long, either I. by Nature, or II. by Position, 6. A syllable is long (I.) by nature, when its vowel is long ; as in Latin the middle syllable of amare, docere. In Greek this is in part deter- mined by the vowels themselves ; for of the simple vowels 7j and 0} are always long, £ and are always short. These therefore require no further rules. The three others, on the contrary, a, I, V, can all be, as in Latin, either long or short ; and are therefore called variable or doubtful, Lat. ancipites. Note 2. We must how^ever guard ourselves from supposing, that in the nature of the sounds a, i, v, generally, there was any thing indefinite or fluctuating between long and short. All the simple vowels are in cer- tain words constantly long ; in certain others, constantly short ; but it was only in the sounds of e and o, that the Greek language had for each of these cases a distinct mark or letter. As to the three other vowels, we * The ancient Greek grammarians included also under the name itQoatoSia every thing by which the sound of a syllable was affected ; conseque ntly also the accents and breathings. § 7. PROSODY. can learn their quantity' in particular words, only as we learn it in Latin in respect to all the vowels. When however one of these vowels, which are only apparently thus doubtful, is found to be really doubtful or variable in some particular words, e. g. the a in vmIoc, the t in avla, this is only the same that occurs also in the sounds of e apd o with their double characters ; e.g. in rQoxdbi and rgbj/dca, aoog and aiaog, viag and y?J«?; all which in- stances, in the most ancient mode of writing, were in like manner not distinguished. 7. In regard to syllables which are long by nature, there is the following general rule : Two voivels flowing together into one sound form a long syllable. Consequently the following are long : 1) All diphthongs without exception ; e.g. the penult in §a6l\itog, inadoj. 2) All contracted syllables ; and in this case the doubtful vowels are consequently always long; e.g. the « in k-acov for diy.Mv, the c in Igog for IfQog^ the v in Accus. ^oxqvq for ^OTQvag; see §28. Note 3. From these contractions, however, we must carefully distin- guish the cases of simple elision, e. g. anayoi for ano-aya; see §§ 28-30. 8. A syllable, even with a short vowel, is long (II.) hy position, i.e. when it is followed by two or more consonants, or by a double consonant; e.g. the penult in yyead^ai^ f.ityi,rnog,*zadtX}iO)^ ^tXefivov, axpOQQog^ Note 4. Very often, also, a vowel already long occurs in position. In this case, it is a very common error to rest satisfied with the length by position, without prolonging the vowel in pronunciation. It must how- ever be prolonged, not only in A')]^vog{^Yon. Lemnos), 0Q7irj^,XaQMvdug, etc. — and also where the circumflex stands (§11. 1), as in [lixXXov, Tcga^ig^ — but also in TT^axTO), tcqu^o}, where the a is proved to be long by the derived forms {nQu^ig, nguyfiu) which take the circumflex.' On the other hand, t«ttw, T«|ci), have the « short, like Ta^ig. So also one must distinguish between the last syllable of &(x)Qa^ where the a is long (Gen. -d^wQaxog), and that of auAwl where it is short (Gen. avXaxog) ; just as between the final syllables o£ KvxXbJip and Kixgoii). It is necessary therefore to know the real quan- tity of the doubtful vowels in position, in order to pronounce them accu- rately ; and this is learned by observing the accents, according to § 11, and by a comparison of kindred forms, in the manner above indicated. d. A mute before a liquid (§ 4) forms regularly no position : hence the penult is short in azezvog, didgaxf-iog, ysviSh}, dvcsnor^og, etc. By the poets, however, these syllables are sometimes us^d as if long : hence the common assertion, that a mute before a liquid makes a doubt- ful syllable. Note 5. Hence it cannot be sufiiciently impressed upon the learner, that it must be distinctly known, whether the vowel in such a syllable is, or is not, long hy nature ; for then of course it remains long ; e. g. in niv- Ttt&Xog, which is derived from a&Xog (contr. from aed-Xog) and consequently § 7. PROSODY. 31 has the a long ; and in ipvxgog, which has the v long, as coming from ^jv/ta (see note 8). Nothing is more common, than for learners to suppose, that the juxta-position of a mute before a liquid has the power to render even a long vowel doubtful. 10. To the preceding rule, however, the middle mutes {p, y, d) form an exception, and make a real position when they stand before the three liquids A, /m, v. Consequently, in the following words the penult is lo7ig, though they are not to be pronounced as with a long vowel : nlnXf^y^aiy zeTQa^i^Xog, ivodfxog. In the following words with q the penult is short : y^aQadga, MeXtaygog, ^olo^gog. 11. The preceding rules determine the quantity of all syllables, ex- cept those with the simple vowels a, t, v, without valid position. These latter syllables can be determined only by usage ; and since this can be best learned from the poets, and best supported by passages from their works, this mode of determining the quantity is said to be " ex auctori- tate," bi/ authority. In doubtful cases again, the authority of the Attic poets decides for the common language. So far now as it regards the root or ground-syllable of words, the quantity must be learned by obser- vation from the lexicon ; and therefore only some general precepts will be given in the following notes, in respect to that which is most indis- pensable. The quantity of such syllables, however, as are employed for the formation and Jlexion of words, and the cases where the root it- self in the course of flexion or formation changes its quantity, will be every where pointed out in the grammar in the proper place. Note 6. In regard to the quantity of the syllables which serve for formation and flexion, it will only be necessary in general to specify the instances where the doubtful vowels are long; and every syllable on which no remark is made, and where the contrary does not follow from the general rules, is to be regarded as short (see 4 above); e.g. the penult in nqayiiajog, iTVipa,[ir]v, and so also in the formative endings, as in ^vXivog^ dLXttioavvfj. There remain therefore, for the following notes, only the roots and some few examples of derivation, which cannot well be included in grammatical rules. Note 7. In the present mode of pronunciation, it is for the most part only the quantity oif the penult in words of three or more syllables, that we can render distinctly perceptible ; and since it is important to become early accustomed to the correct pronunciation of such words, before one is already familiar with the poets, we give here a table of those which are most essential ; but only such as have the penult long. 6 cpXvaQog idle talk onadog follower vsavlg girl aviaqog afflictive av&adrjg haughty alvuTiL mustard Tiuga turban Ko^aXog rogue n (naytxiv jaw-hone axgaiog unmixed as also all words in -ayog derived from ayco and ayvvfiL ; as Xoxayog captain> vavayog one shipwrecked ; 32 §7. PROSODY. 7^ itafiivogjlre-place 6 xaXiVoq bridle (jilivov parsley Kv^ivov cumin uvxdiJ,Lvov mulberry xvxXdfXLVov (a. plant) o xlvdvvog danger 6 ^oS^vvog ditch SV&VV7) account TtQEd^VTrjg old man doJTlvri gift nsdiXov sandal a^lvrj axe 6 /fX^5a>J' swallow nvTivrj Jlask tQi&og labourer Qr}tivr) resin duQi^i^g exact 6 ofiiXog multitude duovLjov aconite 6 (jxQo^iXog cone of a pine to zaqixog stockfish 6 iplfivdog white lead nhvqov bran TO xsXvcpog shell, pod aynvga anchor ■)) ndnvQog papyrus ■y£(pvga bridge XdcpVQOV booty oXvga spelt xoXXvga sort of loaf. So also Idxvgog strong, from laxvo)' On the contrary, i/vgog and o/vgog secure, from g/w, as also the remaining adjectives in -vgog, have the v short. — ^The following words are also best pronounced long, though they also occur as short : livgiy.1] tamarisk xogvvr} club nXrj^lxvglg food-tide xogvvT) stirring-stick. The following proper names are also long: JSxv^fpaXog, flmgaaXog, Ilglanog,^' Agaxog, Jrjfidgarog/Jx^^V?* Amjadtrig, Evcfgdxrig, NicpaTrjg, Osavco,^ idacaVj^'Afiacng, Sdganig (Serapis).* Evginog, " EvinEvgy Sigicpog, Fgdvixog, Kaixog, fI>oivlxi],^'0(ngig, Bovaigig, ^Ay/lcTTjg, Ai'yiva, Kafidgivcc^^ Acpgodlxtj, ^ A^ipinglxri. /iiovvuog, "Afxcpgyaog, Kaji^mrig, "Agxvxag, Kcoxvxog, Bi]gvx6g, ^^A^vdog, BiS^vvog, ndxvvov^ Kegxvga or Kognvga. For a list of the words of the third declension, which have the penult long in the Gen. and other oblique cases, see Appendix C, Declension 3. Note 8. Not unfrequently, however, the frst syllable of words, by some change or by composition, comes to stand in the distinctive place (note 7). As such, the following deserve particular notice, and have the first syllable long : (pgdxag class-fellow xgdxvg rough 7] acpgaylg seal 7j givog hide vlxtj victory XiTog little xXlvij bed fiLxgog small Slvrj whirlpool Ttpj honour o nvgog wheat \ cpvXri tnbe oxQ^f^oggold vX7] forest, stuff ^vvog common XvTcr] grief Kvcfog crooked nvytj posteriors ijjvx'i} soul In the barytone verbs, ending in a simple w appended to the root, i and v are always long (except in yXvcpo) carve) ; e. g. xgl^ca, avgca, xpvxM, etc. The a on the other hand is short, e. g. ayo), ygdqxa. — For verbs in dva, Ivoi, vvbj, see § 112. n. 8. — Of the contracted verbs, the following deserve particular notice, as having the first syllable long : * The Ionic forms often furnish here a help to the memory in respect to a, having y instead of a ; e. g. ^Tvfi(p7^log_, ngirjnog. t On the other hand nvgoe, Gen. of to nvgfire. axi] destruction 6 daXog frebrand tpiXog bald o x^Xog fodder o Xi(i6g hunger 6 S^v^og mind 6 gvfiog shaft 6 x^'f^ogfuid, sap 6 x'vXogjuice 6 Tvgog cheese § 7. PROSODY. 33 xLvioj move (nyaco be silent avXato plunder Qiyico shudder dicpuoi dip q)V(T(X(o blow. Qt,/6(a freeze The knowledge of all these words is useful, not only in respect to ordinary derivatives, as uTifiog, aipvxog, stqi^ov, diaxql^ia, ifi^Qi&TJg, aavXov, etc. but also for many proper names, as Hermotimus, Demonicus, Eriphyle, etc. Note 9. All words nearly and clearly related to another word, or de- rived from it, have regularly the same quantity as the root ; and hence we have adduced in every instance only the simplest form of a word. In verbal nouns, however, there are some forms which adopt, not the long vowel of the present, but the short one of the Aor. 2. This takes place a) in some nouns in 7/ : tqI^ij, dtongi^i^, ocvaipv/t'], nagaipvxV' On the other hand, ipvxT] soul. b) in some adjectives in rjg, G. sog : svxQLvr/g, axgi^rig, nuXiVTgL^i]g, and subst. 7i(xidoTQl^')]g. Note 10. The rule that one vowel before another is short, which in Latin is uncertain, is even less applicable in Greek. Still, a long vowel be- fore another vowel is far more rare, than before a simple consonant ; and especially the forms of nouns in log, lov, and ta, are always short, with the exception of xahd nest, alxla insult, avla grief, xovla dust, and even of these the two last occur in the epic poets as short. Gen- erally speaking, one vowel before another was probably in many cases doubtful, even in common usage ; and such instances were treated by the poets, and especially the epic poets, with still greater freedom.* But as we can learn the quantity of syllables only from the poets, we are unable to decide on many cases of this kind from the want of sufficient examples. This applies especially to the ending of the present of verbs in iko and Ico, which we must leave for the most part to the learner's own observation. We remark only that in the senarius, many of those which have a long vowel in the future, are always employed in the present also as long, viz. danqvca, fitjvva), l(T%V(a, aXvoj, dvco^ &v(o, (pvm, Xv(o, -uw, tiqIo), ;^^/(w. In the other kinds of verse, many of these and also of the others are doubtful. — The following words deserve notice as having the cc long : o Xaog people ' 6 vaog temple xttw (for y.am) burn tcXdoj (for zXaloi) weep. Further, the penult in "Evvoi, Bellona ; and of those in lav and awy, all which take o in the Genitive, consequently the comparatives (e. g. ^sXtIojv) and many proper names, as" A^cplojv/ TjisqImv, Ma/dojv,'' Ajxvd^dtav, G. ovog. On the contrary JevxaXlcov, ^oqixIoiv, G. ojvog, have the l short. — As to proper names in aog, those of which Xaog is a component part, have the cc of course long ; besides these we have " Aficpidg aog long, Olvofiaog short. — ^The particular exceptions, by which even the long vowels are niade short in verse, see in note 19. Note 11. Much of what belongs to the prosody of the ancient language, * For the sake of the metre the epic poets could lengthen the * even in "Aai^Xt)- Ttiovj ^iXiov, dri[ii7jj etc. See note 15. 34 § '''• PROSODY. is perceptible, in our mouths, only in the artificial pronunciation or scan- ning of verse. Much also was really mere peculiarity and license of the poets ; as has been above remarked. This may therefore properly be in- cluded under the term poetic usage ; and we subjoin here and in the fol- lowing notes what is necessary to be said under this head. It must how- ever be premised, that among the Greeks the different species of poetry and of verse had a great influence on the prosody. There was especially the greatest difference in the laws of prosody, between the hexameter of the Ionic epopee, and the iambic trimeter or senarius which was the prin- cipal verse of the Attic drama, and according to which also the iambic and trochaic measures of this species of poetry generally regulated themselves. This Attic poetry had fewer poetic licenses ; and regulated itself essen- tially according to the actual pronunciation of the Athenian people. The hexameter on the contrary, which followed originally the old Ionic pro- nunciation, allowed the poet in particular cases great freedom. The other kinds of poetry occupied the middle ground between these two ; and hence, even in the drama, those parts which in the expression of pas- sion departed most from the language of ordinary conversation, especially the lyric passages and choruses, employed more or less not only the forms but also the licenses of the epic language. Even the tragic senarius differed in such passages from that of comedy, which every where followed closely the language of ordinary life. Comp. § 1. 10, 11. Note 12. This difference is particularly conspicuous in respect to posi- tion. In the softer Ionic dialect the junction of a mute before a liquid is of itself sufficiently harsh ; and hence in the epic poets, especially the older ones, this case forms almost every where a position. Among the Attics, on the contrary, the rules above given (Text 9, 10) for short sylla- bles, hold every where good in the comic senarius, while the tragic poets often follow also the epic usage. Note 13. The position is also valid in the contact of two successive words ; and that without exception, when the two consonants are divided between the two words, as q)iXov lizoq. When however the two conso- nants begin the second word, the position is indeed regular, (e.g. Homer: *'Evd^a\ Gcpiv xaTu — , Xatgs \ ^slv^ — , II. ^. 73 avTs \ Tfjmg,) but not fre- quent, except when the ictus comes to its aid ; see note 16. Still less frequent however is the case, where the vowel in such circumstances re- mains short ; which nevertheless sometimes occurs. The Attics observed this position more accurately ; except that in this case also a mute before a liquid commonly makes no position ; e. g. Eurip. Iph. Taur. 1317, Hug (pjig;\Tl nv£ii-\fia. Note 14. To the pecidiarities of the hexameter belong also some dif- ferences in respect to the quantity by nature (Text 6. 7). Thus the fol- lowing words especially, which in the Attic language are every where employed as short, KaXog beautifulj I'aog like, are in the epic language long, and the latter is therefore written Taog,* Others again have in the epic poets a quantity entirely doubtful, especially * It is also to be specially noted, that agdj epic aQtjy curse, is in the Attic poets Bhort, and in the epic, long ; while d^ij misfortune is also short in the epic poets. /. PROSODY. 35 uvi](i man, ^'Agrjg Mars, of which the first syllable is elsewhere always short. Hence in the ex- clamation 'Agbg, ^Ageg, which occurs several times in Homer, the first a is long, the second short. Note 15. In other cases it is more apparent, that a word had its fixed and usual quantity, and that the rhythmus alone occasioned the deviation. Still we are not to suppose that this license was without restraints, any more than the others ; for this would have destroyed the charm of the versification. Those old bards were limited by their feelings and taste in such a manner, as to admit of these rhythmic licenses only in certain words and forms, and in particular cases. So especially : 1) lu proper names: "ATiollMvog with w prolonged, ^Elsv&Lvidao with the first I shortened. Hymn. Cer. 105. cf. 95. 2) In words which have too many short vowels, as in unovha&aiy a&avttxog, where the a of the first syllable was prolonged : hence this rhythmus of ad-avaxog became afterwards usual among all poets. 3) At the beginning of an hexameter, where Homer even wi'ites "'Enei- I di] — , and fl4l^ y.a~ \ al/vt]- \ ts — . Note 16. Another rhythmical prolongation is occasioned by the cae- sura. In metre, the arsis is that part of a foot on which the stress of the rhythm, or the ictus (beat) falls ; the other part is called thesis. In the hexameter the arsis is always at the beginning of the foot, (comp. Appen- dix A. 21 sq.) where this species of verse necessarily has a long syllable, which can never be resolved into two short ones. When now the last syllable of a word falls into this place, (thus forming the masculine cae- sura,) this syllable must of itself fill out the arsis. Here now the epic rhythmus allows, that a short syllable falling into this place may be ren- dered long by the mere power of the rhythmus. E. g. II. £. 359 fldXs xa- - 1 (jlyvr\- I xi y.o^ui- \ Gai. So a. 51 /?£- | log i/s- \ TiEvy.ig i- \ cpislg. 'this mode of prolonging a syllable however is not always, nor even often, so simple as in these examples. More frequently it is supported by a position at the beginning of the next word ; which, as is remarked above (note 13), without this ictus, is likewise not frequent ; e. g. otl qa S^vijo-yovrag oquto. Note 17. Another suyjport of this prolongation is, when the following word begins with a liquid ; because such a letter can be easily doubled in pronunciation ; e. g. 11. £. 748 ^'llgri \ 81 jxu- \ axiyi—. d. 274 a^a | ds vscpog I smsTO—, pron. demmastigi, dennephos. The q especially can be so easily doubled in such cases, that even in the Attic poetry, in the thesis as well as in the arsis, a short vowel before q is very commonly made long ; e. g. in the arsis of the senarius, — tov \ ngoffot- \ nov ra- \ gmrj, Aristoph^ Plut. 1065; and the thesis of the spondee among anapaests, — «i/T«t | ds qI- I y«? e/ov- \ aiv, id. Nub. 343. Indeed, where a short syllable was necessary, the q was even avoided. Note 18. The prolongation of a short vowel in the caesura was fur- ther promoted, when this short vowel was immediately followed by one of those words, which (according to § 6. n. 3) had the digarnma ; the aspiration of which could in hke manner easily be increased. Hence the verses of Homer so often close with the possessive og (from I') in this manner : S^vymi- \ ga i]Vf — noQt- \ i to. 36 ^8. ACCENTS. Note 19. A rule without exception for dactylic and anapaestic verse, and especially for the hexameter, is, that a long voioet or diphthong at the end of a word becomes short when followed by another vowel ; e. g.sTiXEV a- I QitjTog, — IWsT«t I aX/og, — ao- | cpansgr] \ «AAa)>'. When how- ever this case coincides with the arsis, the syllable remains long ; in other instances, rarely ; except before the digamma, as has been already re- marked, §6. n. 3. On the other hand, in the Attic senarius this mode of shortening a long syllable was unknown ; the case being always avoided, as hiatus. — The shortening of a long vowel or diphthong before a vowel in the middle of a word also occurs ; but only in certain words and forms, which must have had some such tendency in their pronunciation ; as in noLEiv (often written nouv), noiog and its correlatives, oiogy xoiovTog, etc. Every such long sound however is always shortened before t demonstra- tivum (§ 80), e. g. tovtov'I', amiji) avTui'i: etc. — The epic and other poets- were also accustomed to shorten the vowel in like manner in several other words ; e. g. always in enHr] for sTisidij, and according to the neces- sities of the metre in TiQMrjv, ^gmog (G. of oJQag), mog, ovsLag (Hymn. Cer. 269), in several words in aiog, and others. For the case of Synizesis, or the combining of two short vowels in pro- nunciation into one long one, see § 28. n. 6. § 29. n. 11. § ^- Accents. 1. Along with the quantity of syllables, the Greek language paid re- gard also to the Tone, or what we call the Accent; the expression of which has for us many difficulties, in consequence of the habits and ideas which we derive from our modern languages. The Greek ac- cent, for instance, falls just as often on a short, as on a long syllable ; and hence, if we express this accent in our modern way, it must often injure the quantity ; e. g. tid^ri^i, ^myiQazt^g. 2. It is however historically placed beyond all doubt, and especially by the express testimony of the ancients,* that this accent or tone is as old as the language itself.t The marhing of the tone-syllable was naturally introduced later by the Grammarians, to counteract the pronunciation of words with a false accent, which was creeping more and more into the language of common life ; and at a far later period still, the marks or accents which we now learn at school, came into general use, and have thus transplanted at least the theory of the Greek accent to our times4 3. Reflection and practice have already been able, in a great measure, to remove the apparent contradiction between the quantity and the ac- * Particularly Plato, Cratyl. 35. and Aristotle, Soph. El. 4, 8. Poet. 25. t Of course, this is to be taken generally, in particular cases the tone, like all other parts of the language, was subject to change. The received accent- uation marks chiefly the tone as it was in the most flourishing Attic period. t According to credible testimony, the present mode of accentuation was in- troduced by Aristophanes of Byzantium, about 200 years before the Christian era. See Villois. Epistol. Vinar. p. 115 sq. § 9. ACCENTS. 37 cent ; and it is worthy of scientific effort, to endeavour to restore and render audible this essential part of the euphony of the Greek language ; which however is impossible, without a thorough acquaintance with the present system of accentuation. 4. In other respects also, the Greek accents are not without practical utility. Very often the quantity of syllables is indicated by the position of them ; many words and forms, which otherwise would have the same sound, are distinguished only by the accents; and even wh^n they teach us nothing directly, they yet serve to point out to us the general laws of the tone, without which we could not form a judgment in other more important cases. Note. Nothing is more injurious, than the early habit of reading merely according to the accents, in such a manner as to change the true quantity of the syllables ; see § 9 note. So long as one is unable by study and effort to remedy this evil, and render both quantity and tone properly audible, it is better to let the quantity predominate, as being for us more important. § 9' Kinds of Accents. 1. Every Greek word has regularly the tone upon one of its vowels; and this is strictly only of one kind, viz. the acute, 6'ie7a (sc. TiQOCojdla accent), i. e. the sharp or clear tone, denoted by the mark J. 2. On every syllable, which in our mode of speaking has not the tone, there rested according to the theory of the ancients the grave, i. e. falling tone, (3aoe7a, Lat. gravis. For this the Grammarians ap- propriated the mark 1 ; which however is commonly not written over such syllables ; comp. § 13. 2. 3. A long vowel however can also have the circumjflex, negtanwi^ivT], i.e. the winding or prolonged tone, donoted by the mark J. Accord- ing to the Grammarians, a long vowel with this accent is to be considered as composed of two short ones which flow together in pronunciation, of which the first has the acute accent and the other the grave ; e.g. w comes from 66. On the contrary, when two short vowels accented thus, 66, pass over into a long one, this latter takes only the acute, (o. Note. The audible expression of this difference in pronunciation is for us difficult. It will therefore be sufficient here, to warn the learner against two principal errors. On the one hand, let him accustom himself to distinguish every accented long vowel (a> or to) from an unaccented one (g)), e. g. in av&Qbmog, in such a manner, however, as not to read the latter as short o.* On the other hand, let him avoid also the opposite error, * Thus one can accent the first syllable in av&QOJTtogj and yet prolong the second. Something like this occurs also in English, in the words grandfather , 38 §§ 10, 11. ACCENTS. and not prolong the accented short vowels ; e. g. not pronounce oneQ like § 10. Words named according to the Accent. 1. The proper tone or accent, acute and circumflex, can stand only on one of the three last syllables ; the acute upon either of them, the circumflex only on one of the two last. That MTivi and the like, are only apparent exceptions, is evident from § 14. n. 2. 2. In relation to the accents, the condition of the last syllable gives to the whole word its grammatical name. According as the last sylla- ble has (1) the acute, (2) the circumflex, -or (3) no tone at all (conse- quently the grave § 9. 2), the word is called Oxytonon (oxytone), — e. g. OQy^, d^eog, 6g, zezvcptog Perispomenon (circumflexed), — cpdoj^ vovg Barytonon (barytone), — tvutoj, ngayfia, ngayfiara. 3. All barytones of two or more syllables are again subdivided, — according as they have (1) the acute on the penult, or (2) on the ante- penult, or (3) the circumflex on the penult, — into Paroxytona — tvhtoj, teTv^ifxevog Proparoxytona — TvnTO^isvog, ccvd^QMuog Properispomena — ngayficc, cptlouGcc. For the apparent barytones, e. g. like dgyvi tervcpojg, etc. and for the atona, see 45. 4. When however a penult syllable, which is long by nature, has the tone, it must have the circumflex, whenever the Jinal syllable is short, or long only by position ; e.g. gjjfia, olvog, ipv^og, /?wA«§, (G. aviog). Note 2. This rule does not apply to words to which enclitics are ap- pended ; hence uxs, ovxb, otanEQ, i]xig, xovads, etc. § 14. n. 2. — The only real exceptions are the particles sl'ds and val/ij prolonged from d and val. The accentuation vaL%l is false. 5. On the contrary, when the Jinal syllable is long by nature, the circumflex cannot stand upon the penult; hence QrjTcoQj o'ivri, ^ii^X^' '&ojgcc^ (G. ditog). 6. The antepenult syllable can have only the acute (§ 10. 1). When however the Jinal syllable is long, either by nature or from position, the antepenult cannot have the tone ; hence 2Jo)iiQuxtjg, avXXeyco, igt^ojla^. 7. The terminations at and ot, although 'in themselves long, have 40 § 12. ACCENTS. nevertheless in respect to the two last preceding rules only the power of a short vowel ; hence tgtaivah ngoipriTai, noj^^oc, ai>&Q(onot^^V\\irB\so{TQlcitvc(,7iQoq)f}' trig, TiMlogj avd^gconog. Tvnio^iai, Tvmevao, Tvmeod^aL, Ttivxpat, Passive forms. Tioi^Gccv, OTfjaat, '&i7vai,y Infinitives. Tioiriuai, ax7]Gatj Imperatives Mid. Note 3. The following are exceptions : 1) The third person of the optative in ol and m, e. g. (psvyoi, Tionjcrai. 2) The adverb ol'xot at home (the Plur. ftlxot houses is short). 3) Words to which enclitics (§ 14) in ol are appended, as oI'(iol, woe is^me ! ritov, w^hether from <)] truly, or from ^' or. 8. The ft) in the terminations of the so called Attic declension also permits the tone to be on the antepenult ; e. g. noleoig, noksoov (§ 51), and N. and A. Sing, and G. Plur. ctvojyeojv (§ 37). Note 4. So also the eo in the Ionic Gen. in cw of the first Declension ; e. g. Ss(T7i6t£(o for deanoTov, § 34. IV. 5. Note 5. It is now easy to see how the learner, who uses correct edi- tions, can readily ascertain the quantity of many words by means of the accents. It is at once known 1) from the circumflex, that the syllable on which it stands, is long; 2) from the acute in such words as xagxlvog, ^ad^gov, etc. that the pe- nult is short (Text 4) ; 3) from the accent of such words as nuqa, agovga, that the last syllable is short (Text 4, 6) ; and 4) from the acute in x^Q^^y ■^'>]^oty that the last syllable is long (Text 4, 5). Moreover even those words and foi'ms, from whose accent no definite conclusion can be drawn, may still perhaps be determined, if one has read much with attention, and calls to mind a kindred or similar form, whose accent is decisive. Thus one pronounces the i in acnrog long, and in Ss- 6(pilog short, because alrog has the circumflex, and (pllog the acute. So also in dlxr], adixog, one recognises the short t, because the plural dlxuL occurs sufficiently ofl;en for him to recollect, that he has never seen it with the circumflex (Text 4, 7). — But the circumflex in monosyllables decides nothing for the longer forms, since the monosyllabic nominatives of the^ third Deck are always long (§ 41. u. 3. § 42. n. 3) ; e. g. nvg, fivg, Gen. nvgog, fivog. § 12. Changes of the Accents. When a word is changed by declination, conjugation, or in any other way, this change has in very many cases an influence on the accent; viz. 1) A necessary influence, when the change is such, that the accent of the ground-form, according to the preceding rules, can no longer be retained ; in such cases § 13. ACCENTS. 41 The circumflex is exchanged for an acute, e. g. olvog Gen. oivov (§ 11. 5), Qfjfiu Gen. Qrjficcvog (§ 10. 1) ; The acute for a circumflex, e. g. iifii^ G. tcfi^^g (§ 11. 3. &), qjevyo) Imperat. (pevye (<^ 11. 4) ; Or the accent is removed from the antepenult to the penult ; e. g. ccpd-gcunog G. av&gojTiov, agovga G. dgovgag (^ 11. 6). 2) But even in cases where according to the preceding rules it would not be necessary, the accent is often, not indeed changed, but removed from its former place ; viz. a) The accent is drawn bacJc; chiefly (1) when the word receives in any way an addition at the beginning ; e. g. tiititm, rvnie — tTvnxi ; odog — ovvodog; nacdeviog — dnaldeviog; (2) when the cause, which bound the accent in the ground-form to the penult (§11. 6), falls away ; e. g. nmdsvw, Imperat. naideve. More exact details and the exceptions are given in the notes under no. I, at the end of § 103, and in the rules for the composition of words § 121. h) The accent is moved forwards, but for the most part only when the word receives one of those terminations, which either always have the tone, e. g. the Part. Perf in cu?, as itTv^pa Part, xsxvqjtug;* or which take the tone under particular circumstances, as i^^^, -^vgog, §43. n. 4. Note. For the shifting of the tone in Anasirophe, see § 117. 3 ; in Apostrophe, see § 30. n. 1 ; when the Augment is dropped, see no. I, at the end of § 103. § 13. Changes of the Accents continued. 1. Hitherto we have considered the tone, only as it is determined by every word and every form for itself alone. But the connexion of words has also an influence on the tone. So far however as it regards the grammar, this takes place only in two principal cases ; viz. the regu- lar tone of a word is modified by its dependence either upon ihQ follow- ing or the preceding parts of a sentence. This we call I. Tendency of the tone towards the following word or words, as shewn (1) by a de- pression of the acute, (2) by casting off* the tone; II. Tendency of the tone towards the preceding word, or Inclination. We treat here (I.) of the tendency towards the following word or words. 2. When an oxytone (§ 10. 2) stands in connexion before other . words, the acute tone or accent is depressed, i. e. it passed in the ancient pronunciation more or less into the grave. This depressed acute is * So also certain terminations in the formation of words; e. g. verbal nouns in iios (loycGfiog), adjectives in xog, vog, tog, riog^ etc. 42 § 14. ACCENTS. therefore in such cases marked as grave J ; while, as we have seen above (§9. 2), the strictly unaccented syllables (Lat. graves) do not take this mark. At the end of a period, however, and consequently before a point or colon,* the acute remains unchanged. E. g. 'Ogyi] da nolld dgav avayxccCet, xaxd. Note 1. Hence we must take care not to consider words which end with the grave accent 2. , as barytones. On the contrary, all such words are always called in grammar oxytones ; because their acute accent merely rests, and the grammatical theory regards every word simply by itself, even when it stands in the midst of a sentence. Note 2. The interrogative pronoun tig, t/, (§ 71,) is the only exception from this rule. For the acute on final syllables before enclitics, see § 14. 3. The following monosyllables, all beginning with a vowel, ov (oux, ov^i) not, (ag as, dif, \ .. iv in, elg (tg) into, i^ (in) out of, and the terminations of the prepositive article (§ 75) 6, 7], ol, at, appear commonly wholly unaccented, because of their close connexion with the following word ; hence they are called atona, words without tone. E. g. vovg' r])Miv i^ 'Aalag' aig ev naQodm' ov yag nagijv. 4. So soon however as such words are no longer in connexion with the following words, whether they stand alone, or at the end of a sen- tence, or after the words on which they depend, they immediately take their tone. E.g. Ov no, inxig yag ov; why not? '&sog wg tvUro as a god; ovdt yiavAov l"^, for in xaxMi^. ' Note 3. These words stand, in respect to the tone, nearly in the same relation to the following word, as the enclitics do to the preceding one ; h6nce they are now often called, after Hermann's suggestion, proclitics. § 14. Enclitics. 1. The tendency of the tone (II.) towards the preceding word, cpn- sists in the so called Inclination of the tone (iyKhacg). There is in Greek a number of words, of one and two syllables, which can connect themselves both in sense and pronunciation so closely with the preceding word, as to throw back their tone upon it ; which then sometimes re- mains upon that word along with its proper tone, or sometimes is united with the latter. Since now these words, in respect to their tone, as it were lean or support themselves {iyxkivea&ai) upon the foregoing word, * Through misunderstanding of the ancient principle, the acute is now placed by most editors also before a comma. ^ 14. ACCENTS. 43 they are therefore called encUticae (enclitics). On the other hand, ev- ' ery accented word, and these enclitics themselves when they retain their tone, are called orthotone, OQ&ozovoviiSva, with upright tone, i. e. not inclined. 2. Such enclitics are : 1) The indefinite pronoun tig, xl, through all the cases, as also the forms Tov^ rqj, which belong to it (§ 77). 2) The following oblique cases of personal pronouns : fiov, ftot, f.ie' GOV, out, a&' ov, oT, t' fiiv, viv, and those beginning with agp with certain exceptions (§ 72. n. 2). 3) The Pres. Indie, of el^il and (priiil, except the monosyllabic 2 pers. sing. (§ 108. IV. ^ 109. 1.) 4) The indefinite adverbs noog, nri, not, nov, no&i, no&ev, noTt, which are distinguished solely by their enclitic tone from the interrogative particles TicJ?; TTo'tf; etc. (§116.) 5) The particles tim, xi, toi, '&7^v, ye, Ktv or m', vvv or vv,* ntg, Qa, and the inseparable particle de (see note 2). 3. Whenever now the inclination takes place (comp. 7 below), if the word which immediately precedes the enclitic be a proparoxyionon (e. g. civ&gMnog) or a properispomenon (e. g. GO)p,a), the enclitic al- ways throws back upon it its accent, but always as an acute upon the final syllable ; e. g. avdgcjnog iarc, Gcofxd p,ov, and when an atonon or unaccented word, e. g. et, precedes, this word receives the accent ; e. g. el rig. 4. When however the preceding word has already an accent of its own upon the final syllable, or has simply an acute upon the penult syl- lable, this accent of its own serves also for the enclitic ; but in such cases the acute on the final syllable is not, as elsewhere, depressed into the grave (§ 13. 2) ; e. g. avriQ xig ' xa/ goo ' Cpdco Gs ' yvvarAcov xovmv ' avdgct xs . Xeysig xt.i 5. When one enclitic follows another, the first, after having thrown back its tone upon the preceding word, receives itself the tone of the second enclitic, but always as an acute ; and so on, when several fol- low one another, to the last, which alone remains unaccented ; e. g. el Tig xiva (f)7]Gi pot naQelvav. * This particle {now, well, indeed) is distinguished by its enclitic form from the adverb of time vvv now. t The instances yvvatuMV ttvojVj ojvrtvojv (note 2), and some others, which seem to contradict the general rules of accent, are by recen.t Grammarians not marked as enclitic. Comp. the author's Musf. Sprachlehr*. \ 44 § 15. MARKS OP INTERPUNCTION. 6. The enclitics retain their tone, i.e. become orthotone, (Text 1,) when the inclination is prevented. This takes place : 1 ) When an enclitic of two syllables follows a paroxytone ; e. g. Xoyog nori i^cogsi, ' avavxlog aqlacv. 2) When the syllable upon which the tone of the enclitic would regularly have been thrown back, has been cut off by apostro- phe ; e. g, nolXol d' daiv. 7. Besides these cases, an enclitic can regularly remain orthotone, only at the beginning of a clause or sentence, or when some emphasis in the thought falls upon it, especially in an antithesis. Many of these words, however, (especially those under 2 and 5,) are in their nature such, that they can never come into these circumstances, and are therefore always enclitic. Note 1. More exact details respecting the inclination etc. of the per- sonal pronouns, as also of ^ov and e^oD etc. see in § 72. n. 2, 3. SO also for H^ly icnlv, and taxiv, § 108. IV. 3. Note 2. An enclitic becomes so closely united with the preceding word, as to constitute with it almost one word. Hence many words, which are often connected with an enclitic in some particular sense, are also written with it in one word ; e. g. wots, ovzs, fisvTOi, ocmg, wvxivcov (§ 77). — The enclitic ds (different from ds but) occurs only in this shape (as inseparable) in o8s, jocroads, cads, dofxovds, etc. (§§ 76. 79. § 116. 2, 7.) Such an enclitic takes the tone of another following one, only in cases where the general rules require it, as o'lJLveg uaiv, tads ts : otherwise usually not, as ovTs Ti. — Still, in most of the cases which belong under this note, there is little uniformity in the editions ; particularly, where the first word in such a compound (according to Text 3) must receive two accents. In this case we find sometimes e. g. ^'J^gs^oads, olocrTs, fully written ; and sometimes only the second accent, "Egs^onds, oIohte. — For rixoL see § 11. n. 3. Note 3. The demonstratives, whenever they are strengthened by de (§ 79. § 116. 7), move forward in all cases their own tone upon their final syllable ; e. g. xoaog, xolog — xoaoads, xoiocrds ' xtjllxog — xTjlixoads ' svS^a — ivd-ads ' xotcri — xoLalds. Since this now becomes the regular accent of the principal word, the Gen, and Dat. of these compounds take also the circumflex upon their long vowels, according to § 33. n. 9. E. g. xoorovds, xocrrjds, xoLolcrde/ on the other hand, Nom. and Ace. xoaijds, xoiomds. § 15. Marks op Interpunction and other Signs. 1. The Greek written language has the point (period) and comma, like our own. The colon is marked by a point above the line, e. g. ovK TJX'&sv' ciXXd — . The 7iote of interrogation (;) is like our semi- colon. Note. The note of exclamation (.') has been only very recently introduced by a few editors. § 16. MUTATIONS OF THE CONSONANTS. 45 2. From the comma must be distinguished the Diastole or Hypodi- astole ( , ) — which serves more clearly to separate some short words con- nected with enclitics, in order that they may not be confounded with other similar words ; e. g. '6,tv (epic o,tti) neut. of oaiig^ and t6,t€ (and that), in order to distinguish them from the particles ore (epic ottc) and zore. ' 3. The following marks have reference only to letters and syllables : 1 the ApostropJie, see § 30. L the Coronis or mark of crasis, see § 29. -T the mark of Diaeresis (French trema), placed over the last of two vowels, to show that they are to be pronounced separately, and not as a diphthong ; e. g. oYg o-is, Trguvg pra-us. For the iota subscript, in ^, »?, w, see § 5. 2. For the marks of quantity^ 1 J, see § 7. 3. § 16. Mutations of the Consonants. 1. In the formation of words and derivation of forms, there occur in the Greek language many changes of the letters, especially for the sake of euphony and easier pronunciation. These often make the root very difficult to be recognised ; while they yet almost always proceed from acknowledged fundamental principles. 2. In regard to the consonants it is in general to be observed, that letters of the same organ, or those which in different organs have the same power (§ 4. 3), are also most inclined to pass over into each other, or be exchanged for one another, whenever a change takes place in a word. 3. This circumstance is also the foundation of the difference of dia- lects ; as the sketch in the following notes will show. Note 1. The dialects exchange most frequently for one another: a. The aspirates ; e. g. S^Xav crush, Att. cplav. So the name (prjg for a centaur (man and beast) is only an ancient form for S^riQ beast ; oQvig, G. oQviS-oQy Dor. ogyt/o?' b. The middle ; e. g. yX-tj/MV penny-royal, Att. /5X»yfG)y* yri, old Dor. da ' b^sXog spit, Dor. odsXog. c. The smooth; thus the interrogative particles and their kindred forms, instead of the usual n, {Ttov, nwq, nolo?, onolog, ttw, etc.) have among the Ionics always x, [ytov, xw?, nolog, oxoXogy ttco, etc.) — So also noxs tvhen. Dor. noica ' — nsvxs Jive, JEol. niixns. d. The liquids ; thus the Dorics say, for riX&ov, ^iX-ntnog, cplXTaxog, — rivd^ov, (iivTKnog, (plvrocTog ,- the Ionics and Attics for nvEVfiav lungs, nXsv^av ; for yXl^avog oven, there exists an Attic form ugl- §avog. — For p,lv and vlv see § 72. n. 6, 12. c. The letters of the same organ ; e. g. the Attics say yvacpsvg fuller rather than xvacpsvg ; and jccTng carpet was equally good with damg. The Ionics sometimes also exchange the aspirates for the corre- 7 46 5 16. MUTATIONS OF THE CONSONANTS. sgonding smooth mutes ; e. g. dixofiai for Sixofjbai take ; avxig for av&Lg again; Att. aacpaga/ogy Ion. aajiagayog, asparagus. f. The d^6g, where the necessary aspiration of the n before the rough breathings «^, vcpahba, § 19. Accumulation of Consonants. 1. From the immediate juxtaposition of consonants, there often arises a harshness, which the Greek language endeavours to avoid. 2. In general three consonants, or one consonant and a double letter, cannot stand together, unless either the first or the last of them is a liquid, or y before a palatal ; e. g. ni^(f)deig, axktjQog, tiylm. In composition, however, jc and a at the end of the first word can remain before two other consonants; as dvacp&agtog, exnvcpGig, ixxpvx^- I" ^^^ other cases, such a concurrence is either avoided, or one letter is dropped ; as iaq)aX&ai, for iacpula&ac in the Perf Pass. § 98. 2. §§ 19, 20. ACCUMULATION OF CONSONANTS. 3. But the concurrence of even two consonants can occasion harsh- ness ; for avoiding which there are certain definite rules', that will be given in the following sections. Note 1. In some rare cases the insertion of a third consonant serves to ease the pronunciation.^ When e.g. the hquid ^ or y, after drop- ping a vowel, comes to stand immediately before the liquid X or ^, the middle mute (/5, 8) corresponding to the first, is inserted ; e. g. from ri^qa comes fiEarj^^gla mid-day ; from fisiisXrjTai came the epic fxifi^hjat, ; and avriQ has Gen. av^qog. Note 2. Sometimes, but equally seldom, a consonant is transposed by metathesis^ to a more convenient place. So arose the Nom. nvv^, from the root IITKN, which re-appears in the oblique cases nvxvog, nvxvi, etc. (See the Table of anom. Nouns § 58.) But even without any strong motive of euphony, such transpositions, especially of the liquids, creep more or less into all languages; of some of which the cultivated language naturally avails itself, e.g. in Greek the formation of the Aor. 2, ns^S^oj, ETtga&ov; or on account of the metre, xgadla for xagdla / and also the reverse, cituq- nog for aTganog, ^dgdiaTog for ^gadLcrrog, etc. Note 3. In the ancient language two consonants more frequently stood together; one of which was afterwards dropped in the ordinary language, but was often retained by the poets, for the sake of the metre or of the more energetic sound ; e. g. moksfiog, nroXig, and their compounds, for noXsnog, noXig. Hence we also see how /cc^al on the ground and /T^-a^a- Xog low are connected. Note 4. On the other hand the o- has a great propensity to introduce itself before other consonants; e.g. the Ionic- Attic a^Lxgog for fiDcgog; and thus arose the forms (TfA-lXa^, a}isdd(o, fj,la/(a, 0Tci,a&8v, and others, from the more ancient fxlXa^, nsdaco, MIFSL (whence fnyslg, etc.) omd^ev, etc. § 20. Juxtaposition of 3Iutes. 1. Two mutes of different organs can stand together in Greek, only when the latter is a lingual, i. e. t, d, or i>, and the following general rule is without exception : A smooth mute admits before it only a smooth; i.e. r only tt, y.. A middle only a middle; — 3 only /?, y. A rough - only a rough ; — -^ only (p, %. E. g. inxd, vvxTog ' ^diXvgog, oyd'oog ' ax'&og^ cp&lvw. 2. Hence, when in the course of formation or flexion two unlike letters come together, the first generally assumes the character of the second. E. g. by appending the terminations xog, dr]v, '&etg, are formed from YQdq)Oi write — ygccmog, ygd^driv from nXtyiO} braid — nXei&tlg. 3. When two mutes of the same kind stand together, if one of them be changed, the other must also be changed. Thus from tmd, oyiTco, come t^dofiog, oydoog ; and when of two smooth mutea the second 50 §§ 20, 21. DOUBLING OP CONSONANTS. passes over into the rough in consequence of the accession of the Spir. asp. (§ 17. 2, 3), the first also follows it ; e.g. inxa, rifAtga — i(f)d^^fifgog, of seven days^ vv'Ata — vvx^^ oh]v, all night. 4. The X of the preposition in alone can stand before all the other mutes, and remains unchanged before them all ; e. g. iytd^eTvac, ixdov- vai^ i}(^alXiiv, ixyeviod-at, iiicpeuysiv. See § 26. 6. § 21. Doubling of Consonants. 1. Consonants doubled are not so frequent in the Greek as in English. The semivowels, viz. A, fi, v, g, a, are oftenest doubled, and after them the r. 2. The Q at the beginning of a word, is always doubled in the com- mon language, whenever in formation or composition a simple vowel comes to stand before it ; e. g. I'QQtnov, aQQtjiYig — from gtnoi with t and « neglggoog — from nepi and geco, see ^ 83. § 120. 6. With diphthongs this does not take place ; e. g. sugcoOTog, from tv and gMvvvfxi. 3. The rough mutes can never be doubled ; but take before them the corresponding smooth, e. g. Zancpta, Ba^i^og^ TIiz(^evg. Note 1. The poets, with the exception of the Attics, often double a consonant for the sake of the metre ; e. g. oaaov, otxi, ottttot^, sweriE, for oaov, etc. So also ox/og, ayiVTicpog, for o'/og, (Txvcpog. This however does not take place arbitrarily, but in certain words often, in others never (e. g. STL, ETSQog, aficc, uvs^og) ; most frequently with the semivowels. See more on this subject § 27. n. 14 sq. Note 2. On the other hand, the same poets avail themselves, though far more rarely, of a simple consonant, when the common usage employs a double one ; e. g. "Axdsvg, ^Odvosvg, for ''Axdhvgy "Odvaasvg. In Uke manner they omit to double the q ; e. g. ags^s from ^s^a). § 22. The Double Letters. 1. When the letters |5, tt, cp, and y, v., y, come to stand before ff, tliey pass over with it into the kindred double letters i/^ or ^. iE. g. by appending the future ending aw are formed from ^ lainffi XeiipM, ygaqw ygaifxa Xtyco Xt'Sco, Gxelyco oxeiiw, and with the ending of the Dat. Plur. <7^, ovv, are formed from ^'Agapeg "u4gaipi, yiogayisg ^oga^vv. 2. Here also the preposition Ik constitutes an exception ; e. g. ^xcjcJ^w, see § 26. 6. Note 1. We must by no means suppose, that the xp when it thus stands for /Sff and gxr, and the k when it stands for yv and /a, are always to be §§ 23 — 25. CONSONANTS. 51 pronounced the first like 6* or /«, and the latter like gs or chs. If this were so, the double letters were but a poor invention. The true state of the case is, that before cr, tlie letters / and x were changed into >«, and /5 and qp into tt ; and then were written together with the tr in | and \^. An evident proof of this is ^ comparison of the Lat. scriho, scripsi. Note 2. The ^ is also a double letter, and stands originally for a8 (§ 3) ; but in the ordinary course of flexion and formation, the cases where it is written instead of these letters, occur for the most part only in some local adverbs, which are formed by appending the syllable ds^ as " Ad^rjva^s for -aads. (§ 116.) § 23. Consonants before ^. 1. Before fi in the middle of words, the labials (p, n, cp) are always changed into fi ; e. g. in the Perf. Pass, and in derivative words : Xeinca ItXsifi-iioLi, TQi^o} TQi^i-^cc, ygacpco ygafi-fxri. 2. ThQ palatals and Unguals are often changed before jm, viz. x and x into y, e.g. TiAixcu nXey-fia, xev^oi z^Tvy-f-icci^ and dy S-, T, ^, into a, e. g. adco aa-f-icij nei&o) nineia-fiai, ipf]&, and r. Before the labials (/?, n, cp; fi) it is changed into ^i ; and before the palatals (y, ^-i /)> i"t<^ / w^^^ ^^6 sound of ng. E. g. in compounds with avv and Ivj avfindaxco, t^^aivoi, Gv^icptgoj^ e'f^xpvxog iyxaXcOy ovyyevi^g, fyx^^Q^C^, iy^tco. Note 1. In appending the enclitics (§ 14. n. 2) an exception is made for the sake of distinction, but only in writing ; e. g. loy/a, ovneg. 52 § 26. MOVEABLE FINAL LETTERS. 2. Before the liquids X, fi, q, the v is assimilated, i. e. changed into the same letter, e. g. GvXXeyo), ikXemo), ef.ifii'v(o, ovQ^anroj. But the preposition iv remains commonly unchanged before q, as Iv- 3. Before a and ^ the v in composition is sometimes retained, some- times changed into ff, and sometimes dropped (see note 2) ; in Jlexion V is commonly dropped before a, e. g. in the Dat. Plur. dalfiov-eg dalfio-ai ' {Arjv-eg fiti-aiv, 4. When after the v a ^, ^, or r has also been dropped before the q (§ 24), the short vowel becomes long, e. g. navT-eg noi-'Gi, rvipavveg xvxpaav (§ 46) ; in order to which, a passes over into sv, and o into ov] e. g. anivd-Wj Fut. onei-OM ' iaovr-eg, Dat. ixov-uiv. Note 2. Exceptions to these rules, such as TiicpavaaL (2 Perf. Pass. from q)alv(o), ninavaig, h'X/iivg, are uncommon, and are easily learned in practice. Note 3. Before cr and ^ the preposition iv remains always unchanged ; e. g. evGuod. — 2vv and naliv before a alone, change their v into o-, as (Tvaanla, itaXiaavrog ; when, however, a is followed by another consonant, and also before ^, gvv drops its v, as avaxrjfza, avaxLa^co, av^vyla ; but naltv commonly retains it, as nallvamog. — ^'Ayav, except where a doubling or assimilation takes place (as ccydvvLcpog, ayaQ^oog), every where drops the y, as aya(T&svi]g, aydxlvzog. Note 4. By the ancients, the v at the end of words was also pro- nounced according to the principles of this section, when the following word began with a consonant ; especially in the article and in preposi- tions. E. g. TOP ^cofjiov, iv nvQL, ' maZe, i^sAog for i;aAo$ gZass, ^rea for ixvda mina, and in the verbs in dco (§ 105. n. 8). In other instances, on the contrary, s is exchanged for «, as igdnM, rdfivco, for Tginca, tifivbi ; ^iya&og for fxi/sS-og. 10. A particular Ionic-Attic usage is, that when long a stands before o, the former is changed into s, and the latter into w ; e.g. for Aao? people, vaog temple, we find Att. Istog, vewg; for xQ(iofim {I use) Ion. /gsafiai; and thus is explained the Ionic Genitive in ew, from the antique form in aOf see Dec. I.* ' 11. The Ionics change av into cov (not mv) in the compounds with avTog, and in the words '&avfia wonder [S^avfid^o) etc.) and xgavfxa wound ; as * This change takes place also in the adj. 'iXsojgj, ojVj for Udosj ov ; in the Gen. r^jg for vdog from vavg ; and in several proper names in dog, as Msvelaog, ^Afi- (pidgaogj or -fwff ; but not in those in dog, as OlvofUMQ. 56 § 27. CHANGES OP THE VOWELS. ifisavTov, tatvTov (§ 74. 3), -d-cjvfxa, TgoiVfia. The simple avxog remains unchanged among the genuine Ionics ; and (ovTog stands merely for o air- tog. (§ 29. n. 6.) 12. Examples of other vowel-changes are : naQdaXig, Dor. nogdaXtg ; — ovofia, JEoL ovvfia ; — larlrj Ion. for ecnla hearth. Notes on the Lengthening oj" Syllables generally. (With reference to §§ 21 and 27.) 13. The mere poetic lengthening of s and o takes place commonly in the Ionic manner by means of sl and ov (note 1) ; very rarely is o changed to 0), as dvo), /li(avv(Tog, for dvo, jLovvaog. — ^Whenever a, l, v, are short in the ordinary language, but-are long in the old or poetic dialect, (e. g. "Tklov with the middle syllable long, avriq with long «, etc.) this does not appear in the written language ; except sometimes in the accent, as in Juog for Xaog. 14. In the ancient written language, moreover, no mode of prolonging a syllable was made visible ; inasmuch as on the one hand, the letters « and o stood also for r] and u, w and ov ; and on the other, the consonants were not written double (§ 21. 1). In later times also the usage remained vari- able ; till at last the Grammarians by degrees settled it, at least for the or- dinary language. 15. The Grammarians also introduced into the works of the ancient poets, the mode of marking the metrical prolongation of a syllable, by doubling the consonants, or by long vowels and diphthongs. But here also the usage was never entirely settled. Very often such words were written wholly in the former usual manner ; and the correct metrical pronunciation was left to the intelligent reader.* Of this there are still in the poets, as they have come down to us, many remains ; thus olor](n (II. a, 342. /, 5) has the second syllable long, and also disfiotgaTo (Od. 5, 434) ; just as we some- times find written e. g. efjfia&sv. And when the epic poets make the first syllable long in ''ATrolXan'og, anovhad^ai, avvs/sg, ocfig, it is doubtful whether this was done by lengthening the vowel, or by doubhng the consonant. 16. In modern times, many have endeavoured to restore the ancient usage of not doubling the consonants in writing. This has been done however in a very unsettled and indefinite manner ; and hence the learner must be put upon his guard, in order that he may not be led into error, when he finds sometimes ajioXXTi/Eiv and sometimes anoXiy/eiv with the same quantity ; and sees, in many editions, the consonant in some words doubled, in others not. 17. Not unfrequently however a consonant is doubled even after a long vowel, e. g. fiuXXov, ij(T(Tmv, i'jXTOJV, Kvojcraog, "T^rixxog, Xevaao), XQUcraav, xgslv- Twv; and the same is also the case in nqaadoi (Ion. 7r^?;oro-o)), llaQvaaaog (Ion. n(xgvr](j(T6g), y.vtcrcrci, Kfjcpiaaog, in which the vowel is to be pronounped long. Here also several editors prefer in the proper names the ancient orthography, and write Kvwaog, JlagvT^aog, xv7aa, K'i]q)i(T6g, etc. The names of places in -omaa have arisen out of -oeaaa ; thus ^xojovaaa, * The same usage as to orthography, in the opposite case of shortening a long vowel, see in § 7. n. 2. §28. CONTRACTION. 57 IIid''rixov(Taai, ^AqyivoviTGai, etc. But JSvgaxovaai, -ovacog, with the short form SvQaaoavoq, were already used in the ancient language. See Ausf, Sprachl. Zus. zu §21. A. 9. § 28. Contraction. 1. A vowel immediately preceded by another vowel in the same word, is called pure^ and is said to have a pure sound, i. e. a sound not ush- ered in by a consonant. More particularly, the endings which begin with a vowel, as a, og, co, etc, are called pure, whenever they are pre- ceded by a.vowel; as in aocpla, dtnXoog, g)deco, 2. The characteristic difference between this Ionic and Attic dialects is, that the former prefers in most cases the concurrence of vowels; while the latter mostly avoids it. (See however notes 1 and 5.) 3. The usual methods of avoiding a concurrence are : 1) Elision, where one vowel is dropped and the other remains unchanged. This takes place chiefly in the contact of two separate words, and in composition ; see §^ 29 and 120. 2) Contraction, where two or more vowels are drawn together into one combined long sound. This takes place according to the following principles,: a. Two vowels form in themselves a dipJithong. In this way arise ft and DC out of e'i and o'i, e. g. Teixei Tiix^i, aldoi aido7. (§ 49.) The other proper diphthongs cannot well be formed in this manner ; but the improper ones readily, as (X, 7], 0), out of ai, rfl, cx)'i, e. g. yriQtxl yy]Qa (§ 54), 0Q^iaaa . G^7](7Ga, Xwiaiog ImGiog (§ 68). h. Two vowels pass over into a kindred long sound, commonly so that there arise the following, viz. r] out of £« — TU/sa id/r], xsag xijg heart Ei out of ss — noles nolu, gisd-qov get&QOV stream r ao and aov — rifidofisv Tifj,wfX£V, ^ r. I TLudoV TIUOJ ft) out of «^ 3 :, r. ^ ^ r ) oa and orj — aiooa ctiow, r 00 — nloog nXovg, fJ.l(T&6oflSV fil(T&Olip,SV ov out of «( OS — ifildx^os ifilffS^ov I so — Tsl/sog Tslxovg, \ 7101S0(XSV nOLOVflSV. c. The doubtful vowels a, i, v, when short, swallow up the follow- ing vowel, and thereby become long, e. g. Ion. asS^log {a short) Att. dS^Xog, struggle ; jifiae iLfia Plur. XUog Xtog {one from Xlog) ; Dat. *'lcpu ^'icpv Ix^vsg and ix^vccg {v short) Ix&vg, from Sing, ix^vg. 68 528. CONTRACTION. d. A long sound swallows up a vowel either before or after it, without further change. This takes place particularly with a, f, before and after every kindred long sound, and before the w; e.g. q)tXi(a cptXm, jifArjevTog TifiijvTog, Ti^aoj TtfiM, IIoaeidaMV (long a) noasidioVf Xaag Aa? stone, fXLa&oovcn fiiadovai, nXooi nXo2. 4. When a diphthong with i (the improper ones included) is to be contracted with a preceding vowel, the contraction of the two first vow- els takes place according to the above rules, and the ^ is either sub- scribed, e. g. xvTiT-Eai xi'TiT-r] (§ 103. n. III.) ad-d(o a-do), aov-drj w-5?j. Ti(i-au and ri/x-drj — rifi-a or else falls away, if the new sound does not admit the * subscript, e.g. ^ . , , , . fii(T&~6etv [Aiad^-ovv, "Onosig ^Onovg. (§ 41. n. 5.) Note 1. What is said above includes only regular and analogical contraction. Various exceptions and peculiarities occur below under the declensions and conjugations ; and for the contraction of two words, or crasis, sec § 29. — Moreover contraction does not take place even among the Attics, in all cases, where according to the preceding rules it could occur ; as will be seen below and also from observation. Note 2. On the other hand the Ionics, as above remarked, commonly neglect the contraction, and often resolve a long sound into its constituent parts, which had long fallen out of use among the other Greeks ; e. g. 2 pers. Pass. TvineaL for tvtit)] ; so even cpikssm, enaivhaiy etc. for (pdirj, etc. which is commonly again contracted, (pdjj. (Att. tvtitel, (pdsl, accord- ing to §103. n. III. 3.) — The Doric dialect has many of these resolved forms, in common with the Ionic. Note 3. From the same propensity of the Ionics, comes also in the epic language the so frequent resolution or separation of the diphthongs in certain words ; e. g. naig for natg, oiofiat, irnqoxog, as also ayyrjiov for ay- yetov, etc. — ^likewise the resolution into a double sound, or rather the doub- ling of a vowel sound (§ 105. n. 10) ; e. g. cpaav&Ev, xgrjtjvov, for cpdvS^ev, xgijvov ; and the Ionic insertion of s; e. g. ^]i for ij, rjslLog for ijXiog, islxocri, for eVxool, and so d8sXq)s6g, tovteov, etc.* Note 4. Sometimes the Ionics even promote the concurrence of vow- els by dropping a consonant ; e. g. riqaog for xiqaxog {§ 54). Comp. xvit- xmv etc. in § 103. u. III. * Here it must be borne in mind, that although grammatical theory is wont to represent this as separation and insertion, in reference to the common form, yet that this common form itself may just as well be only a form originally con- tracted from the separate form, and in most cases actually is so. This can be shown in many instances, e. g. in av~ for iv- from ivg, since avg does not exist ; and it is especially probable in respect to the cases of resolution, because these are found only in a very limited number of forms. § 28. CONTRACTION. 59 Note 5. There are also cases where the Ionics contract, and the Attics do not ; e. g. Ion. iQog with long i, for Ugog. The Ionics have also in com- mon with the Dorics a peculiar contraction of eo into sv^ e. g. nXsvvsg for nXiovsg, noL-FVfisvog from noi-sofisvog, for which the common contraction is -ovfievog. — Finally it is to be observed, that the Ionic of the ancient epic, employs contraction much oftener than the later Ionic prose. Note 6. The ancients often wrote out the vowels in full, and left the contraction to the pronunciation. This usage, called Synizesis {(Tvvi'Crjaig), has in many cases been retained in the works of the ancient poets, espe- cially the epic ; e. g. II. A, 282 ^'Aq)Q8ov ds (jTt]^sa, where the two endings cpQsov and &sa are to be pronounced as one syllable, thus, acpQEVv ds (ttiJ- ■d-rj : so S-, 763 /dkxsov (pron. ovv) ds oi tjtoq* The same occurs among the Attics very often in &t6g, Ssov, which otherwise is never contracted, and in some proper names, as NsomoU^og. For sugaxa, see o^aw in the Tab. of anom. Verbs. — For the Synizesis between two words, see § 29. n. 11. Note 7. The contraction above pointed out in d, [cpdsa) cpda etc.) could be considered as elision, or merely a dropping of the e. But it is more correct to include under this name only those instances, where this is done without any purpose of forming a new combined sound. In the middle of words, a vowel is thus dropped (except in compounds, as inuya for sm-aym) mostly only in some Ionic elisions, as qpo/Sso for cpo^sso (§ 105. n. 7). In the cases first in question, however, there was evidently a pur- pose of producing a new combined sound, as is proved by the analogy of other examples, [cpiXslg, cpdovfisv,) and by the circumflex wherever it is written ; only the long sound already existing was adopted, or rather was retained, to represent this new sound. Notes on Accent and Quantity. Note 8. When neither of the two syllables to be contracted has the tone, the contracted one does not take it, e. g. nsgmXoog, hlfiaoVf contr, nsglTiXovg, hl^ioav. Note 9. If however one of the original syllables has the tone, it then remains also upon the contracted one ; and if this be a penult or an ante- penult syllable, the accent is determined according to the general rules (§§ 10, 11). . If it be a final syllable, it takes the circumflex, as voog vovg, qjiXso) cplXm ; unless the original form had the acute upon the last syllabic, which seldom occurs, and then the acute remains ; e. g. mv — tjv, iaraog — mxag, da'i'g — dag. Both these cases are founded on the theory in § 9. 3 ; and exceptions to either are rare ; see e. g. the Ace. in w, § 49. Note 10. In some few contractions usage has shifted the accent ; e. g. asgyog — agyog (§ 120. n. 10), dsXsaxog — dsXrjxog etc. {§ 41. n. 7), xgiiasog — Xgvaovg etc. (§ 60. 6). See also the oblique cases of nsgmXovg, etc. § 36.. note. Note 11. Although every contracted syllable is in its very nature long, yet in some forms of declension which end in a contracted a or t, the * So also the Gen. in sojg, e. g. ©Tjaiojg in two syllables ; the Ion. Gen, in £(o^ e. g. IhjXsidtO) in three syllables. — Tr. 60 § 29. HIATUS. CRASIS. pronunciation has so obscured these long sounds, that they are sometimes found short. So especially the Neut. PI. in a, e. g. tcc yiga (§ 54. n. 3) and some Datives, as KXio^i from KXso^ig, G. to?, (in Herodotus,) with which also da'v ( I ) and some similar epic forms are to be compared (§ 56. n. 5). That however some of these cases may be considered as an elision of the first vowel, is apparent from § 53. n. 2, 3. § 29. Hiatus. — Crasis. 1. When of two successive words the first ends, and the second be- gins, with a vowel, the breathing (spiritus) which is heard between them, whether rough or smooth, produces an effect called Hiatus. This hiatus between two words was more unpleasant to the ear, at least to the Attic ear, than a concurrence of vowels in the middle of a word. It was therefore rarely allowed in poetry ; in Attic poets almost never. In prose also, the Ionic excepted, its frequent recurrence was avoided. Note 1. The Attic verse permitted the hiatus for the most part only after the interrogative t/, the particles otl and mql^ and in the phrases ov8b uq, (xrjds sig (§ 70. 1), ev oiSa, etc. 2. The natural means of avoiding the hiatus is by uniting both syl- lables into one.* This takes place in two ways : (1) by elision with the apostrophe (§30); and (2) by contracting both syllables into one com- bined sound, or Crasis. This last is found, especially in prose, only in a small number of examples, which are given in the following notes. Note 2. In crasis there are three things to be particularly observed. a) Eveiy crasis makes a long syllable (§ 7. 7). In this way several cases of crasis are distinguished from an elision by apostrophe ; e. g. xaAij- S-sg, xagsTrj, for to aX. xcu ag. with short a. Hence such instances as Tccvdgog must be pronounced long ; and Ta^a (for tcc aXXa) must be written with the circumflex ; which however is denied by some, who therefore write xaXXa. For the sake of uniformity, other instances like tuvto, ravToc, (for TO avro, ra avxa,) must also be referred to crasis ; comp. § 28. n. 7. h) The iota subscript is written in a crasis, only when in the original syllables an i occupied the last place ; thus in aaxa from nal sha, but not in x«V for xal av.\ c) Over a crasis is commonly written the sign '_ , called coronis [xogbivlg). Note 3. The crasis occurs most frequently in the article, e. g. ovy,, ovTitf for o ex, o snl TovvavTvov, TOVTiog, for to ivavxlov, to tnog -tovvo^a for to ovofia * That the moveable v is not to be regarded as a means of avoiding the hiatus, appears from § 26.' n. 2. t Some however unnecessarily deviate from this rule, for the sake of avoiding ambiguity, and write xaV, n^TtHTa, etc. §29. CRAsis. 61 TafMx, xanl, for xa ifid, tec inl ^ Tuya&u, raXXa, for xa aya&d, ra cikXa > with long a, see a above. taXrj&ig, radixov,, for to aA. to m5. ^ wnratTwy, eSy?;^, for o ananbiv, 6 avijg* Similar to these are the less frequent cases of crasis in the neut. of the postpositive article or relative pronoun (§ 75), e. g. ado^e for « sdo^e, av for « ay, etc. Note 4. Less easy to be distinguished are such cases of crasis, when the contraction swallows up the diphthongs ; e. g. ovfjLoi for 61 ifxol wnavTbJVTEg for oi anavTMVTsg Toivdgog, TocvdQl, for tov avdgog, tw avdgl (see note 2. a) ; and so alao XaVTOV, TCCVTM (§ 74), (XTTO JUVTOflOtTOVf CtC. or which assume a 19* because of the rough breathing (§ 17. n. 2), e. g. 'd^olfxccTiov PI. S^alfidjia, for to t/u. t« t^u. •&i)fi6Tigov for xoi) ijfieTsgov. Note 5. With £t«^o? the vowels of the article are commonly con- tracted into d ; which comes from the antique and Doric form utsgog ( a ) for ixsgog ; thus dtsgog, aTsgot, for o Exsgog, ol exsgot S-axigov, 'd'axigw, ^dxEgUf for xov, xco, xd ex. Note 6. The Ionics also have the crasis, but always contract o and « into 0) ; e. g. xoj/aXfia, x(aX7jd-ig, twtto xovxov for to «;ro tovtoi*. They change also the spiritus asper into the lenis, e. g. a)^to"Tog for (xgiaxog — wAAot for ot aXXoi. So also (avxog, xcovxo, for o avxog, xo avxo {xavxo). \ Note 7. The conjunction xat also makes often a crasis, e. g. >tdv for xat «>', — y.av for x«t aV and xal idv v.dnuxa, xdxstvog, xd/ca, for xal sjisixa etc. (see note 2. 6.) j{«Ta for Kul sixa xdgsxf}, xiaog, for xal dgext], Ttal I'crog xMvog, yMula, for x«t ol^o?, xal olzla %dxsgog for x«t sxegog, — x^ fo^ xat o — . Other long syllables remain unchanged, as «£t, Ttov, xsv-, for nal si, ov, el-, xslxov for xal uxov. The Ionics and Dorics use ^ for a, e. g. xi]V, xiJTisixa. Note 8. The particles xol, (jlIvxol, ^jxot, also make with av and a^a a long «, and must therefore be written as crasis, xdv, xdga, fzevxdv. Very * According to a critical theory which is not to be rejected, the only ordinary contraction of 6 witli a among the Attics was into long d, e. g. dvy'/g (pron. hdner) ; at least in the'more common instances, as dvyg, dv^gojitog, dhXtfog, etc. It is as- sumed, that in all cases, where in oUr copies only dvr'jg stands, and the sense seems to require the article, it should be written dvt/g; and this is done in most of the recent editions. But this rule is not entirely certain, because the article is often omitted before dvjjg, avSga; see Heindorf ad Plat. Phaedo. 108. 9 62 § 30. APOSTROPHE. often however we find t' civ, t aqa or t' aqa etc. where [the %ol (x ) must not be confounded with iL Note 9. Among the many other cases of crasis, which must for the most part be left to observation, we adduce only the following : iycofiui, iyo)da, for iyw oi^ai, oida fiovaxlv, (lovdcaxsv, etc. for ^ol iaTLV, edcoicsv ngovgyov, ngoiiXlyov, for ngb egyov, oUyov. Note 10. To crasis must also be referred all those instances, where the initial vowel of a word is swallowed up by a preceding lorig vowel or diphthong, e. g. ovvBy.a for ov i'vrAa od^ovvsY.a for otov I'vsza (comp. note 4), which is very often incor- rectly written od-^ ovveku bJV&gcaTTE, (ovsg, ma^, for w avS-gojTis, aveg, ixva^. To avoid ambiguity, however, most cases of this kind are written as elis- ions, and marked with the apostrophe, e. g. w ^ya&& [aya&s) — rfi ^grjiilu {egrjfiia] nov "aTiv [icTTiv) — f/w "v Tolg {iv).* Note 11. Many other contractions were never expressed in writing, but left, as cases of synizesis (§ 28. n. 6), to the pronunciation, which liowever it is not always easy for us to determine ; e. g. tTiel ov as an iambus (Soph. Philoct. 446) ; //?; ov in Attic poetry always as one syllable. So also in Homer, II. t, 446 i] staoxsv as a Dactyl ; II. g, 89 — aa^i- | o-xw 01*5 ' vt- \ ov — . § 30. Apostrophe. 1. In Greek, as in other languages, a short vowel at the end of a word is removed by elision before another vowel, and then an apostro- phe J. is set over the empty place, e. g. in ifAOv for im t^ov. When the following word has the rough breathing, and the elided vowel was preceded by a smooth mute, this latter becomes rough (§ 17. 3) ; e. g. dcp ov for ccno ov. 2. In prose there are certain words of frequent occurrence, which most commonly suffer elision, especially alXd, a^a and dga, uvd, did, aaza, f^i^ia, nuQd, dno, vno, d^(fl, di/il, ini, de, re, yt ; also frequent combinations like vrj Aia {vri Ai'), ndi/T uv for ndvia aV, and the * That all these are real cases of crasis, just as ytA^w ;?, «g a tjv — av f] — u og Neut. ov ov M OV € Neut. ov og {cog) V a or V. Neut. like the Nom. a aiv av aiv atg ag ai, (a OLV ov Neut. a OiV oig ovg 01 Neut. Neut. a (X e OLV eg Neut. a (OV Gvv or at ag Neut. a eg Neut. a Dec. II, is omitted for the Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Dual. N. A. V. G. D. Plur. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. In this Table the form called the Attic sake of perspicuity ; see §37. 5. When these endings are pure (§28. 1), and admit of contraction (§ 28), there arises the contracted mode of declension, which is specified below under each of the three declensions. The words which retain this contraction through all the cases and numbers, are called oXona-drj, affected throughout. This is always true of the contracts of the two first declensions ; in the third, strictly speaking, never. §48. n. 2. Note 1. The Gen. Plur. ends in all the declensions in wv. Note 2. The Dat. Sing, has in all the declensions v ; in the two firat however the l is subscript. Note 3. The Dat. Plur. has strictly in all the declensions criv or ai ; since aig, oig, of the two first, is only an abbreviation from the ancient forms aicriv, OLffLv, or a«rt, olctl. (§ 30. n. 4.) Note 4. The Vocative is mostly like the Nominative. And even when it has a particular form, the form of the Nominative is neverthe- less oflen put for it, especially by the Attics. Note 5. All neuters have, as in Latin, three cases alike, viz. Nom. Ace. and Vocative ; and in the Plur. these cases always end in a. Note 6. The three Greek declensions correspond nearly to the three first in Latin ; except that og in the Nom. becomes in Latin us, and in the Gen. is ; while ov and (av are there um ; and most generally v becomes to. §34. FIRST DECLENSION. 67 Note 7. In the two first declensions, the Nom. has its appropriate case-ending, which in the other cases is simply changed. In the third declension, the endings of the other cases are appended to the last syllable of the Nom. which however usually undergoes some previous change. Note 8. The Dual is strictly only an ancient abridged form of the Plural, which usage afterwards limited to the number of two ; compare the Plural forms ccfi^s, v^fis (§ 72. n. 6, 10) with the Dual of Dec. III. Hence we still find, especially in the epic language, undoubted instances where the Dual stands for the Plural. They are however limited mostly to the verbs (§ 87. n. 6), and among substantive forms occur solely in parti- ciples. (II. s, 487. Hymn. Apoll. 487, etc.) Note 9. In respect to the accent, the rule is universal, that the ter- minations of the Gen. and Dat. when they are long and have the tone, take the circumjlex ; those of the Nom. Ace. and Voc. in the same cir- cumstances take the acute. Here however it is to be remembered, that in the third declension the termination of the Nom. and Voc. Sing, is not a case- ending (§39). § 34. First Declension, 1. All words in rig and ag are masculine^ and all in r] and a feminine. 2. Words ending in a pure (§28. 1) or ^a, have the Gen. in a?, and retain their a through all the cases of the Singular; as aocpla, 7]^itga. The a is also retained by the conti^acts, e.g. fiva {note 1); further by dXaXcc Gen. ag war-cry ^ and by some proper names, viz. Atida.^ * Av- dgof.ada, OcXo^rila, Vtlcc, Aiori^aj which have also long a in the Nominative. 3. All other words in a have the Gen. in rig, and Dat. in ri ; but in the Ace. and Voc. they resume their a ; see Movoa. 4. In the Dual and Plural all the four terminations coincide. The several forms may be learned from the following examples ; in which also the regular changes of the accent are marked. Sing. n (honour) n (wisdom) ri {Muse) ( 3 (citizen) (youth) Nom. Ti^n oocpia MovGa noUTrjg veaviag Gen. Tifirig oocfiag MovGtig noXizov veavlov Dat. XL^ri Goqia MovGri no)JT7] vauvia Ace. TCjurjv GOCfjiav MOVGUV TioXUrjv veaviav Voc. TifAiq GOCf}ia MovGa noKiTct veavia Dual. N. A. V. Ttf,id GO(f)la MovGa noliTa nokUaiv veavla G.D. TtfAoiv GOCplMV MovGacp veaviacv Plur. Nom. Tif^ial aoq.lat MovGcn tioXTtoc veaviai Gen. Tt^cijv Gocptwv MovGcav tioXlkov veavicjv Dat. Ti^aig GOCfiaLg MovGaig noXiTuig veaviatg Ace. TL^dg GO (flag MovGag noXixag veaviag Voc. Tibial Gocplat, MovGat TtoXtTM veaviac >*^ OF THF ^ 'TJinVEE-ITYi osr 68 § 34. FIRST DECLENSION. Sing. Ti (justice) »J [opinion) 1^ (trident) i] (dagger) 6(Atrides) Nom. dUt] yvoifxf] rgiatva iiaxatga^ .Ax^jeidrig Gen. dixrjg yv(xii,itig TQLaivrig {xayaiQcxg 'AiQiidov Dat. dUr] yvdjfiri TQi^aivrj }iayalQa yJi^eidr) Ace. di'Miv yp(i)H7]v TQiaivav (AayuLQav 'ylxQiidriv Voc. T)ijn7 dUrj yvojf^f] TQlULVa ^ayavQu \ ATQildri JLfUUl, N. A. V. din a yvo)f.ia TOicclva fiuyaiguiv ' ^tQiidaw G.D. PJur di'Auiv yi/coficccv TQtaivaiP Nom. dixocc yp(i)IA,ao TQiatvao ^uyaiQOLO '^TQeldcu Gen. dtacof yvcofACOP TQiaLVOJl/ fAuyaiQOiv ^AxgeidMv Dat. dixcctg yviy^iiaig TQtuivaig ^layuiQacg '^T^eldaig Ace. di'zug ypcojAag Totaivag IxayaiQag AxQiidug Voc. dUm yvMfiav TQLaivav ^ay^aLQCii 'Aigeidav Examples for practice see in Appendix C. 5. Of the masculines in rig the following have the Vocative in a, viz. all in xrig ; many compound verbal nouns, which merely append rig to the consonant of the verb, as yeo)fj,txQrig, fxvQonoihig, naidoxgl^fig ; and all national appellations^ as Tlegarig, H'AV'&rig. All others, which however are by far the smaller number, have ri ; especially the patro- nymics in diig, e. g. AxQildrig, q. v. Notes. 1. The contracts of this declension are all oXoTiadij (§ 33. 5). They all contract the Nominative into one of the usual terminations, and are then declined regularly ; except that contracts in a retain this vowel through- out, as being originally pure ; and those in «? all take the Doric Genitive in a (note IV. 4). They are all distinguisliable by the circumflex on the termination. The uncontracted forms, of such words are for the most part unusual, or have been retained with some changes by the Ionics ; e. g. XsovTsa — Isovji'}, G. i'jg, etc. PI. N. XsovxaH,, A. XeovTug (Ion. Xsovxiij, Xeov- xdri). ^ c c , 'EQp.iag — "^QfAijg, G. ov. PI. "EquoI etc. (epic Egfidag) p.vaa — (zva, G. p,vag, PI. [ivdl etc. (Ion. p,vi(x) ^oQsag — also ^oQQoig, G. ^ogga etc. The doubling Of the g is mere- ly an accidental pecuharity. So also "A&riva (orig. -ace, Ion. "AS-rjvalri) ; yij the earth from FAA, Ion. yaiuy seldom ysa. — For the fem. of the contracted adjectives, see § 60. II. Quantity. 1. The Nom. in a which has the Gen. rig, is always short. 2. The Nom. in a which has the Gen. ag, is for the most'part long ; but in many words short. The accent is here a sure guide ; since not only all proparoxytones and propei-ispomena (as paxaiga, ^oiqa) have of course the a short (§ 12. 4, 5) ; but also for this declension there exists the fixed rule, that oxytones and paroxytones which have the Gen. ag, are long in the Nominative, as oxod, ;^a^a, nhqa, iipiga, aocfla, etc. The only exceptions are the numeral ju/a, and the proper names IIvgQcc, Kigga. §34. FIRST DECLENSION. 69 3. The quantity of the final syllable must however be known, in order to the proper accentuation of a word ; but since this cannot always be re- ferred to simple general rules, we subjoin here only the two following, as sufficient for the present. a) Dissyllables in sua have the a long, as xQ^toc ; words of more than two syllables have it short, as uhj&sia from aXtj&ijg, Mi^dsiUj yXvxsta fern, from yXvy.vg. Exceptions are, abstract nouns from verba in Evo), e.g. dovXda from dovlsvo), ^aaiksla kingdom from ^aaiXsva. But ^aalXsia queen from ^aadsvg. See § 119. n. 6. b) All words of three or more syllables, that are female ap- pellatives, are short, e. g. xpolxQia, doTSLQU, ^'O^nvia, etc. So also the adjective noTVia ; but all other feminine adjectives which fall under this head are long, as nvgLog, xygla, etc. 4. The Vocative in « from masculines in ^? is short ; from those in a?, long. The Dual ending a is always long. 5. The ending, ag is long in all the cases in which it occurs ; and the Ace. Plur. is thereby distinguished from that of Dec. Ill, where it is short. The Dorics alone make also the Ace. Plur. of Dec. I, short. 6. The Ace. Sing, in av always follows the quantity of the Nominative. III. Accent. 1. It is characteristic of this declension that the Gen. Plur. almost always has the tone (the circumflex) upon its ending, let the tone in the other cases be where it may ; as Movaa Movaojv, axav&a vatav- S^cav. The cause lies in the contraction of this Genitive from the more ancient form auv, see IV. 3. Exceptions are: (a) The feminines of adjec- tives and barytone participles in og, as l^svog, ^ivrj — ^iv(ov ' aniog, alxla — ahlojv • Tvmoixevog, tj — rvnxo^ivbiv. [h) The substantives /^?;o-t7?$ usurer, ol hrja-laL trade-winds, acpvt] anchovy. 2. In the other cases the tone always remains, so far as the general rules permit, upon the same syllable as in the Nominative ; e. g. Nom. Plur. ao- cflai, Voc. nol%Ta, Nom. Plur. nornai, etc. The only exception is Voc. bidnoxa from dsa^oxtjg master ; since the Homeric (irjxlsxa for fi^xisxrjg, svqvo- Tra, etc. are already so accented in the antique Nominatives ; comp. IV. 2. — The feminines of adjectives in og throw the tone, so soon as the final syllable permits, upon the syllable Where the masculine has it ; e. g. a^iog F. a^lcc, PI. a^iOL, a^iai. 3. That all Genitives and Datives, which have the tone on the termina- tion, mark it with the circumflex, appears from § 33. n. 9. Comp. xtpj above. IV. Dialects. 1. The Dorics put in all the terminations long a for tj^ as xifitt, ag, «, av ; the Ionics commonly put t} for long a, as (Tocpir], rjg, rj, 7}v ' (idxaLQa, t^g, tj, aV o vsrjvlrjg, etc. the Ace. PI. excepted. — But the epic writers retain the a in S^td, S^sdg, etc. in Navaiy.da, dag, and in some proper names in ag, as Alvsiag. Another epic peculiarity is i] instead of short a in xvhffr], ^JxvXXr], commonly xvXaaa, ^xvXXa; and vice versa we find the Homeric vv^icpa for vvfi(pr]. 2. The old language has some masculines in a, which remained in some dialects, and therefore also in Latin. Thus Homer and the other epic writers have often in the Nominative ijiTioxa instead of mnoxrig ,- so firjxlsxUf svqvona, dxdxera. 3. The most ancient form of the Genitive Sing, of the masculines, is in 10 70 ^ 35. SECOND DECLE?JSION. ao, and of the Gen. Plur. of all the terminations, in acav. So the epic ^AxQudao, Movaaav, etc. 4. The Dorics contracted these Genitives into a ; e. g. tov ''ATQslda, i&v Moiuav for MovaSiv, xdv ^Axqu8av. This Doric Genitive has remained in the common language in the Sing, of some few words, especially proper names, e. g. "Avvl^ag Hannibal, rov "Avvl^a Tov ogviS-o&ijga the bird-catcher^s. 5. The Ionics on the other hand converted the ao into eia (§ 27. n. 10), where however the to has no influence on the accent ; so noXks(o (§ 12. n. 4) ; and from aojv they made smv ; thus ^ovtriiav. — Here too the common lan- guage retained this Gen. Sing, in some names of Ionic men, as OaXEta, Ascrxso). — When this ending is preceded by a vowel, the s can in verse be dropped, e. g. ii\u(isXl(a from ev^fiEXirjg, Bogsw from Bogsrjg. 6. The ancient form of the Dat. PI. aicrL, dunv (§ 33. n. 3), e.g. jLfiaUn, Movaaiffiv, etc. occurs not only in the more ancient dialects, but also in the Attic poets, and sometimes even in the earUer Attic prose, e. g. in Plato. So also in Dec. II, the Dat. PI. in oLai, oktlv. — The Ionic dialect has in Dec. I, ridiv, tjcn and fjg. In the epic writers, however, the usage in respect to the shortest form is variable between atg and jjg. These Ionic forms are also sometimes employed in the Attic drama. 7. The Ionic Accusatives dsajioTsa, and -sag, are HeterocliteSf § 56. n. 4. § 35. Second Declension. All words in ov are neuter ; those in og are commonly masculine. Many in og however ^.re feminine ; not merely among the names of persons, animals, trees, and cities (§ 32) ; but also many others. See the catalogue of such words in Appendix C. Besides these there are also several feminines in og, which are properly adjectives, where a feminine substantive is omitted ; e. g. tJ dialanTog dialect (scil. cftaviq), 7] dcafzezQog diameter (so. yQa^ifxri), t; ctTOfAog atom (so. ovGia), tJ avvdgog desert, iq itQOog and ?f TJnsc^jog continent (sc. ;fO)()a), 7] avyxh]Tog (sc. ^ovXrj) senate ; and many others. Sing. 6 (word) n (beech) 6 [people) 6 (man) Nom. ?.6yog Gen. loyov Dat. XoyM Ace. loyov Voc. loye Dual. N. A. V. Aoyw G. D. Xoyoiv Plur. Nom. loyoL Gen. loyMv Dat. loyoig Ace. loyovg Voc. loyob cpnyog^ cprjyov (f)i]yo} cpfjyov q)rjyco GVXOIV avxwv Gvxotg Gvxa avxtt § 36. SECOND DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. Note 1. The neuters in o, as aXXo, lyslvo, etc. which in other respects conform Entirely to this declension, see under the Pronouns, § 74. ■ Note 2. The Vocative is sometimes Uke the Nominative, for the sake of euphony, as in -dsog ; sometimes without any such cause, as w q)iXog, Aristoph. Nub. 1167. Note 3. The quantity and accent rec[uire here no particular remarks ; the ending a is short, as in Latin ; the circumflex on the Genitives and Datives (see (pt]y6g) has already been noted in § 33. n. 9. Note 4. Dialects, a) The Genitive in ov was in the ancient language probably the "uncontracted oo ; hence the so called Thessalian Genitive in 010, of which the epic and lyric language availed itself; as loyoio, (priyolo. h) The Dorics have in the Gen. w, and in the Ace. PI. w?, e. g. o vonogy G. Tw v6fi()3, Ace. PI. Tw? vo^oaq. More rarely they have in the Ace. PI. og ; e. g. from o Ivaog Theocritus has tw? Imog for zovg Imovg. c) In the ancient language the neut. PI. in a appears to have had the Gen. in aoiv ; as Hesiod. Scut. 7, ^Xscpagcov — xvvasaojv. Hence the Ho- meric iaav from tot EA goods ; see Anom. ivg, § 58. d) For the Dat. Plur. in ota-t, oktlv, as Xoyoicrc, (prj/olaiv, see § 34. n. IV. 6. — The epic language prolongs the olv of the Gen. and Dat. Dual into ouVf as mnouv ; see § 27. n. 2. ^ 28. n. 3. § 36. Contracted Form of the Second Declension. Many words in oog and oovj tog and eov, are generally contracted throughout, i. e. as olonad^rj, § 33. 5. This takes place according to the general rules (§ 28) ; except that the a of the neuter swallows up the preceding s or o, and becomes long; as oaita oava, dnXocc unXa. Comp. under adjectives, § 59. Sing. 6 (sailing)^ Plur. Sing, to (bone) Plur. Nom. nXoog nXoug nXooo nXoX oareov oaxovv oavta ogtcc nXoojv nXo)v ouieov ootov oGTt'ojv oatcov nXoocg nXolg oarto^ 6az(o oaxtovg ooToTg nXoovg nXovg ooriov ootovv oaxea oata nXooo nXo7 ooxtov ogtovv oaxta OGza Dual. N. A. nXoio xrAcu I oGzaoj ogtco t G. D. TcXoocv nXolv I oGvtovv ogtoIv Note. The compounds of the monosyllables nXovg, vovg, etc. have, even in the uncontracted forms, the accent on the next preceding syllable, according to the general rule (§ 12. 2. a), e. g. nsqlnXoog nsgmXovg. And they retain it upon this syllable in the contracted form through all the cases, even where the uncontracted form must move it forwards, (e. g. nsgmXov, uncontr. nsginXoov,) contrary to the general rule § 28. n. 8. Gen. Dat. Ace. I Voc. nXoov jiXov nXoco TiXco nXoov nXovv nXos nXov * * This regular Vocative is placed here on account of some proper names, as ndvd'ovg Voc. Hdvd'ov. — From SoQv^oog, -ovg, spear-sharpener, occurs the Voc. SoQv^i, with elided, Aristoph. Pac. 1260. Compare the note on the next page. Besides these a proper Vocative will hardly be found. t The accent of this Dual is contrary to the rule in § 28. n. 9. Comp. § 49. n. 7. 72 § 37. ATTIC SECOND DECLENSION. This syllable, when long by nature, also takes the circumflex before the contracted ol, e. g. svvol from svvovg, uncontr. evvoog, evvooL. But in such instances the tone cannot fall back upon the antepenult ; hence TitginXoh aaxovoL from Ha>i6vov<; evil minded.* § 37. Attic Second DeclensiQn. To the second declension is commonly annexed the declension of several words in wg masc. and fern, and in wv neuter, under the name of the Attic declension. It takes through all the cases w, instead of the usual vowels and diphthongs of the common second declension ; and with L subscript, where the latter has ot or w. The Vocative is always like the Nominative. Sing. [temple TO [hall) Dual. ^ Plur, Nom. vewg ai/o)ye(av V60) 1 avcoyiO) V£0) avcoyso) Gen. vfia avojysM vtMv 1 aviayec^v V€(OV avcoyecov Dat. ve(o ui^ojyew veug avojy60)g Ace. veoiv avojyfoop vetog avojyeco Voc. vetog di^ujyecov V€(6 avMyeo} Note 1. The expression Attic declension must not be understood, as im- plying that the Attics were accustomed to decline words in oq in this man- ner. It is rather a peculiar and ancient mode of declining a very limited number of words ; some of which indeed have forms corresponding to those of Dec. II, but still for the most part differing in other respects, e. g. o laoq people, vaog^ — Xstag, vEcag ; o Xayug hare, Ion. o Xayaog and Xayog. Others have also secondary forms according to Dec. Ill, as Mlvog G. Mlv(o and Mhtoog ; others conform only partially, sometimes to one mode of flexion, and sometimes to another ; see for all this § 56. n. 6. — This mode of declension is called Attic, because when two forms are current, that one which belongs here is employed particularly by the Attics. Note 2. The words of this declension have also a peculiar , Accus. in ft), sometimes together with the regular one, e. g. rov Xayav and Aa/w ; in other words seldom ; in others again exclusively, or almost so. This is the case in these names of places : Jtwc, Kiojg, Teag, ^'Ad^ojg, and in 17 %o3g aurora, Ace. t?}v fo), which is the Attic form for the Ionic lyw? Gen. rioogy ovg (§ 49). — The neuters of some adjectives also have o) in the Nom. and Ace. especially ayr^QOig not growing old, Neut. ayi'iQOJ. Note 3. The Gen. in cao in this declension corresponds to the epic Gen in 010 ; e. g. IIsTswg G. IIsteojo, Homer. Note 4. For the anomalous accent of this declension, see § II. 8. — It is also an exception, that the Gen. Sing, when it has the tone upon the ending, is oxytone, as xov veu ; contrary to § 33. n. 9. * In the language of common life these contractions in ovg degenerated into mere abridged forms in og. Hence proper names in -voog -vovg have also anoth- er form in -vos, which however by way of compensation always lengthens the preceding syllable ; e. g, JEvd'vvovg and Ev&vvog, 'j^Q'j^ivovg and ^^Q)^vog, KaVX- vog properly KrJMvooq. § 38. THIRD DECLENSION. — GENDER. 73 Third Declension. § 38. Gender. 1. In the variety of terminations which belong to this declension, any general rules for ascertaining the gender from the termination must be very imperfect ; and observation and practice will ever remain the best teachers. Nevertheless, there are certain endings, of which the gen- der may be more accurately determined ; see the note. 2. In general, final g belongs more to masculines and feminines ; a short vowel in the final syllable, more to the neuters. — There is no neuter in ^ or ip. Note. We adduce here the terminations of which the gender can be spe- cified with some exactness. In the exceptions no reference is had to those appellations of persons, like t) fiii]Tr}g mother, 17 da^aq spouse, the gender of which is known of course (§32. 2); but whenever a form is marked as without exception, there also no personal form occurs of any other gender. Masculines. All in f.vg, as 0Qs.vg mule, aficpoQEvg amphora. JVo exceptions. ' Substantives which have the Gen. in vrog, as o xivcav, ovxog tendon ; o odovg, ovTog, tooth; 6 Ifidg, ocvTog, thong ; here names of cities only make some exceptions (§ 32. n. 4). Those in tjq, as ^(oa-Trjg. Exceptions ; fern. 9^ yaffxrJQ belly ^ ^ x7]q fate, and in the poets tj ai]Q and ri atS^rjg. Also the contracted neuters, of which below. Feminines. ' ' All in 0), as -^/w. JVo exceptions. Those in ag G. adog, as ?j Xa^nag torch ; with the exception of some adjectives common, as "koyag, anogag, § 63. 5. Those in ig, as ^ noXig, t) /agig. Exceptions ; masc. ocpig serpent, sxig adder, y.ogig bed-bug, ogxig testicle, xvg^ig law-tablet, fjiagig a liquid measure, — Gen. s(og; xig wood-worm, Xtg lion^ G. log, diiXq)lgG. Ivog. Further, o, 1] ogvig G. viS-og; 7j, 6 riygig G. log; 7], 6 S^lg G. ivog heap, bank. Abstract nouns in rijg (Lat. tas), as ty ixLxgoTrjg paivitas . JVo exceptions. JVeuters. All in a, rj, l, v, as to o-W(U« body, xocgrj head, fish honey, atnv city. JVo exceptions. All final syllables made short by s and 0, as to rstxog, to ojrog, and the neuter adjectives in sg, ev, ov. JVo exceptions. Those in ag, as to i]nag, to viaxag. So also those in rig contracted from -Eag, as to tag i)g spring, xo niag xijg heart, xo axiag cnrJQ tallow. The only exception is o ipdg starling. Those in (og which are not personal appellations, as to vdag, to xix- ficag, etc. Except o i/ag lymph and o «/w^ scab. Those in ag with Gen. axog and aog, as to xigag G. axog wonder, xo dircag G. aog goblet. Except o lag stone and o or to KPA2 head. 74 § 39. THIRD DECLENSION. FLEXION. Besides these the only neuter substantives in this declension are to nvgjirey to cptaq light, to ovg ear, to aTalg dough. Nouns in ag consequently, according to the above rules, with the Gen. in avTog, are masculine ; — Gen. adog, feminine ; — Gen. aTog and aog, neuter. §39. Flexion. 1. In every declinable word, it is necessary to distinguish between the root and the case-ending, which alone is changed. In the two first de- clensions the Nominative has also such a case-ending; in the third, this is first appended in the oblique cases, e. g. Dec. II. l6y-og, l6y-ov, Xoy-co Dec. III. x^^^, driQ-6g^ '&f]Q-i. 2. But in the third declension, the Nominative seldom suffers so little change as in '&t]Q. In most instances the final syllable undergoes some alteration, either by addition, as Gen. (SoTQv-og (root ^oxgv) Nom. ^orgyg, or by rejection, as Gen. oojfxuT-og (root owf^ctr) Nom. aojf^ia, or by substitution, as Gen. aavov-og (root ^avov) Nom. kuvojv.* Note. In order to decline a word rightly in the third declension, it is consequently necessary to know the JVominative and one of the oblique cases ; for which purpose the Genitive is commonly taken. When how- ever only one of these two is known, the rules are far simpler for finding the JVominative from the Genitive, than for the reverse ; because in the Genitive the root, on which all depends, is commonly unchanged ; and in the Nominative commonly not. Moreover, the Genitive can and should always be learned with the Nominative from the lexicons ; while in reading, it is most frequently the Genitive, Dative, etc. of an unknown word, that we meet with. In order now to find such a word in the lexi- cons, we must be able to deduce the Nominative from the Genitive ; and for this purpose rules are given in the following sections. * It is here to be particularly noted, that the ground-form or root of a word in respect to flexion, is very different from the proper root in respect to etymology. Whoever does not accurately make this distinction, would naturally be led in ap- plying the above principle, to assume e. g. oojfi as the root, and a, atog, as ending. But a part of this ending, the a at least, belongs already to the formation, and not to declension, with which alone we are here concerned. In the two first de- clensions, it is true, the formative endings and those of declension, often flow together, and cannot be methodically separated, e. g. ^y-og, l6y-ov. But in the third declension, the ending of declension, or the case-endings, can be entirely separated, as above in d^yQ, viz. in the oblique cases; and this alone is what must here take place. Comp. § 91 note. — [According to this view, the etymolo- gical root of a word contains only the essential and usually invariable letters of that word. The groundform, as distinguished from the root, is the simplest actual form derived from it, and is the basis of all the other forms. It is that form under which a word is cited in lexicons and grammars ; in nouns the Nom- inative, and in verbs the 1 pers. Pres. Indie, or theme; comp. § 91 note. § 92. 6. — Tr. §§40,41. THIRD DECLENSION. — CHANGES. 75 § 40. Changes of the Root. 1. The most common changes which the root undergoes in the Nomi- native, are the following:* 1) It assumes ?, e. g. /?or^r^ (Sorgv-og, alg aX-6g, '' 2) The short vowels £ and o of the root, in masculines and femi- nines, become ri and co, e. g. ihiav einov-og^ alri&rig aXrtOt-og. 2. For the more exact application of both these, and indeed of all oth- er precepts, we must here distinguish two principal cases, viz. when the case-ending is preceded (1) by a consonant ^ and (2) by a vowel. § 41. Changes before Case-endings. 1. When the case-ending is preceded by a consonant, and the Nomi- native assumes ?, this ff, with the letters y, x, /, of course passes over into I, — and with /?, it, cp, into \p, (§ 22,) e. g. toga's, "^OQaa-og, ovv^ ovv^-og wip (on-6g, %0Llvip j^dXv^-og. 2. These Nominatives in ^ and ip never change the s and o of the root ; e. g. qX^'ip cpXe^og, cfXol (fXoyog, vMioxp cct'&ionog. Except i] akojnij'i dlconficog fox. 3. When however the consonant before the case-ending is either ^, T, or >&, this of course falls away in the Nom. before the g (§ 24. 3), e. g. Xafiuccg Xufinddog, Awgig AcaQidog, iCTjXlg xf]X7dog oQvig OQvl&og, nogvg xogv'&og, ri ndgvrig Hdgvrj&og tigag xtgaxog, x^gig ^dgnog. 4. So too V and vv fall away before the g, but then the short vowel is prolonged; in the case of it always, in that of i/ usually, in the manner specified in § 25. 4. E. g. ylydg ylyavrog, ^agistg xccgievtog, odovg odovtog dilcpig (long t) del(p7vog,-f (t>6gyivg ^ogavvog . f^tXdg ^lekdvog, aielg azevog.i 5. When the Nominative does not assume g, the consonants v and g are the only ones which can remain at the end of the Nominative ; as * In the following examples the learner must take notice, that e. g. the citation ^oTQvg, ^oT^v-og, is to be thus understood, viz. " From the root ^or^v, which ap- pears in the Gen. por^v-og^ comes the Nom. ^or^vg." And so of all the rest. t In the lexicons and grammars the Nom. of the Gen. in ivog is also given in tp ; but in the earlier writers we always find SsXfplg, dxrig, ^ig, etc. t The only other similar instance is elg, for which see § 70. 1. 76 § 41. THIRD DECLENSION. — CHANGES. al(av aicov-og, drjQ -driQ-og. All other consonants must be cast off; though this actually occurs with r alone.* E. g. ocofia oojfAUT-og, lE^tvocfMv Asvoqcovt-og. In both instances, e and o in masculines and feminines are always changed into tj and w ; e. g. hfii]p XcfAiv-og, QtiTcag ^i]TOQ-og, yegcov yiQovr-og. 6. Some neuters which have the Gen. mog, take q in the Nominative instead of? ; e. g. rjnaQ TJnaz-og. Comp. § 16. n. l.f. 7. In accordance with the above rules we subjoin here the ordinary instances in which the case-ending is preceded by a consonant, viz. The Gen in f ^^^' ^'^^^ ^^^ \ from Nom in i ^' ^i"^^' ^^^• Ihe Uen. m ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^ irom i>om. m ^ ^^^ ^.^^ ^^^ — — — dog, xog, d^og from Nom. in g, as lafxnag, Xay.nadog^ particularly (awfia, axog) {a [amfia, azog) ag {rfgag, axog) ccg (^nag, atog) ig (rjncxgj atog) — — — vog from Nom. in < ^ / c ,^^'< f^\^ \ g {gig, gtpog) particularly — €vog and ovog from Nom. in rjv and wv {Xifii^v U^iivog, eiviMv ehovog) {ag, £ig, ovg, vg [oovg oovTog, oog, aidojg oog {Nom. in ?;? and «?, ^ as aXr]{^jg, Neut.ciltjdeg, G. tog the masculines in 6vg, as Imievg Inning. Here is also singly to be noted rf ygccvg ygaog old woman. For vavg see Anom. Nouns § 58. 4. Besides the above instances, the Genitives in iog and eojg arise also, through a change of the vowel, 1) from the numerous neuters in og, e. g. reixog, tely^eog 2) from most of the Nominatives in og and v, and from some in vg and V, as nolig noXeoig, aazv uGxaog. Note 1. The more particular details respecting these endings, and also on the Gen. in o)?, are given below under the head of contracted declenmon, to the laws of which all these terminations are more or less subject ; see § 49. Note 2. The Gen. in riog belongs to the dialects ; see under words in avg and svq^ and under noXiq, § 50 — 52. See also the Anom. ^'-dQtjg, ivg, TiQEcr^vg, vlog, § 58 ; and some contracts § 53. n. 5. Note 3. The vowels «, i, v, before the ending of the Genitive, are short in all these words, except in ygaog ; hence they are also short in Nominatives of more than one syllable in a?, tg, vg. In regai'd to mono- syllabic Nominatives, the same rule holds here as in the foregoing section, that they are always long ; thus fivg [xvog. ^ 43. Flexion. The following will serve as general examples of the ordinary flexion of words in this declension. Sing. ^4; J. THIRD irnCLENSION'. — PLEXION. 79 (beast) [age) 0, 1^ [divinity {li07l) {giant) Nom. Hq, ai(ov daiixo)v ItOiV yiyug Gen. &tJQOS aiojvog daif^iopog Xf'opTog ylyavTog Dat. ^riQi • - aicopt da.if.iovt> Uovrt, ylyuvTi, Ace. &riQa aiMvcx daifiova It OPT a ylyapTU Voc. ifno almv dalfiOv liOV yiyuv Dual N.A.V. x^^ge alcove daifAOvs W0VT£ ytycxpTi G. D. ^rigoHv alcavoLv datfiopoiv IfOVTOlP yiyaptoiv Plur. Nom. driQeg aiMv^g daifiopeg XiOPTig ylyapxeg Gen. d^riQmv aUovMv daifAOPOjp leOPTMP yiyuPTon' Dat. &ripal {v) aiajiat, {v) dal float, (v) XiOVOt (v) ylyccot (v) Ace. \friQag aiwvag dulfiopag liovxag yiyavxag Voc. i9^p£g aiMveg dalfioveg Xeovteg yiyavxtg ^«n^. 6 [raven] 0, »J (child) 6 (jackal) 6 [wood-worn \) TO (thing) Nom. xo^«| nulg d(o\ nig ngayfia Gen. •Aogayiog jraidog d^coog xtog ngayfiarog Dat. Tcogunt naidi {^un ml TigayfiaTi Ace. Kogu'Aa 71 Old a d^coa alv ngayfia Voc. xoga^ nai -t^cog yilg Tcgayfia Dual N.A.V. y.6ga}(£ nalde &0}£ nls^ TcgayfiaxB G. D. xogazotv naidocv {>MOiV itto7v ngayfiaxotv Plur, Nom. ^loganeg nai d eg dweg aUg ngayfiaxa Gen. nogaiiCDv IT a Id IX) p -Oojcov KIOJV ngayfiaxoiv Dat. Kogcc'ii (p) naiai [v] {)^w(yi (v) ncai (v) ngayfiaot[v) Ace. Hogaxag Tialdag -i^coag xlag ngayfiaxa Voc. Kogaxfg Tialdtg daieg Kieg ngayfiaxa Examples for practice see in Appendix C Note 1. These examples are fully sufficient ; for so soon as one knows the Nom. and Gen. of a word from the lexicon or from the pre- ceding rules, his own reflection will easily teach him the rest, viz. that like aoga^ are to be declined all those words which end in | and ^ / like natg nmdog, all which have in the Gen. dog, &og and to?; hke dalfiav dalfiovog, also x^^^ Xiovog, noifiriv noifisvog; like Xio3V Xiovxog, also opovg odovTog and even &8lg &svTog; and finally like ngayfia, atog, also rjnag rjnaxog. Only the Ace. and Voc. Sing, and Dat. Plur. require some par- ticular explanations, which are given in the following sections. — For the Gen. in lag, see §§ 51, 52. Note 2. Dialects. Besides what will be adduced in the following sections, we remark here only: (1) That the Dual ending oiv is here resolved into ouv by the epic writers, just as in Dec. II, (§ 35. n. 4. d,) e. g. nodoliv for noddlv ; (2) That the Ionics sometimes insert s before w in the Gen. Plur. when it has the circumflex ; e. g. Herod, xv^^f^fv for xv^iov, from X'l^v xv^og ; and so ardgicav for avdguv from uvrjg, Herod. 7. 187. Comp. § 28. n. 3. 80 § 44. THIRD DECLENSION. — ACCUS. SING. Note 3. Quantity. The case-endings t, «, and fcg, are here always short; comp. § 34. n. II. 5, and see in § 52 the exceptions to words in svg. — For the quantity of the final syllable of the Nominative, and of the penult of the Genitive, see § 41 notes. Note 4. Accent. The following rules are here valid : 1) In words of two or more syllables, the accent remains, so long as its nature admits, upon the same syllable as in the Nominative ; see above in xoga^, ai(xiv. 2) Monosyllables throw the accent in the Gen. and Dot. of all the num- bers upon the case-endings ; and upon the ending wv, this is always a cir- cumflex (§ 33. n. 9). See above S^i^q, xig. See the exceptions below. 3) The Accusatives, JVominatives, and Vocatives, on the contrary, never have the tone on the case-ending.* From the second rule are excepted : . ' . a. The participles', as d^dg S-ivxog, mv ovjog, etc. b. The Plural of the adjective jra?, nav, [navTog, navxl,) G. PI. nccvTav D. naaiv. c. Some words which have become monosyllables by contraction, e. g. Xaag lag G. laog (see § 58) ; iaq t]Q, xiag Tcijg, G. t)gog, xi^gog. But not all such ; see in § 41. n. 7, and also oJg, § 50. n. 6. d. The Gen. PI. and Dual of the following ten Words : nalg, S^a'tg, 6 dfiMg slave, 6 Tgcog Trojan, to cpojg light, ^ (p(ag brand, i] dag torch, TO KPA2 head, and the anomalous to ovg ear, o arig moth ; con- sequently, naldojv, S^wmv, dfiMOJV, Tqojcov, cfxaxtov, (fcodoov, dadoov, xgaxbiv, biTb3v, ascav : and so in the Dual naldotv, etc.f c. The lengthened epic Dat. PI. Eat, mat, ^ 46. n. 2. § 44. Accusative Singular. 1. The principal ending of the Accusative in this declension is in a. But words in «?, vg, avg., ovg, have also an Accusative in v, which is formed as in the other declensions, by simply changing the g of the Nominative into v, and retaining the quantity. In those words which have a vowel before the case-ending, this is the only form ; e. g. Povg G. ^oog — ^ouv' dgvg G. dgvog — dgvp. So also iy&vv, noXiv^ ygavv, etc. 2. Those words on the other hand which assume a consonant in the Genitive, have always a, when the last syllable of the Nominative is accented; e.g. Ihilg., Idog — llnida' novg, nodog — iioda. If the last * It must not be overlooked, that in this declension the ending of the icord (gojt- -yjg), is always to be distinguished from the ending of the case (oajzyg-a), § 39. 1. t In several of these words, this accentuation is a trace of contraction from the more ancient forms nd'i'gj cpoji''g_, Sai'gj KPAA^y ovag ; in the others, it prob- ably proceeds from an endeavour to distinguish them from the similar Genitives of the words ai Tgomif ^^lomi, &oj7l damage, 6 (pojg man, etc. § 45. THIRD DECLENSION. — VOCATIVE. 81 syllable of the Nominative is unaccented, they commonly have v, but often also a ; e. g. iQi>g, idog — egiv and egiSa ' Hogvg, vd^og — yiogvv and itoQvd-a ' evelmg, idog — eveXntv and ivtlnida • noXvnovg, odog — noXvnovv and nolvnoda. Note 1. So too Aaa? contr. Xaq stone, Gen. {kaaog) Xaog, has in Ace. Xaav contr. lav. — See also the Anom. nXsig (<^ 58) ; and for words in o) and (og, see § 49. n. 7. Note 2. From the ancient language, the poets (not Attic) retained /?oa for ^ovv, svQsa for svgvv, i/S-va for ix'&vv, and some others. § 45. The Vocative. 1. In this declension the instances are particularly frequent, where a word can indeed form its Vocative regularly, but nevertheless makes it commonly, or at least among the Attics, like the Nominative. We subjoin therefore the rules, according to which nouns of certain termi- nations can thus form their own Vocative ; leaving it to observation to determine in what words this regular Vocative actually occurs. 2. The endings €vg, eg, vg, as also the words naig, ygavg, §ovg, cast off their g to form the Vocative ; and those in evg then assume the circumflex (§ 11. 3); e g. ^aadavg Voc. cu ^aadev. — ITagt, ^ojgl, Trid^v, iqdv, etc. — ncu, ygctv, ^ov. 3. Words in ag and €ig, before which v has fallen away, also cast off their g to form the Vocative, and then for the most part resume the v ; e. g. laXag, avog, co TctXav ' A'iug, avtog, (6 Alav ' i^Qitig^ evtog, (a XagUv. But several proper names in ag, avrog, have in the Voc. only the long a ; e. g. ^' AxXag, avtog, m "Aria. 4. Words which have t^ or co in the termination of the Nomi- native, simply take £ or o in the Vocative ; regularly however only when the other cases have f or o ; see in the examples daifimv and Xemv (§ 43). So also f^rjTfjg, tgog, co ^irjTeg ' gi^vcog, ogog, o) grjiog ' ^oj^gaxrig^ eog, w ^^wiigateg. 5. Feminines in (a and wg form the Vocative in oi (§ 11. 3) ; e. g. 2anq}(a, oi 2an(f)ol' "Hcog, w 'iro7. Note 1. From the rule in no. 4, are excepted those which have the accent on the last syllable, e. g. noLfi'^v, svog, w noinrjv, shepherd ; but only substantives, not adjectives ; e.g. m yttkaivstpig. The following three accord with the general rule, only drawing back the accent, viz. tkxtsq, ccvsg, daeg, from natriQ, avt^g, dayjQ brother-in-law, G. igog. Note 2. Words which retain the long vowel in the other cases, re- main in the Voc. unchanged : consequently w nXarcav (G. avog), a asvo- (pav {avjog), o) IrjTTJg {■rjgog), w Kgaxrig {rjrog). But the following three make the vowel short in the Vocative ; viz. ^A7t6XX(ov (ovog, Uoasid^v mvog 82 § 46. THIRD DECLENSION. DATIVE PLURAL. JVeptune, (T(x>ti]q -i'jgog saviour ; Voc. o) "AnoXXov,' II6(T£l8ov, dMug. Here also the drawing back of the accent must not be overlooked. Note 3. When the accent m the Nominative stands upon the penult, it can in the Voc. be thrown farther back, by shortening the last syllable. (§ 12. 2. a.) This however actually takes place only in certain words, as ^caxgaTsg, ""AnoXXov ; in others not, e. g. x^g'^^v, dai'(pgov, IlalaTfiov. Note 4. It is easy to conceive, that those objects which are seldom directly addressed, should retain rather the form of the Nominative when- ever this did occur ; as w Tcovg, w noXLg, and the like. This often takes place also, especially among the Attics, in such words and names as Kgiojv, Al'ag, xaXag, afOT^g, etc. Note 5. The word tiva^ Jang, when employed to invoke Sigod, has its ownform of the Vocative, w ava, by crasis ma ; elsewhere w «Vo(|, by crasis (ava^. 5 46, Dative Plural. 1. When the ending giv, ai, of the Dative Plural, is preceded by a consonant, the same general rules are applicable as for the g of the Nominative (§ 41). See above, aoga'S, naig, aicov. So also ^'^gaip ''^ga^og — ''^gaiptv, fjnag rjnatog — fjnaaiv, etc. 2. When in such words the vowel of the oblique cases differs from that of the Nominative, it remains also in the Dat. Plural ; as dui^wv, ovog — daifioGi' novg, nodog — nooiv ' dXconrj^, snog — aXMns'S^iv. But when vx has been dropped, the necessary prolongation (§ 25. 4) takes place ; see above, liwv, ylyug, and also odovg, oprog — odovao' Tuneig, ivrog — xvnetGtv. If only v has been dropped, the short vowel remains ; as x«/ff lixevog — UTeoip. Note 1. The adjectives also (not participles) in sig, svTog. have only s, as (po3Vi]sig, tyxog — ^(ovi]Ecnv. 3. When the ending glv, Gi, is preceded by a vowel, i. e. when the word has og pure in the Genitive, this vowel remains in the Dat. PI. un- changed, as in the other oblique cases ; e. g. dltidrig^ tog — dlri'&iGb ' xH^og, aog — xel^eGi^ ' dgvg, dgvog — dgvoiv. When however the Nom. Sing, has a diphthong, the Dat. PI. takes it also, e. g. ^uGiXsvg, tojg — paGtXsvGt ' ygccvg ygaog — ygavGt §ovg ^oog — §ovgIv, Note 2. The ancient and epic language has -eggi [v), and more rarely ~iui [v), instead of (tv [v), in all words ; and this ending, inasmuch as it begins with a vowel, is appended just as in the other cases ; e. g. Ix&v-Eddt, xogaxEffo-L, naldsffffi, ^oectctl, ^cUcnUsaaiv, avaxTSdi. This form of the Dative, when it comes from monosyllables, retains the tone upon the first syllable, or root ; e. g. naldsao-LV, tvscrt, from nalg, i'g. — The Dat. in aai see in § 47. See also § 52. n. 3, and the Anom. viog and x^^g, § 58. §§ 47, 48. THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. 8^5 § 47. Syncope of some Words in t]Q. 1. Some words in tjq, G. egog, drop the e in the Gen. and Dat. Sing, and also in the Dat. PL and then insert a after the g in this Dative ; thus narriQ father. Gen. (naiigog) naTQog, Dat. (naTtgt) natglj A. nati- Qa, V. nareg. PL naxtgeg, G. naxtgajv, D. nurgaai^, A. naxigag. 2. In the same manner are declined, with some anomalies of accent, the following : f-irixrig {fir]Ttgog) fxrixgog mother ri yaaxijg (yaaxigog) yuaxgog stomach •dvyaxrig {d^vyaxtgog) d^vyaxgog daughter Afj^rixrig {Af]fA,i]xegog) Arifirixgog Ceres, which last forms also the Accus. in the same manner, Arjfirixga. • — For avrig, see Anom. Nouns § 58. Note 1. The poets sometimes neglect this syncope, and write e. g. naxBQog, S-vyatigecra-L ; sometimes also they employ the syncope where it is not usually found, as S^vyaxgsg, S^vyaxgwv, etc. naxQMV Horn. Note 2. The accent of these forms is very anomalous. (1) It stands in the full forms (except in the compound JrifiriTriq) always upon the «, and therefore in the forms of (irjxrjg, S^vydxrig, is first shifted to that place. (2) After the s is dropped, the accent is thrown in the Gen. and Dat. of most of them, upon the ending, as fj,rjxg6g, S^vyaxgcav, S^vyaxgaat j which elsewhere occurs only in forms from monosyllabic Nominatives. (3) Jt)- firjTTjg on the contrary draws the tone back in all the syncopated forms, as J^jfirjxgog, etc. and S^vyaxrjg does the same, but only in the Nom. and Ace. when syncopated by the poets, as S^vyatga, ^vyaxg^g, &vy(xxgag. Note 3. The word yaa-xrig has in the Dat. PI. yaaxgda-LV and yaaxijg- uiv. So also ccaxijg, igog, star, which otherwise is not syncopated, has the Dat. PI. daxgda-LV. Contracted Third Declension. § 48. Contraction of Words with Gen. in og pure. 1. Of words which have og pure in the Genitive (§ 42), there are few which are not in some of their forms contracted ; although this is far from taking place in all those forms, where the general rules would permit it. 2. In some instances the mode of contraction deviates from the general rules ; and one instance of this deviation lies in the following special rule : The contracted Accusaiive Plural of the third declension is always formed like the contracted Nominative Plural. 84 § 49. THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. Note 1. Thus e. g. the Nom. Plurals ccXtjS-hg, ^osg, are regularly con- tracted into aXrid-eXg, (Sovg ; and then the Ace. Plural, contrary to the gen- eral rules, assumes precisely the same form ; e. g. ocXrj'&mg, ^oag, contr. vclrj&eTg, ^ovg ; and that too even in words which usually neglect the con- traction of the Nom. Plur. The only exception to this special rule, {a/viag and the like), see in § 53. 2. Note 2. In the third declension there can be strictly no 6Xo7ia&^ {§ 33. 5) ; because the Nominative has no case-ending of its own, like the other cases. But the formative ending of the Nom. can also be pure, and consequently subject to contraction. This however must then be regarded as taking place in the root, and therefore as something apart from declension ; as KBUQ Tiriq, "OjtOEig "Onovg ; and when we know the contracted form of the Genitive {xijg aijgog, " Onovg " OTcovvrog), all the other cases follow in the ordinary manner. For this reason, this contraction has been already treated of above in § 41. n. 5 — 7. It is only when both the formative ending and the case-ending are pure, and consequently a double power of contraction exists, that this mode cannot be separated from the ordinary contracted declension ; see § 53. 3. Comp. § 91. n. 1, 2. Examples for practice in all the following instances of contraction, see in Appendix C. § 49. First Form of Contraction. — Words in rig, etc. Words in riQ and eg, G. tog, (all of them properly adjectives,) neu- ters in 0?, G. 60?, dLnd feminines in w and cog, G. oog, are contracted in all the cases where two vowels come together. Sing. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Dual. N. A. V. G. D. Plur. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. fi {galley) Tgi'7]Qrjg TQt^riQeog TQiriQa'i TQlTlQig rQLt]QOvg TQLriQec TQiTigri TO {wall) THyog xeiieog xeixeC xelxog xaiiog retyovg Ttixu TQlfjQtOtV TQirjgrj^ TQtYlQOh' Teox^oiv T£tXV^ TitX^lv ri {echo) rix^a ix^og VXOvg rixou. riyo} riyol VX(^ as Dee. II. riyoL as Dee. II. TQirjgeeg tgirjgecg rtixeu tfiy^ Tgtf]gtwv TQvriQojv xtiytwv xt^x^v XQi,rigsot{v) ^ xeixtov{v) xgtrjgeag xgif}giig xeixia xsLxn xgnqgeeg xgnqgeig xelxea T^tlxv — Neuter adjectives in ig are declined, with the exception of this ending itself, entirely like the neuters in og ; thus from aXri'&rig^ Neut. akf]-&ig, PI. xd dXTjd^ea dXrj'd^fi. Note 1. The feminines in w and cog are usually found only in the Singular. When the Dual and Plural are necessary, they are formed according to Dec. II. — The masc. ^jgoog see in the anom. Nouns § 58. ^50. THIRD DECLENSION.— CONTRACTION. 85 Note 2. The Dual in rj, (e. g. Aristoph. Thesm. ^82 m TTSQixalXij Otcr- fioq)6Qb},) deviates from the general rule, as being contracted from ££(§28.3). The Attics employ the uncoutracted form ; e. g. tw yivee, Plato Polit.260. b. Note 3. The Attics never neglect the contraction in these words, ex- cept in the Gen. Plur. vv^here w^e very commonly find dv&SMV, Tcsgdtm', rgirjgicav, etc. and so in ^'Aqsoi;, Gen. of^'Agrjg Mais. — The uncoutracted forms of words in w and w? occur nowhere, not even in the Ionic dialect. Note 4. Several paroxytone adjectives in rig^ remain paroxytone in the contracted Gen. Plur. e. g. avvi]&rjg (from '^d^og), xmv avvijS-Mv (uncontr. cvvr]&8(ov), avTagxrjg avTugxojv, etc. Comp. adverbs in ag § 115. n. 1. — Also the Gen. PI. xgirigm, which is given atove as regular, is commonly accented Tgirigbiv, as coming. from an adjective jgLTJgrjg three-oared. Note 5. The irregular contraction of such words as have still another vowel before the usual contraction, see in § 53. Note 6. The Dorics and the epic writers contract the Gen. in eog into svg (§ 28. n. 5) ; e. g. tov ysvsvg from to ysvog. Note 7. The accent of the Accus. of words in w {ti]v rjxco) is con- trary to the rule in § 28. n. 9. In words in (ag, (of which there are but two, ^jtag and aldag^) the Accus. is accented regularly ; rrjv rjoa, ^w. — The Ionics often form the Accus. from both these terminations in ovv, e.g. 'la ""lovv, rj(6g 'i]ovv. § 50. Second Form of Contraction. — Words in vg, etc. 1. All other words admit of contraction only in the Nominative, Accu- sative, and Vocative Plural ; except a iew which are contracted in the Dative Singular also. We adduce first those in vg, G. vog, e. g. 6 i^- ■^vgjish. Sing. N. t-x^vg G. l^dvog D. ix-&vi A. i^^vv Plur. N. ly&veg contr. ty^ug G. tx'^ixov D. l%<^vaiv A. r/^vccg contr. i^d^vg. Note 1. The epic language contracts also the Dat. in v'i, as lxdu%, {vmvg, vixv'i) vixvt. 2. In the same manner are contracted words in tg, when they have the Ionic and Doric form of the Gen. in log ; e. g. in Herodotus nohg, G. 7i6l(,og, Plur. noliag and noltccg, contr. noXig. These also contract the Dat. Sing, noht into noXl. See note 5. For the short vowel in some Datives, as KXio^v, see § 28. n. 11. 3. Here belong also §ovg ox, cow, G. §o6g D. §oi A. §ovv V. ^ov,^ Plur. §6eg contr. §ovg G. /Jocov D. ^ovalv A. ^oag contr. ^ovg. Note 2. The Dorics wrote /Sc5?, /Swv ; and the word has this Accusa- tive in Homer (II. rj, 238) when it stands as fem. for ox-hide ; comp. II. fi^ 105 /5o£0-(7tV. , 12 8(5 §51. THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. 4. Here belongs likewise y^cxvg old woman, G. ygctog D. ygct't A. ygavt^ V. ygccv, Plur. ygaeg contr. ygavg G. ygcxMi^ D. ygauaov A. ypaa? contr. ygavg. The unusual contraction of ;'(?a6i,' into /pau? is to be not- ed. The Ionics have ygr]vg, ygrjog, etc. without contraction. — For vuvg, which partly follows this model, see Anom. Nouns § 58. Note 3. In all the above words the contraction is often neglected by Attic writers ; most frequently in the Nom. Plur. and especially in forms from monosyllables, as xug, fivsg, dgveg, ygasg, ^osg; often also i/^vsg, etc. Note 4. It is somewhat remarkable, that by this contraction the Plur- al becomes again like the Nom. Sing. Even where the quantity is different, this is not always apparent from the accent, e. g. in o ^oiQvg and Tovg (ioTQvg. Note 5. In the common language, the flexion in ig, G. log, etc. is exhibited (besides in xlg) only by single forms from xl/Qig tiger, nogxig heifer, nocng husband, i] fiijvLg wrath, i) TgoTiig keel, (all which however sometimes^ take 5 in the Gen. §56. n. 5); and further by some proper names, as '/(jptc, and by adjectives in ig, i, § 63. J. The multitude of oth- er words in ig, which assume no consonant in the Genitive, follow the mo- del in the following section. Note 6. The word oig sheep conforms to the above mode of declension (Text 2) ; and has Gen. oiog, Nom, and Ace. Plur. oig (long l). Com- monly however the Nom. Sing, is contracted {o~ig\ and the word is then thus declined : N. ?} oig, G. olog, D. oil, A. olv, Plur. olsg, otag, both contr. oig, consequently i], at, rag oig. — But in the Dat. PI. Homer has osooiv, for osaL according to the following section. Note 7. Most words in ovg belong to the contracted second declen- sion, as nXovg, ^ovg, vovg. Like ^ovg are declined only /ovg (Anom. § 58) and Qovg when it signifies sumac ; but these are never contracted. 5 51. Contraction with the Attic Genitive, etc. 1. Most words in vg and o, and some few in vg and v, retain in the common language, the vowel of the Nominative only in the Nom. Ace. and Voc. Singular. In all the other terminations they change it into f, and then contract the Dat. el into eo, the Plur. eeg and eag into teg, and Neut. ia into ??. Other endings are not contracted. 2. Substantives in ig and vg then assume also the so called Attic Genitive, i. e. they form the Gen. Sing, in wg instead of og, and the Gen. Dual in iav* instead of ot,v ; but they accent all three Genitives as if the last syl- lable were short (§ 11. 5, 8.) * The Grammarians call this Attic ; but in the manuscripts and editions of At- tic writers we find e. g. ysvaaloiv, nirTjoioiv, etc. The form in tov rests only on the authority of the ancient Grammarians and on analogy, as no examples of it are known. §§ 51, 53. THIRD DECLENSION. — CONTRACTION. 87 N. TioUg n^X^^S G. noXeoig ntjxeojg D. noXit nni^v A. nokiv nnjvv V. noXt, nniv Dual N. A. G.D. noXug nrrxtig UGTIJ noXhtav TJTJ^j^eCOP uaituiv jiol6at{v) nrixent(v) aGT:aoi{v) noliig Tnjxfcg aarrj noUig n?]XfiS aaitj nvX^e aaxss niixeoiv aOTtoiv 3. Neuters in v and v have the common Genitive ; e. g. aatv, ctGifog, aOTicov ntnsQi, nsntQeog. 4. Hence arises for substantives the following usual mode of de- clension : Sing. J] (state) 6 (ell) to {city) Plur. aoTV aotaog aGtet, cxaiv aOTV noUe TioXsatv 5. Adjectives in vg, Neut. v, have the common Genitive, and do not contract the neuter Plural ; e. g. i^dug Neut. rjdu Gen. i^dt'og Dat. tj^f? PI. 9]d£7g Neut. i^dea G. fjd'twv. Note 1. The greater part of words in vg are declined according to the preceding section. Like tt^/u? are declined only TrsAf/i-?, and in part sy/slvg and Trgid^vg, see anoni. Nouns § 58. Like a«x^?> in later writers is ex- plained from § 56. n. 4. Note 2. Sometimes instead of contraction, there was an elision of one jof the vowels ; e. g. Yoc.^HgaxXeg, as an exclamation in the later prose ; and §54. THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. 89 in the poets, Gen. So(poxXsog, D. '^IlQaxXsi; Horn, vnegdia (instead of -eu) for VTisgdssct from -sry? / unsiTcn for aTcisaai. Note 3. By means of this eUsion we can explain the instances, where the unaccented ending «, e. g. in xa uliaf which from the contraction should be long, is nevertheless in the epic writers short. Comp. §28. n. 11. Note 4. As to the rest, the learner should observe for himself, what words and what endings in each word have the ordinary form, or this pe- culiar contraction. Thus we find always aXiia, aXdag, from aXisvg, and from v/u]g the Ace. PI. v/Lstg, never -ag. Comp. Text 1. Note 5. The Ionics always have v/da, '^HgazXiea, ivdsieg, etc. The early poets contract the first es into sl or tj; e. g. from xXsog, aniog^ we find G. yiXsiog PI. ytXeta j D. unuL and amii,- also'^HgaxXijog, ij'i, .^a. — For xqsog, XQ^oi?) see § 58. § 54. Fourth Form of Contraction. — Neuters in ag. 1. Of the neuters in ag the following two, aegag horn and Ttgag won- der^ have the Gen. in aro?, from which the Ionics drop the r, y,tQaTog aegaog, rtQatog xtgaog, and the following three, ytjgag age, ytgag honour, and yiQtag meaty have every where only aog. 2. Hence arises the following contraction : Sing. Dual. Plur. N. A. V. yitgag G. Ktgaog atgoyg D. Kt'ga'i nt'ga mgas aaga 'Aegaa mga z6gaotv yySgwp negdcov negojv iiegaai{v) Note 1. The word rigag admits the contraction only in the Plural, as Tsga Tsgwv ; in the Singular xigaxog alone is usual among the Attics. So also in aegag, the form in axog remained current along with the contracted one. The three other words commonly occur only in the contracted form. The form in aog is consequently, in all these words, merely Ionic. 3. Other neuters in ag, aog, take of the contracted forms only those in a, and « ; e.g. otXag light, dinag goblet, tco oiXa, dina, PI. TO, GtXa, dtna. So also dtgag., acptXag, etc. Note 2. The middle syllable ga in the forms from xsgag is originally long ; as zigaxa Anacr. 2. Eurip. Bacch. 919. Hence, in the later epic writers, the resolution of the long vowel, as xsgaaTu, and in like manner also TEgaaxa. Note 3. On the other hand, the final syllable, e. g. in ta yiga, xgia, is sometimes used as short (§ 28. n. 11). — In Homer, x^ta is also made mono- syllabic, § 28. n. 6. Note 4. The Ionics in flexion often change the a of these words into £, and decline them as if from a Nom. in og; e. g. xsgsog, xa yigsa, xgssa- aiVy etc. Some old words have only this form ; see the Anom. ^ghag, ovdag, and in part xvitpag, § 58. .90 §§ 55, 56. CONTRACTION. ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. §55. Contracted Form of Comparatives in tov, ov. 1. Comparatives in wv^ Neut. ov, G. ovog, (§§ 67, 68,) drop the V in the Accusative Singular , and in the Nom. Accus. and Voc. Plural, and then contract the vowels. But unless this contraction takes place, the V is never dropped, even by the Ionics. E. g. Sing. Plur. Nom. fxei^oiv greater Gen. fxei'Covog Dat. liel^ovL Ace. fifiCova contr. /wf/^cw Voc. fiei^Qv fxei^oveg contr. fiii^ovg fiSiCovwv f4£lC0OL{v) fielCovag contr. ^ti^ovg fxiiCoveg contr. fielCovg Neut. Plur. rd [ASiCova contf. fAflCco The X>Ma/ remains unchanged. The Attics employ the forms fisiCova and /uei^ovag not less readily than they do the contracted ones; but {.lei^ovsg seldom occurs. 2. Similar, but less simple, is the usual Attic contraction of the Ac- cusative in the two proper names '^jioAAwi', mvog, and IToaeMv, wvog, Neptune, ^ Ace. '^nolXwva * AnoWoi, Iloastdcjva HoGtidoi. Note. So also in the poets nvxEtav a mixed drink, Ace. xvxsava — xv- x£(u, epic xrxfiw. — Compare on this contraction and some similar ones from Eixcav, arjdcav, etc. § 56. n. 6. d. and n. 7. §56. Anomalous Declension. 1. What is properly called anomaly in declension, is when from any Nominative one or more of the oblique cases are actually formed in an irregular and peculiar manner, i. e. not according to the general rules ; see in the list of Anomalous Nouns, § 58, e. g. dvriQ, avcov, yd\a. Note 1. To these mere deviations in flexion, may be referred the sim- pler declension of some foreign and later proper names in q, with a long vowel, e. g. ^iVr\(; G. ^niri D. ^il^ A. ^ikr^v V. ^iVr^ "irjaovg G. ^Irjaov D. "It^o-qv A. ^Irjaovv V. "irjaov. 2. But the greater part of the actual deviations from regular declension, consist in what may be called the commutation or interchange of forms. In Greek it was very often the case, especially in the more ancient lan- guage, that a word had two or more terminations and modes of flexion, with only one and the same signification. As the language became more cultivated, only one of these forms was for the most part retained as the current form ; but still the other often maintained its place, some- times for the sake of well sounding alternation, sometimes acciden- §56. ANOxMALOUS DECLENSION. 91 tally, and most frequently in the poets. E. g. ^rjfirJTrjg^ more seldom 'Atifirjioa, Ceres ; daxQvov, older form danQv, vog, tears. Note 2. Here belong the instances where a masc. in og of Dec. II, is at the same time a neut. in og of Dec. Ill ; like o and to (utoTog darkness, (Txvcpog cup, oxog chariot. Further, some prolongations of the feminine endings of Dec. I, e. g. (TsXrjvT], avccyxrj, Ion. dsXrjvalr], avccyxalr] ; A&tjvm Minerva, epic^AS-i^vr], loTH.^Ad-rivalt] ; and many female names in rj with the epic secondary form in sia, as IlrjveXoTii] and IlrjVEloTcsLa, JlEQascpovsiu, Ti^ipi- XOQua. And in general, many proper names have even in the Norn, a double form ; e. g. -ydrig and -xXog, ^IcpiitXijg and ^'icpLzXog ; and the poets therefore, according to the necessities of the metre, could follow some- times one form, sometimes the other. Thus Homer has always in the Nom. HaTQoxXog, but in the Ace. both IZcxtqoxXov and JlaTgoxXija, Voc. nvcTgoxXs and IZaTgoxXsig, without its being necessary to consider this as a case of Metaplasm ; see 5 below. 3. Such double forms had their origin, of course, at a time when as yet there was no trace and no idea of scientific grammar, and when ev- ery form and every ending was regarded only by itself, without refer- ence to any other form. Hence it was the natural consequence, that often, of two modes of flexion in a word, one became usual in one oblique case, and the other in another ; and thus the word became truly anomalous. E, g. yvvri would regularly follow the first declen- sion, but actually has the Gen. yvvaiMg, etc. from the obsolete Nom. FTNAJ^E!. So vavg has in the Ace. vavv, but in the Dat. Wt'i, from the Ionic form vrivg. See these words in § 58, and compare there also Zavg, vdwQj yovv, devdoov, nvQ. 4. Not unfrequently the two forms remained more or less in com- mon use by the side of each other, in the same case ; e. g. vlog, G. vlov and also vieog from a Nora, of the third declension ; see in the Catal. § 58, and comp. there {tt^ig, y.oii^oji/og, ogvig, xovg. A word of this sort is called Abundans.* 5. When both forms presuppose but one and the same Nominative, from which they are only declined in a different manner, the word is called a lieterocUte, e. g. Oidlnovg, Gen. Otdlnodog and Old'mov after the contracted second declension. When however one of the forms presupposes an unusual or obsolete Nominative, this is called a Metaplasm, 6. g. dtvdQOv, Of, Dat. PI. dii^dQoig and also dti^dgsaiv from a Nom. TO dti^dgog. * Many such words however are abundantia only for us in grammar ; because we must observe and arrange together, what was current at different periods or in different dialects and writers ; as e. g. the variations in ^ifus- 92 § ^^- ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. 6. It is also an instance of Metaplasm, when from a masculine in og is formed a Neut. PL in a ; this occurs in prose particularly with T(x dtaiAot, (jxad^^a, alra, which forms, especially in certain connexions, are used for ol deofiolj etc. Note 3. Most of the common and poetical anomalies of declension consist of Heteroclites and Metaplasms, or a mixture of both. Those which require to be treated of singly are given in alphabetical order in § 58. Here, however, we must first bring into one view several classes of anomalous nouns, under which are included many of those particular ex- amples. Note 4. To the Heteroclites belong those words in tj? which are dechn- ed after both Dec. I, and III. Some throughout ; e. g. fivxrjg mushroom, G. ov and rjTog ; especially proper names like Jagrjg, G. ov and rjTog ; see the Anom. OocX^]g, § 58. Others in part ; thus all contracted proper names in rjg which have Gen. sag, form the Ace. both in rj and r]V ,- e. g. 2(aytQaxt]g G. {eog) ovg, Ace. ScoxQavi] Plat, and ^ojxgocTrjv Xenoph. Of those in xAtJ?, the Ace. in y.X^]v, though used by later writers, is wholly rejected by the Atticists. — ^The Ionics invert this, and in words in ?;? which are usually declined after Dec. I, they form the Ace. Sing, and Plur. after Dec. Ill ; e. g. Tov dEffjioTsa PI. Tovg dsaTioTtag, from dsaTioviig, ov Mdjiddea from MLXricidrjg, ov.* Note 5. Another class of Heteroclites consists of some nouns in ig, which in flexion sometimes assume a d, and sometimes not ; e. g. (jiijvLg wrath G. fii]VLog and iJ,i]Vi8og ; and several proper names, as ^Avd/aga-tg, idog Aristot. and £0)? Plutarch. So also feminines in ig, tdog, e. g. navfiyvgig, ^ijrtg, *I]Tg(ag ; but still in Plur. more commonly nuTQWEg, etc. See also the Anom. xdcXagy and comp. ^]Q(og, § 58. c. Nom. (ag, G. (OTog. These words sometimes drop their t. The word o idgcog sweat, idgoijL, IdgoiTa, h^s also an Attic secondary * All proper names which are formed like patronymics, as MtXtidSrjgy Evgi- ■jtiSt]^ etc, and the most of those which are not (like ^ojngdr^jg) compounded, e. g. AlaxivTjgj B!iQ^r]?j Fvyrjg, etc, are declined in Greek, with the exception of this Ionic anomaly, entirely after Dec, I ; while the Latins form them wholly after Dec. HI, as Gen. Miltiadis, Xerzis, etc. §56. ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. 93 form Tw idga), tov Wqa, which indeed is usually considered as contraction (like xsquti, xsga), but which also coincides with the forms of the Attic Dec. II ; as does also XQ^^fh XQ0> from the Anom. XQ(a?. A more evident transition to the Att. Dec. II, see in Anom. yiXojg (§ 58) and in some adjectives, as svgvxBQag, etc. § 63. n. 5. d, Nom. ojg and av. Here the anomaly sometimes occurs even in the Nominative ; e. g. 6 laaig G. w, and o zawv G. wvog, peacock ; u Tvcfxag G. w, and tvqxav G. (ovog, whirlwind; ^ aXcag G. w and (aog, and 7] aXcov G. avog, threshing Jloor. In the Plur. of all these words, the forms of Dec. Ill, are the most usual. — With these may also be compared the Accusatives ''Att6XX(o, JIoaudM, xvxsoj, § 55. 2. e. Nom. (xig and ojg. This is adduced only because of the Homeric Accus. i/oj for l/Mga from o lx(aQ, wgog, lymph.* Note 7. Some feminines in mv have also a secondary form in w G. ovg ; as yXvx^^v, ojvog, pennyroyal, — '/Xrjxca, ovg' Fogyatv, ovog, in earlier writers Fogyoj, ovg. In this way we can explain the instances where e. g. from slxctiv, ovog, image, we find also G. elxovg A. dxto Ace. PI. Eixovg. from ocTjdMv, ovog, nightingale — G. arjdovg Voc. arjddl. from x^^tdcov, ovog, swallow — Voc. /fAt^ot. In some of these examples however a contraction like that of fxsl^(av etc. can be assumed. § 55. 1. Note 8. Finally, in the epic and lyric poets, instead of the ordinary forms of certain words, there are found single cases of a shorter or more simple form, of which however the analagous Nominative does not occur. So especially forms in Dec. Ill, with the case-endings og, t, a, 8g, sen, in- stead of the usual ones in Dec. I and II. E. g. for ccXy.j] from aXxi] strength — aXai from AA!^, Hom. for xgoxfjv from xgoxrj woof — xgoxa from KPOS, Hesiod. for atSov, atdj], ai'drjv from o aiding Hades — aidog, aidt, at5a, from A'iyj. for xXadca from o xXadog bough — xXadl and in Plur. xXadsai, from KAAk for ttvdgoTTodoig from to aydgdnodov slave — avSgairodsaat as if from ANJPAnOr^,B.om. for vafilvj] from ?] vafilvr] battle — va-iuvt from 'THMJ2, And so of some others. Here belong also al (nayeg for o'Tayovsg drops S'sgancc, S^sguTteg, for S^sgdrrovTcc, sg, servant fidau, fida-TLv, for fidauyL, a, from rj fidcFTL^ scourge. Some such forms cannot well be considered as Metaplasms of any known word, but merely as single cases of an obsolete word. So Ti]v vlcpa snow, from NIW, * All these appearances become perfectly plain, so soon as we have a correct idea of the original oneness of all the declensions, and perceive that the first and second, with their subordinate forms, are only ancient contractions and abridge- ments from the third. In this way, the Ace. in w of the Attic Dec. II, stands in connexion with the contr. Ace. in oj of Dec. Ill; tlie Ace. in v of Dec. Ill, with those of Dec. I and II ; the Ionic Seanoxsa appears less irregular ; and so of all the rest. Qqq JlusfUhrL Sprachl.^Z'i.n.Z. 13 94 ^ 57. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. for the common word for snow is x^^h ^^^ vi(pdg has only a derived sig- nification, snow-Jlake. Further, the cases Ti]g (Ttixog, PI. (TTl/sg, ag, from 2TIS! cannot be referred to the prosaic o (TzlxogroWy on account of the difference of gender. Note 9. A very peculiar anomaly in declension is occasioned by the paragogic ending (f)iv or (ft which is so very common in epic poetry, and is used instead of the Dative or Genitive Sing, and Plur. being appended to words for the most part after the following analogy : -ocpvv in words of Dec. II, e. g. (nguTog (TTgccrocpiv. -7j(fLV in words of Dec. I, e. g. xscpccXi)} xecpalijq)!., ^la ^Irjcpiv* -sacpLV in neuters in og G. 8og, e. g. oxog, cnij&og — o/fo-(jpt, axiid-idcpiv. The few peculiarities and deviations which occur, like xgajtacpi- from KPA2 yguTog, may safely be left to the learner's observation. — But thus much, it would seem, we may assume with certainty, viz. (1) That this form had originally merely an adverbial and for the most part local signi- fication ; precisely like the similar syllables S^i, S^ev ; hence ogsGcpiv in the mountains, xscpaXijcpt [la^slv) by the head, S-vgtjcpL before the door ; {2) That this signification however was often rendered more definite by the aid of a preposition, e. g. eV Ixgiocpiv upon the deck, dua CTi]d-s(Tq)L through the breast; (3) That it hence became not unusual to subjoin this form afl:er all those prepositions which govern the Dative or Genitive, instead of the ordinary forms of these cases. This last continued to be by far the most common usage ; and the instances are few where this form stands for a case, without a preposition; e.g. ayXai'rjcpi nsTcoL-d-Mg confiding in valour, ^l7](fL with force ; most rarely of all for the simple Genitive alone, as oaxiocpLV S^lg a pile of bones. Still this form approaches to the nature of a true case in this, that it is often grammatically connected with regular cases, e.g. cctio nlaxiog mvocpiv ,- and even stands double, being repeated in the substantive and adjective, as jcgarsgijcpt ^l'r](f)i. This however occurs also with the undisputed local ending ^«, in ovds. dofiovds. § 57. Nouns Defective and Indeclinable. 1. Defective nouns are such as from their very nature cannot occur in more than one number ; e. g. ai&i^g, and the following Plurals : rd */3C«r« (Dec. Ill) hoioels, ol hrialai trade-winds^ al dvofiai the Occi- dent, west, and the names of festivals, as xd Aiovvoca, etc. 2. Further, some words which are commonly used only in certain connexions ; mostly the following, viz. * The Grammarians assume, that this syllable is in all instances a mere ap- pendacre to that actual case, whicli under the circumstances is required. Hence, when it stands for the Dative of Dec. I, they put i subscript under the 7], in or- der to distinguish it from the Genitive. Tiiis is manifestly incorrect; as appears by comparing the Datives of the other declensions, etc. See .iusfiihrl. Sprachl. § 56. n. 2. §57. NOUNS INDECLINABLE. 95 to ovaQ dream^ to vnag waking vision, only as Norn, and Ace. TO ocpeXog and to ridog, advantage, only as Nom. e. g. r/ oiv iJfiJp ocpsXog sirjg ; what wouldst tliou profit us 1 fxcxXt] (old form for ^aaiaXt] shoulder) only in the phrase vno ixaXrjg under the arm. See also o) fia'ke and cJ tav in the Catal. § 58. Here belong also many, which from being originally nouns, have become adverbs ; as the Ace. IniaXfiv, and tiodcpv^g properly I'S, ai(pvr]g, etc. (§ 115. n. 3, 4.) Finally, all those in which certain cases are wanting ; see the Anom. *AQv6g, HgtG^vg, "Ooos, 3. Indeclinable nouns in Greek are mostly some foreign words, as TO nao'^a ; and among these the names of the letters, ulqja, fAv, etc. Of genuine Greek words, the only ones indeclinable are the cardinal numbers (§ 70). — We must further reckon as indeclinable, in a cer- tain measure, the Particip. neut. to '/^Qacuv, from the Impers. XQVi on account of the construction tou xq^mv, Eurip. Hipp. 1256. Joseph. Ant. VIII. 284. See Ausfuhrl Sprachl § 57. n. 4. Note 1. The name of the letter alyfjia is found declined, t« (rlyfiata etc. This could be easily explained, since the form is entirely Greek ; but the reading is not certain. Note 2. It is not an entirely correct proceeding, when Grammarians reckon among the defective nouns many old and poetic words, which oc- curred but seldom in the early poetry, and have accidentally therefore been preserved only in this or that case ; as e. g. vlcpcc, already mentioned in § 56. n. 8. See also the Anom. XltI, o)Xs, § 58. So too when they reckon as indeclinable, words of a similar kind, which accidentally have been preserved only in the Nominative ; or if neuters, in the Nom. and Accusative ; e. g. -^j dcag gift, to dsfiag shape. Among these last there may indeed be many, which the ancients really never used in the Genitive or Dative, as e. g dsfj,ag ; but then they are defective. They could be in- declinable only when they actually occurred e. g. in the Genitive without changing the form, like tov ndaxa. For Ama see the Catal. § 58. Note 3. Some shorter secondary forms of usual words, such as those which we have seen (§ 56. n. 8) in the oblique cases, are found also in the Nom. alone ; and are therefore sometimes reckoned among nouns inde- clinable, in the manner above censured. Still more incorrect is it, to re- gard them as arbitrary abridgments by the ancient poets from usual forms ; since they are rather remains of the ancient uncultivated language, whose place was afterwards supplied by fuller forms. Such are : TO Sw * house ; full form to dafza TO xqI barley ; full form i) ygL&fj, from which however the former can be no abridgment, since the gender is different. ** The Plural/orm XQvasa Soj in Hesiod can be regarded as a contraction, like the Plural nd^a ', see Anom. noQa § 58. 96 § 58. ANOMALOUS NOUNS. CATALOGUE. TO aXcpi meal ; full form aXcpixov. The short form was probably de- clined like ^ili, iTog. TO yXd(pv cave ; manifestly Neut. of an adject. FAA^TS, for which yXacpvQog excavated was afterwards used. See also the Anom. xa^a, yiugri (§ 58), which is sometimes regarded as an abridgment of xugi^ag or Kaqrivov ; also some adjectives in § 64. n. 8. 5. § 58. Catalogue of Anomalous Nouns. Prelim. Note. For the arrangement and mode of using this Catalogue, see the preliminary notes to the Catalogue of Anomalous Verbs, § 114. What is there said of unusual or obsolete themes, which are merely presupposed in order to explain actual forms, applies here also to the unusual or obso- lete Nominatives. These are here, as there, and indeed throughout this work, distinguished by being printed in capitals. All that belongs to or- dinary prose is here printed large, either wholly or in part ; that which is poetical or rare, small. ^Afjdcav § 56. n. 7. aXxl § 56. n. 8. aX(ag and aXoiv § 56. n. 6. d. uva Voc. § 45. n. 5. aidoq etc. § 56. n. 8. a.X(pi § 57. n. 3. a}i(f(a etc. § 78. 4. avdQanodsaab § 56. n. 8. avTjQ man, belongs to the same class of words as nairig (§ 47), but admits the syncope in all the cases which increase, and then inserts d (§ 19. n. 1). Thus: ccvd^og, ccvdQi, avdgcc, oj aveg. PI. avd^eg, ccvdQcoVj avSgocGLv, avSgag. In the epic language also regularly, aviqog etc. and in Dat. PI. av- dgeacriv. ^AnoXXojv, Ace. § 55. 2. Voc. § 45. n. 2. ag/sTog, -ti, epic instead of Gen. ccQyijtog Dat. tJtl from a^/rjg white. *'^grjg Mars, G. ^'Ageog, does not contract the Gen. but contracts the Dat. " Agti. — Ace. ^'Agri and "Agriv, § 56. n. 4. In the epic language ^'Agrjog, ^Agrji, ^'Agrja. A Gen. ^'Agsag often oc- curs, which however is doubtful ; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 58. agvog rov, Trig, the lamb's, agvi, agva, PI. agveg D. agvaat'. The Nom. Sing, is supplied by a^vog. These are cases from an obsolete Nom. APIIN or APPHN, G. evogy whence agvog etc. by Syncope, as in avijg. aaxgadi § 47. n. 3. Baxtog has the metaplastic Gen. BaxxEo of Dec. I. Herodotus. ^gkag xo, image, G. ^gixeog, PL pgixri, see § 54. n. 4. §b)v, Ace. § 50. n. 2. • x yaXa to, milk, has G. ydXaxTOS Dat. yaXocxti, etc. Comp. La«)' Xay (§ 44. n. 1) D. PI. X(XE(T(nv. The Gen. Aaot^ is also found, as if from luag of Dec. I. Xlna an old subst. neut. {oil, fat, Hippocr.) for which also we find Xinag. The Dat. Xlnai, Una, was shortened in pronunciation and sounded like Xlna, especially in the phrase Xlna aXslcpsad-au to anoint one's self ivith oil. Here belongs also the Homeric Xm^ iXalco, which is to be considered as the Dat. of Xlna sXaiov olive-oil. Xlg 6, lion, Ace. Xtv. No other form occurs in the earlier writers. Xlg, Adj. see in § 64. n. 3. 5. XltI, XItu, Dat. and Accus. linen. The Nom. is wanting. fj^aXi], § 57. 2. (Accgrvg witness, forms fiagxvQog, etc. Ace. fiagxvQa and fidgxvv, D. PI. f^aQTvoiv. [ia(TTi>, LV, § 56. n. 8. [| ^liyag, § 64. fidg is the Ion. Nom. instead of o piv month, G. ^riv6?,e\.c. fAiXe, a Vocative found only in the familiar phrase cu lAtXe, in both gen- ders.* [n^rgcog and Mlvoag § 56. n. 6. h. vavg ri, ship. The Attic mode of declension is the following : Sing, N. voLvg G. vecxtg D. vrit A. vavv Plur. N. vTieg G. vsmv D. vuvoi A. vccvg. The old and Doric form is G. vaog (whence vst^g § 27. n. 10) etc. Ionic, vfjvg, vrjog, etc. Ace. vija and vfjvv. From this comes a second Ionic form, G. VEog A. via, PL vseg, viag. — The Dat. Dual is written vsolv by Thucydides. vi(pa, § 56. n. 8. Otdlnovg, G. Oldlnodog and Oldlnov, D. odi, A. oda and of^/, V. ov. An epic and lyric subordinate form (as if from Nom. Oidcnodf^g) is G. Oldtnodao, Dor. -a, Ion. fco, D. |y, A. t^i', V. Oidinoda. oig, otg, § 50. n. 6. oveoQov dream, forms as Neut. ovslgaxog, etc. P/wr. ovelgaxa. Comp. TipoffcoTioz/. But it is also found as Masc. o ovsigog, ov. ogvt,g 6, ?J, bird, G. ogvld^og, etc. It has in the Plur. a secondary form (declined like noXig), ogvscg, ogveoiv; comp. § 56. n. 5. In the Attic poets occurs also the Ace. PI. oqvlg (§ 50. 2. § 56. n. 5). Th^ Dorics wrote ogvl/og, ogvl/a, etc. (§ 16. n. 1. a,) without how- ever forming the Nom. in |. oaas N. and A. Dual, eyes, forms the Gen. and Dat. only in the Plur. and after Dee. II, ocracav, oaaoig, oaaoLdLV. ovdag xoyfioor, ovSsog, ovds'l, § 54. n. 4. * This has been regarded as formed by apostrophe for fiiXss from fidXsog unhappy, like j^?J above. But it often occurs in an entirely good and even commendatory sense, as Plat. Theaet. 90. cf Schol. Consequently, like the expression "my good friend," it is to be taken as a mode of address in either sense. 100 ^ 58. ANOMALOUS NOUNS. — CATALOGUE. ___ • ,.y : ovg TO, ear, G. iorog, etc. Gen. PI. ojiaiv, § 43. n. 4. d. D. PI. Mfflv. Contr. from ovag, axog ; Dor. Nom. wg. naig, child, boy, nacdog, has in the dissyllabic epic form TraiV, the Ace. nuiv, naxQoig § 56. n. 6. 6. |[ Ilsigatojg Gen. ^ 53. 2. nXssg see in § 68. 6. Tii/u^ ?J, pnyx (a place of meeting in Athens), has in the earlier writers nv'Avog, nvuvi, nvHva ; later nvvMg, etc. nolvg, see ^ 64. ' IIoG£td(ov, (ovog, Ace. IToGstdw, Voc. Tloaeidov, § 45. n. 2. § 55. 2. Ancient form, Iloa-uddoov, ovog and coro?. Dor. JIocrsLduv or JIotsi- dav, avog. Ion. JIo(T£Ldsoiv, ovog. noffig § 50. n. 5. § 51. n. 3. nquog, ngavg, see <^ 64. 2. TtQtapvg 6, in the signif old man, elder, has further only Ace. ngio^vv, V. nQto^v. In the signif ambassador, it has only the Plur. ol itQia- §eig^ D. ngia^eGi, in common use. The other cases were supplied from ngeo^vTTjg elder, and izQiapevxrig ambassador. Single poetic examples like G. ngsff^Ecog of an ambassador, Aris- toph. Acharn. 93, and ngia^rjEg elders, Scut. Here. 245, prove nothing against the common usage. ngoaoJTtov to, countenance, PI. epic ngocrdoTTaTa, Trgoaconacriv. Comp. ovsi- gov. TiQOXOog V, water-pot, Att. nQo^ovg, Gen. uqoxov, (§ 36 note,) passes over into Dec. Ill ; as Dat. PI. ngoxovoiv, Aristoph. Nub. 272. Eurip. Ion. 434, like ^ovg, ftovah. nvQ TO,Jire, forms its Plural (e.g. watch-fires) after Dec. II, ra nvga, Dat. nvgolg, Xen. Anab. 7. 2. aaog, aoig, see § 64. 3. oi^g 0, moth, G. aeog, PL aseg^ oeocg^ Genit. otcov, § 43. n. 4. d. In later writers oi^rog, etc. Gxwp TO, filth, G. (JJtaro?, etc. See i/^w^. (TfxwdL^ 0], induration, weal, forms aficadLyyog, etc. (TTiiog <^ 53. n. 2, 5. araysg § 56. n. 8. || axsag, axrig, G. o"t??to?, § 41. n. 7. o-Tt;f05 (Gen.) PI. cnixBg § 56. n. 8. a&g, see § 64. 3. |j (rmxrig, Voc. ^ 45. n. 2. Tttf, only as Voc. (a tccv, a. mode of address in common life, O thou ! more seldom O ye !* rawg § 56. n. 6. a, d. tguxog, etc. see -d^gl^. || Tvcpbig § 56. n. 6. 6, ^^^ x^''9^^^' XsXidcav § 56. n. 7. X^gi]h etc. and xigsLa, see in § 68. 2. , Xovg 6, (a measure, congius,) is in part declined regularly (like ^ovg), Xoog, xoh ;^ow, PL ;^6£?, x^(^?' ^^^^ since it is strictly contracted from XOEvg (Hippocrat.) it therefore has also (§ 53. 2) the better Attic forms G. xo(ag, A. xoa, A. PI. xooig.* — But o xovg heap of earth, has only G. xoog, A. xoiiv, etc. — For ngoxovg see above. Xgibiv § 57. 3. XQ^ffig TO, debt, Gen. also /pfwff, Ionic- Attic form for the common and less approved XQ^og, G. XQ^<^^?' — ^^- XQ^^i § ^3. n. 2. The Dat. is wanting in both numbers. — The epic writers have also Nom. XQ^'i^og and Xgsiwg.^ XQOjg 6, skin, G. xQ^^og^ etc. Ionic XQ^^^-i XQ^^'i XQ^^- The Attic Dat. XQ(^^ occurs only in the phrase h xg^, § 56. n. 6. c. w Twy, see tav. ll wto?, see ovg. *. Not to be confounded with %o6.qf from at Y.om Illation. t The form %gbOi 6v), nolvygucfog, and also those derived from com- pound verbs, as didcpogog^ vni^noog^ i^algevog. But those which are derived by appending the syllable nog, have always three endings ; as Inideizxvy.og^ rj, ov (from inideUvufAi), ^vdaii-ioviY.og, ?;, 6v (from iv- Note 2. Adjectives which are clearly derived from other words by appending the terminations xog, log, vog, gog, Tog, tog, as fiavxixog, dsdog, duvog, cpavsgog, nXsxTog, /gvasog^ have always, in prose at least, the three endings. On the contrary, those with the endings fiog, Log, ELog, auog, are more or less of the common gender. But the poets sometimes allow themselves, for the sake of the verse, to write 7} Xafingog, (pavsgog, xXv- jog, etc. Note 3. Another rule of general application is, that those adjectives, which in forming a feminine in 7^ or a would make it like the abstract suhstarUivej have the feminine in og; some always, others often ; e. g. 1] crcart^gLog, iXsv- S^sgiog, ^aalX8iog, because of the substantives ?; (roni]gia, iXsv&egla, ^acnXsloc. So cplXiog with the fern. cpiXla, has also 7] cplXiog, because of the substan- tive 1] cpiXla. Note 4. Comparatives and Superlatives (in og) of the common gender are exceedingly rare, and among the Attics perhaps never occur ; except sometimes from words which are of common gender in the positive ; e.g. Thucyd. 3. 101, dvcrscr^oXcuiaxog tj Aoy.glg. Homer has also oXowzaxog odfij]. Note 5. On the other hand, the poets employ a feminine form even in such compounds as are usually of the common gender ; e. g. d&avdTT}, aficpLXvxrj Horn, w^pji?? Soph. And several adjectives in tog, {oLog, etc.) when compounded wdth a privative, retain the fem. ending even in prose, e. g. rj ava^la. Examples of Adjectives in og for practice, see in Appendix C. 5. Some adjectives in oog are contracted; viz. a. Those of common gender, as ivvovg, evvovv, well disposed. Gen. ei)vot\ etc. These all come by composition from contracted forms of Dec. II, like vovg, nXovg, etc. and conform (in the neuter also) to the rules there given for the accents. The Neut. Plur. in oa remains uncontracted in these compounds ; as r« avoa from dvovg senseless. b. The multiple numerals dnXoog, dvnXoog, tj, ov^ etc. single^ double, etc. They have this peculiarity, that they everywhere 104 §§ 61, 62. ADJECTIVES. contract otj and 6a into ij and « ; thus dtnXovg, dtnXr], dtnXouv. PI. dinXoi, dinXai^ dvnXa* 6. Some adjectives in eog, which denote a material^ are also con- tracted and the accent shifted ; e. g. '^guatog golden, XQi^ota, ^gvasov, contr. ^Qvaoug, XQ^^V, XQvaovv, Gen. ov, fjg, ov, etc. When the ter- mination is preceded by another vowel or by q, the Fem. is contracted not into ^, but into a ; as igteog woollen, contr. igeovg, igia, igeovv ' cigyvgeog of silver^ contr. dgyvgovg, agyvga, agyvgovv. The Neut. PI. has always a ; thus za /(^tiaw, like OGxea oar«, § 36. § 61. Adjectives in wg. ' Adjectives in wg of the Attic Dec. H, (§ 37,) are usually of common gender ; e. g. 6 and rj 'i'lecog, to i?,ec»v, gracious. They form in part the Neut. in w ; e. g. aytjgcug, Neut. dyrigoiv and ayrigo}, § 37. n. 2. Note. For those in -ysXag and -xe^cd?, see § 63. n. 5. — Of three endings is only the simple nXi(ag^ rcXsa, nXscav, full, Neut. Pi. tcc nXia; but its com- pounds all conform to the above rule. — For acag see § 64. 3. § 62. Other Adjectives of three Endings. Other classes of adjectives of three endings are the following, viz. ' 1. vg, eia, v, Gen. aog, declined as in § 51. E. g. yXvyivg, yXvyiela, yXvAV, sweet, Gen. Masc. and Neut. yXv- Y,tog' d^riXvg^ d^tlXsca, d^riXv, female. Gen. d^riXsog. Examples: ^agvg heavy, ^gocdvg slow, ^ga/vg short, svgvg broad, fjdvg pleasant, o^vg sharp, wavg sivift. 2. ag^ eo6a, ev. Gen. avTog, declined after § 43. n. 1. § 46. n. 1. ^- §• X^9^^^'^} xagUaaa, yagUv, graceful, Gen. x^gUvTog. Examples : alfiaTosig bloody, vX^jsig woody, (pavrjsLg resounding. 3. ag, avva, av, Gen. avog. E. g. ^tXag, ^uXaivoc, fitXav, black, Gen. fxtXavog. The only other example is raXag unfortunate. 4. The following single examples : , Tf'gtjv, xagsLva, rtgsv, G. avog, tender. tyiojv, inovoa, inov, G. oviog, willing. nag^ nuoa, nav, G. navTog, every, all. To the above classes must also be added all Active Participles, § 88. 8. Note 1. Adjectives in vg are also of common gender in the poets ; e. g. ij^t? uvT^i] Hom. -d^iiXvg vsoXaloc Theocr. — Instead of the Fem. ua thelo- * With these numerals must not be confounded the compounds with TtXovg sailing, which are of common gender j as o^ m anXov^j evTrXovf^ etc. Neut. ow, Neut. PI. oa. ♦ § 63. ADJECTIVES. 105 nics have ia and srj, as wTtsa, ^a&it) Horn. Instead of fjfiiaEiu, from %t- avg half, the old Attic also had ii^hia ; see the note on Plat. Meno. 17. and Ausf. Sprachl. p. 252. Ed. 1. Note 2. From exmv comes the, compound aixojv, contr. axoov, ovcruy azov, unwilling. — The Neut. noiv is long only as a monosyllable ; in com- position it is made short, according to the general analogy ; as ontag, anoc- (ra, anav, all together, the whole. For the accent in TidvTOiv, nucri, See § 43. n. 4. b. Note 3. Some adjectives in sig are also contracted; viz. the endings TjEig, rjsaaa, tjev, are contracted into r^g, rjaaa, 7}v ; — and oeig, osaaa, osv, into 01'?, ovcrcra, ovv; e. g. Tiy.fjg, TLfirjacra, tl^u^v, G. Tif^ijvrog — from Tifii^Eig honoured fisXiTovg, fj,EXixov(T(TCic, fiEXnovv, G. ^EltTovvTog — from (lEkixoEig full of honey. See for this contraction § 41. n. 5. § 63. Adjectives of two Endings ^ and of one Ending. 1. Other adjectives of two terminations, are the following, all de- clined after Dec. III. 1. M. and F. rig, N. ^g, Gen. fo? contr. ovg. E.g. aacprig, oacftg, evident, Gen. aaq)Ovg. Examples : alrj&rjg true, ayEvvi]g degenerate, axQi^r/g exact, av^adrjg (long a) proud, -d^i^QiMdrig brutal, nh]Qi]g full, TCQrjvi^g inclining forwards, tpEvdijg false, aXi]g collected. "Tyi'ijg see in § 53. 1. 2. M. and F. wv, N. ov, Gen. ovog. E. g. neitojv, ntnov, ripe, Gen. Tiinovog. Examples : a^v^av (long v) blameless, oi7iQayp,ci)v unoccupied, Evyvta- fiojv well meaning. 3. M. and F. ^?, N. ^, Gen. log. E.g. idQtg,idoi, knowing, Gen. idQiog. There are very few examples. 4. The following single adjective : oLQQfiv or ugarjv, Neut. aQQev, agaev, G. aQgevog, agofvog. 2. But besides all these classes of adjectives, others are often formed by composition from a substantive, retaining as much as possible the termination and declension of the substantive ; as may be best seen in the examples. All such adjectives are of common gender ; and have a neuter, when it can be formed after the same analogy. E. g. evxaQig, eviaQt, graceful, G. crag, from ^' X^9'^^' ^^^^ aSaxgvg, adangv, tearless, G. vog, from to dccxgv, vog. Sometimes, in the termination, i? is changed to w, and i to o, e. g. 106 §63. ADJECTIVES. from najrjQ, i'gog, comes dnavajQ, og, fatherless, G. OQog from (pgiif, (fgsvog, comes acocfgoDv, op, intelligent, G. ovog. 3. When no neuter can be analogically formed, the adjective re- mains of one termination, but is only of common gender, i. e. only mas- culine and feminine, and not generis omnis ; e.g. o and ri ancccg, G. anaidog, childless, and o, ^' ^a'AQoyevQ long-handed. 4. Of common gender, and of one termination, are also some adjec- tives in r]g, f]Tog, as ccgytjg, i^fAixtpi^g ; — in cog, oixog, as ayvog; — and in ^ and ip, as ^At^, xog' naganlril^ rjyog' ficovviE, yog' ulylhip, nog. 5. Further, of common gender and one ending are several in ag, G. adog, as Xoyag selected, (pvyag, vouag, anogag; and some in tg and vg, G. idog, vdog, as avah^ig, inrilvg, ovyyiXvg. More commonly however those in ag and ig are only feminine, and become, by the omission of a substantive, themselves substantives; e. g. tj ^uLvag {sc. yvvrj) Bac- chante, »J nocrglg (sc. yt]) native-land. 6. Many adjectives are only TwascwZiwe ; so especially yigtav, ovrog, old, ngia(3vg old, Tiepfjg, rixog, poor ; and of Dec. I, Id^elovxrjg volunta- ry, yevvddag well-born, and many in lag, as tgonlag, fxovlag. See note 7. Note 1. In many adjectives of common gender, there is also a secon- dary feminine form, but for the most part only poetic ; as {jLovvoyheia, rjdvineLa, from masculines in 7]g ; see also § 64. n. 3. Note 2. Since according to § 58. 3, the Neut. is always declined like the masculine, the Gen. and Dat. of such words as have no neuter in the Nom. are sometimes employed as neuter, and then these cases are actually generis omnis. Still, this is done only by the poets ; e. g. Eurip. Or. 834 dgofiocdL ^Iscpdqoiq, Nicand. Ther. 631 agy7jTL avdsL. Note 3. In other instances, when the neuter is wanting, it is supplied by a derived form in ov, e. g. ^Xaxixov, agnaxTixov, fiwwxov, as Neut. of /5Aa|, txgnal, fiwvv^. Note 4. Compounds ofnovg, no86q,foot, are decUned regularly after the analogy of this substantive ; e. g. dmovg, odog, etc. In the Neut. they have ovv, (as Evvovg, svvovv, like the contracted Dec. II,) but decline it nevertheless, according to the general rule (§ 53. 3), like the masc. as TO dlnovv, tov dljiodog, etc. Note 5. Compounds of ysXbjg, ooTog, laughter, forsake commonly the declension of their substantive and follow the Att. Dec. II. (§ 61.) So al- so those compounded with itsgag, axog, horn, which likewise change the a into ft}. But both kinds have also the Gen. (xnog ; and the Neut. in av has the same anomaly as in the compounds of novg ; e. g. (pdoyEXwg, dUsQcog, Neut. (OV, G. 0) and aTog. The compounds of sgojg conform to the Att. Dec. II, only in the accent of the Nom. e.g. dvasgcag G. wto?. Note 6. The compounds of noXig assume 8 in declension ; e. g. qpt- XonoXig, t, G. idog. ^ 64. ADJECTIVES. 107 Note 7. Finally, the Greek adjectives and substantives stand in such intimate relation to each other, both in form and syntax, and so readily pass over one into the other, that not only many of the above adjectives (as ngio-^vg^ nevtjg) may equally well be regarded as substantives ; but al- so acknovv^ledged substantive forms can often be considered as adjec- tives (e. g. mvlTTjg. ccQTog) ; and when masculine, they are even made of common gender by the poets; see § 123. n. 1. § 64. Anomalous and Defective Adjectives. 1. The two adjectives, ^eyag great and nolvQ much, have from these ground-forms only the Nom. and Ace. Singular; viz. Masc. [xiyaq, fit- yav ; noXvg, noXvv ; Neut. f^tya, noXv. All the other cases, as well as the whole of the feminine, come from the unusual ground-forms MEFA' AOS, rj, ON, and ttoaAoV, V, ov ; thus : N. ^i ty a 9 fifyakrj (a ey a G. fziyaXov f-ieyaXrjg ^ifydlov D. (nfydlm (.leydlri f^eydkco A. [xeyav f-itydlriv fieya noXvg TioXlri nolv nollov noXXfjg noXXou TToAAw nokXfj noXXffj noXvv noXXriv noXv The Dual and Plural are declined regularly like adjectives mog\ e.g. fieyaXoD, a, co' (.leyaXoi, ai, a' noXXoi, at, d, etc. Note 1. The forms noXXog, noXXov belong to the Ionics ; and the re- gular forms from noXvg are found in the epic language ; e. g. noXiog, no- Xhg^ -ug, etc. The epic writers have also novXvg, novXv ; and use the masc. form as fem. e. g. II. h. 27. 2. JjQaog gentle is usual, in this form, only in the Masc. and Neut. Singular. The whole of the feminine and the Neut. Plur. are borrowed from the form -ngcxiig (Ion. ngrjug), which occurs in the dialects. Thus Fem. ngaiia, Neut. PI. npuea. We find also in the Masc. Nom. PI. ngaot, and ngaeig, Gen. only ngutaiv, Dat. noaoig and -ngaiaiv. 3. ^olg sound, salvus, contr. from HA02^, has from this form only comm. gend. Nom. oojg, Ace. and Neut. ncoi/. Ace. PI. aw^. Rarely Fem. Sing, and Neut. PI. od. All the rest is borrowed from aioog, a, ov, Ion. ooog. Note 2. The Ace. PI. aag is readily explained, as contracted from 2A0T2. But the Nom. PI. aag, which also occurs, is a transition to Dec. Ill, Gwg, o-asg. — In the same manner as aajg from 2A02, arose also the Homeric lutg from ZA02 ^ and hence the common 'Qaog. Comp. the verbs o-aow o-ww, tQaov £'C<^v. 4. Defectives are chiefly the following : a. dXXriXiav, see § 74. 4. h. d^cpo), see § 78. 4. c. cpQOvdog gone, fed, which is used only in the Nominative of all genders and numbers, § 150. 108 § 65. ADJECTIVES. — cojmpariso'n. Note 3. We adduce here some rare and poetic examples : 1. noTVLOL, epic norva, venerable, only feminine. 2. jnuHUQ blessed is of coram, gender ; but has also in the fem. fiaxuL- ga. The Neut. does not occur. 3. Some mascuhne adjectives have a less common derived form for the fem. e. g. Ttsvrjg, fem. nivriaffa ; Tigsa^Svg, fem. nqiff^SLQa. 4. Some also of common gender have such secondary forms of the fem. (comp. § 63. n. 1,) e.g. nluga from o, ?; nUovfat; ngocpgaaaa from o, ?; ngocpgojv favourably inclined. 5. ngicr^a for ngia^sLga, llg for Ilgtct'^ smooth, are old and simple forms used by the poets, such as we have seen among the sub- stantives (§ 56. n. 8. § 57. n. 3), and are in like manner erroneous- ly explained as abridged forms. 6. For i'vg and rfvg, see the catal. of Anom. Nouns, § 58. 7. From the ease vv^ith vi^hich adjectives can be formed by composi- tion from substantives (§ 63. 2), the poets are accustomed, whenev- er they find it convenient, to form single cases, to which the Nom. Sing, sometimes cannot be analogically even presupposed ; as agvffdgfiaTEg Xjinoi, from agfia, axog ; nolvagvc Ovsoti], from Gen. ccgvog, etc. , for the Comparative, -razog, 7j, ov, for the Superlative. 3. Adjectives in og cast off their g before these terminations, and re- tain the unchanged, when it is preceded by a long syllable ; e. g. §t- §aiog ^e^aioregog, iaxvgoreQog, ntazoTaTog. So also generally after the concurrence of a mute before a liquid, e. g. ocpodgog aqjodgotaxog, nvuvog nvuvozegog. 4. When however the o is preceded by a short syllable, it is changed into ft>; Q.g.GOCpog oocpcoTsgog, Kuigtog xatgrnzaTog^ ixvgojvegog, ncid^agwTaTog. Note 1. The poets make here exceptions, and the w stands in epic writers afler really long syllables, as oi^vgcoTarog, ^laxo^tLvtotEgog Horn, and in Attic poetry after the concurrence of a mute before a liquid, e. g. dva- noTiimaxog Eurip. Note 2. Some adjectives in og, especially among the Attics, insert in- stead of this o or 0) more commonly ai or eo- or to-, e. g. p,iaog fieaakaTog, iggoifdvog iggwfisviorcsgog, kocXog lail(n£gog. The first form is particular- § 66. ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. 109 ly used by the Attics ; the second by the Ionics ; the third is the most rare. The common form also is partially in use along with these. Note 3. Some in aiog, viz. ysgaLog old, nalmog ancient, crxolalog slow, commonly drop the o before the ending ; e. g. ysgalxegog, nuXakuTog. Note 4. fl4Xog dear, a friend, commonly either drops the o, or substi- tutes at ; e. g. (plkjsQog, cplkraTog, or (pikaksgog, xuTog. The Dor. q)ivxsQog see in § 16. n. 1. d. Note 5. Those contracted in eog -ovg change soj to w, i. e. the e is swallowed up ; e. g. nogcpVQEmaTog nogcpvqojTaTog. Those in oog -ovg on the contrary, most commonly assume co- in the uncontracted form, (as in note 2,) as anXoog anXoiaxaTog, and hence contr. anXovg anXovanaxog. Note 6. That the comparative and superlative in og are sometimes of common gender, has been already remarked, § 60. n. 4. § 66. Particular Forms of Comparison. 1. Of other adjectives, those in vg merely cast off the g ; e.g. tvgvg iVQvregog.^ raiog. 2. These in ag, G. avog, do the same, and then resume the v which had been dropped; e.g. [xe'Xug G. fxtXavog — f^eXuvregog. 3. Those in f]g and €cg shorten these endings into eg ; e. g. aXri'&rig G. aog^aXri&tGtazog ' nbvrig G. r}Tog — navtaTaiog ' ;fa^/«^g yagito- TUTOg. 4. All other adjectives take the forms aoTsgog, toxaxog ; more rarely iazegog, iaxazog ; and are changed before them, just as before the case- endings; e.g. cc(f>got}v {acpgovog) dcpgov-e'aTegog' agna^ {jugnayog) ag- nuy-ioxazog.* Note 1. Since the substantive ending 7}g of Dec. I, is often ei^ployed in an adjective sense (comp. § 63. n. 7), it admits also the degrees of com- parison ; but always with the form Icrxsgog, hxaxog, e. g. xXsjixlaxaxog from xXsTcxrjg thief, thievish. But v^g taxing a violent person, has for the sake of euphony v^giaxoxsgog. Note 2. The word ipsvd'tjg, G. sog, false, has also -ilXog. Note 7. Comparatives in aaoov, jtcov, except S^aacKov and some words adduced in the next sections, are rare and poetic ; e. g. naaawv from naxvg Horn. ^d(jsgT£gog, cpigxaxog and (pigicrxog, braver, most excellent, which can be referred to aya&og ; — Kvvxegog more shameless, from Ttvcjv, xvvog, dog ; — ^aaiXsiixsgog mightier, from ^acriXsvg ; — nvficcxog, ^v;faTog, onXoxsgog, etc. which are sufficiently explained in the lexicons. Note 3. In a few very rare instances, we find a new degi*ee of compari- son formed, for the sake of emphasis, from a word which is already in the comparative or superlative degree, e. g. ia/axcuxaxog, ngmiaxog, from lo-;^«- xog, ngaxog. Such instances occur mostly in later writers, at least in those not Attic. — When the epic poets sometimes combine both forms of the comparative in one, e. g. xsigoxsgog, (^sioxsgog, this is done for the sake of the verse, and not to produce an emphatic sense. Numerals. § 70. Cardinal Numbers. 1. sTg, fila, i'v, G. ivog, fxiag, ivog, one. Observe the anomalous shifting of the accent in ^u/a, fxiag, fiiix, fj,iav. — Instead of this Fem. epic writers have also la, G. 1%. Hence, by composition with the negatives ovda and f^fide, come the negative adjectives ovdeig, ovda^ia, ovSav, and firjdelg, f^tjdefila, firjdsv, no one, none. In declension they retain the accent of the simple word, as ovdevog, ovdef-itcig, etc. The mode of writing these compounds separately, ov8s ug, f^rjSs IV, etc. where there is always a hiatus (§ 29. n. 1), serves for emphasis : not even one, not the least. — Several writers, mostly later ones, write ovS^slg, Neut. -S^sv, for ovdslg; but employ the usual feminine. 2. duo Nom. Ace. dvoiv Gen. Dat. two. The Attics write also dvEcv, but only in the Genitive. They likewise use dvo as indeclinable for Gen. and Dative. — Forms not Attic are, N. A. dvo) G. dvav D. dval, dva-lv. — Ion. 8voT(tlv. — Epic doLOj and dotol, which are declined throughout. — The word which expresses the idea of both (oc/u^w), see in <^ 78. 4. 114 §70. NUMERALS. 3. TQ^Jg M. and F. tgia Neut. three, G. tquov, D. TQtGi{v), Ace. like the Nom. 4. Tioaagfg or TSTtageg, Neut. a, four, G. wv, D. ziaaaQGc, TetroLQai, (poet. Tt'igaai), Ace. «?, a. Ion. liao-Egsg, Dor. TSTTOQEg, TSTOQsg, ancient and iEol. nhvgsg. The remaining units or simple numbers up to ten, and the tens or round numbers up to one hundred, are not declined. 5. Titvxe 7. tTLTa 9. tvvia 6. i'^ 8. oyixM 10. (Jixa 20. €1X0(71 or -nt^ 50. Tif^rjjxoira 80. oydofjy.ovza 30. TQianovta 60. ^I^Jjcozra 90. ivsv^^tovzcc 40. reoGccgaxovia 70. ipdofi^xovra 100. ixaroV. Not only the long a in XQiaxovxa, but also the short « in xscrffaqaaoV' xa, etc. passes over into t; among the Ionics ; as xQi'i]y.ovxa, xsaang'iq- y.ovxa. Other Ionic and epic forms are isUocn, oydojxovxa, iwijuov- xa ; Doric, 5 nifxns, 20 sl'yaxi. The numbers compounded with ten, i. e. the numbers 11 — 19, have commonly the following forms : 11 ti^deaa, 12 dwdeacc, 13 xQicsxaidaxct, TiGoaQeaxaldexa, nevxixaldixat ianaldena, inxaxaldeyM, oy^xMyaids- xa, ivveanccldsna. — Less frequent are deyaxQilg, drAantvxe, etc. — TgeHg and Ttaaageg are declined in the compounds also, e. g. xsaGagccxal' dsxa, xeoGagGncaidencc, dsxccxgiaiv, etc. Jvojdfita and dvoxaldeya are Ionic and poetic. — The forms xQiaxalds- x«, exxaidey.a, shew that the other numbers connected by y.al up to 19 are not to be written separately. — TeaffSQeayaldsya is with the Ionics indeclinable ; e. g. Herodot. I. 86 bis. Other compound numbers are usually written separately. When the smaller number stands first, they are connected by xai ; otherwise not ; e. g. ntvx€ Kal eixootv, or elxoGv nivxa. The round numbers above one hundred, i. e. the hundreds, thousands, etc. are regularly declined : 200 diuxoGioi, ai,, a, 300 xgiaxoGiOi, xax- guTiOGioh navxaxoGtoi, i'SoixoGtoi, Inxa-AOGiOc, OKxaxoGtoCj avvaKOGiot, (without a) — 1000 ylliov, dcG'/^llioc, xgiG^iikioc, xaxgaxiGylliOL, navxa- viiGxlUov, etc. — 10,000 ^ivgtot,* diofAvgioi^, etc. Comp. §71. 2. The a in the two first of these numbers is long; Ion. dLtjxoinoL, etc. — Old Homeric forms are ivvEa/lXioL, dsydxiXioi,.^— These larger num- bers can also stand, as collectives, in the Singular ; e. g. diaxoaia mTcog (?) mnog cavalry). Note 1. Instead of the numbers compounded with oaxca 8 and ivvia 9, a circumlocution is often used ; e. g. for 49 we find the phrase svog di- ovxog (or fxiug dsomrjg) nsvT'/jyovxa, i.e. 50 less one; and so 8vo7v dwvxoiv 7i8vxi]xovxa, 50 less two, for 48. We find also the construction eyo? or Di.sti iguishod from fivQiot, many, innumerable, by the accent. §71. NUMERALS. 115 dvdiv diovTsg, -xa ; the word diiv being used to express the sense both of to want and to he wanting. Note 2. When other parts of speech are to be compounded with numerals, the four first numerals have a particular form, viz. unity is expressed by fiovo-{fi,6vog alone), two by dt-, three by tql-, and four by TSTQa- ; e. g. fiovoy.sQwg, dlxsgoig, diavlka^og, 5i£T»)? (from stog), 8i(xi^oXov (from o^oXog), rglTiovg, TsigaTiovg, etc.* The other numerals either retain in such compounds their usual form, with a few necessary changes for the sake of euphony, e. g. TisvTsvdi'a, exaxoixTivXog, exnrjxvg'irom e|, etc. or they are likewise formed with « or o ; e. g. TtsvTa-^sTgog, e^u-ycavov, elxo' ad-Edgog, nEVTr}y.ovT6-/vog, exaTOVTa-fivaTog, /dLo-TaXavTog. An Ionic form from ivvia is Elvdnrj/vg, etc. — The a in such compounds sometimes remains before vowels, and sometimes not ; the o is dropped, or in compounds with BTog year is contracted. We find therefore hmotixrig of seven years, better sTixETrjg ; TgiaxovTasTrjg or TgiaxovTOVTrjg for -ohrjg.j Observe also ivvahrjg of nine years, hvriy,ag nine days long. § 71. Ordinal Numbers and other Numerals. 1. The two first ordinal numbers are two defective forms of compar- ison, viz. ngwTog primus, the first, or when only two are spoken of, uqo- xeQog prior, the former; and deuxegog the second.X The other ordinals are the following : xgixog, xtxagxog, nefinxog, tytxog, t^dofAog, oydoog, iva- tog or tvvaxog, Sexaxog, ivdt'Aaxog, dojdenaxog, xgiaxaidexaxog, xea- Gagcataidixaxog, etc. eiaoaxog (20), rgtanooxog (30), xeaaagay.oaxog, etc. ixaxooxog (iOO),di,ay.o(noax6g, etc. y^tlcooxog, ^vgiooxog. Here also in compound numbers, the smaller numeral is either placed first, with Kai; or more commonly last, without Ko.i ; e.g. rgiazooxog ngco- xog, or ngMxog notl xgianooxog. — To these ordinal numbers corresponds the interrogative correlative nooxog ; (<^79. n. 1,) quotus? the hotc- many-eth ?*[{ * Composition with 8i,o-. rgco-, takes place only where the proper sig"ni. fication of §ig, rgig, timce, thrice, must be expressed ; as in Siad'av7Jg Horn. Sia- l^vQiot, §ia£(p'd'og, xgiodd'hog, etc. "t These words liave the Gen. in aog^ ovg^ and are of common gender. They however admit a separate feminine in ig^ e. g. TQcaHOVrovriSsg aTiovSai. X A corresponding superlative, dsvxatog the last of two, is only poetic. U So also TtoXXoGxog one among many, oXiyooxog one of a few. Hence to nok- XoGtov [ligog one -part among many, i. e. a very small part. — [To express numbers with the fraction one half in money, weight, measure, etc. the Greeks employ words compounded from rj/ui half and the name of the weight or measure, with the adjective ending ov^ coVj or aioVj and then set before them the ordinal number of which the half is meant; e.g. rirgarov 7]juiTdXavT0V the Ath half talent, i.e.^.S^ talents; t^Sofiov rifiirSMvrov , Qh, talents, Herod. I. 50, and often; rgixov i)^i' ^gayfjiov, 2^ drachmae ; xglxov 7j[i,ifivaL0V, 2J minae. Compare the German drit- teha'Uj,viertehalb, etc. for 2^, 3i, etc.— When however the words stand in the Plural, they denote simply so many half talents, etc. e. g. rgia ^jfiixdXavxa three half talents, or U talent, Herod. I. 50; Ttivts 7)fiitdXa.vxa, 2^ talents, Demosth. pro Phorm.956. 18.— Tu. 116 §72. PRONOUNS. For ThuQToq we find on account of the metre Thgarog ; for haxog we find svvaTog, Ion. elvaTog. — Epic forms are Tglraxog, e^dofiawg, 6y- doazog. — The Dorics have nqaxog for nqbtTog. 2. The numeral adverbs^ which answer to the question liow many times, are : ana'§ once, dig, xQig, TeTQaY,cg, nevrdztg, onvdxig, ivi^eumg or ivvoixcg, exccTOi'Tcxxog, y^ihaiMg, etc. (poet. -v-i). The interrogative is noaanLg; 3. The numeral adjectives which answer to the question how many fold, are : dnlovg simple, di^nXovg double, xgtiilovg, tax ganXovg four- fold, nevTccTilovg, etc. ( § 60. 5. b) — or also dtnXdotog etc. 4. The numeral substantives are all formed in ctg, G. cidog ; as tj fio- vdg monad, unity, Svdg, TQtcig, xexQug, nsvxdg (also nff-inxdg and mf^- ndg), i^dg, i§dofJiccg, oydodg, ivvsdgj dexdg, etc. inaxovxctg, ;f*^««?^ f^ivQidg. THE ARTICLE See §75. PRONOUNS. § 72. Pronouns Substantive and Possessive. 1. The substantive or personal pronouns of the frst and second persons are iyoj I, rifxng we; gv thou, v^eig (long v) ye. 2. In the pronoun of the third person, the Nom. Sing, 't is wanting in the common dialect ;* just as in the Lat. se, to which this pronoun, among the Attics, corresponds also in its reflexive sense. In the Plural it has a particular form for the neuter, which however is also unfrequent. Note 1. This pronoun throughout is unfrequent in the Attic language ; for in the reflexive sense [self) the compound iavxov (§74. 3) is more commonly used ; and in the direct sense [him, her, it) the oblique cases of the pronoun avtog (§ 74. 2) are employed. In Ionic and epic writers, on the contrary, who employ it indiscriminately for him and for himself, it occurs more frequently. — For all that concerns the use and misuse of the reflexive pronoun, see Synt. § 127. 3. These pronouns are declined as follows : * On this very rare Nominative, and its actual use by the Attics, see the author's Ausfuhrl. Sprachlehre with the note to p. 290 and the additions at the end. (Ed. 2. p. 284.) The proofs of its existence and use are drawn from Apollonius de Pro- nom.p. 242. p. 329. and dc Synt. p. 1G7. Draco p. 106. and above all Priscian. p. 957, 967. (Krehl. I. 563, 574.) Comp. also Bekker's notes to Plato. Symp. 375, 11. 469, 7. §72. PRONOUNS. 17 ifAOv and f^ov ifiol and fioi ffis and (.a we two vmI, vco vco'iv, V(OV we thou (IV GOV GO I G6 you two Gqjon, Gqoj G(fi(o'l'v, G(patp ye or you V{xe7g VfiMV VfUV vfiag he {himself) L ov oT t they two I Gq.(x}f' ( Gcpmiv they GCfelg N. Gcf.tu GCfjMV GqiGi{v) G(fag N. Gqjeu Nora. Gen. Dat. Ace. Dual. N. A. G. D. . Flur. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Note 2. The oblique cases of the second and thh'd persons are encUt- ic ; but in such a way that they may also become orthotone, as pointed out in § 14. 7. Of the two forms in the same case from i/(o, the monosyl- lable is alivays encHtic ; and only the dissyllable can become orthotone as above. — Of the forms which begin with acp, only the oblique cases of the third person are enclitic, including the forms of the dialects given in note 6 ; and even here, cr<]pwj' and crcpag in this circumflexed form are excepted ; but when resolved into (jcpsbjv, (Tcpsag (note 6. 8), or when sometimes the latter is shortened by the poets to (xcpocg, these also are enclitic. Note 3. When one of these pronouns is governed by a preposition, it regularly retains its accent, or is orthotone, as nsgl crovy iv aol, nagoc (jcpl- (Tiv ; and so from iya — xax" ifxs, s^ ifiov. — Some Grammarians except ngog (IS ; and it is thus actually found in Attic writers in most instances. See Ausjuhrl. Sprachl. and Jacob's Praef. ad Anthol. p. xxxiii Note 4. For the sake of emphasis, the particle yi is often appended to these pronouns (§ 149. 2). In such instances, s/m, ifxol, and ifis draw back the accent, as syaiys (equidem), sfiotys, efisys, avye, etc. Note 5. The cases ■//ftsT?, v^isig, etc. according to the ancient Grafnma- rians, are also capable of inclination ; inasmuch as in all instances where the forms above specified are enclitic, these, though they do not throw their tone upon the preceding word, draw it back ; as ijficov, ri(iLVy etc. This however is not commonly observed in our editions. Note 6. Dialects. 1) For iyw, an old Doric and epic form is eydv. 2) The Dorics have tv for (tv, and in the enclitic Accus. also xv. The Accus. Ts is rare and only orthotone, Theocr. I. 5. In place of it the jjEolics and even Dorics have elsewhere retained gL — An old epic form of the Nom. is Tvvr]. 3) In the Dative, the Ionics and Dorics have to/ for (toI, but only as an enclitic. 4) The Genitive in ov of these pronouns came from so ; hence the epic forms 6|it£o, aso, so or siislo, (Tslo, slo. The -Ionics and Dorics have thence ifisv, fisv, asv, sv (§ 28. n. 5) ; the Dorics for usv have also tsv and xsvg. Wholly anomalous is the Gren. tsoIo for aeo, 0, for which see § 75. Note 1. The Ionics often insert s in some of the forms of ocvToq, e. g. avTSTj, avTsav, § 28. n. 3. Note 2. 'Exslvoq comes from exet there. The Ionic form is xslvoq, % 0, and the Doric t^vo?, «, o. The iEolics had the intermediate form x^- voq. — For (iilXoL instead of ol aXXoL, see § 29. n. 6. 2. The pronoun amog has three significations: (1) self; (2) in the oblique cases, him, her, it; (3) with the article, the same. The details are given in the Syntax, § 127. 2. We merely remark here, that in the last signification, it is often contracted with the article (§29. n. 4), as TccvTOv, ravTw, Tccvrrj, for tov avTOv etc. where it is to be observed, that the neuter in such instances ends in ov as well as o : TavTO and rauroV, for to avTO. One must take care not to confound the forms ravt^ and %mna, (especially when the coronis J. is omitted,) with ravtrj and jaina from ovToq (§ 76). For the Ionic forms (ovjoq, twuto, see § 29. n. 6. 130 § 75. PRONOUNS. THE ARTICLES. 3. From avtog are formed the common Reflexive Pronouns * by compounding with amov the Accusatives of the substantive pronouns, i^i, at, i'. They are then declined in the three oblique cases thus : G. i^avTOv, ffiavTfjg, D. ifiavrm, rj, K.l^avTOv, tiv^ of myself , to myself^ myself G. asavTOv or aavtov, etc' of thyself G. lavTOv or avrov, etc. of himself. This last has also an Ace. Neut. tavxo, avzo, and is declined in the Plural, e.g. iaviojp, aavrovg, etc. The first and second persons sepa- rate the words in the Plural, e. g. i^ficjif aurcjv, vficuv ammv, etc. Note 3. The Singular also was originally used in the separate form., And since Homer has still aol avjM and oi uvtm, so too the forms 8 avTi^v, iu" amov etc. are at present written separately in his poems, II. a, 271. ^, 162 ; — and in Od. |, 185. II. ^. 490, t« o-' amov, a" avTrjg, (or (ravtov, aav- Tijg,) is regarded as an ehsion of Ta era. Note 4. The Ionics have in this compound av instead of av (§ 27. n. 11), and omit to elide the s in the first person ; e. g. i(is(0VT0Vy asavtoVy kcavTOV etc. — For eoivjerjv, see note 1. 4. From ciXlog is formed the common Reciprocal Pronoun strictly so called ;t which of course is not found in the Singular, viz. G. dkXrilojv D. dllriXoLg^ acg, A. dXlriXovg, ag, a, Dual wAA^Aw, «* Oiv, acv.l — one another^ §75. The Articles. 1. The Greek Grammarians denominate as articles {id dg&gajoints), the two most sim])le adjuncts of a substantive, which have a mutual ref- erence to eachother in two connected clauses of a complete sentence ; and of which in modern languages the one is called the definite arti- cle, the ; and the other the relative pronoun, who, lohich, what.^ * See the next marginal note. t The reflexive pronouns are so called, because they refer the action back upon the subject itself. E. g. in the phrase " he supports me," me is an ordinary pro- noun ; in " I support myself," myself is reflexive. When however an action is expressed asmutual, — e. g. " they support one another," — this is caWed reciprocal. It is however to be observed, that this latter name is often used to include both ideas; and therefore in many grammars, that is called reciprocal, which we here name reflexive. X This Dual has reference to a mutual action between two ; where however the Plural may stand just as well. II Such a complete sentence, in which bothjhe (Greek) articles appear, is e. g. " This is the man, who will deliver us," oirog iartv 6 dvi/Q og oojost ijfiag . It was because these two words refer so intimately to each other, and as it were lock into one another like joints, and thus connect the two clauses as members §75. ARTICLES. 121 2. Of these two articles, the one is called the Prepositive Article 0, T^^ TO, hie, hsec, hoc, the. This coincides in flexion with the adjective pronouns, % 74 ; except that 1) The Masc. and Fern, in the Nom. Sing, and Plur. are atona^ unaccented (^13. 3), and have the Sj^ir. asper; while all the other forms have an initial r ; 2) Not only the neuter, as in the adjective pronouns, but also the Masc. in the Nom. Sing, ends in o (o). * The other is called the Postpositive Article og, rj, 0, qui, quae, quod, who, which, what. This is declined precisely like the adjective pronouns, § 74. 1. Prepos. Art. Postpos. Art. qui qucB quod hie hcBc hoc Nom. v^ TO ^i 7] Gen. TOV TTJg TOV ov h 0^ Dat. TM T^ T(^ (0 Ace. TOV Tr]v TO OP 7}V Dual. N. A. Tft> TO, TM ft) a to G. D. T07v TCUV TOlv oh aiv olv Plur. Nom. ol «r TiX 01 aj rr a Gen. TMV — - TOiV TWV r (OV ■ cov cov Dat. To7g Tccjg To7g off alg ojg Ace. Tovg zdg za ovg ag a or limbs of one sentence, that the Greeks called them ra aQd'Qa, articuli, joints. The first of these, however, o^ 7/^ To^ ^Ae, stands very commonly with its own simple clause alone ; and is therefore, strictly speaking, in such instances no longer an article or joint. But this arises from the circumstance, that in very many such instances, the second clause or apodosis is not expressed in words, but is left to be mentally supplied ; such as " who is spoken of," or " who is here concerned," or " whom you know," etc. Hence it became by degrees a usage of the language, to annex the prepositive article, 6j tjj x6, hy itself, to every object which is to be represented as definite., either by means of the language itself or from the circumstances. The grammar of modern languages has re- tained the name article only for this prepositive article, without any reference to the cause of the appellation ; and has given to the postpositive article the name o^ relative pronoun, which in itself considered is also correct. And since in the modern languages another pronoun, a, an, (one), which however is nothing more than a feebler rlg^ rlj aliquis, marks an object as indefinite, just as the designates it as definite, the latter has received the name of the definite, the former that of the indefinite article ; although they have nothing of the nature of joints in respect to each other, and no mutual relation like that of the two Greek articles. In the Greek grammar, however, we may properly retain the ancient appella- tions ; since they are in themselves so well grounded. But it is unnecessary, in any language, to regard the articles as a distinct part of speech ; which from an erroneous theory, is so commonly done ; since in their whole nature they are adjective pronouns. 122 § 76. PRONOUNS. DEMONSTRATIVES. Note 1. The variations in the dialects, are the same as in the termina- tions of Dec. I, and II ; e. g^ xdlo for tov, a for ?;, Tag for xriq, etc. — For the Gen. of the postpos. oi/, there is an unfrequent Homeric form oov. Note 2. In the eariier language the two articles M^ere alike in form ; (just as the German der, die^ das can still stand for both ;) and were dis- tinguished only by position and tone, as has ever continued to be the case with the forms r|, oV, «t. The epic writers have still the form o (inac- curately o) for og ; and all the cases of the prepositive article which begin with T, are used by the Ionics and Dorics for the corresponding forms of the postpositive ; thus TO for o, Ti'iv for 7;V, etc. The Dorics have toI, ral, for both ol, al, and o'i, at. Note 3. Strictly speaking, both articles are nothing more than the ancient simple demonstrative pronoun, this ; and were used (as will be shown in the Syntax) for this pronoun in many connexions even in prose ; as is the case with the German der, die, das. The common de- monstratives, which have sprung from this form, see in § 76. 3. The postpositive article, or simple relative pronoun, is in many connexions strengthened, by receiving an accession for the sake of em- phasis ; sometimes by the enclitic particle tt^^, as ooTieg, mubq, fjneQ, etc. and sometimes by composition with the pronoun ztg, as oatig, etc. See § 77. 3. Note 4. For the enclitic ts, which is appended in the epic language to og, as og xs or ogts for og, ovte or tovts for ov, see § 149. 1, under t«. ^ 76. Demonstrative Pronouns. 1. For the common demonstrative pronoun this, the Greeks have a double form. The one is made from the prepositive article, by merely, appending the enclitic de (§ 14. n. 3) ; e. g. ode, ijds, Tode, G. novde, trjade, etc. PI. o'ids, aide, tads, rovade, etc. 2. The other, omog, comes from the same article ; and hence it fol- lows that article in its very anomalous flexion. Where the article has the rough breathing or the initial r, this pronoun has the same ; where the article has o or w, this pronoun has ov in its first syllable ; where the former has n or a, the latter has av, e.g. o — ovtog, oi — ovtov, rcov- — TOVTiav^ ^ — ai^'r?;, xu — rama, etc. Sing. Plur. Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. N. ovTog amrj TOVTO OVTOi aVTOLO TaVTCC G. TOVTOV xavTYig TOVTOV TOVTO}V- — TOVTOJV — -TOVTOiV D. TOVTCO zavTfj TOVTM TOVTOCg TavTccig TOVTOtg A. TOVTOV TaVTTJV TOVTO Masc. TOVTOVg Fem. TOLVxag Neut. TaVTU Dual N. A. TOVTO} TavTa TOVTta G.D. TOVTOIV TamaLv TOVTOIV § 77. PRONOUNS. — INTERROGATIVES. 123 Note 1. As the prepositive article was the only demonstrative in the ancient language (§ 126), but by degrees lost that power ; it is appa- rent that both the above forms are only a strengthening of this article ; and that ovTog especially is in a certain measure the superlative of 6. — The further strengthening by appending I to both, see in § 80. Note 2. In the dialects there is no special peculiarity, except the Ionic s in tovx&ov, TavTsrjg^ etc. (§ 74. n. 1,) and the very anomalous epic form Dat. loladeai, xolodeGGi,^ for ToTade. Note 3. The Nom. ovxog, ami], is often used as a kind of Vocative or exclamation, like the Lat. heus ! you there ! hear ! § 77. Interrogative Pronouns. 1. The simple interrogative pronoun Tig ; Neut. ri; Gen. rhog ; quis, quae, quid ? who ? what ? always has the accent on the ^, as iheg, D. PI. tIgi, etc. and has the accent of the Nom. Sing, always acute (§ 13. n. 2). By these two cir- cumstances it is distinguished from the simple indefinite pronoun rig Neut. rt, Gen. rovog, aliquis, a, id; one^ some one, a certain one, which moreover, as an enclitic, most commonly stands without accent. The flexion of both these pronouns regularly follows Dec. Ill, every- where with short ^. Note 1. In the unfrequent instances where the monosyllabic form rig, il, receives an acute accent on account of another following enclitic, it is to be distinguished from the interrogative either by the connexion, or by the accent of the preceding word, e. g. aviJQ jig noTs. Note 2. For the interrogative xl used as an adverb, the poets and the Attic comic writers have an emphatic paragogic form, tl^ ; wherefore then ? how so ? 2. For the Gen. and Dat. of both these pronouns we oflen find the following forms : Tov, XM, for all genders ; orthotone for rlvog, tIvv ; and enclitic for xt,v6g,xivv; e.g. nw xs'Afialgev xovxo ; by what dost thou prove this ? — yvvaiKog xov of a certain woman, — yr^griG'&ui ro) to use something. For the Neut. PI. of the indefinite form, we find arra, Ion. aoGa, for xiva, but always orthotone ; e.g. dewa arxa for deivd xtva. Od. r, 218 o'jiot aaaa. 124 § 78. PRONOUNS. CORRELATIVES. 3. The compound relative oax&g, who, whoever, which is only a strengthening of pg (§ 75. 3), is doubly declined, i. e. both the og and Tig are inflected at the same time : Nom. oGTtg, rJTig, o,xi, (§ 15. 2.) Gen. ovTvvog, rjaxivog, D. mtlvl, tjTivi, etc. There is also a form compounded with the secondary form of ilg men- tioned above in no. 2, OTOv, OTM, — for ovxivog, coni^i,, but not for the feminine. azTDc, Ion. ctaaa, — for axiva. Note 3. This secondary form rov, tm, must never be confounded with the article, from which it is fundamentally distinct, as the three genders and the dialects shew. The rov of the article is by epic writers resolved into Tolo ; the xov for xlvog, xuvoq, on the contrary, into tso, whence Ion. and Dor. ret). — Ion. Dat. xm. So too in the compound relative, oxio, OXXEO, OXSV, OXEM. Note 4. The Ionics have likewise the secondary form in the Gen. and Dat. Plur. ximv, xioicn, for xiVMV, xialv. And in the compound relative we find among the Attics, though veiy rarely, oxmv, oxoidi, Xen. Anab. 7. 6. 24. Oec. 3. 2. v. Schneid. Soph. Oed. T. 414. Aristoph. Eq. 758. The Ionics write oxeoov, oxsoiaiv, and also in the Fem. oxsjjo'iv. Note 5. Epic writers had the license of forming the compound relative with the first syllable indeclinable ; as oxvg, oxLva (for ovxLva and axiva), oxivag. — They write the Neut. when the x is doubled, thus : o,xxi. — For oaxLoovv, oxmovv, etc. see § 80. 4. From xlg are formed, by composition with ov and firj, the negative pronouns ovxig, f^rjxig, t, no one, none ; which are declined like the simple xlg, § 78. 1. § 78. Correlative Pronouns and Adjectives.* 1. Correlatives are certain words having such a relation to each other, that when one implies a certain question, the others contain the simplest answers to that question. Those correlatives which are wholly of a general nature, have already been given above ; viz. the Interrogative xlg ; who ? Demonstrative o, ode, ovxog, this Indefinite xlg^ one, some one ^ Relative og, compound oaxog, who, whoever Negative ovxig, jirjxtg, (§ 77. 4,) or ovdelg, fArjdelg, (§ 70. I,) no one, none; each of course with its Fem. and Neuter. * The idea of the pronoun cannot be so accurately and systematically defined, as not to include much, which may in general be considered as belonging like- wise to the adjective. § 79. PRONOUNS. CORRELATIVES. 125 2. When these correlative ideas are limited to two objects or parts, they are thus expressed : Interrogative notegog^ cc, ov ; which of the two? Demonstrative, as above in no. 1. Indefinite o tiegog, ri haga, etc. one of the two Relative onotagog, which of the two Negative ovdtTegog^ fifjdeTsgog, neither of the two. Note 1. 'O Ejsgog corresponds exactly to the Lat. alter; and like alter, when one of the two objects has already been mentioned, 6 hsgog becomes definite and is to be translated the other ; see below in no. 4. — For the crasis ctTsgog, S-aTsgov, etc. see § 29. n. 5. 3. To the questions rig and notegog can also be answered every ^ each. In Greek this has the form of a comparative and superlative : inavsgog, «, ov, each of two, eaaGTog, r], ov, each (of many), every. 4. Other general answers to the question xlg are : OLlXog another, § 74. 1. nag, navreg, all, § 62. 4. To these correspond, when the question is made hy noTigog, 6 tTsgog the other (see note 1) afxqiOTsgog, a, ov, ccf^q)6Tsgoc, av, cc, both. For this last is used, in certain connexions, the Dual N. A. aficpM, G. D. dfiq)o7v (the latter with the accent moved forwards,) which stands for all genders. Note 2. By the poets aficpco is sometimes used as indeclinable, i. e. alsd for the Gen. and Dative, without change. — See more on aXXog and sxsgoe in § 127. 5. § 79. Special Correlatives. 1. Besides these general correlatives, there are also some special dis- tinctive ones, which refer more particularly to the qualities and relations of an object ; as how constituted ? where situated ? etc. These are formed in Greek after a very clear analogy ; and have partly the form of adjectives, partly that of adverbs. For the latter, see § 116. 3. Every series or set of such special correlatives, has its root and formative ending in common ; but the several words of each set are dis- tinguished among themselves by their initial letters. The interrogative begins with n, e.g. noaog; quantus ? how much? how great? etc. — The indefinite has usually the same form, but with a change of the tone, e. g. noaog, aliquantus, of a certain size or number. — The demonstrative has T instead of n, e. g. roaog, tantus, so great, so much. — The relative, instead of this initial consonant, begins the word with the rough breath- jf^^ OF THU! ^-i^. 12G § 79. PRONOUNS. — CORRELATIVES, ing; e.g. oaog, quantus, so great as, so much as. — A particular nega- tive for these special correlatives, does not occur in the common lan- guage. 4. Besides this simple relative, there exists also a compound one, which is preferred in certain connexions. It corresponds to oortg, orov, among the general correlatives ; and is formed by prefixing the syllable o to the interrogative : nooog; Relat. oaog and OTtoaog, poet, onnoaog. 5. The simple demonstrative, roGog, occurs in the full sense of a demonstrative, for the most part only in the poets ; in prose only occa- sionally, in instances where the idea of quantity, (or of quality, in xolog,) is not made emphatic or predominant. E. g. oaqi ^elilcov iatl, tooc^ ficcXlov (pvlccTTevai^, Xen. Cyr. 1. 6. 26. So roaog nal toaog, De- mosth. in Phorm. p. 4. More commonly a strengthened form (§ 75. 3) is employed. And as we have seen above, that the article o (the an- cient and afterwards feebler demonstrative) is strengthened either by annexing to it the enclitic ds (ode), or by being changed into ovTog; precisely so here, in one form the demonstrative is strengthened by de, and in another -og is changed into -oviog, e.g. Toaog — TOGOode or zoGoviog. The first form is declined in the middle syllable, TOGOGdSj TOGfids, TOGOvds^ G. TOGovds, etc. (For the accent, see § 14. n. 3.) The other form coincides in respect to the diphthongs ov and av entirely with ovzog, and has in the Neut. both ov and o ; thus lOGovTog, TOGavT?], TOGovTOv and togovto G. toGovTOV, TOGamf]g, etc. Plur. TQGOVTOi, TOGamai, toguvkx, etc. 6. The following are the three complete sets or series of correlatives : Interrog. Indejin. Demonstr. Relat. noGog; UQGOg xoGog ooog ^ quantus ? how great ? ZOGOGds ^ OTtoaog how many 1 TOGOVTOg nolog ; notog To7og oiog qualis? how? TOiocds onolog how constituted ? TOlOVTOg n7]XUog ; nfjUxog xriXUog iqVlKOQ how old! how large? rriXtKOGds onrjUxog TtiUnovTog For the Ionic forms tcoaog, aolog, omaog, etc. see § 16. n. 1. c. Note 1. There are some other incomplete sets of correlatives, which, (like TTOTS^oj, onoxtqog^ § 78. 2,) besides the interrogative, have only the com- § 80. PRONOUNS.— PARAGOGIC PARTICLES. 127 pound relative ; so especially Tcodauog ; oTToduTiog ; where horn ? and the derivatives from noaog, as noo-iog, noaTolog, TToo-anXdcriog, — onotrtog, etc. — To the correlatives belongs also the demonstrative Tvvvog, TVvvovTog, tantillus, so small. Note 2. In the same manner as the root of these sets of w^ords re- ceives its correlative power through the letters tt, t, etc. so likewise some of the correlatives themselves acquire still other significations and relations by composition, viz. with the general correlatives sTsgog, aXXog, nug, § 78. E. g. to the question noHog, answers also sTsgolog, alXolog, of another kind, navTolog of every kind. So too from nodanog — aXXodanog, navTo8an6g^ ^fisduTiog our countryman^ etc. Note 3. It is incorrect to regard Toaovxog etc^^ as compounds from ovTog. That the ending -ovTog both here and in omog itself, is nothing but a sort of superlative strengthening of the ending eg, is apparent, and becomes still more evident in the particles ivTav&a, ivtsv&sv. See § 116. 7, and marg. note. § 80. Paragogic Particles. 1. The compound and strengthened relatives, oazig, otov, oanfg, onoGog, etc. annex to all their forms the particle oi)v, which retains the tone upon itself; and which in this connexion corresponds exactly to the Latin cunque, and marks the sense as full and complete; e. g. 6(7- Tog who, doTiGOvv quicunque, whoever, whosoever it may be, i^riaovv, OTiovv, OTCpovp, Ace. oviivaovv or 6vTtvovv,Qic. — oanegovv, onoaoa- ovv^ dntjXixovovv, etc. Note 1. For a still greater strengthening of this sense, serves also the particle Si^tiots, e. g. oaTKrdijnoTs icniv, whoever then it can be ; oaovdrjiiOTS, etc. Such forms however are often written separate. 2. In like manner demonstrative words assume among the Attics, but only in the tone of social intercourse, the ' demonstrative t upon all their forms, in order to strengthen their demonstrative power. This suffix likewise always draws the tone upon itself, is always long, and swallows up all short final vowels, e. g. ovTog — ovioai this here, Lat. hicce, French celui-ci avTrjt from avzrj, rovci from xovxo, ixeivoai that one there, ixfi- vovl^etc. — TOGovTOvi, xoGovdl, i.e. so much, so great as you there see, etc. For the shortening of the long vowels and diphthongs before this *, see § 7. n. 19. Note 2. When the demonstratives already have the encUtic particle y«, this t stands after it, e.g. xovxo ys, xovxoyl. Note 3. When this i is preceded by u, it sometimes takes after it the moveable v ; e. g. ovxoalv, xovxovalv. So too among the adverbs, ovxanjlv from ovxwg. 128 §81. VERBS. VERBS. § 81. Moods and Tenses. 1. We may here assume the parts of the Greek verb, the 7noods, tenses, etc. as being known from other languages. In this respect the Greek language is richer than the Latin or English ; inasmuch as it definitely distinguishes the Middle form as a particular genus, separates the Optative from the Subjunctive as a distinct mood, makes the Aorist a distinct tense, the Dual a distinct number, and distinguishes also the various moods and participles in all the different tenses. But we must here remark on the very threshold, that it is by no means the fact, that all which can be formed, is actually formed and usual in every verb ; al- though in grammar it is customary to exhibit some one verb as complete in all its parts, in order to serve as a model for the rest. 2. Another preliminary remark is, that in Greek, far more frequently than in other languages, a certain mode oi formation, which according to the prevailing analogy is connected with a particular signijication, may also have another and often the contrary signification ; e. g. the Passive form has often an Active sense. We must therefore first of all become acquainted with the different forms in and by themselves; in doing which, however, the sense which attaches to each form according to the general analogy, and from which it is named, must serve as the foundation. 3. The signification attached to the different forms, however, can be fundamentally and fully developed only in the Syntax. But so much as is necessary for understanding the doctrine of forms, we may assume as sufficiently known from other languages, e. g. the idea of Passive, Sub- junctive, Imperative, Present, etc. For the Optative, the necessary pre- liminary information is given in § 88. 2 ; and for the Middle, in § 89. The Greek tenses alone require here a particular classification, in order to facilitate an acquaintance with their forms. 4. The simplest division of the tenses is into yast, present, 2ind. future. The past, however, has in ordinary language a greater variety of modi- fications, than both the others. In the tenses of the past, which are all included under the general name of Preterites, there is this essential distinction, viz. in one of them I remain with my thoughts in the present time, and only speah of a thing as done and past ; this is the Perfect. In the others, my thoughts are transported back into the past, and I relate what then took place.* This narrative species of tense has again subdivisions ; in Latin and English the Imperfect and Pluperfect ; in * In animated narration, tiiis transposition of the thoughts into the past occa" sions not unfrequently the use of the Present tense. § 82. VERBS. — AUGMENT. 129 Greek, besides these, the Aorist ; of which the complete signification can be developed only in the Syntax. (§ 137.) 5. The Greek language distinguishes these two kinds of past tenses in the form also, more clearly than most other languages. The Perfect, as we shall see, remains in one principal respect entirely in the analogy of the Present and Future ; while the narrative class follows an analogy of its own. On this difference we found, especially for the grammar of the Greek language, a second division of all the tenses, and include under the name of Primary Tenses the Present, Perfect, and Future; and under the name of Secondary or Historical Tenses the Imperfect, Pluperfect^ and Aorist. 6. The difference of form in the Greek tenses, is of two kinds : (1) All the tenses are distinguished from one another by their endings; (2) All the Preterites are further distinguished by an addition at the beginning, called the Augment. — Besides these general distinctions, the historical tenses are again distinguished from the other tenses, and con- sequently from the Perfect, by a particular augment of their own, and by a particular manner of inflecting the endings through the different numbers and persons.* — We treat first of the augment : and then of the endings and their inflection. (§ 87.) § 82. Augment. 1. The Augment is a change at the beginning of a verb, which in most instances consists in a real addition, or, when this is not the case, has its origin in such an addition. 2. The augment is of two kinds. When the verb begins with a con- sonant, the augment forms a syllable of itself, and is therefore called the syllabic augment. When the verb begins with a vowel, this vowel is * The division of the Greek tenses given above, is most clearly founded in the language itself, and is radically and essentially fixed there by the augment and endings. A Present, one Preterite, and a (perhaps periphrastic) Future, are the three most indispensable tenses; and it can be assumed, that the more limited ancient language remained satisfied with these. They are therefore rightly named primary tenses. This Perfect, it is true, must have narrated ; for the first object and necessity of language is narration ; but nevertheless it was at the same time a Perfect; just as at the present day the common man often carries on a relation by means of our unwieldy Perfect. As the language became more developed and cultivated, it separated by degrees from this Preterite the purely historical tenses and their modifications, and left the former as a simple Perfect in the series of primary tenses. The observation of the analogy by which the Greek language distinguishes these two classes so clearly, is very attractive ; and the learner will therefore pay particular attention, in the following sectionff, to the syllabic augment, and to the endings exhibited in § 87. 3. 130 § 82. VERBS. — AUGMENT. commonly changed in such a way, that a short vowel becomes long ; and this is therefore called the temporal augment, av^tjaig 7()0i/*k?J; since the word ^govog signifies also the quantity of syllables. 3. In each single verb again there are two species of augment, viz. that of the Perfect, and that of the historic tenses. We first exhibit both of these as they appear in the Syllabic Augment, because this, as we shall see, is the foundation of the other.* 4. In verbs beginning with a consonant, the augment of the Perfect is formed by prefixing this first consonant with e to the root of the verb, e.g. xvuTM, Perf. Tt-Tvcpa where of course, if the first letter be an aspirate, the corresponding smooth mute is prefixed instead of it (§ 18), e. g. This augment is also called Reduplication, because it repeats the first letter of the verb. — The Future 3, which includes in itself the sense of the Perfect, retains also this augment (§ 99). ,5. The historical tenses, on the other hand, prefix simply an f ; e. g. TVTiTco, Imperf. t-Tvmov, Aor. i-TViftcc and the Pluperfect, which unites the historic quality with the sense of the Perfect, takes this € before the reduplication of the Perfect, e. g. Tvnrm, Perf rfVf awj x^V- §84. VERBS. AUGMENT. 133 2. The following verbs, viz. e/(M have egno) i aaxiao) entertain tao) permit ignvCo S P tnoi ? ^ „ , x , , ^ ^ tXy^o, draw (see § 114) l^&i^oi accustom liiOfAac V"^^'''^ (^^^ V ^ 14) iUaao) wind egya^ofiao work, change the s into sv, instead of into v ; e. g. Imperf. tlxov^ Perf. iiQya- G fiat J etc. (See note 4.) Note 1. See also elXov, sXsiv^ in the Anom. algico, — sl'w&a in the Anom. sd^M, — and the verbs derived from the root "ESI, § 108.* 3. The vowels i and v can be augmented only when they are short, and then only by being lengthened; e. g. 'inszeixo (Eurip. Med. 971) Aor. ixeTevaa (ib. 338). And even where the syllable is already long by po- sition, the augment must be made audible in the pronunciation ; e. g. IG^VCO la^VOVj VflVfCO "vfA.VOVV. 4. Of vowels which are already long in themselves, a usually be- comes 7} (Text 1) ; the others, t], w, l, ?;, are wholly incapable of being augmented ; e. g. i^Ttaofiai, Impf. 7}XrMfXl]V Pf 7JTT7]fiCCt Plupf l^TTT]fif]V, except sometimes by a change of accent, for which see note 4. 5. Verbs beginning with a diphthong admit the augment, when the first vowel of the diphthong can be changed in the manner above spe- cified ; and then if the second vowel be ^, it is subscribed ; e. g. avXto) — 7}vXovv eviofiav — r]vx^f4.7]v cciTiO) — ^TOVP ado) — ridov omeo) — (Oicovv. But many verbs neglect this augment (note 3) ; and those in ov never take it, e. g. ovvdCco — oviaCov. Note 2, It is true, in general, that very many verbs remain unchang- ed, in which the augment might produce cacophony or ambiguity. So especially some beginning with a, av, ol, with another vowel immediately following, as ai'o), ariy.i, vcfjdl^of^aL ' avalvco, olattl^oj, olooj, and some others ; except that short a, as in ai'oj, is prolonged ; e. g. Imperf. ai'ov (long a), avaivsTO, olaxL^sv, etc. But mldco follows the general rule, ^jSLdov. Some others beginning with oi, have no augment, as olvl^co, oMovgsojj olaigso). So too all beginning with sl, e. g. slxca, slxov, sl^a ; with the sin- gle exception of slxa'Cw, which is sometimes, though rarely, augmented by the Attics ; e. g. sl'xaaa, eVxao-^ai, Att. ^y.aaa, fi-aadfiai. — In verbs beginning with ff, the augment t]v is employed by the Attics, though the usage is variable, as 7jv/6fj,ip> and sv/oiirjv ; svgs&rjv and very rarely TjvgiS^rjv. For compounds with sv see § 86. 2. * The following verbs are sometimes incorrectly referred hither, viz. £7toj and ig^ojj see the Anom. unetvy — &w on account of eiaa, see $108. II, — eQvo) and igojvdo) on account of si'qvoaj, siQOjrvjVy which forms however belong to the Ionic £tgvMy sigaJToioj. 18 134 §84. VERBS. AUGMENT. Note 3. The Ionics, and the poets not Attic, often omit this augment in all verbs, as well as the syllabic augment (§ 83. n. 6) ; e. g. a(xd§no for fj^sl^sTo, mv for sVav from iaca, etc. and sometimes even in the Perf. and Pluperf. Pass. e. g. afifiai, oiy,7]fiaL, from utttoj, Oixaw, in Herodotus. — In verbs beginning with a the Dorics merely prolong the quantity into a, and never change the vowel into rj. Note 4. The temporal augment unquestionably arose from the con- traction of the syllabic augment s with the vowel of the verb, e. g. a/o) s-ayov t]yov. Here however the contraction of ss into rj, and of «o into ft), deviates from the common rule (§28. 3. 6) ; while that of «ot into 7}, and of t£ into sl {bxco, s-s/ov, a/oy) follows that rule. — From this contrac- tion may be explained the accent of some compounds. For since else- where the tone, whenever it is possible, always rests on the antepenult (103. n. I. 1), such a contraction is probably the cause why, e. g. in avi^nrov from avuTTTM, the penult takes the circumflex. And in this manner the augment is sometimes visible only in the accent ; e. g. 7igo(j7Jy.(a (from ?ixw) Impf nQom]y.ov ; and from ajislgya the form anHqys is Imperat. but anugys is 3 pers. Impf. Note 5. The syllabic augment is in many instances still actually pre- served before a vowel. Besides several epic forms, this is found in the common language in the following verbs, which according to the general rule above are not susceptible of the temporal augment : Imperf. iojd^ovv, imvovfi'rjv, iovgovv. The same takes place in the verb ^PJi, Anom. oiyvvfit, break, Aor. Ia|«, etc. to distinguish it from ayo) lead. Note 6. In the Perfect likewise the temporal augment has arisen from the 8. For since the common reduplication (§ 82) consisted in repeating the initial consonant with s, of course, when the verb began with a vowel, this could not occur, and only the s could be prefixed, which then passed over with the initial vowel in like manner into the temporal augment. And this s also is still preserved unchanged in the verbs already quoted (note 5), as saya, ma^iaL, sojvrjfiaL, iovgrjy.a, and besides these in Eoiita, soXna, wgya from sYyoj, bXttw, sgya. The o in these Perfects comes from changing the vowel of the root (§97. 4. c), and the i is reduplication; thus egyo) £~ogya, like dsgyio} dedogna. Note 7. In verbs which have the rough breathing, the temporal aug- ment takes it also ; e. g. sdXcov, edXcaxa from "AAOSL, see Anom. aXlcrxo{iai ; also avddvo), evvv^l. Note 8. We have seen above (§ 83. n. 5), that the syllabic augment is sometimes increased by the temporal ; in the same manner the temporal augment in the verb ogdoj see is commonly increased by the syllabic, which retains the same breathing, e. g. Impf. ecogcov. For the Perf. euga- xu, see the Anom. ogdoj § 114 ; and also oVyoj, dvolya. — In the epic poets this takes place with some other verbs ; e. g. bmvoxosl from olvoxoio), liqv- davs from avddvca. Note 9. When a verb or verbal form begins with so, the second vowel takes the augment. This occurs in the verb sogrd^o), Impf. kaigTa^ov, and with the three Perfects mentioned in note 6 when in the Pluperf. iuxsiv, ifoXnsiV, iagysiv. §85. VERBS. AUGMENT. 135 § 85. Attic Reduplication. 1. A reduplication like that in verbs with the syllabic augment, cannot of course take place in verbs with the temporal augment. But several of these latter, all of them radical words, have in the Perfect the Attic Reduplication J as it is called ; which however is far from being peculiar to the Attics, since most of the verbs which have it, never take the simple and regular form. The Attic reduplication consists in this, that in the Perfect, the two first letters of the root are repeated before the temporal augment, the initial vowel remaining unchanged ; e. g. ayelgco (fjysQKa) ay-i^yegxa, dyjjyegfiai OQVTTO) (logvy^a) og-cogvy^a, ogwgvyfiuv oCco ((ijda) od-codoc. 2. This form prefers a short vowel in the third syllable (from the be- ginning), and therefore often exchanges the long vowels for short ones ; e. g. in dlelqjO) Perf a,h]Xoq)a, dXr]li(x[A.av ' ctaovco Pf dHi^xoa. Note 1. Even from iQsldco, which commonly makes igijgsta-fiaL, Homer could form sgr]QEdaT(Xb by such a change ; see § 103. n. IV. 4. — It follows of course, that in such instances it is the short vowel of the root which reap- pears ; see § 92. 4, 9. — The temporal augment of the second syllable some- times falls away in the epic poets on account of the metre, e. g. EQigimOy agagvla, from igdii(a, APSL. — Other peculiarities in this reduplication see in the Anom. algio), iyelgoj, rj^iva, s/oj, ol/ofiaL. 3. The Pluperfect sometimes prefixes to this reduplication a new temporal augment; most commonly in dxi^itoa i^xi^icoeiv. In most other instances, however, this is omitted ; comp. § 83. n. 6. Note 2. In some verbs which fall under this section (comp. § 83. n. 7), the Aorist 2 has in the poets a reduplication which corresponds to that of the Perfect ; except that here the temporal augment has the first place, e. g. APJl Pf. agrjgci Aor. i] g ag ov. So also ri^axov, agogsv, and some other forms (see the marginal note). In the common language the verb ayo has this Aorist, ^yayov ; see in § 114. This reduplication remains in the other moods, which then cast off only the temporal augment ; e. g. agdgtj, axaxsiv, ayaycjv. See § 82 note.* * The Grammarians have been accustomed to explain the epic forms ygagsv, wgogsj as Perfects, formed; by metathesis for ccgrjgaj ogojga. But jjgaga or other forms of the Perfect of this kind nowhere occur in the genuine earlier poets ; these third persons have every where an Aorist signification ; and moreover other Aorist forms, as agagov for TJgagov^ Part. dgagojVj occur in Homer and other poets. With this view coincide too the other similar Aorists, dyayetvj dxaynv, dnaq>£iVj dXaXxsTvy ivsyxstvj (all which see in the Anom. verbs § 114,) as also TtsTttd'etv, Iskoi&siv, etc. which begin with a consonant. § 83. n. 7. 136 §86. VERBS. — AUGMENT. Note 3. A very peculiar reduplication of the Aorist at the end of the v^ord, occurs in the epic poets in EQVxoi Aor. TjgvxaHoVf igVTiaxBEiV for -stv, andjn the same manner in EvlnToa, rjvinaTcs ; see Anom. in § 114. § 86. Augment of Compound Verbs. 1. In compound verbs the following is the general rule for the aug- ment: When the verb is compounded with a preposition, the latter stands before the augment, e. g. nQOdcpigo)^ ngoo-eqjegov anodva.), dn-edvacc, aTio-dtdvxa Gvkleyo}, ovv-iliyov • ' anallaTTO), dn-TqlaxTOv. In verbs compounded with other words, the augment usually stands first, e. g. fi^lonooeto, Ifjielonolovv , usfieXonoirjua QLCfjQOvita^riqjQOvovv' oiy^odo^tta^ Maodofirjacc. 2. Verbs compounded with the adverb €v, and the inseparable particle dua- , take the temporal augment in the middle, when these particles are followed by a vowel which can be changed, e.g. eveQyexioi, evtigytzovv ' dvaagsGraw, dvariQtGTOvv. When however these particles are followed by an immutable vowel or by a consonant, they take the augment at the beginning, e. g. ^uaojnio), idvawnovv dvaiv^io), idvGTV/rjGa, dadvaTVXV^oc evdoyufitoj, rjvdoHifA.ovv. But in compounds with ev, the augment in such cases is more com- monly omitted (§ 84. n. 2) ; as evcpQaivexo, evojyovfAfjv {svwy/ia&ai). Note 1. The preposition nqo often makes with the syllabic augment a crasis, e. g. nQosTisfupa nqovuE^ipa, see § 120. n. 7. Note 2. Some compound verbs, which were current in common life, and of which the simple forms are to be found only in the dialects or in the poets, take the augment hefore the preposition, e. g. ixad'Evdov, sxd&L- ^ov, 7}(pi0vv (from dcflrj^i). Still we find in most writers also xa&rjvdoVf etc. and from aTioXavco we find always ccjisXavov, sometimes with the double augment, dw^Xavov, (§ 83. n. 5) ; although the simple verb is no- where extant. See also w^tts/w under the Anom. l/w § 114, and dficpi- Evvvfib § 108. III. For E(inolav see note 5. Note 3. Strictly speaking, all those verbs have the augment at the beginning, which are not so much themselves compounded with another word, as derived from a compound word, e. g. dELVonad^Eco, idEivoTta&ovv from 8Eivona&riq, oixodo^ib) from omod6(j,og. Of this kind, however, as we shall see in § 121. 3, are all compound verbs except those compounded § 87. VERBS. FLEXION BY NUMBER AND PERSON. 137 with a preposition ; even when their second part is just the same as the simple verb ; e. g. fi8lo7ioiS(o, acpQovim, etc. Note 4. In accordance with this principle, some verbs apparently compounded with prepositions take the augment at the beginning ; e. g. evavTiovfittL 7]vavTi0v^riv ' MXi^olm ^]vxi^6Xovv. But here the former verb is derived from havxlog ; and the latter first arises in composition, since no simple verb of the kind exists. Note 5. It is however most common even in such verbs, that the augment stands after the preposition. So in Homer, avx£^6Xi](Ts.* Among the Attics we find throughout i^sxXTjalacrav, ivsK03y.la^ov, ngoEcpi^TEVaa, avv- rigyovv, EJtvxET^Sevy.a, ivE/dgovv, and the like ; although in all these verbs {eiiKXrj(na^co, e/x(0{j,L(x^(o, nQO(pr]TEV(a, (tvveq/so), STiLTrjdsvo), i/x^igio)) no simple forms exist, but they are derived from ixuXtjala, i/xcafiiov, 7iQoq)r}Ti]g, avvsgyog, inlTrjdEg, and from iv and xslg. From xari^yogog accuser, comes TiaTTj/ogelv to accuse ; for there is no such simple verb as rj/ogEO) ; never- theless we do not find ExaTrj/ogovv, but xatri/ogovv Perf. xari^/ogtjKa ; where the augment entirely disappears because of the r} which makes part of the word itself. ^E^noXav to trade, from ifiTToXtj ivares, though it has com- monly f]fXTi6Xi]cr(x, -Tjxa, has in Lucian mnEnoXrina. — Indeed, even verbs which are compounded with a substantive, and which admit no percep- tible augment at the beginning, take in some rare instances the reduplica^ tion in the middle ; e. g. mnoTETg6q)rjxa from mnoxgocpibj. Note 6. The following verbs commonly take the augment in both places at once, viz. avog&ooj tjvcogS^ovv, evoxXeoj tjVM/Xrida, avs/ofiaL tjvelxo- firjVf TcocgoLVEiv nEnagojvriy.a. Still more anomalous is this in the verbs dta- hoveXv, diaLxav, — dEdL7]x6v'rjxa, xatEdi^jTjara, since these come from dLocxovog, dluLxa, where the a begins no new word. In these words common usage has been led astray by the mere semblance of composition. Conjugation by Terminations. § 87. Inflection by Number and Person. 1. All the terminations, throughout the whole Greek verb, are divided, according to the character of their final syllable or letter and the inflec- tion of these by numbers and persons, into two principal classes, which are clearly distinguished from each other. In regard to signification, the one class has chiejly an Active, the other chiejiy a Passive sense. Hence, without regarding the deviations in single tenses, one class is called the Active, and the other the Passive Form. 2. In each of these two forms, the primary tenses again observe among themselves in certain respects an analogy of their own, by which they are distinguished from the historical tenses. 3. All this will best appear from the following Table, which contains the flexible final syllables and letters, that are common to the termina- tions of both the primary and the historical tenses^ and their inflection * See however the author's Lexilogus, 63, 13. 138 § 87. VERBS. FLEXION BY NUMBER AND PERSON. through the three persons and three numbers. In its present shape, as here given, the Table is applicable only to the Indicative ; the manner in which it is to be applied to the Subjunctive and Optative may be seen in the next section. Active Form. 1 2 Passive Form Primary Tenses. 3 1 2 3 Sing. Dual. Plur. — ^ 9 wanting top fjiev xe xov fA6\^0V Historical Tenses. (acct) od^ov G&6 G&OV VIOCt Sing. Dual. Plur. 1 — ? wanting xov fisv xe xriv (ne&ov V or oav fie&a {00) oirov ods to vxo Thus e. g. Xvof.iac, XeXvfiat, Xvaofiai^ Ivdi^GOfiac, are all first persons of primary tenses, in the Passive form of the verb lv(o ; and whatever is between the flexible ending fiai. and the radical syllable At', or if nothing is between them, — that is the peculiarity of the respective tense-endings; of which we shall treat further in § 90 sq.* Note 1. The flexible endings in the above Table begin each with that consonant, before which the rest of the word in the same tense is essen- tially the same. A part of the verbal formation annexes this con- sonant immediately to the root of the tense (see below the Perf. Pass, and the Conjug. in ^l) ; by far the greater part however assumes between them a vowel called the union^vowel, as Xv-o-fisv, lv-s~xs, Xv-u-g. Since now this vowel is mutable, the more particular rules for annexing these flexible endings must be deferred till we can give examples in full, (§ 93 sq.) and the above table only serves to bring together in one view, all that the dif- ferent kinds of tenses have in common. Note 2. The flexible endings of the 1 and 3 pers. Sing. Act. are not given in the above table ; because in most instances these have no conso- nant in the termination, but only the union-vowel ;f which moreover is very diflTerent in the diflTerent tenses. Compare e. g. 1. Xv-bi 3. Iv-si with Xv-o- fiEv, or bXv(T-a sXva-s with sXva-a-fiEV. Nevertheless in the greater part of the forms of the historical tenses, the first person has a fixed v, as I'Au-o-y, iXEXvy.-sL-v, and the third person, when its vowel is e, takes the moveable y, as eXv-sv or «. In the less frequent conjugation in fii, both these persons have in the Present an ending wholly peculiar, viz. fit, ai. (§ 106.) * It is necessary to bear constantly in mind this distinction between the termi- nations of the tenses or tense-endings, and the flexible endings of those terminations ; the former mark the distinctions oi'tense, the latter those of person and number; the former comprehend the latter, the latter only serve to inflect the former. — Tr. t Although in such instances, there is strictly nothing to unite, yet this is essentially the same with the union-vowel, and therefore falls away in such formations as have no union-vowel; compare e.g. ert'd'?^ with f.rid'Ti-v and hidi-fiev, where s ot t] belongs to the ground-form. § 88. VERBS. — CONJUGATION BY MOODS. 139 Note 3. The 3 pers. Plur. in the primary tenses of the Active is given in the table according to the common language. It is however proper to note here, that in the Doric dialect this person ends in vtv; and that the vowel before the au of the common form is always made long, because an v has been dropped ; e. g. xvuTovat Dor. tvtitovxl, isTVcpaaL Dor. tervqiavTt, See § 103. n. V. 4. Note 4. The flexible endings crat and ao of the 2 pers. Pass, are to be noted, only as being the original forms ; since the instances are few in which they have remained unchanged. The manner in which they flow together with what precedes them, and thus become difficult to be recog- nized, will be pointed out in § 103. n. III. Note 5. In regard to the peculiarities by which the historical tenses are distinguished from the primary ones, we must take care not to over- look in the above table the following points especially :* a. One characteristic, which runs through the whole of the Active and Passive forms, is, that the 3 pers. Dual, which in the primary tenses is always of the same form as the 2 person (e. g. Pres. tvtcxstov, xvn- rsTov, Pass. tvTiTicr&ov, vvTCTsa&ov,) in the historical tenses always ends in rjv ; e. g. Imperf. 2 hvjiTSTOv, 3 irvnTSTtjv, Pass. 2 irvTiTEa&ov, 3 hvTiTia&rjv. — In the early poetry however there are some excep- tions ; as dicoHETov II. x, 364. sisv/siov II. v, 346. lacpvaaexov II. a, 583. etc. See Ausfuhrl. Sprachl. and the additions ; see also § 103. V. 3. 6. In the Active form the only other characteristic diflTerence is in the 3 pers. Plur. which in the primary tenses always ends in ai with the moveable v [ovaiv ccaiv, or -(n), but in the historical tenses always terminates in a fixed v, as ov, av, siaav, rjcrav. c. In the Passive form, on the contrary, the two classes of tenses are distinguished throughout the Singular also and in all third persons Plural. Instead of the ending y,aL in the primary tenses, the his- torical ones have always (irjv ; and for rat (Sing, and Plur.) in the former, the latter have always to. There is the same fixed difference also in the endings which arise from crat and ao ; see n. 4. Note 6. Thejirst person Dual is wanting throughout the whole of the Active form, i. e. it is not distinguished from the Plural. — That the Dual, as being an ancient Plural, has sometimes in the poets, and particularly in verbs, a plural signification, has been already mentioned, § 33. n. 8. See especially Od. &, 49. Hymn. Apoll. 487, 501. § 88. Conjugation by Moods and Participles. 1. The Imperfect and Pluperfect exist only in the Indicative. The remaining tenses admit the other moods and participles to be formed from them. But the Future is always wanting in the Subjunctive and Imperative ; and in the Perfect, the Subjunctive, Optative, and Im- perative are seldom used. See in § 137. n. 11. * All these distinctions are of particular use in the epic poets, where it is often the case, when the augment has been omitted (§§ 83,84, notes), that they alone serve to point out the tense. 140 § 88. VERBS. — CONJUGATION BY MOODS. 2. The Optative is so called because it expresses in general a desire, wish, etc. but it is used nevertheless in very many other senses. The details are given in the Syntax ; and we only remark here, that its signi- fication corresponds almost wholly to that of the Latin Imperfect of the Subjunctive, a tense which is wanting in Greek ; or to that of the Eng- lish Potential mood. 3. This remark has a close connexion with the following general rule, respecting the inflection of the Subjunctive and Optative : The Subjunctive of all tenses follows the inflection of the primary tenses ; the Optative always follows that of the historical tenses.* Hence, in the preceding table (§ 87), the upper division serves likewise to exhibit the flexible endings of all Subjunctives ; and the lower one, those of all Optatives. What is peculiar in each mood, therefore, lies in the modifications of the union-vowel ; or, where this does not exist, in those of the vowel of the theme. 4. The Subjunctive always connects with the flexible endings of the primary tenses the vowels w and t;, instead of the appropriate vowel of each tense in the Indicative. We have therefore only to learn the Subjunctive of the Present (Act. and Pass.) in the ordinary conjugation (see tvutm) according to the following rule : Where the Indicative has o, ov, co, the Subjunctive has m. Where the Indicative has f, «^, ^, the Subjunctive has ri or rj. Thus: Ind. tvtitcOj Ofiav, ovatv, OfAuv, etc. Subj. TWTirw, (a^sv, ojoiv, w^cci, etc. Ind. Tvuxeie, axaL, etc. Subj. TvnxriTe, t^xao^ etc. Ind. xvnxecg, €0, rj, etc. Subj. xvnxrig, r„ t], etc. To this Subjunctive of the Present in the ordinary conjugation, all the Subjunctives of the different tenses and conjugations conform without exception. 5. The characteristic vowel of the Optative is t, which unites itself in- to a diphthong with the preceding vowel, whether union-vowel or the vow- el of the root ; and this diphthong then remains through all the numbers and persons. The flexible ending of the first person Sing, in the Active form, is either /w^ or rjv ; e. g. xi)nxocf.u, xiOeirjv ; and in the latter case this 7j remains in aH the other flexible endings next to the diphthong ; * So e. g. the Optative, even in the primary tenses, always has the 3 pers. Dual in 7jv, and the 3 pers. Sing, and Plur. in the Pass, always in ro § 87. n. 5. § 89. VERBS. — CONJUGATION BY ACTIVE, PASSIVE, ETC. 141 hence otfAi,, ocg, oi, etc. — elrjv, £h]g, iltj, elrjaav, etc. — In the Passive form, this diphthong always stands immediately before the historic flexible endings, as xvnxol-^riVy tl&sI-tOj etc. 6. The Imperative has a second and third person in all the numbers. Its flexible endings in all the tenses are as follows : 2 3 2 3 2 3 Act. Form. S. . . , iw D. tov^ icop P. ze, rcooav or vtcov. Pass. Form. S. {go), g&o} D.a&ov, a&Mv P. a&e, ad^coaavor ad^cov, 7. The Infinitive has the following endings : Act. Form, eiv or vat or ai> Pass. Form, (7i>at. 8. AW Participles are declined as adjectives of #/treg terminations; the feminine therefore always follows Dec. I. (§ 59. 2.) The masculine of the Actiue form has in the Gen. vrog, whence in the Nom. comes g or v, and in the Fern, ace, thus : cov or ovg, ovacc, ov ag, aaa, ccv G. ovTog G. (xvTog eig, eioa, iv vg, vaa, vv G. €viog G. vvTog. From these forms the Participle of the Perfect Active deviates entirely ; and has always wg, via, 6g G. oTog, — The Participles of the Passive all terminate in fA£Pog^ 71, ov. Note. Among the modifications which many of the above endings receive in their application, we must particularly not overlook their con- traction; not only in the proper contract verbs, but more especially in cer- tain parts of the ordinary conjugation, where a contraction lies at the foun- dation ; see § 95. 7 sq. and 103. n. I. 3. § 89. Conjugation by Active, Passive, and Middle. 1. The idea of Passive includes in itself the case, where the ac- tion which I suffer proceeds from myself. This can therefore be expressed by means of the Passive form ; as in Latin, e. g. versor means not only I am turned around, but likewise I turn myself around, I move about. This sense of the Passive is called reflexive ;* but the Greek language goes further, and employs the Passive form also in connexions, where the verb has only an indirect reference to the subject ; e. g. I prepare (for) myself a house. All these instances, which are more fully ^ See the marginal note to § 74. 4. 19 142 § 89. VERBS. CONJUGATION BY ACTIVE, PASSIVE, ETC. exhibited in the Syntax, make out the significatio media, as it is called ; and the Passive form, when it has this sense, is called the Middle. 2. In regard to form, we have exhibited the difference of the Passive from the Active in § 87. In accordance with this representa- tion, every Active tense may be changed into its natural Passive ; as is seen in the following table, where for the sake of perspicuity only the first person of the Indicative is given. Active Passive Form. Form. I Imperf. ov — Ofii^v I Pluperf. iiv^Kiiv — [Arjv ov — Ofxriv. Active Passive Form. Form. Pres. 0) OflUl Perf. t<,Jt« [A.UC Fut. ( 00) — oofAai ^ (X) — oufxac Aor. 3. Of this natural Passive the Present and Imperfect, Perfect and Pluperfect, include in themselves the Middle signification also, wherever this has place ; so that it is only from the connexion, that we can know whether they are Passive or Middle. But in the Aorist and Future, the above naturally Passive form is regularly only Middle; while for the real Pas- sive these two tenses have a special form, in which there is this pecu- liarity, viz. that the Aorist, notwithstanding its Passive signification, assumes in its flexion of numbers and persons the Active form ; while the Future, although formed from this Aorist, returns again to the Pas- sive form. Aor. Pass, l^''" Fat. Pass. 5 ^W«' I tji/ ( riooiiai, In distinction from these forms, the above natural Passive of the Future and Aorist is called in grammar, Future and Aorist Middle. Thus, Fut. Mid. {""-f"' Aor. Mid. if'"'" The four first tenses above mentioned, which have the natural Passive form for both significations, and which therefore should properly be called Passive-Middle, have in grammar the name of Passive, and can be called Middle only when they stand in connexion and have the Middle signification. They can therefore be designated as Middle only in the Syntax. Note. We remark here meanwhile, that not only is the Middle form of the Aorist wanting in all verbs where the Middle signification has no place ; but that in many verbs the Aor. Pass, in d^riv or riv has assumed the Middle signification (§ 136). Hence the Aorist Middle occurs only in a limited, although considerable number of verbs. For the present, how- ever, we assume every verb as complete ; and refer for the specification of VERBS. CONJUGATION BY ACTIVE, PASSIVE, ETC.. 143 what actually does or does not occur, to the more minute details to be hereafter given, § 114. 4. The system of Greek grammar which has come down to us from the native Grammarians, exhibits a complete Middle form ; which com- mences with repeating, as Middle, the Present and Imperfect of the Passive. But instead of subjoining to these the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive, in which the same double signification has place, they added an entirely distinct Perfect and Pluperfect Middle, of which the circumstances are as follows. 5. The Perfect Active has two different forms, both of which (in the first person) terminate in a. The more usual form, which will be more fully treated of below, either aspirates the last consonant of the root, or inserts x, as liyoj ItXeia, cpvo) TTf'qcf xa ; the less frequent form does neither of these, as cftvyM ntgxvycc^ daico dedrja. Now in most instances, this latter form, which differs so little from the former, is in common usage a real Perfect Active, conforming in sense to the regular Present Active from which it is derived ; and there are only a very few verbs, in which the Present has a transitive, while this takes an intransitive significa- tion (§ 113). This circumstance, a mere anomalyln a small number of verbs, ought never to have had any influence on the general theory of the Greek verb. Nevertheless, because in some instances this intransitive meaning is equivalent to the reflexive sense of the Middle ; (e. g. I have frightened myself, or I am frightened;) and in some verbs also, although very few, both forms of the Perfect exist together ; the ancient Gram- marians placed this less usual Perfect, with its corresponding Pluper- fect, in their Middle form ; although, in all the cases where a verb can have the Middle sense, only the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive have the true Mid- dle signification together with that of the Passive ; see § 1 36. 6. Modern Grammarians have therefore abandoned this erroneous method, which serves only to mislead. And since in other tenses, the double form of one and the same tense is denoted by numerals (§90.1); this less frequent Perf and Plupf are now in like manner called the Second Perfect and Pluperfect, which however are found only in the Active ; inasmuch as the Perf Pass, can be formed from both these Perfects Active only in one and the same manner. 144 § 90. — VERBS. — CONJUGATION BY TENSES. § 90. Conjugation by Tenses. 1. The forms of the tenses, in their principal features, have been given in the preceding sections. It only remains tO' observe here, that some of them appear in a twofold form, distinguished in grammar by the numbers 1 and 2; but without having any difference of signifi- cation. The twofold form of the Perfect is found only in the Active (§ 89. 6) ; that of the Future and Aorist in the Active, Passive, and Middle. 2. Besides these, the Passive has still a Third Future^ called also the Paulopost-future, which takes the reduplication of the Perfect (§ 99), and whose signification will be treated of in'the Syntax (§ 138). 3. We now distribute all these ordinary Greek tenses under the three forms, called, according to the division in the preceding section, the Active, Passive, and Middle Forms. Note. In the following table, only the augments and the endings of the first person in each tense are given. The longer stroke or dash stands for the proper root of the tense ; the smaller one or hyphen at the beginning, for the first letter repeated in the augment. The rough breath- ing over the termination, signifies that the preceding consonant is to be aspirated. Active. Passive. Middle. Pres. Impf — w i — ov — Ofiao I 6 fit]!/ like the Perf 1. -s — a or na -e — fiai Passive Pluperf 1. i-e — icv or xfcv i-6 fAfJV Perf 2. -e — a Pluperf 2. i-6 — 61V Fut. 1. GO) {^7] GO fiat — GOfxai Aor. 1. i — Ga i — x^fjv i — Ga^ii]v Fut. 2. OJ 7]G0fAat — ovf-iat Aor. 2. i — ov t 71V i — OfiU^f Fut. 3. wanting -e — Go^iao wanting 4. The connecting of these tense-endings with the root of the dif- ferent verbs, or what is called the Formation of the Tenses, requires a particular illustration. We must first, however, give some explana- tions respecting what are called in grammar the Characteristic, and Themes. §91. Characteristic. 1. That letter which immediately precedes the principal vowel of the tense-ending, is called the Characteristic, the distinguishing letter, of that tense. Thus e. g. according to the preceding table, g is the char- acteristic of the Fut. 1, and of the Aor. 1, Act. and Middle. § 92. VERBS. — DOUBLE THEMES. 145 2. More especially, that letter which stands at the end of the root of the verb, after casting off all that belongs merely to conjugation and inflection, is called the Characteristic of the Verb. It is therefore only necessary to cast off the co of the Present, and then the last letter, or sometimes the two last, is the characteristic ; e. g. in Ity-M the /, in (f)Ovei)-oi the ev. Note 1. We do not of course here speak of the ultimate elymological root, which in cpov^vw is the syllable (fov; but of the secondary or forma- tive root of the verb in respect to inflection^ to which the ev also belongs. Comp. the marginal note to §39. In the same manner, e.g. in (piXifa, tv- (xaca, the « and a, not I and jx, are the characteristics. — Verbs which have a vowel for their characteristic, are called pure verbs, verba pura ; see §28. 1. [Note 2. It is here proper to point out more distinctly the difference between the primitive etymological root cf o v , and the secondary root cpovsv . The former, (pov, is the essential or radical part, not only of (po- ysvbi, but also of the verbs cpovdoj, cpovoco ; the nouns cpovi^, q:6vog, q)ov£i% (fovsv^a ; the adjectives cpovLog, (povixog, etc. in short of the whole family of words which are thus related to each other. The latter, q)0V8V, belongs only to the verb cpovsiKa, and is the basis on which the forms of that par- ticular verb are built. In distinction then from the general root cpov, which is common to verbs, nouns, adjectives, etc. this longer form q)ovBV may be called the verbal root, as belonging only to verbs. Or with more propriety still, it may be called the stem of the verb (Germ. Stamm), as being already increased from the proper root, and being also the body or trunk from which the other branches of the verb, the persons, tenses, moods, etc. take their rise. Thus the verbs (povEvco, (povdoj, cpot'ooj, all have the etymological root (pov in common ; while each has its own sepa- rate verbal root or stem, cpovsv, cpova^ cpovo. In very many verbs, of course, the two roots coincide as to form ; in many others, not. Compare the marginal notes to § 39, and § 92. 6. — Tr. ^ 92. Double Themes. 1. In Greek, as in other languages, the Present is assumed as the principal or ground-form, i. e. as the tense by which the whole verb is represented in grammar, and from which Grammarians set out in order to form the other tenses, etc. In much the greater number of verbs, this mode of proceeding is also the easiest ; because after casting off the cu in the manner above pointed out (91. 2), the verbal root or. stem, and the characteristic of the verb, appear at once, and then serve as the foundation for building up all the other forms. 2. In many verbs, however, that which remains in the Present after casting off the co, is not to be regarded, at once, as the simple stem of the verb. It is often the case, that when we in like manner strip other tenses in the same verb of the augments and endings pecuhar to 146 § 92. VERBS. DOUBLE THEMES. thera, there remains a stem more or less diflferent from that of the Pres- ent. So that it is then a matter of question, which of the forms of this stem or verbal root, is to be regarded as the primitive one. 3. In a portion of these verbs, this difference consists simply in the voioel; and chiefly in the commutation of the three short vowels f, a, o. Now there is in the nature of these simple vowel sounds, considered in themselves, no reason why one should be regarded as the appropriate vowel of the root or stem, more than another ; and therefore, for the sake of uniformity (comp. no. 1), the vowel of the Present is assumed as the radical vowel, and those of the other forms are then regarded as its cognates (§27.1); e.g. in xQtqM, iTQCiCfrjv, Tt'jQOCfa. Comp. in English, beget, begat, begotten. 4. In many other verbs, the stem of the Present is longer and fuller ; sometimes because of long vowels and diphthongs, where other tenses have a short vowel ; sometimes because it has more or different consonants ; e. g. Ifijio) allnov, T7]not) hanf]v, palloi I'^alov, jvutm iTvn7]v, Tccaaa) hay^iv. Indeed there is quite a number of verbs, in which the Present exhibits a still greater difference, and has even an- other syllable ; e. g. XafA^dvm, where the stem is XafA^ctv ; while other tenses, as iXa§ov, XijipofAao, contain only the stem Xa^, Xfi§. Hence there results the principle, that the Present, in distinction from the other tenses, often appears in a strengthened form. Comp. § 75. 3. 5. Since now it is more natural and easy to assume the simpler form of the stem as the primitive one ; and yet the uniformity of grammatical procedure would be interrupted, if the Present in such verbs were formed from other tenses ; Grammarians have introduced the fol- lowing expedient. There are several verbs, which actually have in the Present two different forms in use, the one simpler and the other strengthened ; e. g. Xslnw and Xi^navw, I'dcj and iG{h'w ; and one of these different formg is commonly less usual, or indeed nearly obso- lete. Now in this same manner it is customary to assume, for any form which does not stand in the common analogical relation to^'the Present, another form of the verb as old or obsolete ; and in order to treat of this in a grammatical manner, the form of an ordinary Present is assigned to it. Thus e.g. for I'Xa^ov, the form Xu^od or A/J/?aj is as- sumed as an obsolete Present; and in order to mark such forms as obsolete, they are printed in this work with capitals and without accent ; as AHB^. See % 114. Prelim, note 2. 6. Every form of the Present, whether usual or not, wliich is thus made the foundation upon which the other parts of a verb are built, § 92. VERBS. — DOUBLE THEMES. 147 is called a Theme, d-^tia, i. e. something placed.* A verb in which an- other Present must be assumed along with the usual one, is said to have a double or sometimes a threefold theme. The characteristic of the simplest theme is called the simple characteristic , in distinction from other forms in which it is less easy to be recognized ; e. g. the y in the theme TAF^, in comparison with the gg in xaGGM.i 7. This plurality of forms in one and the same verb, is strictly an anomaly ; and hence the catalogue of anomalous verbs given below (§ 114), consists mostly of verbs of this sort. When however the differ- ence between the usual theme and the old or assumed one, is either not great, or is common to several verbs which have the same characteristic in the usual Present, this is more properly regarded as a variety of or- dinary conjugation, in order to avoid extending too far the limits of anomalous conjugation. 8. To such varieties of ordinary conjugation belong chiefly those verbs, whose simple characteristic is obscured in the Present by the insertion of a letter, or by some change. These are of three kinds : 1) In verbs with the characteristic nr, the x is an addition for strength, and the simple characteristic is one of the labials §, TT, (f (comp. § 20) ; e. g. 'AQVTlTOi TVmOi QCCTIXO) K'PTBSl TXn^ PAO!^. 2) Most verbs in gg or tt have as the simple characteristic one of the palatals, /, Jt, X i e. g. TlQUGGfa (pQlGGOi) ^TiGGOi • nPAFSl (DPJKSl BHXa, But some have also the Unguals ; see notes 2 — 4. 3) Most verbs in C, Dor. cd, have d as the simple characteristic ; e. g. (f'Qa^o) — 0PylASl, oCco — OAS2. But several have / ; e.g. ;i^a^(o — KPArS2. All these verbs retain the fuller form and the mixed characteristic, only in the Present and Imperfect of the Active and Passive ; while all the other * In order to avoid too great an accumulation of such themes, we often give in this work, instead of an obsolete theme in S^, merely the root ; as TTHj TAP, etc. t Thus, as compared with § 39 marg. note, and §91. n. 2, we have in every verb three fundamental parts or bases, viz. the etymological root, the verbal root or stem, and the ground-form or theme. E.g. in (pov-ev-oj , \\iq first syllable, t'Co^ai, axl^co, than in the multitude of derivatives in l^a and a^co which follow the same analogy. — To the characteristic / belong all those which mark a tone or cry, as xgu^o), a-Tevd^w, xgl^b), oI^oj^oj, etc. with some others, of which the following occur in prose, CTTtt^W, axl^bJ, (TXTjQl^M, (Tq)V^O), fiadxl^o), and some which fluctuate betvi^een the two modes of formation ; see the Anom. agnd^M, naiC,w, §a(Txdt,m, vvcrxo.^o) (§ 114).* — In a few verbs the simple characteristic is even //, see the Anom. nXd^o), xXoc^o), (TuXnl^a, — Fut. nXdy^w, etc. Note 2. On the other hand, some verbs with ua or tt have £is their simple characteristic, not the palatals, but the linguals, and follow there- fore the analogy of those with l,. Such are the following : TcXdaaoj, naaao), mlacrbj, ^Xlxxoo, ^guacrcx), ifidacra), igicFcrot}, xogvcraa, Xlaao^ca, Fut. TrAao-w, etc. Two verbs fluctuate between these two formations; see the Anom. dcpiKTcrca, vdaaco. * It is evident that in the most of these verbs, an actual original characteristic y is not to be thought of; but that the endeavour to avoid a repetition of the a, (e.g.GTiGd-aigj ^aaraa&si'g,) caused several verbs in ttoj, acw, to pass over into the other forihation. See note 6. § 92. VERBS. — DOUBLE THEMES. 149 Note 3. Some verbs in common use have in the Present both ^ and TT, but follow in the other tenses only one of these two modes of forma- tion ; so especially o-qpaxTCt) or crcpa^o) slaughter, F. o-(jp«|w, etc. — and ug- 1^6^(0 or ugfioTTO) adapts F. aQj^oaco, etc. Note 4. The Doric dialect, in verbs which commonly have a lingual for their characteristic, assumes in some tenses a palatal. This is more fully exhibited in § 95. n. 2. Note 5. We have said above in general (Text 8), that in the charac- teristic TIT, we are always to look for one of the three hngual mutes as the simple characteristic ; and so too in cru or tt, either for a palatal or (accord- ing to note 2) for a lingual. Which particular letter, however, it should in every case be, is for the most part indiiferent ; since, as we shall see further on, most verbs are usual only in those tenses (Fut. 1, Aor. 1, Perf 1), where, according to the general rules (§ 16 sq.) this simple charac- teristic must be again changed ; and the three mutes, indeed, {x,/,%,) every where changed in one and the same manner. E. g. from the Fut. ^rj^oa it appears only, that the simple characteristic of the verb ^tiudoi is a pala- tal ; but not which. We can indeed in such cases sometimes infer the radical consonant from the analogy of other kindred words ;* but since this is a matter of indifference for the flexion, we may with propiiety, in all verbs whose simple characteristic does not of itself become evident in conjugation, reckon those in m as belonging to the simple characteris- tic n, and those in co-, tt, either to the characteristic /, or (in those in note 2) to the characteristic 8, which lies at the foundation of the kindred ending 'C,. We have then only to mark the few remaining verbs in nx and (TO-, which exhibit in some of their tenses a different letter from those specified, as their simple characteristic ; these are a) in TTT, ^XdnTbJ, xQVTTTca, simp. char. /? ^UTiTco, Qamoj, /d^dnTOj, azdnxbi^ -d^gimrb), simp. char. q> b) in aa-j tt, only the Anom. cpQlaaco, simp. char, x, Anom. licrcrofiai. — T, and xogvaaca — &. (§ 98. n. 5.) Note 6. Finally, it cannot be too often repeated, that all which we have hitherto said, regards not etymological verity, but only grammat- ical analogy. When, for instance, on the one hand, it would be diffi- cult to explain such formations as ngdaaco nsTiQaya, xXd^oi xXdy^a, with- out assuming a more ancient theme ; it would be absurd, on the other * Thus in the example of ^yaooj I cough, the radical consonant x (Text 8. 2) can be determined from the subst. /??/'|, G. ^r^yog, cough ; so too in Tckdoaoj I form, the radical d" can be inferred from such substantives as iTtvo'jtMd'og an oven-maker. Nevertheless, such inferences are not always certain, inasmuch as the radical letter often varies in derivatives without any visible cause ; e. g. Aor. Pass. ixgv^TjV, Adv. itQvcpa, Adj. XQvq)tog. We see from these and similar instances, what might naturally be expected, that the radical character- istic letter was by no means every where so definitel}' fixed, as not sometimes to fluctuate between several kindred sounds ; as also in English, e.g. in youngster, younker ; cleave, cleft; rive, rift ; rend, rent; speak, speech, etc. In most instan- ces, however, there prevails a uniformity between verbal and substantive forms ; and for the doubtful cases, the grammar at least is authorized to assume the sim- ple consonant of the verb, as the radical sound or simple characteristic. 20 150 §93. VERBS. — FORMATION OF THE TENSES. hand, to assume in respect to such derived verbs as aXXacraa), %(OQi^(a, that an actual ancient form in yto, ^w, had really existed ; although in the former we find the Aor. 2 Pass. aXXayijvaL, and in the latter the Ion. 3 PI. Perf. Pass. xf/caQldajai. It is manifest rather, that after an analogy had once became current in the language, in respect to certain verbs, it was again followed in the formation of other verbs. But it is here impossible to draw the proper limits ; at least this would only serve to render the grammar more complex, without any corresponding advantage. It is better, therefore, to bring all verbs which agree in such modes of form- ation under one view, as in § 114. We must then regard these simpler themes in this light, viz. that many of them have formerly really existed; which is confirmed by those still actually found in the poets, as ^Xa^ca, Xhofiai, dgvcpm for dgvmo), ogv/M for oQVcrao), etc. but that in other verbs an analogous radical letter floated before the mind of those by whom the language was fixed, and led them to adopt a corres- ponding formation. Note 7. All the methods of strengthening the present, which are not included in this section, (such as the lengthening of some verbs by -s'ta and -«aj,) belong properly to the anomalies of the verb, and as such are brought und^r one view in § 112. § ^^' Formation op the Tenses. 1. The appending of the tense-endings, as given in §90, cannot be at once effected ; inasmuch as in accordance with the general rules of euphony, the characteristic of every verb occasions variations and changes, wherever it is not in itself adapted to receive the termina- tion ; and there are, besides, many peculiarities arising from usage. 2. The process however is greatly facilitated, by observing what ten- ses are derived one from another as to form, viz. the Imperfect from the Present throughout, and the Pluperfect and Future 3 from the Perfect. 3. Of the other tenses it cannot be strictly asserted, that they are derived one from another. Nevertheless, inasmuch as they coincide more or less as to the manner in which they are derived from the com- mon root, some are for the sake of convenience treated in grammar as if derived one from another, e. g. the Aor. 1 in aa from the Fut. in aw ; while in respect to others, one tense is assumed as a model, under which to exhibit, once for all, that which otherwise must have been repeated under several. 4. In this manner, all the tenses divide themselves into the three fol- lowing series. In these the . tenses are arranged, as they are derived from one another in most verbs ; or are formed from one another in the grammar. § 94. VERBS. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 151 I. Present and Imperfect, Act. and Pass. II. Fut. and Aor. 1, Act. and Mid. Perf. and Phperf. J , Act. with Perf. and Phiperf. Pass. and Fvt. 3. jlor. and Fut, 1,'Pass. III. Fut. and Aor. 2, Act. and Mid. Aor. and Fut. 2, Pass. Perf. and Pluperf 2. If now in a particular verb^ any one of these tenses is not in use, it is nevertheless commonly assumed in grammar, in order to make it, in the ordinary way, the basis of others which are actually in use. 5. Every change which a verb undergoes, in either of the tenses which stand f^rst in each of the above series, holds good also for the tenses which follow it ; unless counteracted by particular rules and ex- ceptions. Note. In order to bring into one general view much of what occurs in the following sections, we remark here, that the chief points of coinci- dence among the tenses in each of the above series, are the follow- ing : The tenses of Series I, never change the root or stem of the actual Present Active in common use. When the Pres. Active has a strength- ened form, this remains also through the whole of the series ; while the second series in most instances, and the third in all, are derived from the simpler theme. Series II includes all those terminations which usually occasion a change in the characteristic of the verb, chiefly through the accession of a consonant in the termination. Series III, on the contrary, always has the characteristic of the verb unchanged, and only changes sometimQS the radical vowel. Consequently, when the first series has a strengthened form, it is only in the third that the simple characteristic of the verb is to be recognized ; since in the second, we can only distinguish that it is e. g. a palatal, but not which. Comp. § 92. n. 5. § 94. General Rules of Formation. 1. The formation of the tenses, and their respective differences, are usually exhibited for each tense in one of its persons only ; and for this purpose the Jirst person of the Indicative is always adopted. So soon as this first person is determined, all the other forms of persons and moods are inflected and conjugated in the manner exhibited below in the Paradigms ; with which however §§ 87 and 88 are to be compared. Note. The terminations of the Perf. Pass, alone, are of such a nature, that the formation of this tense must be learned in several of its personal and mood endings, at the same time ; see § 98. 152 § 95. VERBS. — FUTURE ACTIVE. 2. Several tenses are formed in a manner so simple and so entirely uni- form, that they are sufficiently known from the following examples. In order to presqnt them in a single view, we exhibit them here as found in the ordinary conjugation in m. They are thus derived : ' 1) From the Present in co, the Imperfect in ov — tvhtoj, azvuTOv. 2) From every tense in cu a Passive form in Ofiat, viz. from the Pres- ent, the Prgs. Pass. — tvhto), Tvnrofiai; and from the Futur^, the Fut. Mid. — Tvipo), zvipo/Acct. So also from the Fut. 2 or circumflexed Fut. in w, the Fut. 2 Mid. in ov{4cti, as appears from § 95. 7 sq. 3) From every tense in ov, a Passive form in OfifjVf viz. from the Im- perf. the Imperf. Pass. — trvuTOv, iTvm6i^t]v : and from the Aor. 2, the Aor. 2 Mid. — ezvnov, IzvTiofAfjv. 4) From the Aor. 1, the Aor. 1 Mid. by appending the syllable fif]v, as etvtlia, iTVtpdfirjv. 5) From every Perfect the Pluperfect, viz. in the Active by changing a into 8tv — ztTvcpcc, iziTvqj^iv ; and in the Passive by chang- ing f.ia& into fi7]v — jiivfifiai, Irirvfi^riv. For the other per- sons of the Plupf Pass, see particularly § 98. 6) From each of the two forms of the Aor. Pass, the Fut. Pass, by changing r^v into r]OO^ai; as ixvq^^riv and Izvutiv — zvq)&fiO0- ^lai, TvmjGOfAut. All the other tenses require particular rules. . § 95. Future Active. 1. Theprimary form of the Greek Future is the termination 00). This form is actually found in much the greater number of verbs, and is therefore called Future 1. E. g. navo) Fut. navOM. 2. When the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, the changes which are usual with a, take place here ; e.g. le'yo), 7ikty.(o, xevyctj — F. Xt'Soj, nle'io), zevico a>A//5co, leino), ygaqjoj — F. 'OXixpoi, Xtiipoi, ygdipcj anevda), mlQM, utQ&ia — F. antvota^ neiaco, mgaoj. Note 1. When the characteristic of the verb is a lingual preceded by V, the vowel is lengthened before o" of the Fut. according to ^ 25. 3, 4. The case occurs but seldom ; most clearly in anivdca F. (rnslcrco. See also the Anom. nr'a/w, xavdava, § 114. 3. In verbs in nz, in aor or rr, and in C, the simple characteristic re- appears (() 92. 8) ; consequently from nz comes ijj, from aa or zz — |, and from ^ — o ; e. g. § 95. VERBS. — FUTURE ACTIVE. 153 Tvmai ( TXnn) — xvipco QomiM (P^0S2) — gaij.m q)QdCco [OPudASl) — (fgaOM and in the less frequent instances (§ 92. 8 and notes), from C comes |, and from aa or tt — ff ; e. g. KgaCto (KPAFJ^) — ^ga^M nXccGOco (TlAASSl) — nXaoo). 4. When the characteristic of the verb is a vowel (Verba pura, § 91. n. 1), the syllable before the ending (Joj of the Fut. is regularly long^ whatever its quantity may be in the Present ;* e. g. dai^gvm (v) — dayigvaco (v) TIO) (i)t — Ti'act) (i). Hence, f and o are changed into rj and co ; e. g, (pUe'cj, di]X6(o — (pUijaw, drjlcoao). For the exceptions, see notes 3, 4. 5. The characteristic a is changed in the Future into t], except when it is preceded by e, ^, or g ; in which case the Future has long a ;| e. g. TifLtacOj ccnaTCxco — TifAr^ao), anatrjao} poaojj iyyvdco — ^or,0(Oj iyyvi^aoo *• law, fietdido) — eaoo), fiecdiaaco (long a) dgaoj, q)(j)ga.o) — dgaaoj, (ptagaao) (long «). The exceptions see in notes 6, 1. 6. On the other hand, the penult of the Futures in clqm, law, vaco, is always short, when they come from verbs in C, or in oa, tt; e. g. cpgaooj, dticaoojf vof-iiGco, aXuaco, from cpgaCca, Fut. ^alw PI. ^aXiofisv, ^aXBiifxev, comp. § 105. n. 13. — The Dorics how- ever circumflex also the common Future 1 in trw, and then decline it as if contracted from soj ; e. g. jvipai, TVipsvixsy (for -ovixsv), zvi^uxe, TVipsv- fiat (for -ov^ai), etc. This form, under the grammatical name of the Doric Future, is found more or less in use in some words in Attic and other writers ; but only in the form of the Fut. Middle (comp. § 113. 4), and with the Attic diphthong of contraction ov ; e. g. (pEvyo), Fut. comm. (p8v^v(iau See also the Anom. Verbs nal^co, xs^ca, xlalca, 7tXs(o, -d^sco, vim, nlnxoa. Note 18. An entirely irregular form of the Future occurs in the two words nlofiai I will drink, sdojMXL I will eat. The form is precisely that of the Pres. Pass, of the simple themes to which they belong. See the Anom. Tilvo) and ia&lco, § 1 14. § 96. First and Second Aorist Active. 1. The form of the Aorist in a is called the Aorist 1. This is formed in a twofold manner, viz. partly in aa, and partly in cc. In all the cases where the Future regularly ends in aoj, i. e. everywhere except in verbs with I [A, V Q, the Aor. 1 has -oct ; and the same changes of the a take place here, as in the Fut. in ao) ; e. g. TVTlTCDy TVlfJOi eTVXpCC xOjw/^co, aof-uaoi) — laofiiaa cfdto), cpcliqao} — IcfiXriGa nvio), nvevao) — Invevaa (§ 95. n. 9). — In verbs with X ^i v q, on the contrary, where the Future ends not in aw, but in co, the Aor. 1 also does not end in aa, but simply in a. The particular rules are given in § 101. Note 1. A few anomalous verbs form the Aor. 1 in a instead of o-«, without being themselves verbs in X y, v q ) g. g. xsoj, e/ea. See also the Anom. y.aloj, uTrtlv, (nvca, aXsofiUL, duTsoixai, and ^jvsyxa under (fSQca.* — For thp Aor. 1 in xa of some verbs in {xi, e. g. sdcoxa, see under those verbs, § 106. 10. ^ The Alexandrme dialect (§ 1. n. 10), from several verbs which in the com- mon language had only the Aor. 2 in ov, formed also such an Aorist in a ; e. g. §96. VERBS. AORIST ACTIVE. 159 2. The form of the Aorist in v is called the Aorist 2. In the ordinary conjugation its full termination is ov, which is appended immediately to the characteristic of the verb, with the following con- ditions : 1) The Aor. 2 is always formed from the simple theme, and retains the simple characteristic of the verb when the Present has a strengthened form (§ 92) ; 2) It commonly shortens the penult syllable of the Present. 3) It sometimes changes 6 in the stem-syllable into a. 3. By means of these changes alone, is the Aor. 2 distinguished in its form from the Imperfect ; and verbs in which none of these differences can have place (e. g. aQvm, ygaq)Co, etc.) or where the only difference would be in the quantity of the vowel (as in aUvco), form no Aor. 2 Active* 4. This tense is never found in those classes of derivative verbs, which are formed from other verbs by means of particular endings, like ccCo)j ICco, alvco, vvo), evco, oca, ao), icj. 5. Of other verbs, the greater part have the Aor. 1 ; and a far smaller number have the Aor. 2. But this latter is often assumed in grammar, in verbs which do not actually have it ; because many verbs form, not indeed the Aor. 2 Active, but the Aor. 2 Passive upon the same principles. Hence Grammarians prefer to exhibit this formation once for all under the Aor. 2 Active, and then derive from it the Aor. 2 Passive.t 6. Accordingly, the changes of the characteristic and vowel of the Present, which take place in order to form the Aor. 2, and which have been generally specified above (no. 2), may be presented more in detail, as follows : elSa for slSov, eliTtav 3 PI. for i'Xtitov, etc. See the marginal ref. under note 9. — Here also belongs the remark, that in writers not Attic, some forms of the Aor. 2 Mid. fluctuate between o and a; e. g. svQavto for svqovto. * They can however readily form an Aor. 2 Passive, e. g. tyQdtprjv ; see § 100. t Thus in regard to the Aorists used as examples in Text 6, the learner must bear in mind, that the forms 6TV7rov,h'xQv^ov, (^^aq:ov,iTayov, never occur at all, or at least only in single passages, which are for that very reason suspected of being corrupted ; but instead of them, I'tvxpa, era^a, etc. They stand here only on account of the Aor. 2 Passive, hvnr^v, inQv^TjV, etc. which are actually in use. 160 §96. VERBS. AORIST ACTIVE. Characteristic. Pres. X\ Aor. 2 - 00, XT - c Vowel. - ai - n \l n — xuntto *eTvnQv r HgVTlTOJ — gamo) — tdooct) — cpgd^oj — ngdCco ^tQQafpov *iTciyov ^i'cpgadov engayov a I — leinoi imago If elad^ov ihnov f or a in verbs X fA, v g (§101) — 6v V — qievycf) h'qjvyov — 6 — a — Tgino) ezgaTiov. Note 2. The Aor. 2 stands in the same relation to the simple theme, as to form, that the Imperfect does to the usual Present. It is distinguished, however, from the Imperfect, partly by the Aorist signification (for which see in the Syntax, § 137,) and partly by the circumstance that it has moods and participles of its own, formed after the manner of those of the Present. The analogy holds here throughout, that the real Imperfect of a verb al- ways conforms precisely to the Present in actual use ; and consequently, in the Indicative, that only can be a real Aorist which differs as to form from the usual Imperfect ; and in the other moods, only that, which in like manner differs from the Present. Thus e. g. eygacpov can be only Im- perfect, and ygacprjg only Present Subjunctive, etc. Note 3. From this rule, a few Imperfects seem, at first view, to form an exception, and to be at the same time Aorists. But closer ob- servation shews, that all these, at least so far as usage is concerned, are mere Aorists ; so e(pi]v (see § 105 cp^al), and inQid^riv^ rjQofxrjv (from I'^o^uat), for which see the Anom. Verbs. In the Homeric usage, there belongs here especially xXvbj hear, whose Present is in use, but from which the form ihIvov has always the Aorist signification. In other verbs too Homer often uses, for the sake of the metre, the Imperfect as Aorist ; but it vt^ould be incort-ect to reckon among such instances sdixov, eTSTfiov, ^ixqaKT^ioVy and some others, whose Present never occurs, and which are therefore never used but as Aorists. That such forms as ^jnacpov, akaXy.Ev, etc. are still more incorrectly assigned to the Imperfect, appears from § 85. u. 2 and the marginal note.:}: * The forms thus marked with a star are not in use ; see the second mar- ginal note on the preceding page. t Of all those verbs in which oa stands for another letter, as y (§ 92. 8), which must consequently reappear in the Aor. 2, there is not one which actually forms such an Aorist, except the poetical Xioaofiat,, iliro^ijv ; see the catalogue of Anom. Verbs § 114. Comp. § 92. n. 2. X The separation of the Aor. 2 from the Imperfect, may perhaps be historically illustrated somewhat in this manner. Originally the Greek language probably distinguished the signification of the Aorist from that of the Imperfect, just as little as the English does ; and both species of the historical Preteritej in a and v^ {I'rvxfja and i'rvTrov or i'tvTrrov,) were formed probably in like manner to express VERBS. AORIST ACTIVE. 161 Note 4. , The same analogy iii tlie distinction of the Aor. 2 from the Imperfect, prevails also in those verbs from double themes, which from their greater irregularity can be exhibited only in the catalogue of anoma- lous verbs ; e. g. Xafjb^avoi, a^agzavMy etc. In these likewise the Aor. 2 is every where only the Imperfect of the obsolete form ; e. g. iXu(iov, I'l^aq- Tov, from JABJl {AHBJl), "AMAPTJl. Note 5. To the same class must be referred the Aorist of several verbs in £0) and aw. These endings, in some verbs, are not derivative endings (§ 119.2), but merely a prolongation of the simple form (§ 99. n. 7. § 112. 8). Hence, just as in some of these verbs other tenses from this simple form have been preserved (comp. the Perf 2, § 97. n. 4. and the Aor. 1 in the Anom. ya^ioa) ; so also in others the Aor. 2 is still found ; e. g. y.Tvuioi txjvTiov, /oww eyoov, from KTTJIfl, FOSl.^ Note 6. The shortening of the penult syllable {Xt^&bj IXaQov^ (fsv/co s(pvyov) can also be properly regarded as a return to the ancient form of the verb, which (as we have seen in § 92) was often merely length- ened in the Present. And even the change of « into a can be regarded in the same manner ; since among the Ionics we find a in the Present of some of these words, as tqutim, xafivoj. But on this subject it is impos- sible to arrive at any definite certainty in general, let particular cases be ever so probable ; for the kindred words, e. g. cpv/rj and the Lat. fugio, together with sq)vyov, can be just as well considered as having been short- ened from cpsvya ; and the Ion. Tgdnoi^ together with STgccnov^ can just a^ well have come by a change of vowel from TQinco. This being the case, and indifferently that mixed signification; just as with us in some verbs there is a double form of the Imperfect, one in ed and the other irregular; e.g. awakcy Impf. aicaked and awoke; dig^lm^^. digged and dug ; hang, Impf. hanged and hung, etc. — Hence, in the earlier Greek writers, the signification of the Aorist and Imperfect was not yet entirely separated (§ 137. n. 4). When however the signifi- cation of the Aorist began visibly to distinguish itself ffom thatof the Imperfect, the latter attached itself by degrees exclusively to the form in v, while the Aprist on the other hand did notattach itself exclusively to the form in a. This latter form, as we may conjecture, was in many verbs just as unusual among the Greeks, as a form in cd from break, run, etc. would be among us. When therefore a double form of the Preterite in ov was introduced, — which from the flexibility of the Greek verbal forms was a thing of very easy occurrence, — whether this was formed from the same Present in different ways {ehtnov, eXiTrov), or came from a double theme of the verb {sla^ov, ikdfi^avov) ; it was quite natural that the sig- nification of the Aorist should in like manner by degrees attach itself to one of these two forms. Here however the tendency to analogy had so much influence, that the Aorist sense passed every where only to that form in v, which deviated most from the usual form of the Present. When at a later period, necessity required in like manner the separation of the moods and participles, — which originally were probably , in a single form, common to the Present and Preterite, — these were formed for the Aorist, partly (for the form in a) in a manner analo- gous to those of the Present ; and partly (for the form in ov) out of the moods and participle of the same unusual Present, from which the Indicative was de- rived. These were assumed for the Aorist without change, except slight devia- tions from the accent of the Present, which the ear demanded particularly in the Infinitive and participle (ki-Ttstp, XtTtfod'at, Ximnv), because these ordinarily have the signification of the Preterite, while their terminations £iv, sad'at, ojv, naturally suggest the idea of the Present, * See also the Anom. nttvlo), oTvylo), TOQtoj, firptdofiai, fxviidou(U, and com- pare Irjiilo) and d'ogsoj in hioKO), &Qfitjoxoj. § 114. 162 § 97. VERBS. — PERFECT ACTIVE. since moreover there are so iriany verbs which change nothing but the vowel ; it is better not to increase the number of verbs with double forms, and consequently anomalous, by reckoning these among them ; especially since changes of the vowel in the Preterite are likewise so common in other languages. It is extremely probable, that in a portion of such verbs, the originally short root was prolonged and strengthened in the Present ; while in another portion, the original long root was in the Aorist and other forms actually shortened.^ Note 7. In some words nevertheless the Aor. 2 has the syllable be- fore the ending long, and rests satisfied with the difference of the simpler form, or with the change of « into « ; e.g. si'gov, s^laarov, snagdov ; see the Anom. Evglaxco, ^laatocvco, nsgdco, etc. — In a few poetical forms, the long vowel by position is made short by transposition ; e. g. digiCb) edga- xov; see also the Anom. nigS^oty dag&ava, Tsgno). Note 8. For the Aor. 2 in tjv, wv, vv, and for the syncopated Aorists of both the Active and Passive form, see the Verbs in fit, and § 110. — For « instead of o in some Middle forms, e. g. svgufirjv, in writers not Attic, see the marginal note to note 1 above. — For some anomalous verbs, whose Aor. 2 has a neuter sense, while their Aor. 1 has a transitive mean- ing, see § 113. n. 2. Note 9. We have seen above in note 1, that some verbs form their Aor. 1 with the characteristic of the Aor. 2. In like manner, the reverse of this sometimes occurs, viz. the Aorist in ov is formed with a ; of which a plain example is the common Aorist of tt/tttw, formed from IIETSl, viz. bTTsaov, nsastv ; to which may be added the epic l^ov, i^')](TETo, idms- To, see Anom. Ixvsofiav, ^alvw, dva ; and further some Imperatives, e. g. olffs compared with the Fut. oI'(T(o, see the Anom. cpego); and the epic a^trs frx)m «/w, Xe^so, ogaEo, (see Anom. U/a, ogvv(XL,) compared with the Im- peratives ^rj(TB0, dvcTEo from the Indicatives just mentioned.f § 97. JFirst and Second Perfect Active. 1. The Perfect Active has, in both its forms, the same flexible endings, viz. a, ag, ev or f, etc. but it distinguishes the two forms by means * It is an incontestable fact, that the greater part, if not all the analogies in a language, are produced by the operation of such mutual causes. It was natural, that in consequence of the more frequent use of the narrative form (the Preter- ite), the exhibiting or descriptive form (the Present) should be made conspicu- ous by an emphasis laid upon its chief or radical syllable ; but it was also nat- ural, that for the sake of contrast with the Present, an emphasis or the accent should in like manner be laid upon the distinguishing syllables of the Preterite,, and thus the radical syllable of the word be obscured in pronunciation ; not to mention, that in the animation of narrative, words are naturally uttered with greater rapidity. t It was formerly the custom to regard all these as forms derived from the Future, contrary to the analogy of the language. The above is sufficient to show, that just as the language could form both Aorists in ov and a without o, as einov and sJnaj sldov and slSa, (see note 1 with the marg. note) ; so also it could form both with a in aov and act, as eTtsoa (see ctiTtroj) and h'TTsoov, tSvadfirjv and t§v- GOfiTjv. The general usage became fixed in aa and ov ■ but remnants were also preserved of the formation in a and gov. See the ^usfuhrl. Sprachl. § 90. n. 10. §97. VERBS. PERFECT ACTIVE. 163 of the characteristic. The Perf. 1 has a characteristic of its own; the Perf. 2 has always the simple characteristic of the verb. 2. The Perfect 1 has several variations in respect to its characteris- tic, viz. a. When the characteristic of the verb is /?, n, (p, or /, x, /, this char- acteristic becomes (or remains) aspirated in the Perfect, and then a is appended ; e. g. Tpi/?ft>, A^Tico, ygccqo) — rtxQlcfa, Xtlicpa, ytygacfa ley(f3j TiAiKco, xevy^o) — Xtleia, ntnXejiu, vitivy^a. If the characteristic of the verb has been changed in the Present (§ 92. 8), this can always be known from the Future ; and since the same letters, which in the Future give rise to I and i/', pass over in the Perfect into % or qp, it is only necessary to change those double letters of the Future into these aspirates ; raaoco {tcc'§oj) — xiiaya TUniOi (vVXpO)) XtTVCfCX. b. In all other cases the Perf 1 ends in xa. In those verbs which have Geo in the Future, this ending au is appended in the Perfect with the same changes of the vowel and of the characteristic, as occur in the Future ; e.g. Tico {ilao), long i) — Tizlna (fiXto) (cpiltjGOt}) — naqJiXtjiia tifioco) {TifArjao}) — T6Ti\u7iyca igv&QiciCo (iQvdQt'Ccaoj, long a) — rj^vx^giccxa onaio (Guaoo), short a) — aGnancc Tivao) [nvcVGCj) — niuvevxcc, So also when a lingual is dropped : nsld^co {niiGco) ntnao^a aofiiCco (xo^Mioco) y.£x6f.uica, but with the liquids retained ; see the verbs X f^ v q, § 101. 3. The Perfect 2, or the Perfect Middle as it was formerly called (§ 89. 4 — 6), appends the same flexible endings to the characteristic of the verb without any change ; e.g. Xi^dcj XiXfjda ' Grjno) GiGfjnci ' (pevyo) necpsvycc. 4. Here however there are three things to be observed, viz. a. When the characteristic of the Present is not simple (§ 92. 6), the simple stem and simple characteristic reappear in the Perf. 2, precisely as in the Aor. 2 ; e.g. nXrjGGOJ [TlAHrSl) — ntnXriya, cpQiGGM {(pPJKSi) — necpgixa oC(o [OASl] —odmda. 164 ^ 97. VERBS. PERFECT ACTIVE. b. In general this form prefers a long vowel in the radical syllable, even when the other tenses derived from the simple theme have a, short vowel. Hence the long sound of the Present appears again in the above examples, e. g. q.tvyiti A. 2 eq)vyuv — necpevya Ifjd^co A. 2 I'la&ov — ItXrjd^a arino) A. 2 Pass, iadni^v — otarjna. But the vowel r} is assumed de novo in this Perfect, only when the strengthening of the Present consists either in the diphthong a/, or in a position ; e. g. dalo) A. 2 tdaov — dtdrja* d^aXlcD Fut. Sakw — ztd^fjXa. After Q and after vowels, the Perf. 2 takes « and not ^ ; e.g. iiQa^u}, by^gayov — ^ty,Qaya t'aya, eadcc, in Anom. ayvv^c, avdavo). c. This Perfect prefers especially the vowel o; and therefore this vowel not only remains unprolonged, as in xotttco {K0I1S2) y.tKona Horn, but is also assumed as the cognate vowel in- stead of * (§27. 1); e.g. q.^Q8(}) — mgjog^a TEKSl — ttioya (see Anom. r/xrw). This change of t into o has a twofold operation upon the diph- thong ei in the Present, according as 6 or f is the radical sound ; a circumstance which is likewise to be recognized in those tenses which shorten their vowel. Where a is the radical sound, (which however is the case only in the verbs X (.i v q,) the et, is changed into ; when i is the radical sound, the ei passes over into o^; e.g. ^ GTieiQO} (F. ansQM) — eanoga Xeino} (A. 2 tXmov) — XaXocncc. 5. Finally, by far the greater number of verbs, and especially all de- rivatives, have only the Perf 1. The Perf 2 therefore, like the Aor. 2 (§ 96. 4), never occurs except from primitives. It is to be noted, that the Perf 2 generally prefers the intransitive signification. See note 5. Note 1. Some Perfects 1 also change the radical « into the cognate o. * Th^, mode of writing SiSjia, — and also iticpr^vaj aiai^^a, etc. — is incorrect ; as also in the corresponding case of the Aor. 1 from X fi v Q. The Perf. 2 al- ways has the simple or shortened stem of the verb (here J A, ^j4N, etc.) as its foundation, wliose short vowel however it again lengthens. Now it could in- deed, after the analogy of cfsvyo) 7ti(psvya, recur again tothe ai of the Present; but there is no ground whatever for a further change into tj. § 97. VERBS. PERFECT ACTIVE. 165 Such are nifinco send, ninojxcpoi ; xXstito) steal, ydxXocpa ;* tqettw turn and jgicpo) nourish, xs'x^oqpa ;f see also the Anom. Xsyo), awnXoxa. Here too belongs the change of ct into ol in dsdomu from /JEISl ; see the Anom. Note 2. To the change of s into o corresponds that of ^ into w in the Perfect of the Anom. qriyvvfii {PHFJl) eg^wya.l And kindred to both these chang'es, is the insertion of o) and o in some Perfects, which of themselves would be dissyllables ; where too the o is^ placed after the Attic reduplication. E. g. I'^w — (dS-a) sl'ca&a ' a/oj — t)xoc, ap'joxa. See also in the catalogue of Anom. Verbs idijdoxa under ia&lb), svi]Voxa under cpBQbi, avrjvo&a and ivnjvo&a by themselves ; and the Passive forms ucoqto under al'gco, t(ovT(XL in a marginal note to irjfii, § 108. I.|| Note 3. It has already been remarked (§ 85. 2), that after the Attic reduplication the vowel is shortened ; e. g. axovo) axijma, aldcpca uXtjUcpa, EAETOfL iX7]Xvd-a. — For the sake of the metre, the epic poetry could also shorten the t] of this Perfect into a in the Fem. of the participles ; e.g. GEcraqvia, TS&aXvm, ccgagvla. Note 4. In the few examples of the Perf. 2 from verbs «'&) and aca, as ^1/8(0 EQ^lya, fivmofiaL (Aor. i'fzvicov) fiifivxa, the case is the same as with the Aor. 2 in § 9b' n. 5. They come from simple forms PIFSl, MTKJl. See also the Anom. ytj&ioj, dovnia, firjuuofxau Note 5. That the examples of the Perf. 2, even including those which occur only in the poets, amount in all to a very limited number, is to be presumed from Text 5. Of those which belong to transitive verbs, we name here particularlyH axijxocc, XiXoma, xhoxa, exjova, ninov&a, olda, tanoga, EdxoQya, oJicoTia, didoQxa ; and from intransitives, xizgaya, XsXaxa, zhglya,' nicpgixa, Xqqlya, toixa, d'oj&a, eadoc, odcoda, iXi^Xv&a, asarjga, xs- S^fjXa, Js&rjTia, fisfirjva, xixr]vci, yiyova, xsxoda, iiETcogda, fiSfxvxa {fivxdo^ai). There are some others, which, though strictly intransitive, yet become transitive in certain connexions, as XsXrj&cc, nscpsvya, dsdia. To these are still to be added those in § 113, n. 3, 4, which belong to verbs whose forms present a mixture of transitive and intransitive meaning, in which the Perf 2 belongs to the intransitive signification. * That the simple characteristic is not q), (in which case xexXocpa could just as well be Perf. 2,) but 7t, is shown by the usual Aor. 2 Pass. ixXdnijv, t The form rirgoifa from rgiifO) is rare, and can be regarded as Perf. 2. It occurs Od, 1/;, 237 as intransitive. ^ Soph. Oed. Col. 186 as transitive. As Perf from TQtTtoj it stands in the earlier writers without variation of form, e.g. Soph. Trach. 1009. In writers somewhat later is found the peculiar form rtTQOqia, X Compare nlTtrojxa in the Anom. niirroj. II A more minute investigation of these forms see in the author's Lexilogus I, at the end. TI We exhibit here simply the Perfects themselves, with the remark, that they are all formed from their respective themes according to the preceding rules ; but that the greater pari of thorn belong to verbs, whose whole formation is anouialous, and which are tlierefore given in the catalogue below ($ 114). On this account, one must already be somewhat familiar with this catalogue, in order at once to refer each of these Perfects to its proper verb. 22 166 § 98. VERBS. PERFECT PASSIVE. Note 6. It is further to be noted, that since from the copiousness of the Greek language, the Perfect is by no means so necessary as in other languages, the Perfect Act. of many verbs which have no Perf. 2, and whose Perf 1 would have a harsh or unusual sound, either does not occur at all, or at most very rarely ; and its place is supplied by the Aorist, or by- circumlocution through the Perf Passive ; see § 134. n. 1.^ For the Suhjunciive, Optative, and Imperative of the Perfect, see § 137. n.ll. Note 7. In the Ionic dialect the » of the Perf. 1 in tcci from verbs ^wre, sometimes falls away ; and thus the Perf 1 passes over into the form of the Perf. 2. Here belong the Homeric'participles xsaaqtrjcag, jSTirjtag, jsTlrjwg, etc. for -rjXMg. The same takes place (with a shortening of the vowel) in the 3 pers. Plur. and in the participle of some verbs ; as ^s^aaa-i, ^f^acag, for ^s^ijxacrt, ^(Pfjxwg, from BAJl (Anom. /Sa/rw) 7ifCf)vae in the Future, into v in the Perf. Pass. e. g. xsr/w ifjsTsvxa) TSTV/fiai. So also q)£v/(o and tiveco {nvEVdco, ninvEvy.a) ninvvfiau. In /£w ixEVdbi) this takes place even in the Perf. Act. xs/ma, xi/vfim, — For the variable quantity of some verbs in ita and i;a), see § 95. n. 4. Note 5. The o- in the Perf. Pass, comes strictly from a lingual per- taining to the root itself, which before fi is changed into or according to § 23 ; but which has nevertheless been preserved unchanged in some few forms in the epic writers ; as xinad^at, nicpQaS^m^ from KAJfl (see the Anom. y.aivv(iav), cpga^o) ; y.sKOQV&nai from KOPTOJl * xogvaaa. Note 6. The a is however assumed by many verbs which have no lin- gual, but a vowel as their characteristic ; e. g. axovco ijxovo-fiaij TcsXtvo} itsHsXsvfffiai. So also Ttgloj, /§/w, nalal(a, ntaia), galco, S-gavco, vco, ^vco, luw / further /ooy itsxoi(T(i(XL. Regularly too it is assumed by all those verbs which do not change the short vowels ; e. g. TsXeoo {xeliaoo) t8TsXso-}j,ai ; so also Isw, axs'o- /wat, (TTiaa, S^laao^ wri'w. But the usage here must in part be left to obser- vation. — For xXsloj and r/co see the Anom. verbs. Note 7. When yy would come to stand before fij one / falls away ; e. g. iXiyxo) Perf. eXit/ieyxa Pass. iXi^hyfiai,, (Tcplyyoi—%(T(f)iy^ai.\ The oth- er endings commonly remain unchanged, e. g. e}J]Uy^ai, ynxai, etc. %(j(piy^ai, etc. Note 8. So when the Perf. Pass, must have /u^u, and there comes in addition another ^ from the root, one of them of course falls away ; e. g. x(X[i7iT(o — yJxafifiai, jtixafiipaLt etc. 4. The Subjunctive and Optative are in general not formed at all ; partly on account of the difficulty of their formation, and partly because they are so little needed. Instead of them a circumlocution with ehac is employed ; e. g. r6xv(Afxtvog (»;, ov) co and eiriv. Note 9. That is to say, these moods are formed only when there is a vowel before the ending, which readily passes over into the endings of the Subjunctive, and likewise unites itself with the characteristic i of the Op- tative ; e. g. XTciofiat, xixTTiflttL Subj. xiyawfiat, rj, r^xai, etc. Opt. Ttsxxtjfirjv, xmxrjo, ysxxi]Xo, etc. All the examples of such a formation, however, which are now extant, consist of a few single forms of Perfects of three syllahles, all belonging to anomalous verbs. Thus* Plato has Subj. exxix^t^ad^ov from xifivw xixfirj- fiai / Andocides has dia^s^lTjo-ds from ^a.Xlbi ^s^lrniai. See also yAyli]- fiai and [j,ifivrji/,aL under the Anom. xaXico and ^ifAvijuxoi. — So when the stem-vowel is v or v, the Optative may be formed by swallowing up the * That this -S" is a radical letter, is confirmed by the substantive xogvg, Gen. -v&os ; otherwise it mis:ht be regarded as inserted in the ancient manner instead of a, as xXavd'fiogj ogyyjd'fiog, § 119. n. 3. t There can be no doubt, that this single y then retains the nasal sound ng) comp. § 4.3. §§99,100. VERBS. FUT. 3 AND AOR, PASSIVE. 169 characteristic t, by which means the radical vowel becomes long ; but the Homeric XsXvto Od. (T, 238 from Ivca XsXvfxaL (§ 95. n. 4), is probably the only example extant.*' — There is also another Optative form from xixTTjfxaif viz. XEXT M (17JV f as also from fisfj,vr}fj,cci — ^ t ^v co fi7)v , Ion. fisfivsMfzrjv, of which the following examples occur ; Eurip. Heracl. 283 )isy.T(i)fiE&a, Xen. Cyr. I. 6. 3 fiefivMro, II. ip, 361 fiSfivscoTo. These are formed in a peculiar manner, viz. by appending to the syllables y,exTr], f^s^vt], of the Perf the termination oi^tjv of the Opt. Present, i(8y.Trjol[ir}v, fiEfivrjolfirjv ; hence Ion. xsxjEMfirjv, fiefivsojfirjv, and Att. xsnTw^r^v, fiBfivcoiJ,rjV. See the Anom. xTttco, ^Lfivi](Ty.(a ; and comp. the Ausf. SpracJil. § 98. n. 17. Fi- scher ad Weller HI. 135. Heyne ad II. v^, 361. § 99. Third Future. The Future 3 or Paulopost-future of the Passive, is derived from the Perfect Pass, both as to its form and signification (§ 138). It retains the augment of the Perfect, and substitutes the ending ao/nciL instead of the ending of the Perfect. From the 2 pers. of the Perf in aai, {ipccc^ ^at,) therefore, it is only necessary to change ac into Of^aij in order to form the Fut. 3 ; e. g. revvf-i^cct, (Tervxpai) — TfTvipOf-iat^ TiTQafifAai {xtTQaxpac) — TtTQu\pO{.ia(> 7i£CpiX7](icco (necplXriaat) — neg:iXrjaoficci Note 1. In those verbs where the vowel of the Fut. 1 is shortened in the Perfect, the Fut. 3 assumes again the long vowel ; e. g. dedijaofiai, Xs- Xvao^aL, see § 95. n. 4.f Note 2. The Fut. 3 is never found in the verbs X^vg; and very rarely in verbs which have the temporal augment. § 100. First and Second Aorist Passive. 1. All verbs form the Aorist of the Passive either in '&fjv, or simply in r]v ; many have both forms at once. The former is called Aorist l^ the latter Aorist 2. (§ 89. 3.) 2. The Aor. 1 Passive appends &fjv to the characteristic of the verb; e.g. TiaidsvoD — inatdev&fjv GTtq)(o — ioztcpd^rjv. * I remark further, that while some have preferred to write xsxzTJratj XsXv- TO etc. with the circumflex, I have adopted that accentuation which is found in a portion of the manuscripts, and which alone is supported by analogy. Thus nixTOjjuai, and h6xt]]to must have the same relation to tcixTT^/ncu, and also X^?>€to to XtXy/uat, that TVTtroj/uat and rvTtTotro have to rvTrro/^at. See the Ausfuhrl. Sprachl. with the additions. t It must not be inferred from this, that the Fut. 3 is formed from the Fut. 1 with the reduplication ; for whether the rergdi/jofiat above given really occurs, is more than I know ; but the forms which are actually found, ^s^XtjaoficUj tcsxXijao- fiai, (see the Anom. ^aXXou, xaXioj,) must be referred to the Perfect. 170 § 100. VERBS. AORIST PASSIVE. It follows here of course from § 20, that when the characteristic of the verb is a smooth or middle mute, it is exchanged for the corresponding rough mute ; e.g. yyo), nXiito) — ikaxx^7]p^ inkex&7]v TV71TC0 {TTIIS2,) — hvqxfrjv zaoGco {TArSl) — hax&riv. 3. As to other changes of the root or stem, which have place in the se- ries of the Fut. 1, (or Series II in §93. 4,) the Aor. 1 Pass, conforms chiefly to the Perf Passive. Thus, in the same circumstances, it as- sumes a ; e.g. ntl&oi (Tienaia^at) — inelo'&fjV' xofilCco {aezofitofxat) — ii(Of.iio&rjv xekt'co {Tevalea^iai) — heXta&7]v. In most instances, it also changes the vowel of the preceding syllable in the same manner as the Perf Passive ; e. g. nouco {nenoifjfAao) — inoci^d^ijv Tifiao) [ieTif.irii.iav) — ivif.ifjd'fjv T£i;/a> {xaxvyfAaC) — izv/d^rjv. Note 1. A few verbs which have a vowel for the characteristic, assume , Inf. nscpvQd^at. These tenses have here further the following peculiarities. 8. When the Future has 6, these tenses in dissyllabic verbs take « ; e. g. GTiXX(x) {pxiXoj) — tazaXyia, eGxal^iai^y iotaXd^riv (A. 2 Pass. iaTcckfjv) ' mlga) (izeguy) — TteTTagncc, ninaQfiat (A. 2 Pass, inagtjv). Note 5. Verbs of more than two syllables regularly retain the e un- changed ; e. g. ayilXa — ^jyysXna, i]yysX-&i]v. And those dissyllables which begin with s retain it ; thus hX^iai, hq^iai, from Anom. uXa, uqta, 9. The following verbs in ^ lyv^riv) — %yxog nviot) (mnvvxat, invsvadrjv) — nvavoxog. * The Perfect 1 Active also fluctuates between the two modes of formation, in yy,a and xa ; because it was so seldom required (§ 97. n. 6), that writers probably formed it mostly according to the ear. We find, though not in the earlier writers, w^^ayxa, (jiSfiiayxa, and i^s^gaSvxst, xsittgSaxa or -7?xa. See the cata- logue of Anom. Verbs, § 114. 176 §103. VERBS. BARYTONES. Note 1. In the earlier "Ionic and Attic, the a in many verbals in rog is sometimes dropped ; especially in compounds like addfiaiog, iidyxXav- Tog. The poets could even form 'd^avfiaxog, from S-av(iag Tvnoifii Tvns Tvntlv x\jn(ov SIVE. - ■ zvnToifitjv Tvnxov TvnxiG&at xvnxofKvog # TiTVlpO x€xvq)d^m xexvfifABvog TV7lt]G0l[^1]V Tvneirjv TSTVXpoli^riv xvcp&rjOEa&ai xvcpdrivat xvnr^oso&M xvnfjvcic X£Xlllp£a&Clt> XV(p&7]o6lA£VOg xvcp&elg xvnrjoo^svog xvneig X£TVlp6f,l£P0g DLE. TVipoifitjv XVlpCclfA,l]V xvnoi^riv xvnov xv\\)£ad'a.v xvxpaod^at xvnia&ai xv\pofi£vog xvipctf^svog xvn6[A£vog § 98. n. 9. In most cases they are supplied by a circumlocution with the Sub- § 98. 4. § 108. IV. 180 § 103. VERBS. — PARADIGM OP ZVTtZW. Pres- ent. Indicative. ZV7TZ0) I strike zunzfig thou strikest zvnzev he, she, it strikes D. — zvTtzezov ye two strike zvnzazov they two strike Tvnzofxev we strike zvnzeze ye strike zvnzovov (v) they strike Subjunctive, zvnzo) I strike zvnzrig zvTizrj ZV7lZ7]ZOy zvnzrjzov zvnzoj[A.6v ZVnZ7]Z6 zvnzmat {v) ACT- Optative. zvnzo tfic I would zvnzoig [strike zvnzo I zvnzoizov zvnzolzrjv zvnzoif^ev zvTizoize zvnzo isv Im- S. tzvnzov D. — P. izjunzofiev ^ per- I'zvnzig izvnzBzov hvnzeze > I struck, thou feet. izvnze (v) izvnztzfjv ezvnzov ) Per- S. ect 1 D ztzvcpa I have struck, etc. zezvcpag ziivcps (v) zezv(fO) like the Present. ZSZVCfOtflL like the Present. P. zizvcpazov z€zvq)azov zszvcpafi€v zezvcpais zezvcpaat, {y) Plupf. S. izizvcpeiv 1 iz€zv(f)icg izszvcptv tzszvcpeizov iz6zvq)eiz7]v P. iz6ZVg)€ifA€V tzezvcpetzs izsTvqjsiaav or iGav \ ihad Perf. 2 zi'zvncc, through all the moods like the Perf. 1. Plupf. 2 izszvneiv, like the Plupf 1. Fut. 1. S. Ti)\p CO I will strike like the Present. Subjunctive wanting ZVIpOlfit like the Present. Aor. 1. S. izvxpa I strike, or have azvipag [struck, etc. ezvxjje (v) D. 7- izvipazov Izvipazfjv P. izvipccfisv izvipaz€ azvipav ZVIpM like the Present. zvipaific zvxpavg or zvifjetag* zv\\)av or TV'ipaia (v) zv^paizov zvipctizriv zvipatfiev zyipaiza zv'ipatav or zvxpsiav* Aor. 2. ezvnov like the Imperfect. zvnoD like the 1 zvnoifn^ Present. See below, note II. 4. § 103. VERBS. PARADIGM OF TVUTCO. 181 IVE. Imperative. TvnTS strike TfjiriVw let Mrtij her, it strike Tvnxexov strike (both) Tvnz&Tcov let them (both) strike TVjiTeve strike ye TvnxiTMaav or xvnxovxtov let them strike Tvnxeiv to strike Particip. xvnxojv xvnxovaa xvnxov striking G. xvnxovxog didst strike, etc. XiXV(f)£ like the Present. x£xv(ptvao x6xvq)cog X6xvq)v7a xfxvqjog Gen. xexvcpOTog struck, etc. Imperat. wanting xvipet^v XVIpCJV like the Pres. TV\pov strike xv^iao Tvipcig xvxpotacc xvipav Gen. xvxpaxco xvipavTog xvxpaxov xvipaxciov xvipaxe xvipdxwoccv or xvxpavxcov XV716 like the Present. xvneiv Tvncov, ovaa, G. ovxog 24 -^■^5:?>«A.^- ^.^^ '''^' OF THR UHITEESITY) 03ar 182 § 103. VERBS. — PARADIGM OF TUTITM. PAS- Pres- ent. Indicative. S. TVTCTOfAai Tvnrri or et (see below, TvmeTat note III. 3) D. TVUTO^sdOV p. TVnTOfAS'&VC xvnxeode rvmovxai Subjunct. rvmwfiaL TVni(6fl6'&OV Tvnxrio&ov TVnTf]G'&OV XVUTMfXi&CC TVnT7]G&£ TVmWVTUO Optat. xvnxOLfAriv xvnxOLO XV71XO0XO xvnxolfxi&ov xunxoLCii^ov XVnX0lG&7]V xvnxoifis&a xvnxota&e xvnxoivxo Im- S. ixvnx6^i7]v D. ixvnxofic&ov P. txvuxo^e&a per- ixvnxov IxvnxfG'&ov lxvnxtG<}s feet. irvnxexo ixvTiTiG'&r]v ixvnxovxo Per- S. riTUf-t^iat See note to the Table on p. 178. feet. Ttxvxpao xtxvnxao D. x£xv(A^e'&ov xtxvqjx^ov xtTvq)'&ov P. xixvfifAS&a xttvq)&£ . 3 pers. wanting ; for it xsxvfifievot {at,) eiGiv Plupf S. lxexV(JLfA7]V D. lx(XV^Ufi6&0V p. IxS TV^fxed^a ixaxvipo ixtxv(f'&ov ixexvq)-&€ txtxvnxo ixexvqj^fjv 3 pers. wanting ; for it xe- Fut. 1. xvcpdriGoiiao Subjunct. vvant- xv(fSriGoliifiv xvcfj'&riGri or «, etc. like ing. xvcpOriGOvb etc. the Present. like the Pres. Aor. 1. S. exvq^^-d^Tjv XVCf&On xvqi^elnv hvcf&riQ xvcpdriQ xvqj'deirig hvgj&rj xvqj&ri xvfpd^siri D. - — — iTV(p{^l]XOV xvcp&rixov xvcp&ehixov ixvqj'i^rjxriv xvcpdrjxov xvcf&eirixriv P. ixvqj&fj^iv xvq)&(a^iv xvcfdel^ev ixvqi&fjxe XVCf&fJXi xvq)'&6lr]xs xvcfO^eTxe ixv(p'&t]Gav Tvq)^c!)Gt,(v) 1 xvcpd^elr^Gav 1 xvcf)-de7iv* Fut. 2. xvutjOOf^cit through all the moods Aor. 2. ixvnfjp through all the moods Fut. 3. xsxvipofxttt through all the moods * The syncopated form is more commonly used in the 1 and 2 person j in the § 103. VERBS. PARADIGM OF TVUTM. 183 SIVE. To he struck. Imperative. Tvmov Infinitive. xvnxiG&aL Participles, xvnxofievog, tj, ov Tvmea&ov TVntiG&OJV zvnviG'&wGav or Tvnx^G&oiv TtTVXpO xexv(p&ai> xervfifiiv og, rj, ov xeTvcf&ov r€Tvq)'&Mv XtTVCpd^i T£TV(f)d^MGav or ttTvcpd'mv TVfifiivoi (at) ^Gav Imperat. wanting xvcp&riGSG&aL xvq)d'f](r6fi£vogf n,ov xvq)'&riV(a xvcp-d'fjxov xvcp'&rixmv xvcp&fivab xvq)&6ig XVCp&UGU xvcp'&iv Gen. ^ xvq)&ivTog xvcpd-fixe ^ xvcp&riTOiGav like Fut. 1. like Aor. 1. like Fut. 1. 3 pers. almost always. 184 § 103. VERBS. ^PARADIGM OP ri^TirW. MID- To strike *v .V Present and Imperfect, Perfect and Pluperfect, Fut. 1. Indicative. like the Pres. Pass. Suhjunct. Aor. 2. hvno^'i^v like the Imperf Pass. Optat. TVipoifiriv like the Pres. Pass. A.or. 1. S. hvipdfxfjv Tvxpw^av TVijjal^rjv eTvxpoj Tvxprj TVipaiO hvxpaxo TVXpfJTaC Tvxpano D. hvijjafxs&ov zvipcofied-ov Tv^aif^sd-ov ivvyjaGd-ov TVXfjrjG&OV TVXpCXlG'&OV tTVXlJOLO&riV TVXpTjGd-OV TVxpaiG&rjv P. ixvxpafie&a Tvxpojf^S'&a Tvxjjaif^ed'a • Ixvipaods zviprjad-s TVipatGxfe hvipccvTO TVlpMVTCXO TVlpaOVTO xvnoi^at I xvnoif4,f]v these two moods as in the Pres. Pass. Verbal Adjectives (§ 102) § 103. VERBS. PARADIGM OF TVllTM. 185 DLE. on^s self,* are the same as in the Passive. , Imperative. wanting ~ Infinit. Particip. Tvipofievog, rj^ ov TvipaG&ao Tvipafxevog, ??, ov Tvxpao TVXp(XG'&(lD TvipaGd-ov TvipdO'&ODV tvxpaad^s Tvipaad-coGCiv or rvipaod'MV Tvnov TvneG'&co Tvnto&ai TVTi6[i€vog, ri, ov Tvneo&ov Tvntad'cov xvnsG'&s Tvutad^MGav or Tvnsad^wv TVTlTOg, TVUTbOg. * See Herodot. ii. 40. extr. 186 ^ 103. VERBS. — PARAD. OF uaidiVW. Examples of other Barytone Verbs, as they are actu- ally in use. naidtvo) bring up {a child). Middle, cause to bring up. ACTIVE. Pres. Ind. nacdsvcD naidivavg natdevev etc. Subj.^ nccidevco natdevrjg naidevf) etc. nacdevetv Opt. naidevot'fit naidevocg naidevoi etc. Imp. naideve ncccdevizo) etc. Fart. natdevovaa naidevov Imperf. inaidsvovj f?, i (v ), etc. Perf. Ind. ctg, f W, etc Subj. nenatdevKOt) Opt. nenaidev^otfit, Imp. not in use. Inf. nsnavdsvKtvat, Part. nenacdevTtcog, v7a, 6g Pluperf. InsnaidemivVj ei^g, eo, etc. Fut. ^ TiaLdsvGO) Opt. naidivaovfib Inf. naidevaeiv Part. naidevGCDv Aorist. inaldsvaaj ag, 6 (v)j etc. Subj. Opt. Imp. TiacdevacD nacdsvaaefii nccidevoov rig, rj, etc. naidevamg* nacdevaaTco^ etc. natdivaccij etc. Inf. ^ Part, naidivaai naidevaccg naLdsvaaau naidsvoav * The three forms TtaiSsvasiag, sis, siav, are of course understood here, as also in the following paradigms. § 103. VERBS. PARAD. OP TiatdiVO). 187 Pres. Ind. naidevf] or 6t etc. PASSIVE. Suhj. Opt. Imp. naidevcoficci naidsvolfitjp naidevov nacdevTj naidsvoio ncctdsvtadco^ natdevfjvat, etc. nuidevono, etc. etc. Inf.^ Part, naidevio&at naidevofievog, rj, ov Imperf. enai^dsvo^tlVy inatdevov, tnaidevexo, etc. Vextlnd. nanaidevfxai D. nenaidsv^edov P. neiiac8£VfA£-&a ■jianaidevaat mnaldevG&ov nenaldsva&e nanaidevTab mnaldevad^ov nenccidevvzai Suhj. and Opt. wanting. Imp. nenaid&vCfO nenatdevo&ca^ etc. Inf. nenatdevo&at Part, nenatdev^ivog Pluperf. insnaidav^riv D. insnuldivao intnaidsvTO tnenaidev^e&ov P. i7i£n Opt. dglaifiVy dglaig, ixg^ai', etc. Imp. cig^ov, dg^dvco, etc. Inf. dg^ao Part, dg^ccg 25 190 § 103. VERBS. — PARAD. OF «V/f^> (m€vaC(o. PASSIVE. Pres. aQ'^ofxat, Imperf. rigxafxtp Perf. tigyjAm D. ^jgyfxed^ov P. ^igyfied^a ^g^ci& ^giifov VQX'^^ rJQKvac rjgy&ov 3 pers. wanting. Subj.B.nd Opt. wanting. Imp. rig'^o^ VQX^^y ^^c- Inf. iqgxdciL Part, tjgyfiivog Pluperf. ?]gyfi7]v D. ijgy/Asdov P. rigy^e&a VQ'^o rigy&ov VgX^^ rig^TO fjgx'&tjv 3 pers. wanting. Fut. agx'&fjaoiiai Aor. ^QX&riv Suhj. dg^d^M Opt. agy&eh^v Imp. agj^&tjrt Inf. dgx&^vai Part. dgX'^fiS Fut. 3 wanting, see § 99. n. 2. MIDDLE. Fut. dg^o^at Aor. rigld^riv Suhj. dg^cofiai Opt dg^aifitjv Imp. dg^ai, do'&ct}, etc. Inf. dg'S,aad^av Part, dg^d^tvog Verbal Adj. (in the sense of both Act. and Mid.) dgTcreog^ dgnrog. axevdCo) prepare. ACTIVE. Pres. GitsvdCco Imperf. iaxsvaCov Perf iaxavaiccc Subj. iaxsvaKOj Opt. iaaevdxoifxi Imp. not in use. Inf. iayisvaxavav Part. iGxevccxcjg Pluperf tGnevaxsi'V Fut. Gxsvdam Aor. toxivaaa Suhj. GHevdato Opt. GXivdoaifjii, aig, GxevdGah etc. Imp. GxevaGov Inf. GKSvaGai, Part, axevdcag § 103. VERBS. — PARAD. OP (JXfftt^W, X0fllC(O. 191 PASSIVE. Pres. GKSva^oficcc Imperf. iaxsvaCof^w Perf. iGiC€V(xafi(xt> D. iayievaa^i&ov P. ta^evaafxid^a iGicevaGao iaxsvccad-ov ianevccad^s iGKfvccGTao iG}csi)aG&ov 3 pers. wanting. Subj. and Opt. wanting. Imp. eGntvaGo, iGxevaad^o), etc. Inf. eGK€vaG&av Part. iGxevuGf^evog Pluperf. iGKevaGfifjv, aGO, ccgto, etc. Fut. GTiSVaoSl^GOfXCit, Aor. iGxevaGd^tjv Fut. 3 (iGxevccGOf^ai) does not occur. MIDDLE. Fut. GnevaGOfjiac Aor. iGy,avaGai.if]v Subj. GaevccGcofxcct^ Opt. GitevaGaifirjv Imp. GaevciGat, GnevccGccGd-co, etc. Inf. G'AsvctGcxG&civ Part. GzevaGccfievog Verb. Adj. GxsvaGTtog, GmvccGTog. xofil^co bring; Mid. receive. ACTIVE. Pres. aofil^oj Imperf. eitof^t^ov Perf. ^(snofxciia Pluperf. ixexof^Uetv Fut. i(0filG(O Fut. Att. nof^to) ^ D. — P. yiofxioy^ev ^(Ofimg Ko^ielxov ko^leits KO^iel ' nofimrov xo^i,ovGi(v) Opt. i(Ofxt>o7fiL, 0??, etc. Inf. aofitelv Part, xofimv, ovGccj ovv G. ovvzog Aor. iKOfitGa Subj. ho^Igo) Opt. xo^iGcxifii, nofxlGaig, ifOfiiGcih etc. PASSIVE. Pres. xofilCofxai, Imperf Ixoy^c^o^iriv Perf xEKOf-UG^av (comp. iGnevaG^iat) Subj. and Opt. wanting. Imp. ancofiiGO, iG&o), etc. Inf. nenofiiGd^M Part. aeitOf^iG^evog Pluperf ix6xofiiGfitiv Fut. iCOfilG'&IJGOflClt Aor. ii(OfiiG&T]v Fut. 3 {KSiio(iiGOfiOit) does not occur. 192 § 103. VERBS. — PARAD. OP ^vAdffaw. MIDDLE. Fut. icofiiaoixac Fut. Att. xofiiovfiai D. 'AOfJivov^ed^ov P. nofiwvfie'&a KO^islxao aofiielad^ov icoiA.iouvTai' Opt. nofitoljLiTjv, iio^co7o, etc. Inf. no^u7a&ao Part, noficovfisvog Aor. ixofii(Jaf^r]v Suhj. nofiiam/Licit^ Opt. aof^iaal^rjv Imp. ^6(ivGat Inf. nofiiaaa^cco Part, icofiiacxfuvog Verb. Adj. tio/itaTtog, itofiiatog. (pvXdaato guard ; Mid. guard myself. ACTIVE. Pres. (pvXaGGoy Impf. acpvlaaaov (pvXccTTO) icpvXavTOv Perf. mcpvlaia Pluperf. inecpvlay^siv Fut. qpuAa^o) Aor. icpvXalcx PASSIVE. Pres. qivXaaaofiat Imperf. icpvlaaGOfujv qivXaxxofiav iqjvXaxxofxrjv Perf. nicpvlay^ab D. nscpvXdy^S'&ov P. n€q)vXdyfX£'&a 7ii(pvXalav necfvXax'&ov necpvXay^&s TiscpvXaKxab nfcpvXaX'&ov 3 pers. wanting. Subj. and Cfpt. wanting. Imp. neq)vXalo, n€q)vXdx&(a, etc. Inf. mcpvXccx'&ai' Part. neqivXayfiivog Pluperf. inecpvXocyfirjv D. inscpvXayfisdov P. inecpvXdyfxe'&a ineq)vX(x^o infcpvXaj^&ov ine(f)vXa%'&e ln6a(Jij xirnxo^ai sTVTtxs, 'sxvfa, inaidevov, icpvXa^oif § 103. VERBS. NOTES ON THE REG. PARADIGMS. 197 and the Imperatives cpvlaTTs, (pvXa^ov, (pvla^ai. On the other hand we find naidsvo), cpvlazjuv, etc. on account of the long final syllable. — Hence, forms of two syllables in composition throw back the tone upon the preposition, whenever the final syllable permits it, e. g. cpsgs, Isms — nQ6(jq)Egs, anoXuns. 2. When an accented augment falls away, the accent always passes in simple verbs to the next syllable of the verb ; e. g. £(3aXs, scpsv/s — [inXs, (psvys/ in compound verbs, it passes to the preposition; e.g. ivs^aXs, TiQOffs^i] — if^aXe, ngocr^i]. Here it is to be noted, that in the first case those monosyllabic forms whose vowel is long, always take the tone as circumflex ; e. g. £/5?/ — /??/• 3. Apparent exceptions to the above fundamental rule, are the in- stances where a contraction lies at the basis ; consequently, besides the contract verbs which are hereafler to be exhibited, we must here reckon the following portions of the ordinary conjugation. 1) The Fut. 2 and Attic Fut. of every kind, § 95. 7—11. 2) The Subjunct. A or. Pass. jvq)&S, tuttw.*' 3) The temporal augment in trisyllabic compounds ; e. g. avdmM, avijTCTov, § 84. n. 4. 4. Real exceptions are the following : 1) The Aor. 2, in order to distinguish it from the Present (§ 96. n. 3. marg. note), takes the tone upon the ending, in the following forms : a. In the Inf and Part. Act. and Inf Mid. always ; e. g. TV71HV' f TVTKav, ov(ja, 6v ' tVTiscrS-aL. b. In the Sing, of the Imperat. Aor. 2 Mid. commonly ; e. g. ysvoVf Xa&ov ; but Plur. yivsads, Xa&sa&B. c. In the Sing, of the Imperat. Aor. 2 Act. only in the following : sins, sXd-8, svgs, and in the more accurate Attic pronunciation also Xa^i, ids. The compound Imperatives follow the general rule, e. g. sTiiXad-ov, unsX- Ss, sl'aids. 2) The Inf. and Part, of the Perfect Passive are distinguished from all the rest of the Passive form in respect to the tone, which they always have upon the penult : TSTVcf)&ai, nE7ioiij(j'&^aL TSTvy-^svog, Tisnoirifxsvog. * These Subjunctives, as well as the corresponding ones in Verbs in fiVj are real contractions; inasmuch as the r] oi the Indicative passed over in the S ib- junctive into the Ionic ioj^ iijg, etc. and then this was contracted into w, fje etc. See below note V. 14, compared with § 107. n. III. 2. t The Inf. Aor. 2 Act. might be reckoned among the apparent exceptions un- der 3 above ; because the Ionics formed this also, like the Fut. 2, in dsiv, e g. Xa^lsiV for Xa^uv. But here the process is unquestionably reversed. The tone was thrown upon stv for the same reason as upon o'jv and iod'ai; and the Ionics, in their fondness for vowels, caused this accent to pass over into the prolonged double sound ; see the marg. note to § 28. n. 3. § 105. n. 10. 26 193 ^ 103. VERBS. NOTES ON THE REG. PARADIGMS. 3) All Infinitives in vat, except the dialect-form in fjisvai, (note V. 9), have the tone upon the penult ; e.g, Tstvcpsvai,, jvcp&^jvaif Tvnrivai. See also the Infinitives of Verbs in //t. 4) The Inf. Aor. 1 Act. in at, and the 3 pers. Opt. Act. in ot and at, al- ways have the tone on the penult, even when they are polysyllables ; e. g. Inf. (pvXa^ai, naLdsvavcL 3. Opt. cpvXocTTOL, cpvXd^ai, naidsvaaL.* 5) All Participles in (ag and st? have the acute upon the final sylla- ble ; as rnvcpwg, TVCf&Etg, TvnElg. So in Verbs in y,L the participles in £tg, ag, ovg, vg. 6) When the masculine of a participle has the tone on a particular syllable, the othor genders retain it on the same, without further regard to the nature of the syllables; thus cpyXuTTcov, cpvXaTxovaa, (fvXaTxov Tifjrfjdwv, TLfirjo-ovaa, t t (xi] a ov xexvcptjjg, x srvcpvla, x sxvq)6 g. 7) In compound verbs the accent can never go further back than the augment. The few examples therefore, in which only one short syllable follows the augment, retain even in composition their accent on the aug- ment ; e. g. avi(T/ov, aviaxav. But if the augment is dropped, the case falls under note 2 above, as ngoa^ri. II. Ionic and Attic Peculiarities. 1. The Ionics have in the Imperfect and both Aorists an Iterative form in -(Ty,ov, Pass, -axofirjv, which is used to denote a repeated action. These forms are found only in the Indicative, haVe usually no augment, and are to be made after the model of xvnxo), e. g. xiiTixeaxov, xvTtxstntofitjv, from sxvttxov, ofxtjv xvipacrxov, xvipacrxofirjv, from ewj/za, afitjv xvTisaxov, xvTiEiTito^rjv, from sxvtcov, oiirjr. See also the notes to the contract verbs and verbs in fii. — There are some remarkable epic forms of this kind, which unite the a of the Aor. 1, with the characteristic of the Present and Imperfect : Qmxacrxov, nQVTcxaaxs, Qol^aaxsv, avacraslaaics Hymn. Apoll. 403. See on these words and on this whole subject, the Ausf. Sprachl. § 94. 4 and notes. 2. The Pluperfect 1 and 2 Active in siv, is formed by the Ionics in the I pers. in sa, and in the 3 pers. in ee or eev, as ixExvq)Ea, ixEXVcpEs or -eev. From this there is an Attic contracted form, of which the first person is in 71 from «a, e. g. * By this accentuation, and from the circumstance that the 3 pars. Opt. never takes the circumflex upon the penult (§ 11. n. 3), are distinguished the three simi- lar forms of the Aor. 1 ; e. g. Infin. Act. 3 Opt. Act. Imperat. Mid. TtaiSsvoai itaioevaai, Tcaidsvaat But since the number of syllables, or the nature of the penult, rarelj' permits this triple mode of accentuation, it is generally the case, that at most only two of these forms are distinguished ; and in such verbs as rvTtrot), all the throe are alike. See e. g. in ohw^ xofiitoj^ y^dtfU), § 103. VERBS. NOTES ON THE REG. PARADIGMS. 199 - eTcsTtov&t] for insTiovS^siv^ and was the usual form among the earher Attics. But the second person in 7]g from sag, and the third in eiv (before a vowel) from esv, — as neuol- •dfuv for insTiold-ei Aristoph. Nub. ]347. iaji'jxttv II. ip, 691 (comp. 3 Impf. TicTXEiv below in § 105. n. 3), — were perhaps less usual even atnong the At- tics. Hitherto at least all the examples which have been brought forward of these forms, as well as of a third person in r) instead of el, (except from the Plupf jjdsiv, see in olda § 109. III. 2,) rest only on the authority of some single passages, and the somewhat indefinite assertions of the an- cient Grammarians. See the Ausf. Sprachl. § 97. n. 14 sq. ' 3. Instead of the Opt. Act. in OLf^i, there was a secondary form in olrjVj olfjg, oIt], pi. olrjfxsv, olrjjs, olrjcrav, which is called the Attic form. It is found for the rnost part only in contract verbs (§ 105), and consequently in the circumflexed Future ; e. g. sQoh] for egoi from Fut. igw, Xen. Cy- rop. 3. 1. 11. cpavolrjv Soph. Aj. 313. Besides these instances, it occurs in barytones only in the Perfect ; e. g. nsq)Evyolrjv, eXrjXvd-olijv.* 4. Instead of Opt. Aor. 1 Act. in aifii, there was an ^olic form in €ta, as TvipEia, Eiag, svev, etc. of which the three endings exhibited above in the paradigm of tuttto}, viz. Sing. 2 jvipELocg 3 tvijjeib {v\ for -aig, -ai. Plur. 3 TvipELctv for -ulev, were far more usual than the regular forms. 5. The form of the 3 Plur. of the Imperative in -vtoov, Pass, -o-^wv, is called Attic, because it was, among the Attics, the most usual form ; although it is found in the other dialects. In the Active, this form is always like the Genitive Plur. of the Participle of the same tense, except in the Perfect ; e. g. Perf. nsnoiS-sTcodav or Ttsnoi-d-ovTiov — Part. nBnot&oxojv^ III. Second Person Sing. Passive. 1. The original ending of the second person Sing, of the Passive, (rav and GO (§ 87. 3), has been retained only in the Perfect and Plupf. of the ordinary conjugation, and in Verbs in y.i (§ 106. n. 2). The less cultivated dialects perhaps continued to say in the 2 pers. rvmsaai, irVTiTBffo, Imperat. rvnTsao, Aor. 1 Mid. hvipaao, — Subj. TVTiTrjaauj 2. The Ionics dropped the o- from this old ending, and formed sul, tjoii, so, ao. The common language contracted these endings again into j], oi/, 0); e.g. Ion. Comm. Ion. Comm. 2 Pres. Ind. rvmsai rvTiTt). Imperat. rvmso tvutov — Subj. TvmrjaL Tvmrj. 2 Impf. etvtiteo hvn-tov 2 pers. Aor. 1 Mid. Ion. hvipao, Comm. hvifja. * Except in the above examples, this form occurs only in the anomalous Aorist eayov from h'xojj which in the Opt. always has oxoiJjV, t The 2 pers. Present Pass, of the contracted verbs seems most frequently to have occurred in this forrn in the later common language ; e. g. in the New Test. Rom. 2 : 17, 23, Havyaoai for xavxdsoaij Comm. navxa contr. from xavxarj; see Ttfidoj § 105. 200 § 103. VERBS. NOTES ON THE REG. PARADIGMS. In the same manner in the Optative, instead of ol(to is formed oio^ which remained as the common form, because it cannot be contracted. — In the Perf. and Plupf. on the contrary, the o* is never dropped ; except in taavoy for which see the Anom. asvoj. 3. The Attics had the further pecuharity, that instead of j] contr. from mi, they wrote ei. This form, which is every where subjoined in the paradigms, was the usual one in the genuine Attic writers, the tragedians excepted ; and also in the common language. In the verbs ^ovXofiaij ol'ofiaL, and Fut. oipoy,ai (see the Anom. oodco), this form of the 2 pers. be- came the only usual one, viz. ^ovXei, oiEL, oipeL, so that (jovlji and ol'p can be only Subjunctive. — ^This form in st, is also very common in the Attic or circumjiexed Future, (e. g. oXeI, ^adisl,) in accordance doubtless with a usage no less general. 4. The Dorics and Ionics, instead of so or ov, have here sv, as iTvmsv^ Imperat. tvtttsv, see § 28. n. 5. The epic writers could in the Imperative prolong the s into ei, which however rarely occurs ; e. g. tgeio for egso from BQo^ai, II. A, 611. IV. Ionic Form of the 3 pers. Plur. Pass, in aiai, aro. 1. In the 3 Plur. Pass, of the Indie, and Opt. but never in the Sub- junctive, the Ionics changed the v into «, and wrote, e. g. Opt. TVTiTolaTO for tvtitolvto Perf. mnmdsvaTai for TiETiaidsvvTat — y.sy.XlaT(XL for xizXivTaL. This is sometimes imitated by the Attic poets, for the sake of the metre. See also below under verbs in ew and aw, § 105. n. 9. 2. The ending ovto is sometimes treated by the Ionics in the same manner, but with a change of the o into s; e.g. e^ovXsaro for i^ovXovTO. On the other hand, the ending ovrab [rvmovjai, Tvipovrai, etc.) and the ending (ovrai of the Subjunctive, are never changed. 3. By the help of this Ionic ending, the 3 Plur. Perf. and Plupf. Pass. can be formed, when the characteristic of the verb is a consonant ; and this is done sometimes even by Attic prose writers, as Thucydides, Plato, etc. (§ 98. 2 and n. 2.) E. g. TETixfaxaL for — cpvTat iTSTa/aTO for — xvto idTaXaxai for — Xvtul from TVTTTO), T«TTW, (TTsXXo}, etc. — In anly.aTai, Ion. for ctcplitaTai (see the Anom. iy.vio}iaL), instead of /, the characteristic of the verb remains un- changed. 4. Instead of the cr which has been dropped before vtat, jto, the lingual letters in this case reappear, e. g. from nu&io, ninBLfffiai, 3 PI. TiETTsld-aTat for niitHVTai, and from igEtdca, igrjQEi(T(j.ai, iQrjQsdaTDii' Hom. for igtiQUvzaVy § 103. VERBS. — NOTES ON THE REG. PARADIGMS. 201 where the diphthong is shortened because of the Attic reduplication, (§ 85. 2). So with a restoration of the 5 which is contained in ^ (§ 92. 8), iffxsvadaTai,, xs^MglduTai, from axsva'Co}, xuigl^oj. 5. In the editions of Homer we find some other verbs formed in the manner last mentioned, which have neither d nor ^ in the Present. Of these the form iqqadaxai, from qalvoi, egQucrfiai, (^ 101. n. 8. 6,) can be derived from a subordinate form PAZfL, from which also qdao-axs occurs in Homer. The others however are too uncertain for any grammatical use.* V. Miscellaneous. 1. Some of the less cultivated dialects, especially the Alexandrine (§ 1. n. 12) gave to the 8 pers. Plur. in all the historical tenses and in the Opt. the ending crav ; hence especially in the Greek version of the Old Testa- ment the frequent forms i(palvo(Tav, icpv/oaav, kstnoio-av, for fcpaivov, tfpvyov, XeIttolsv, etc. 2. The Dorics and poets, on the other hand, have in some instances, instead of the flexible ending of the third person aav, a syncopated form in V with a short vowel. This takes place in barytone verbs only in the Aorists Passive : 3 PI. bTvq)&ev, stvttsv^ for -rjdav. Other instances belong to the conjugation of verbs in [.a. — This syncope is never into ~i]v ; as to the Homeric ^luv&tjv, see the Anom. fiialvb). 3. The dialects mentioned above in 1, by a still greater anomaly, gave to the 3 pers. Plur. Perfect, instead of aai, the (historical) ending av ; hence in the New Testament B/vo)y.Gcv, «r(0?;;fjfily and oida. 13. In the earliest lahguage, the three endings which are now regarded as peculiarities of the conjugation in fiL, viz. 1 Sing. |Ut, 3 Sing, ai, Imperat. S-i, probably belonged to the verb in general. Hence the Imperative in S^L, not only in the Aor. Pass, but also in the syncopated Perfects (§ 110). The first person in fiL has been preserved in the ordinary conjugation only in the Optative ; but the earliest epic writers had it also in the »S'w6;Mnc- tive ; e. g. Xy.(afii, ayaycafiiy for llxca, uyayoj. Finally, the third person Singular in ai, or aw is also in the epic language very common in the Subjunctive ; e. g. xv7ixi](nv, €//y(T/, for xvttxj], exji. For the 3 Sing. Indicat. in 7](n ii^stead of the usual form, see § 106. n. 10. ^ 104. VERBS. USUAL AND UNUSUAL TENSES. 203 14. The circumflexed forms are by the Ionics either resolved, or pro- longed into the double sound (§ 105. n. 10). Thus the Inf. Aor. 2 Active in Hv, into sEiv, e. g. cpvyhiv for cpvystv from ecpvyov, see raarg. note to note I. 4. p. 197. So hkewise the Subjunctive of both Aorists Pass, in w, into go), epic sica, see the marg. note to n. I. 3 ; thus Subj. A. 1 Pass. svgsS-ico for evqs&m from evgi^riv Subj. A. 2 Pass, tvtieoj, epic rvjisla, for tvtcw. In those personal forms of this Subjunctive w^hich have rj in the ending, the usage of the epic writers varies between this mode of lengthening the preceding s, and the doubling of the rj ; e.g. {idocfir^v, dafioj, dafzsloi,) da- fiEirjQ, da^slr] XL /, 436. /, 246 ; {iaaTtrjv, craTioj, aaTislbj,) (ramjj} II. t, 27. Compare the forms of the dialects under verbs in fit,, since these must here also be assumed as the basis of such changes.* 15. The Subjunctive loses sometimes in the epic writers its long vowel, and takes o and s instead of w and ij; e. g. i'oij,Ev let us go, see in slfii, Subj. I'co, § 108. V. — i/slgofisv for -mfxEV II. /?, 440. igvcrdo^EV for Subj. A. 1 EQVcrojfiEV 11 . «, 141. i^ELQExai for -T^xat Od. a, 41. vavxllXETat Od. b, 672. See also EtdofiEV under oTda § 109. III. 6. This occurs most frequently in the form just adduced of the Subjunct. Aor. Pass. e. g. 8afj,Elofi^, da^EtETE. f § 104. Usual and Unusual Tenses. 1. The rules hitherto given, simply teach how the different tenses are formed. To give definite rules, in all those instances where different modes of formation are admissible, so as in every instance to know which of these modes is followed by any particular verb, is a thing im- possible in any language. A great portion of this subject is a mere matter of memory ; and as e. g. in Latin it is necessary to observe un- der every single verb, especially in the third Conjugation, how it forms the Perfect and Supine ; so also in Greek, it is necessary to remark under eyery verb each one of those tenses for itself, the formation of which we have exhibited above in particular sections. * For a third difference of form, according to which in the passages quoted above, II. y, 436. x, 246, and elsewhere, (where it is clearly the Subjunctive,) the forms SafiEii^g daaait) are written without t subscript, see the marginal note to § 107. n. IV. 9. f This must not be regarded as an irregularity of Syntax, as if the Indicative in these cases stood for the Subjunctive. For since this change never occurs,, except where the metre does not allow the Subjunctive, it is easy to see that these are nothing more than instances, where the pronunciation, in a language not yet fixed, has come in aid of the metre. This view is placed beyond all question by those instances where no Indicative exists, which would resemble the short- ened Subjunctive. This is the case in el'Sofiev, d'eiofiev for d'aco^isv, Xofisv, and all Subjunctives of the Aor. Passive. An Indicative eXBo) I know, d'sioj I place, m I go, cannot be assumed in Homer ; for otherwise these forms might very well occur in him as real Indicatives, and also in the other persons, as slSo}, si- Sovot, etc. in the sense of know ; which however is not the fact. 204 § 104. VERBS. USUAL AND UNUSUAL TENSES. 2. The chief point to be noted is, whether in any verb the Aor. 2 Act. the Perf. 2, and the Aor. 2 Pass, are in use. These tenses are indeed related to each other as to form ; but it does not hence follow, (as we have already often said,) that a verb in which one of these tenses occurs, has therefore the other. On the contrary, we have seen that the Aor. 2 Act. and Pass, are very rarely found together in one verb. Each of these three tenses must therefore be learned from the lexicon, 'from the catalogues in § 114 and Appendix D, or from actual examples. But until the learner has been able to do this, he may gen- erally assume, — since this formation or series of tenses is on the whole less frequent, — that the verb has only the other principal formation or series of tenses, viz. the Aor. 1 Act. the Perf. 1, and the Aor. 1 Pas- sive.* 3. We can indeed assume it as a rule, that all derived verbs of three or more syllables, which have the following very common derivative endings, V cc^o), iCo), aivo), vvoi, avta, 6(o, dco, iw, e. g. a^eva^o} from o^ivr], voftlCco from vof^oQ, Grjfialvco from arjfia, evd^vvo) from ev&vg, nccidevco from na7g, dovXoco from dovXog, Ttfiao) from r^/i?J, cptlto) from cfllog, form throughout only the Aor. 1 Active, Perf. 1 (in xa), and Aor. 1 Passive. Note 1. Some of these terminations are nevertheless in certain verbs not derivative endings ; but they serve merely to lengthen out a verb ; i. e. the verb is not derived by their aid from a noun or adjective, but the root or stem of a verb is by means of them lengthened in the Present, and the whole becomes thereby anomalous (§ 92). Such verbs can then form e. g. an Aor. 2 from this simple stem ; thus aXiTalvca from AAITSl — ^jhTOv, dafido) from JEMIl — iddfii]v ; all which instances are given in the cata- logue of Anomalous verbs. Note 2. Under the same head belong those derived verbs, which are formed from nouns by means of such endings as acroj, moi, lXo», etc. (§ 119. 4.) Of these dlldadoi is the only one which forms the Aor. 2 Pass. riXXdyriv. * Precisely as in English, by far the greater number of verbs have the regular form of the Imperf and of the past or Passive Participle in ed, us ask, asked, asked ; love, loved, loved; while comparatively few have the monosyllabic Imperf. and the Part, in en or n, as speak, spoke, spoken ; give, gave, given, etc. In English too, the regular form is the only usual one in all clearly derived verbs; just as in Greek the Aor. 1, etc. § 105. contracted conjugation. 205 § 105. Contracted Conjugation. 1. Verbs in t(o, aco, and ow, correspond entirely, in their general formation, to the rules and examples given above ; and in the sections which treat of the formation of the tenses, we have everywhere had reference also to these verbs. But in the Present and Imperfect of the Active and Passive forms, where the vowels «, e, o, stand immediately before the vowels of the flexible endings, there arises in the Attic and common language a Contraction, which in the Ionic dialect is often neglected ; see note 1. 2. This contraction conforms throughout to the general rules in § 28 ; except in some endings of verbs in 6(o. In these verbs, instead of contracting oei' into ov, and otj into q», according to the general rule, the I of the second and third person becomes predominant, so that the endings osig and 07^g are contracted into oig, and the endings oeii and 07] into ot. Thus ' 3 pers. Ind. Act. ^ J ^„,,. ^,,,,„,, 3pers.Ind.Act....^o» } contr. ...^o^ and so likewise ^ f"!!!' s°tj ^-' I '»"*»?' <»°''- f""*"^- — Since now ooi> is also contracted into ot, the three moods. Indie. Suhjunct. and Opt. become in these two persons in the Active entirely alike. — The Infin. in oavv is regularly contracted, e. g. fito&osvv contr. fxtad^ovv, 3. Verbs in ao), which everywhere 'follow the general rules of contraction, have the whole Indicative and Subjunctive in both Active and Passive alike ; inasmuch as both ae and atj are contracted into a ;. ccet and ar} into ct ; and ceo, aov, «a>, into (o. 27 206 § 105. VERBS. — CONTRACTED PARADIGMS. ^ di o;i lis ^ ^ ;. ^ O O H* to .16 O O O O O "=5> «i?> ci;i <^ <:^ to to (D to o *« ..» ^ !^ K> S V* t- 5. (.* to *3»S-«S- ?5S«8»3'«*3 ^ 5.5.5. 1 p t* N 1 ^S-^S-2- N (>> s» t* s> > C ^^ H-4 j^ H ;-. tS ;:>■ Pk C/> = = 1-1' < t> •* •* ty fcu t^ H> K> s. M 5. tj ;i N t^ M t* t- g ^ '^^l d 3- Jo ^^3 ^ a" ^S b t*3 4.1" 5. 5. tl. 2 "^ s» ^ $ ^ 2 ^ S S e t^ K s *u to ts ;^ 2 2 2 00000 ft K ft ft ft '5 ft e S '^ '" "^ — Ci» 5^ 5k 2^, S "2 to to ^ <5 *a «» ^0 ^*W^'W M K> 5. j^ ;i »c .^ ^Hj Hj ^0 ^HJ .*u ;^ *J l*J '*J ^tj ViJ «u r^ $3 ^ *a -ir -^ ^ ^ ^ >» .^ 2 2 •»» 0001 00000 S> "§ t; ft e ft ft ft ft ft •^ ft .§ ft ft 1 m Q P^ 1^ c^ 1 § 105. VERBS. CONTRACTED PARADIGMS. 207 to to to ^ >^ >« 5. ;§. 5. c^ cjj, to to to ^ <>» •^ S. 5. :$. ?^ ;k Sk — ' o to O MJ «U ,e fl K> »«> 5. (o to . »3»3'3*3*3 g «^ "i^ c^ <^ a^ «» 1^ CU S3 m o to S tg r* t^ t^ 5. f^ to ?r S" 3 s- 3 -^ <^ <^ CS> c^ to to to to to .^ <«> -^ ^ «^ 5- 5. 5. S. 5, o o o c^ (^ <^ to to to *g 5k ;^ ;:k 5k ? P t" - o o to o o <^ -^ d^) d> d> to to to to to 5L5L5- =L5.S.5.CL^ M to o o o 2L Ci» o o o 5^ 05, «J> to to to 5k 5^ ^ O S" t« nj 5^ 00000 -o o-o~o"o <^ <^ ^ <^ ^ to to to to to «o ^ •* ■* •* O -i <^ o to I 5.5LCI, 5LS.5.5.=L M t* t* 3 S-, ?r, ;s. 5. s. (4 M K> ^ ^ ^ X . »S»8»i-*s»3 ^ l^ s> t* N Is o m 2k Sk «^ O O S cy g s- s- 3 ?r 3 2L 5, CL 5. 2L •» •^ *d «a .<» K» K,-- M ls> (<» «!:*; '3-*3.»3. N pi !S) 5k «& 5k * 3'"^ 3-* 3-' 3-* 3- o 3, s. g. 5. S. '^ S S N S M t- ?U 5k ?k o s- ^ tu ;i •^ ^^ o o s> 00000 S, 5. 5. 2L 5L <> «a sa .« •« (.« (4 (s> t^ k» sT ^3- 5k 2 - s-~3- s- 1^3' -S O O s H* ^ *3?s-,?5r, is-i?r'3is-*3 O o o <=» o o 3^?r,s-, ^ 5^ ^ o o S *u n? t- M ^ M to .S-^S-^3 ^S-^3 liU >>U ^ '*i <*i S S 'D ^ m 000 K t^ ti o o ,^ C/> ® 2 o o 5k 5k ?k to S* !2 *« 0000 O i «i o to. 0^0 ^ «» -i^ S => 3 O O O «=;> <^ «J> to to to o p o o o <^ «?> ^ «^ ^ to to to to to >S -S -^ I S S S 5 -^ "kg "kU flky »>^y fvu "uj oiiu "»g b s^ Sk a 3 Sk to K> 3 O 3 Hj 3 ;^ ^s> K> K> Si K» O Hj"^ tu •^ ^^ o o 'O c;5 d;,d> to to to to to to to 5 5. 5. 5.5. 5. 5. »-i o ;& ;^ 8 3 j^ ;^ to M 3 o 3 »j 3 '3 K> k> M i^ M >s-a a ~55 '2S 'a 3, ^5. S. 3. 5. 5. 2L t<» O O O "O O"©*-© O _to ^to _to . to to to to to „5.„S.~5, "wy "^ "»W "kU "kU "MJ "'■M ^WJ 8 8 ta W» (.1 S) ti H> 5S 3 5, A to (^ 3 o 3 K) 3^^ M (s> M f- ^M 2 -2- 2- S- 2- S- 2- S t.* t is> K> K> S O 40 tW s a a 5. 2L_5. 2, 2k ;i O S- ^ H> ^ is"«'3»<3 3 5- ^ ^ 2-^S- Iky 'ky "ky "ky "ky 2k 2^ 2^ O S- t« kw ^ K) ^ky O ky O S- S- =^ 5-.^ <» -ii oi »i ~-« io h> M (<> t>> "ky "ky "ky "ty "ky "1 3 1 ^ to S 3 ky 3-s K» Ki (-» .t- t- o ky ky ky HJ H) ky Q O O O O O O K e K K R K t^i o =. 2^ 1 3 2k to f* 3 1 3 >. 3^1 V*^ ti v^ *-^*^ iu *y <*< ^ky ky MJ ky 'O ^ky ky rt o o o K ^a o O O S ^ ^ ^ K tt ti gM Q P^ W ftj S rJ .i «a _^Cl _ky ^ky O 5 O "ky "ky "ky O ky «y J*j J*i ^VJ o o o t:t R R "ky "ky "ky ■V A «* 2k ^ ky ky ky O Kj O O O O O "ky "ky "ky "ky "ky ?k ?k 2k ky ky O ^ky o "ky ky »y ^y ^g •« «d «d •« -»^ o o o o o R R R R R "ky 'ky "ky "ky "ky TO *kU is 5.^3 3 to 1 5- 3 3 g <^ to I 5-*^ to 5r to-2 "ky aL"ky c^ O 0} GJ g •A 1 . 5-^ ea S^3 H> S <0 t» 1 ■5 :^i *^ f^. TS 0) a -c rg-l K) («> «^ (4 S (S "ky t» "ky 'ky O R^3 R I •* o t, o to S. R-S->? K» •*> O R o e "5 R"5 3 r^ O Ph Pl^Ijm "< § 105. VERBS. CONTRACTED PARADIGMS. 309 o ;i ;;4 S ooopooooo tototototototototo to to 5. 5- o ;* ;^ 8 . 5L.^ s. :?. to to 2L to »3 tototototototototo o 02 P ^ ^ -^ -* 5 ^ •S. t^5.toto5,to?^ "^5- -o"o~o o'-o^o o~o'o "o "-p tototototototototo toto 2L 2L S- 5. ^ 5. 5L 5. 5. :S.=t ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ i-»^S- to to =5, o ^ 3 ?r, s- 3 s- S-^3 s- 3 -o"©-© o^o"-o o-o"o tototototototototo to A 5» ^ H 5. S:5.too5.to^ *3is-*5S"'3*c-8~2«?3«3 o ■f ^> ^ 1— f < PL, O ^v M^toto^to?* to 5. Pi O ^- ^^j^-O «^ nj^O MJ O -o -$5-S"C S"S-2S SS^^S^S ^S 2S :s.:l:s.^5.5.5L5.5. «. 5. N.SiS'Mh-MSJt-t- K> (4 ^ s.Sitotod^tg5j ,^ M=l.toto=L(o5k »3»s-^S^3«$S«$s~3««^3 U2 3 S-< S- 3 s- S- 3 S- 3 23-5S-2S S^5S^2S 2-2-2-2-2- 5. ;s. 5. ?, ?» ?i ^ o' 40 "^ ■ to "^ ^ to to 5. t, ^to S". k(j " to Mj fcu " O ^ly O **J » )^ O O o to o o to o K K t:; tt ^0^ A. ^ 210 § 105. VERBS. — CONTRACTED PARADIGMS. ooooooooo ST §1 5, ^ b 3 2 o S .« 3«J> d> ^ c3> ci> to to to to © to $ o o o o o o «> o:s cfe c^ «3> c^ c!^ to to to to to to to 5 ;4 O 5k Sk 5J 5Lo«.5,totosto$k OOOOOOOOO o^o~o 0"0 o o"o~o totototototo'^toto •^•«^^«d<^0>d«d O 5k ?ik 55 ,^OM5-toto^to;i J 3,15,1 2,-3.1 3,- 3,-3,1 3,1 3, O ?» Sk 5S S.OM5.toto5.to?k OOOOOOOOO g-S^S S~8 S S-5S-S ^ ?^ ^ 3 o 3 5k to. to 3 *> «^ d> ^ i-> b to "^ "^ ■- ^ ,_ _ ^^ to .to O *uu Kj ^j H) hj "o o^o 0-0 o ^ ^ ^ ^ <^ ^ to to b b b b ^ O 5. 2L 5L 5- 5. 5. ;:u ?* to 3 3 o 3 H» 3 ^ c35( d^i d> c^ c^ to ,. to to to b to g S, 5. ^ :§. 5, 5. S tS> f.> Is N t^ S> 5k « ?^ ^ 5^^ 3 o 3 *u 3 S5 ^.b b.b b^to 2 >5 *^ K) 1^ K) WJ '^ "S 2S~S 5J-S 2S . Si Is ^ K> t^ ^ 5k O Sk ^ S 5k Cb O STcfe *0 -, 2L S 5- b b ^.b^j:^ "S I 3 ? S ^S) I » "S> -S> *» * S> OOO'^O'^O'^® <^'^'$'=>'=^^^'^'^ bbtobbbbbb "vu "wu ntJJ^"*^ "ty '>WJ "iU "WW "kU p 5k ^3 ^^oi^^«^t^^t» ^5.SM=S.tob=?-b?k O O ty^O nj"»w"0 Mj O 0-0^0 O'O o p^o-o bbbbbbbbto "H, "kw nyy "ky "H* "^W "'■M o 5k ;i 8 ^ ^ to p«5> jy o =5. M^^ b b ^ b 5k 3*3*S 3»S"-« 3 (s M 'ty Hfcy "wy "wy "wy "ty "wy "t^ «(,y •O O ^ o ?^c> ty ^ b .b ^ b "O yj ky'O ky Mlo(sNMMS»SiK> "ifj "iKj "ky "wy "ky "wy "wy "hj "<>y ?k O 5k ^ 8 ^ ^PP«i> K* o S- o2^^'^«i?>S -^i2ib-2-<2-S>S->to,^ OOOOOOOoO OOOOOOooO O ^ ?k 8 S" 0*y'^Ci>ky<^^, S0M5.toto5.to5k O O k'S o .0 o o ^o ^o ly -Mj wy nj »y ty ky >y (i.y o o o o c ^ 5k '^^ b J 3 5 3 H, 3^ si 1^ <3?i ci> ci> «to «;:svtojb^b^b^b 2 O *y ky wy 40 ly O O O c^ S .b b ^b to .b O ky ^wy ky ky ky wy vy ky ky ^ky ky 02 o o 000 R R K Q a; ?k o o I 5k ^ «y ;b b. o "ky O O .R R o O ky ky O wy O o "^ N> «» «i ;^ 000000 R R R R„R„t^ >ky "ky "wy "ky "ky "ky s- 5.S "O.O ky -ky O 5k ?k S CJ> O S-C^ ky o S .3- b ,b 5- b ?^ ky O ky ky-O ky O ^ky wy ky ky ky «y ^ *» •« 000 R.R R , ^ ^ •* 0000 f=^ K R R ky "ky "ky "ky § 105. VERBS. CONTRACTED PARADIGMS. 211 The following tenses suffer no contraction ; but we prefer to exhibit here the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive fully inflected, in order that the analogy of these forms, in comparison with the same tenses from nacdevuif may be clearly seen. Perfect. Indie. S. nsnolfjfiao ^STif^rjfiai fxafAiG&cjfiat, nEnoi7}Cim T£Tifif]aao fxaf.iiG&o}GaL nanOLTizav T£TlfA,rjTaC fxafiiGdcuTai D. mnoLTjf^e'&ov TSTtfil^flfd^OV fA^afxiG&ojfiad^ov n£Tioirjo&ov zeTifirjad^ov fAafAlGd^aJGdoV mnolriG&ov zeiif-iTjadov fia^lG'&WGd^OV P. nanovrifit'&cx, Terifjiri^a&a ^a(xi,G^M^a\la Tisnoinad^s TSTlfxriG&S [xa^iGd^coG'&a nanolrivTav T€Tlfi7]VTaC (.lafAiGd^covxac Infinit. mnoiriG&ai TiTVfiriG&ai (la^iGd^MGdab Partic. nenot>ri(AtvoQ Tsrt^ijfiivog ^lafitG&wf^tvog Subjunct. and Optat. are want ing. For the few ve rbs which can form them, see § 98. n. 9 Imper. S. nsnoifjGO T6TlfArjG0 fAafilG'&OJGO nsnoi^rjad^M, etc. I lattfirja&M, etc. Pluperfect. fiafntGd^coGd^co, etc. S. inenooi^f^tjv IxaTLfjirifxriv a^a^VG&MfATlV insnoiTjOo iiaxi^ilGO if^afiiGd^oiGo InenoiriTO haTi^tjTO a^afiLG'&mxo D. inenovrifie&ov iT£TCfl'^f4,£'&0V afiafitGdwfia'&ov insnohjGd^ov hetlf^fjG'&ov if^af^iG&wG'&ov inanooriO'&riv iT6Tl^7]Gd^t]V ifiafiCG&ojG&^v P. tnenoiri^e&a iTiTiiitj^a&a, ifiafA.w^cofxa'&a tnenoirio&i axiTlfAtiG'&a ajiafihS^coGd^a insnoifjvTO haTifxrivTO ifiafiiG'&mvxo Fut. 1. n0l7j{^7]OOfi(Xt ZtfiTjd^tjGOfiai ^iGd^co'dfiGOfiat Aor. 1. inoirj'&rjv axi^rid^tiv ifiCG'&CodfJV Fut. 3. nsnoinaofiav ZaTl^fXtiGOfiCCt fia(A.t,G-&(aGoy,ut^ 1 MIDDLE.* Fut. 1. noci^GOf^ac TtfXfjGOIHaL lA,tG'&(aGO(ia,i Aor. 1 inocrjaafiifjv iTl^fitJGCCflTJV afilGd-ODGOtf^TJV Verl 3al Adjectives. \ nov7]Tiog xifAYiraos fxcG&Mxiog noi,rjTog XLfAflXOg lAiG'&iaxog * Jlotetad'ai^ to make for one's self; zifiaadtu, to honour, as in the Active ; fiia&otad'ai to cause to let to one's self i.e. to hire. 212 § 105. VERBS. NOTES ON THE CONTR. PARADIGMS. Note 1. The older Grammarians taught without any limitation, that the uncontraded forms of these verbs were Ionic forms. They may be more correctly called the old or the ground-forms ; and it is only in verbs in SCO that they are in the proper sense Ionic, i. e. such as are used by all Ionic writers. They belong however exclusively to the later Ionic prose ; for the epic writers very often used the contracted forms, and sometimes also employed the lengthened «/w instead of sco ; e. g. oxvelco^ nXsUiv, VEiJcslsaxs, etc. — The uncontracted form of verbs in aw is only so far to be called Ionic, as the epic writers sometimes avail themselves of it ; although in only a few words and forms ; e. g. aoididsL, nEivaovza, vcuBTocovaLv, etc. — Verbs in oco are found uncontracted only in the Jirst pers. Singular ; else- where they are always either contracted, or take the double sound pecu- liar to the epic writers ; see notes 10, 11, and § 28. n. 3. marg. note. — In the Ionic prose, verbs in aca and ow never occur, except either in the usual contracted form, e. g. in Herodot. vlxdcv, ivlxcav, vlymsv, Elgojxa, ^lm for §iuov / — 8rilo1, sfiKrS^ovvTO/ ersQOiovTO, etc. or else with the pecuUarities of formation and contraction which are given below, in note 7 sq. Note 2. In the Attic and common language, none of the contractions which occur in this conjugation were ever neglected ; not even in Attic poetry, i. e. in the dramatic senarius. The only exceptions are the shorter verbs in sa, whose present Act. in the uncontracted form has only two syllables, as tqso). These admit only the contraction in el ; e. g, tqe~v, STQEL, tiveIv ; in all other forms they remain uncontracted ; e. g. ^ico, x^o- (xm, TQSOfiEV, nvEovGL, nvEtj, etc. excepting nevertheless 8e2v to hind, e. g. TO 8ovv, Tw 8ovvTL Plat. Cratyl. (o) avadwv Aristoph. Plut. 589. diabov- fiai, etc. On the contrary dslv to needy want, has commonly to diov, dsofiai, etc.* Note 3. The moveable v is taken by the 3 pers. Sing. Imp/, only in the uncontracted form, as Hom. eqqeev, fjTEsv ; not in the contracted one. Still Homer has once ijaxsLV from ccaxica. Comp. the Plupf. in § 103. n. II. 2. Note 4. The foi-m of the Optative, known by the name of the Attic Optative, which is in a measure peculiar to contract verbs (§ 103. n. II. 3), is fully given in the paradigm (p. 207), in order that the analogy of it may be clearly understood. It is however to be observed, that the Attic usage, which was governed only by a regard to euphony and perspicuity, prefer- red certain parts selected from each of the forms ; viz. 1) The Plural of the Attic form was less used, because of its length, especially in verbs in sco and ow ; least of all the 3 pers. Plur. in oltjcrav, MTjcrav. The Attics said almost always tcoloIev, iifi^sy, fiiaS^otsv. 2) In the Sing, however, the Opt. in olrjv from verbs in ico and ow, is far more usual than the other form. * But see the Anom. Sico. — In the verb x^o) we must take care not to con- found the 3 Sing, h^ss from Aor, 1 e'xsa (see the Anora. %/?(«) with the same person of the Imperfect; the latter is contracted, k'x^s I'x^h the former not; e. g. Aristoph. Nub. 75 xarixssv. § 105. VERBS. NOTES ON THE CONTR. PARADIGMS. 213 3) In verbs in da the Attic Opt. {xLfiMrjv etc.) is in the Sing, used al- most exclusively ; and also in the Plur. (with the exception of the 3 pers.) far more frequently than in the other two classes of verbs. Note 5. Some verbs in dot are contracted in the Doric manner into ri instead of « (see note 15). The most common of these are the four fol- lowing, viz. ^fjv to live, xgTJaS-ai to use, nsLvfiv to hunger, dbxpfjv to thirst, from ^ocM, XQ^^y (^6® '^oth in the Catal. § 114,) nsivuco, diyjdoj, — which make ^^?, 'Cj], B^f], xg^T^cch etc. The following verbs also, so nearly related^ to each other in their signification, viz. xvdoj scrape, afidoj stroke, ipdco rub, are contracted in the same manner, at least in the genuine Attic. Note 6. The verb qiyom I am cold has an irregular contraction, viz. w and ft) instead of ov and oi; e.g. Inf ql/mv. Opt. qiyMr^v. But this peculiarity is not always observed, at least in our editions. — In the verb Idqooi I sweat, which in signification is opposed to the preceding, the same rule holds in the Ionic dialect ; e. g. IdgSxTa II. 8, 27. I^qmti Hip- pocr. de Aer. Aq. Loc. 17. Dialects. Note 7. Since the Ionics form the 2 pers. Pass, in the ordinary con- jugation in sat and to (§ 103. III. 2), there arises in verbs in eco an accu- mulation of vowels in this person, which the Ionic prose writers retain, as Tcoissai, enaivhai, etc. The epic writers contract sometimes the two first vowels, e. g. ^ivd-Ciai, like ^vS^hrai fivS^eijaL. Sometimes one s is elided, and in seo always ; e. g. ^vS^sai from [iv&sofiai Od. /5, 202 ; (po^io from (po^ioy-ai, Herod. 9, 120 ; aivso, i^rj/so, etc. The forms of this 2 person in ejj, djj, ojj ; sov, dov, oov, which we have placed in the para- digm for the sake of uniform analogy, never occur. Note 8. Verbs in dco, as we have seen (note 1), are not commonly employed by the Ionics in their original uncontracted form ; but many of them are so resolved that the a passes over into £ ; e.g. OQEOJ, oQsoixsv, foY ogdcj, ogdofisv (poiTsovTsg for (pondovTsg XgssTciL, firixavimS^aL, for dxai, da&aij and the like. Sometimes they change ao into ew (§ 27. n. 10) ; e. g. ^ri- Xavkovxai, XQ^^y^^h 6tc. Note 9. In the 3 pers. Plur. where the Ionics change v into a (§ 103. IV), and put -mxo for -ovxo, they sometimes employ in these verbs the same ending for -iovxo, where of course there is an elision of the t ; but this is done only in verbs in dm, as i^irixaviaxo for -dovxo, -sovxOy comm. e}ir]X(xvavxo. — In the Perf. and Plupf. they not only change rjvxai and (ovxav into ?j«Tat, aaxai, e. g. nsTioxrjaxaL, xsxoXcaaxo, Homer ; but likewise commonly shorten the rj into s, e.g. olitiotxaL, sxsxLfisaxo, for mxrjvxcei, ixExlfirjvxo. Note 10. The old Ionic of the epic writers sometimes contracts the forms, and sometimes not. In verbs in dm however, which are seldom 28 214 § 105. VERBS. NOTES ON THE CONTR. PARADIGMS. employed in their original uncontracted form (note 1), the Ionic allows these poets the peculiar license of again resolving the vowel or improper diphthong of contraction into a double sound, by repeating before it the same sound, either long or short, according to the necessities of the me- tre (§ 28. n. 3). Thus a in {oQCiSLv) oQav — oQuav* [aGxalau) a(T;(aXa — acrxctldcc 2 pers. Pass, {[^vdjj) ^iva — ^vaa ayogaa&E, (ivaa&UL — ayogdaa'&s, iivaaad-tuk. Further, o or w in {oQam) oQM — oQom Imperat. Pass. {aXaov) ala — aXooj (/SoaOt'fft) ^ObJdL ^OOMffL Opt. {atTLaono) «mwTO — cdrioono {dgdova-L) dgoJaL — dgojooaL Part. Fem. {rj^dovaa) ^^/Jwcrw — '^^(acaaa. In the Ionic prose this species of resolution occurs seldom ; Herod ot. rjyoQoojvTo 6, 11. xofiooxn 4, 191. — Sometimes the o is placed^after w, e. g. ^ ^ ri§(aovTig, ri§(aoi^Lj for ^^wvxsg, 'tj^m^i, from -aovTsg, «ot^t,f and for yekavTsg may stand either yskoavTeg or yeXwovTsg^ as the metre may require. — A peculiar" anomaly is the Homeric Particip. Fem. vaLsxdaxia for -dovaa or -ocotra. Note 11. All forms with the double sounds ow and coo are also common to verbs in oo) ,• though in these they can arise neither by regular resolution, nor by doubling the vowel of contraction ; e. g. {agoovai) agovcn, epic agowtn {drfioovTO, drfiooisv,) drfiovvTO, drfidlev, epic drfioano, drfiomv. Note 12. The iterative Imperfect in ajcov (§ 103. II. 1) is more seldom employed by the Ionics in these verbs ; e. g. (piXisaxov Herodot. (iovxo- Xitovsg Homer. This form was never contracted; but was sometimes syncopated in the earlier poets by dropping s ; e.g. TJxsaxs for 7jxsscrxs from 9;/sa) ; eaaxs from ido) ; and so with a doubling of a, vaisraaaxov from vaLsxdb}. Note 13. That the Dorics contract so into sv instead of ov, and that this is followed by the Ionics when they contract, has already been men- tioned, § 28. n. 5. Thus e. g. from noLsa they make noiivfiBv, TiOLEVfiai, noLSVVTsg, inolsvv. But in verbs in ow likewise we often find in Herodotus and others sv, contrary to analogy, instead of ov contracted from oo ; e. g. idixaltw, idixalsv, nXTigsvvtsg, from dLaaiooi, nXrjgota. And this same contraction takes place, through the change of a into s (note 8), in verbs in aw, e. g. slgmsvv, dyansvnsg, from tlgooTUbi, dyandca. * For the t subscript see the marg. note to n. 15. t In some verbs this doubling of the sound by means of (o, passed over into a peculiar formation, -o'w, cisig, oust; see the Anom. t,da)^ M^Si, and juvdoj in fiifivijaxo}. § 105. VERBS. NOTES ON THE CONTR. PARADIGMS. 315 Finally, sv stands not only for sov, and consequently for aov, but also for oov ; e. g. noiEVffif (pdevaa,* for noiiovaL, oiktl, cpLXiovaa, oixra ysXsvaa for ytXdovcra, waa dixaisvffv for dixuLoovcTL, ovai. Closer observation must teach, which of these different forms occurs most frequently in each of the two dialects. But it follows of course, that the 3 Plur. noLsvat, ysXevaL can be only Ionic ; because the Dorics form noLsvvTiy ysXsvvTi. Comp. § 103. V. 4. Note 14. In another mode of contraction, which is rather iEolic than Doric, o is often swallowed up by a preceding a, which thereby becomes long ; e. g. cpva-avxeg for q)V(T(xovTsg, 3 PI. neivtavxi or nsivavxt. Note 15. When the Ionics sometimes change the contracted a or « in- to 7] and 9;, e. g. ogfjv, (fOixfiv, lija&aL, etc. this coincides entirely with the nature of their dialect ; but it is done only by a part of the Ionic writers, e. g. Hippocrates. Herodotus has ogaVf VLxav, and even from xgdo) — XQoiff&ai,, xga, etc. On the contrary, among the Dorics, who everywhere else employ long a instead of tj, this contraction into 7] instead of a is a peculiarity, (where too in the contraction from asL they omit the t sub- script,! comp. § 103. V. 10,) e. g. ogriv, ig^j for igix, xoXfiTJts for xoXfiaxs, etc. Nevertheless, in conjugation and flexion (not contracted), they say vtxaaa), xoXfiaa-aif etc. They have the same contraction in the Infin. of verbs in ew, e. g. xoaf^iiv for kog^eIv. Note 16. The epic writers avail themselves in like manner of ^ as the vowel of contraction ; but only in some forms from ata and ion, chiefly in the Dual in tt^v, e. g. ngocravd^jrjVf 6fj,ugTr}Trjv, from avdd(o, ofiagxim 5 and in the lengthened Infinitive forms in n^ivai, rjfisvaL, instead of eiv and av ; e. g. cpogijvat from cpogio), cpiXrifiEvui, yo'^fisvai for youv.X Note 17. From verbs in ow the epic Inf. ^gofifisvat for agovv, is a solitary example. A Catalogue of the Contract Verbs see in Appendix D. * The Doric ioioa can be contracted only into svaa, and not into o7aa, which occurs only in the Particip. Aor. 2 XaSotaa, where there is no contraction ; see § 103. V. 5. t The omission of i subscript was anciently common in the Infinitive of verbs in doj, e. g. ri(iav, ^oaVj l^?/V. Modern critics (e.g. Wolf) have endeavoured to introduce again this mode of writing, as being the ancient orthography ; and, as it would seem, not without ground. See Jlusf. Sprachl. § 105. n. 17. — Some of the Grammarians always omitted it in the double sounds, e. g. ogdav, ogdag. t Here belongs ogrjat, for which see the marg. note to § 106. n. 10 ; and •d'TJod'cUf see the Anom. 0AQ. Comp. also Id'rjijro under the Anom. S'dofiai. Both modes of contraction, (that into ij_, and that into ft and a,) which in the de- velopment of the language became the property of particular dialects, were unquestionably, in the earliest language, like so manyjather forms, in common fluctuating usage. Of the form in ^ some examples (tfiv, etc.) always remained common ; and no wonder that we find in the epic language still more instances of this kind, which have been retained on account of some special euphony. 216 § 106. VERBS IN fit Irregular Conjugation. §106. Verbs in fit. ^ 1. We commence our account of the Anomaly of the Greek verb, with that which is called, from the ending of the 1 pers. Pres. Indicative, the Conjugation in (ai,. This does not, like the two preceding forms of conjugation, contain a multitude of Greek verbs ; but only a small num- ber of verbs and parts of verbs, which differ from the regular analogy of of the great mass of verbs in some essential points, while they yet have a common analogy among themselves. Note 1. Those verbs in ^i which are exhibited in the grammars, and inflected throughout as examples of this conjugation, are almost the only ones which adopt this formation in all the parts where it is applicable. All the other examples that belong here, are merely single parts of certain anomalous or defective verbs, or epic forms. Besides, the more usual verbs in /ut do not coii^cide with one another in all their parts ; but each, on account of its peculiarities, must be noted by itself as an anomalous verb. 2. All verbs in (av have one root or stem, which in the ordinary forma- tion would terminate in (a pure (§ 28.1); and chiefly in 6w, aco, ow, vm. It is therefore usual in grammar, to trace back this less usual formation to the other more familiar one; and to say e.g. that the verb rlO^i^fio comes from a simpler form 0ESI. 3. The peculiarities of the conjugation in ^u are confined to these three tenses, viz. Present, Imperfect, Aorist 2. The essential feature in all these peculiarities is, that the flexible endings, e. g. fiev, ze, v, fiai, are not annexed by means of a union- vowel (o^ev, €Te, ov, o^ai), but are appended immediately to the radical or stem-vowel of the verb, e. g. xld^a~(Aiv, 'iaxa-fiat, dido-re, ideUvv-xt, tdr}-v. See notes 6, 7. 4. There are moreover some peculiar endings, viz. /M* — in the 1 person Pres. Sing. ai, or aw — in the 3 person Pres. Sing. S^i — in the 2 person Imperat. Sing. In the Imperat. of the Aor. 2 Act. some verbs have nevertheless instead of ^t,, simply g ; as d^tg, dog, h'g ; see tl&ti^i, dldoifii, 'ir,^a ; and comp. cyig and (fijtg in the Anom. exo) and g)p£w.— Further, the Lifinitive of the above tenses always ends in vui] and the Masc. of the Participle of the Nom. ends, not in j/, but in g, before which v has been dropped; on § 106. VERBS IN f4,l. 217 which account the radical vowel is lengthened before the g in the usual manner, cig, iig, ovg, vg, Gen. vxog. These endings of the participle always have the tone, in the form of the acute accent. 5. The Subjunctive and Optative unite the stem-vowel of the verb with the vowel of their endings into a mixed vowel or diphthong, upon which they regularly always have the tone. The mixed vowel of the Subjunctive, when the stem has either a or «, is ca or t?, to, ^?, ^, Mfxev, ^re, oqgo (v) ; but when' the stem has o, the Subjunctive has always w, cy, Mg, ft), €i}fA.sv, ooze, (x)G0{v). The mixed sound of the Optative is a diphthong with t, to which in the Active the flexible ending rjv is always joined : Tid'-eiriv, loT-cclrjv, did-oitjv. See § 107. III. 2 sq. — Verbs in f^t form these two moods most com- monly from the ordinary conjugation in -vco. 6. Several of the shorter radical forms receive a reduplication, which consists in repeating the initial consonant with i ; e. g. ^OSi didw^i, SESl xid^ri^i. But when the stem begins with gt, nx, or with an aspirated vowel, it merely prefixes the t, with the rough breathing : ZTA^ iGX7]fii^, IlTydSl 'imafiai, 'JES2 i7](,u. It is only in such words that the Aorist 2 is possible in this form of conjugation ; since it is chiefly by the want of this reduplication, that this tense is distinguished, in the Indicative, from the Imperfect ; and in the other moods, from the Present ; see § 96. n, 2. E. g. xid^7]fAi> Impf ixid^rjv Aor. i&7]v. 7. The stem-vowel, in its connexion with the endings of this formation in the Sing, of the Indie. Act. of all the three tenses, always becomes long; viz. from the radical a and s comes f]{l Pres. ^|Ut), from o comes cd (1 Pres. (ofii^), and from v comes v (l Pres. vfit). In the other endings the radical vowel appears most frequently in its original short form, (, a, 0, V, e. g. xiStjfii, — xiSe[A.ev, adeGav, xc&evai, xl&6xt, xlx^e/iiai, etc. There are however some exceptions, which are best learned under each particular verb ; first of all in the Paradigms, and then others in the catalogue of Anomalous Verbs ; e. g. v-iyrivav, dl^ri^iav. Note 2. Since the ending of the 2 pars. Pass, in the ordinary conju- gation {% ov) comes from eo-at, sao (§ 103. III. 1,2); and since in the con- jugation in fit, this union- vowel («) falls away ; the ending of this 2 pers. Pass, in these verbs is simply o-av, (to, e. g. xlS-e-crcci, hl&s-ao, 'laxa-aai, etc. just as in the Perf. and Plup. of the ordinary conjugation. Still a similar contraction occurs here with the radical vowel, in some verbs more, in others less frequently : xl&j}, ixid-QV ' {'icnci), toro), for lOTao-at, 'icrtado. 218 ^ 106. VERBS IN ^t. See the marg. note on p. 223. And since the Ionics, after dropping the or, change a into e (^ 107. IV. 2), there arises from 'laxaaat [XaTsav) the Ionic form IliTTt]. In the Aor. 2, the contracted form s&ov, edov, etc. is alone in use. 8. All the remaining tenses are derived after the ordinary conjugation from the simple theme, and without the reduplication ; e. g. xld^rjfit^ ( 0ESI) Fut. '&r)ao}. Nevertheless, some of the verbs which belong here have, as anomalous verbs, peculiarities in these tenses also. These however must be separated from the peculiarities of the formation in fic ; and, so far as they are common to several of these verbs, we pro- ceed to exhibit them here in one general view. 9. The two verbs YaTtifxv and didcof^i shorten the vowel in those Passive tenses which belong to the ordinary conjugation : Act. azfjaco Perf aaTrjKu Pass. Perf iara^av Aor. iarccd^rjv. — dcoGco — dadcDxa — — dt'dof.iao — ido&rjv. The verbs xid^rifiv and h]fiL (§ 108. I) do the same, but only in the Aor- ist Pass, and in the Future which depends on it : iT6&r]v, for id-ad-rjv, from 0ESi, id-elg Part. Aor. 1 Pass, from ^JSSi. In the Perfect of both Act. and Pass, these two verbs change the stem- vowel into £1: 10. The three verbs Tid^tjfzt, 'itifii, dldcofxt, have a peculiar form of the Aor. 1 in zee, e. g. which must of course be distinguished from the Perfect. Note 3. In the more usual dialects, no verbs in rjf/.t and (ofii are to be found, which, exclusive of the reduplication, have more than two sylla- bles ; excepting perhaps ocfjfit, and some deponents in 7](j,aL (instead of sfiai), ajiai^, and ofiaL (from -ow) ; which, as also atjfiL, are to be sought under the anomalous verbs ; e. g. 8l^i]fj.aL, dvva(j,aL, ovofiai. Note 4. Verbs in vfiL are further anomalous in this respect, viz. that they belong to the class of verbs in which the tenses come from different themes. The ending vfiL or vv(/.i, etc. is itself only a strengthening of the Present and Imperfect (§ 112. 14) ; while the remaining tenses are formed from the simple theme, in which this v or vv is wanting ; e. g. dsUvvi^t from JEIKJl, Fut. 8d^(o ; cr^ivvv^c from SBEJl, Fut. a^hoi. These verbs therefore appear here only as defectives. Besides these, only single parts of some anomalous verbs follow the formation v^i. — In order to know at once, where the v is long or short, we have only to compare XaxrifiL ; for dslxvvfAL is long like XinTjfii ; ddxvvfisv is short Uke YcnafiEV ; Aor. 2 tdvfiev (see the Anom. dva) is long hke eatrj^ev, etc. Note 5. All verbs in fit increase their anomaly still more by the circumstance, that the Present and Imperf. in many single persons and § 106. VERBS IN fit,. 219 moods, forsake the formation in (il, and are formed in the ordinary man- ner from 803, «w, 00), i. e. hl^e contract verbs, retaining nevertheless the reduplication ; consequently as if from TIOESL, etc. Those in i^/xt are also formed from vm. In the mean time, in order to have a full view of the whole analogy, it is necessary to inflect them throughout according to the formation in ^v ; and where the other formation predominates in common • usage, yvQ shall point it out in the notes. When no remark is made, it may be assumed that the formation from TI0EI1, etc. occurs less fre- quently, or is not at all in use ; as is the case with the 1 Sing. Pres. in c5. On the whole, the formation in fii belongs to the more genuine Attic. Note 6. That the learner may form a correct judgment of the forma- tion in ^L, we premise further some general remarks. There are, in most languages, two modes of appending the flexible endings in the inflection of the verb, viz. either with or without a union-vowel ; something as in English e. g. in blessed or blessed {blest). On general principles, it is diffi- cult to determine which of these two modes is the oldest in any language ; but in grammar it is more natural — when not opposed by a stronger anal- ogy — to assume the longer form as the original one, and then to consider the other as Syncope from it. In this view, the conjugation in (al, in con- sequence of the peculiarity mentioned above (Text 3), is unquestionably a Syncope of the ordinary conjugation ; but we are not therefore entitled to assume, that these verbs actually had originally the fuller forms, and that these were afterwards abridged. Note 7. The syncopated form is the most natural, when without it two vowels would come together in pronunciation. While now in the greatest number of Greek verbs the full form was preferred, which then passed over into the contracted form {cpLkso-fisv, cpdov(j,8v) ; in some others the. syncopated form was retained [S-i-fxEv). This syncope could not have had place in the endings of the ordinary conjugation, which consist only of the vowel-sound (^s'-w, d^e-u, S-ss) ; and these are precisely the in- stances where another form of the ending, fii, o-l, S-l, has been retained ;. by which means, in these persons also, a consonant came to stand immedi- ately after the radical vowel. This vowel too was in part lengthened ; and thus arose e. g. from the root S^s- the forms ^rj-fit, e&rj-v, S^s-fXEv, S^s-d-iy etc. — The reduplication probably only served to strengthen these shorter verbs in the Present ; and thus were distinguished (§ 96. n. 2, 4) a shorter form {s'&rjv) for the Aorist, and a longer one for the Present and Imperfect {tld-fjfit, hiS^'Tjv). — An anomalous reduplication see in ovlvrj^i, in the cata- logue <§, 114. Note 8. From this view of the subject it is evident, that the formation which at present constitutes the essential character of verbs in fiL, could just as well occur in the single parts of any verb ; and that therefore it is en- tirely unnecessary to assume an appropriate 1 pers. Present, for every single tense or form in which this flexion appears. Indeed, we shall find below (§ 110. 10) forms of the Perfect, whose Plural etc. is made in this manner ; and also (^ 110. 6) Aorists 2 of this kind from some verbs, which have in the Present either the ordinary form {(Slog), dvco — A. 2 i^lcov, I'^w),, or a form entirely different {^alvoa, yiyvcaaxo) — A. 2 s^tjv, eyvojv). The following paradigms of the few complete verbs of this conjugation, serve 220 § 107. VERBS. — PARADIGMS IN fit. at the same time for most of the single anomalous forms of this kind ; and therefore we shall refer from the latter to these paradigms. Note 9. The forms of the moods and participles in this conjuga- tion, will also be found on close observation to be the same at bottom as the corresponding ones in the ordinary conjugation, only adapted to the analogy of the conjugation in /ut. So much the less therefore, when similar moods elsewhere occur, can we presuppose old forms ^ of the Present in fiv ; e. g. in the Aorists of the Passive, hvq)S-r]v, rvcp&slrjv, xv- q)&ijvaL) etc. § 100. n. 10 ; and in some single epic forms, as the before mentioned cpogrivai, cpiX'ijfj.svai. § 105. n. 16. Note 10. Some branches of the Doric dialect, however, actually form- ed the 1 pers. Pres. of many common verbs in fxi, instead of w ; e. g. ogrj- fif, cplXrj^L, instead of ogam, q>ilso() ; and likewise the 3 pers. in (Tl, e. g. xglvrjO-L for uglvsL. Of this there are still some traces extant in the early epic writers ; e. g. aVvrjfii in Hesiod ; and hither the Grammarians refer some Homeric forms, viz. the 3 pers. in tjctl, e. g. II. s, 6 nafi^alvr}(n ; II. t, 323 TTgocpsgrjffL ;* and the 2 pers. Pass. ogijaL Od. |, 343, as if from Pass. ogrifiaL (for -a^m) from ogaco, ogiJixL. f § 107. Paradigms of the Conjugation in fit. ACTIVE. Present. set, put place t give shew. (from eES2) (from ZTA^) (from ^0/2) (from d6cxvv(a) IflUlLUlWt. S. zid^tjfii 'iGTTlfAV dldoifii dei^vvfit, Ti{^rjg lOT7]g dldoig deUvvg D. -- Tid^erov I'aifjaiiv) didoiGi {v) deUvvGi (v) lOTarov didoTOv dfUvVTOV Tld^STOV 'lOTUlOV dldoTOv deUvvTOv P. Tidifjiav I'oTafifv didofxev delyivvfAEv Tid^exe Yoxare dldoxs deiavvTe Ti&taat{v) loTccao (v) didoaov {y) dscitvvaot {v) or ox ^ or Zl,d^67ot> didovGv dstxvvao Note I, 1. The 3 Plur. in a(n{v) is alone usual in good Attic; in the ancient Grammarians it is called Ionic, because it was erroneously consid- ered as the resolved form. In usage however it is so far from Ionic, that on * It is however to be considered, that this form occurs in Homer only after a relative {oars, ojg, etc.) and therefore ought everywhere to be written, as is now actually done in most of the instances, with i subscript, j^ai. It is then to be regarded as a freer use of the Subjunctive. t A part only of the ancient Grammarians accent the word thus, ogtjat ; others write ogijat, which is nothing more than a contraction of ogdsat into rj instead of a, according to § 105. n. 15. In that case, the 7/ is probably^preferred here for the sake of euphony ; since Homer has elsewhere regularly ogarai, ogaro, etc. t For the anomaly in the signification of this verb, see the notes under II, below. § 107. TERES. PARADIGMS IN fit. 221 the contrary only the circumflexed form, jiS-siaL, didovcri, dnxviia-L, is to be found in Herodotus. It was in the later writers, that this latter form first came into use in the common language. Note I, 2. The contracted form TL&Elg,l(nag, etc. (§ 106. n. 5,) is in the Present least used by the Attics. From didco^t Herodotus uses the 3 Pres. diddl. Infinitive, Tt&tvab iaxavav didovat ] deiitvvvao Participle. Tid^eig {evTog) iGTccg (ccvxog) dcdovg (ovxog d€i}ivvg{vvxog) xid^aioa l<5xaGa dcdouau dstKVVGU TL&iV loxav dodov ditKVVV Subjunctive. S. Tt^CU iGxoi didoa " Tt^J iGT^g didcag from x.^i ^ iGXt] dM^ dilKPlKO D. ■— • riTOv, rixov — '^TOV, 7}X0V — OJXOV, coxov * P. wiiev, 7Jx€, coat cofiSVf tjre, coot COf^iV, MXS, MGt For these Subjunctive s see notes III. Optative. S. xi&eiriv iGxcxlrjv dvdoiriv from xi&eing I xcd^elrj D. - ^ Xt,d^si7]X0V tGxairjg iGxalf] didoifjg dido 17] 11 Ulll deozvvM iGxahjxov didoli]TOv xideviqxriv tGxaorjxtiv didoir}X7]v P. xi&eiri^ev tGxairjfAev didoiriiiav xo&slrjia iGxmtjxa didolrjxe xtd^slriGav iGxaitjGav didoifjGccv Note I, 3. We find also didcorjv ; but this is a corrupt orthogi-aphy of the later writers ; as is also the Aor. 2, dcarjv. Note I, 4. This is strictly the appropriate form of the Opt. in verbs in fjiL, with which the Aor. Pass, in the ordinary conjugation agrees. There exists however here, as well as there, a syncopated form of the Dual and Plural, which especially in the 3 Plur. has almost entirely supplanted the longer form, viz. D. Ti&eiTOv iGxaixov dido7xov • xi&Hxriv IgtccIttjv didolxTiv ' p. xi{ftl^ev lGxa7fA£V dido7fA.€v xid^elxa iaxoLTe didoTxs xi&eTev iGxmav dcdolev Imperative, xi&exi 'iGxa-di, comm. dldo&v dEUvvd-i,comm, txco, etc. i'arj7,«ra},etc. 6x03, etc. dslxvVjVxoj^etc. 3 PI. XCd^hcOGCiV iGxaxoiGav didoxoiGav diiicvvxwGuv or xvd^ivxcav or iaxavxoiv 29 or didovxcov or deiKvvvTMv 222 § 107. VERBS. PARADIGMS IN (.It. Note I, 5. For Tt^eri instead of xlS^e&i, see § 18. 1. — The 2 Sing, in &L is little used, but instead of it the apocopated form, with the radical vowel lengthened, viz. Ti'&ei . I Xqxyi ' I 8i8qv \ deUvv Imperfect. txlx^riv I'OTTJV ididcjt/ IdsUvvv hi'drjg I'azfjg Ididojg idsUvvg tTL'&ri iGirj ' idldo) idelxvd iii&fTOv lOTCiTOV Idldoiov idaixvvxov tXld^tT^lV iGTaTflV ididoxTjv IdeiKvvxTiv hid^e^iev laraf-ieif tdidofxii; idsiavvfiev hid era 'iOTaxe ididoxs tdehvvxt izld^SGav loxccaav edidoaav ideinvvoai/ D. — Note I, 6. The Singular of this tense, except in XaTTjfii, is most com- monly formed after the contracted conjugation, and from the form vat: ixl&ovv, sig, EL ' idldovv, ovg, ov ' idslxvvov, sg, s (y). Perf. xt-Oivi^a Plupf. hidiiasiv dadojKa idadcaxicv from AEIKSI taxfjua iaxTjiteiv or alairiKetv Note I, 7. In this Perfect and Plupf of Xaxri^iL^ we have to remark : 1) The Augment; since contrary to the custom of other verbs (§ 83. 3. § 82. 5), the « which stands here instead of the ordinary reduphca- tion of the Perfect, takes the rough breathing ; and the Plupf. often increases this augment by the temporal augment si. 2) The syncopated forms earafisv etc. which are commonly used instead of the regular forms ; see below note II. 3. 3) The difference oi signification, see notes II. Fut. driao) Aor. 1. t^r]Ka nx7]Oco I'axrjoct dm 00) I'd (OK a from AEIK^ Note I, 8. This irregular Aorist in xa (§ 106. 10), in good writers, is used principally in the Singular ; in the Plural, especially in the 1 and 2 pers. the Attics generally preferred the Aor. 2. — The other moods and pai'ticiples never occur from the form in aa ; except the paiticiple Mid- dle, which with its Indicative are found only in the dialects ; see under the Middle form below, n. I, 17. Aorist 2. Indicative S. i'&iii^ eoxriv like the iGTtjg Impf eoxf] D. — tGxnrov iGx-^xrjv P. ioxfjfiev aoxijTS iGTrjaav ido)v like the Impf wanting. § 107. VERBS. — PARADIGMS IN f-H 223 Note I, 9. The Aor. 2 sdTTjv deviates from the analogy of the Impf. and of verbs in fii, in general, by its long vowel in the Dual and Plural (§ 106. 7). — The 3 Plur. sairjaav has the same form with the 3 Plur. Aor. 1, and can therefore be distinguished only by the connexion ; the two tenses having different significations ; see notes II. Note I, 10. Of the Aor. 2 £d^i]v and edwr, the Sing. Indie. Act. has not been retained in actual use. The remaming parts, however, arc usual ; some as the sole forms, and others on the ground of preference ; see n. 8. Note I, 11. Compare further here the Aorists 2 of some anomalous verbs in § 110. 6. Inf. Part. Subj. Opt. Impe- rat. dovvav dovg, dovauj dov dojj dcog, Sm, etc. doif]v ■d'tlvai, GTfjvat 'd-eig, d^HGa, d'iv azocg, ovaaa, aidv ^oj, drig, etc. arw, azrig, etc. &£lriv ' GTCclrjv The Subj. and Opt. are declined like the Present. {d^aTt) 'O^tg GxTi&t (dod^i) dog '&iTO) GT7]T(f} doTCO d^tTOV, WV GTfjvOV, GT7]TC0V dOTOV, T(OV ^aTSy TcoGup or GiT^re, GTTjtcoGav or dors, jwGav or d^ivimv Gxavxmv dovroov Note I, 12. For the Subj. and Opt. the same holds good here, that was said of these moods in the Present. See p. 221. Note I, 13. The monosyllabic Imperative, S-ig, dog, etc. (§ 106. 4,) throws back its accent in composition, but not further than the penult syl- lable ; e. g. nsgld-sgj anodog. Note I, 14. The Imperat. (tttIS-l in composition sometimes suffers an apocope, as nagdcrToi. So also ^tj&i,, see the Anom. ^alvoa. PASSIVE. Present. Indicative. S. Ti&€fiai iGTOCfiat didofiav deUvvfjiat, Tl&£Gai',lpO' 'iGxaGav dldoGat deUvvGat, et. Ti&fi* I rld^ixav iGxaxai dldoxai deUvvxao D. XV^ilAS&OV iGxafied-ov didofisd-ov dil^KVVlilfd^OV xi{^€G&ov iGxaG'&ov dldijG'&ov dBiavvG'&ov XL'&SGd-OV iGXaG&OV dldoGd^ov deUvvG-d^ov p. xc&i'fisd-a iGxufJie&a didofiid^a daiKvvfia&a xl^iGd^e iGxaG'&e di§OGd€ dsiKVVG&S xl&evxai 'iGxavxat didovxai daUvvvxat Infin. xld^£G{>at, 'iGxaodai didoG&ap dsUvvG&ac Part. xt&e^i£vog iGxa^uvog didofisvog dsLnvvfievog * These contractions of the forms in -saaij -aaai, into -tj, -q,, are in part doubtful, and in the earlier writers only poetical. See the Ausf. Sprachl. addi- tions to $ 107. 8. Edit. 2. p. 502. 224 <^ 107. VERBS. — PARADIGMS IN fit. Subjunctive. TC&7] D. To&cofxed^ov p. Tl,'&Wf.l€&a laxri toifjoxtov laioiviao didM didonai didojfAS'&ov dtdcjad^ov didwodov dtdmvxai/ from For some irregularity in the accentuation of this Subjunctive, see the notes under no. III. Optative. S. Tt&dfitjv tv^67g{>ov P. Tix^eifxe^a Tt&£lVTO iGiaiflTJV iGToio iGialxo iGzalfxe&ov IgtuIg&ov iGvaiG&riV iGxalfia&a iGTOUGd^e iGzaivTO For the AUic Optative tI&olto, Imperative. xldsGO or Tid^tGdcOj etc. S. hcd^afxfjv hld^iGo or irixfeto tTlxtiGd^OV lTl&iG&f]V P. irid^ifiad^a hi&eG^e Perf. red^etficci, Tid^eoGcie, etc. Plupf he&ilfjirjv didolfitjv dido7o didolvo dcdol/^ad^ov didoiG'&ov dcdoiGd^fjv dido7G^e didolvTO XffTocLxo, dldoLto, etc from see notes III. iGxaGO or dldoGo or dsiKVVGO iGTCO dldov iGxaG&o), etc. dcdoGd^co, etc. dsinvvGd^o), et Impe rfect. iGXa^YiV tdidofxriv tdemvvfjiriv 'iGxaGo or idldoGo or tdeUvvGO IGXCO idldov iGxaxo ididoxo idfixvvxo iGxafiSx^ov idlff6fA8'&OV idaiicvvfied^ov IGXDCG&OV IdidoGdov tdaUvvG-&ov LGxaGd7]V IdvdoG'&flv idetxvvG&Tjv iGxafAB'&a ididofjie&a Idemvvfie&a iGXClGde tdldoG^a IdeUvvGd^e iGxavxo . mdovxo ideiicpvvio iGxafiat didonai from iGxaGat, etc. didoGai, etc. AEIK^ iGxdfifJV ididofirjv § 107. VERBS. PARADIGMS IN fXi. 225 Note I, 15.' As to the other moods etc. of the Perfect, it is easy to form the Inf. TEd-ud&ai, 3sd6(T&aL Part. tsS^stfiivog Imper. euTaao, etc. The Subj. and Opt. do not occur. Fut. 1. ted^rtGOficci, I Gxa&7i(50(jiai> 1 dod^fjiJOficct I from Note I, 16. In hsS^Tjv, -isd-'iiaofiai, the syllable ts must not be taken for a reduplication ; it is the radical syllable S^s, which becomes ts be- cause of the S- in the ending, according to § 18. n. 2. The form is there- fore for iS^e&rjv, '&s&7](T0iJ,ai. Fut. 2 and 3 — and Aor. 2 — are wanting.f MIDDLE. Fut. 1. 'drjoojucco I GT^ao^at 1 dcooofiao I from Aor. 1. id^fixocf^fjv I iaT7]GafA,f]v \ idcoadfifjv I AEIK^ Note I, 17. The Aorists s&tjxafArjv, idcoxccfirjv, with their participles, belong solely to the Ionic and Doric dialects ; the other moods do not oc- cur. The Attic prose uses, from these verbs in the Middle, only the Aor. 2. Comp. the remarks on the Aor. Act. note 8 sq. above. — The Aor. 1 icrxTj- aufjbriv is, on the contrary, very much used ; see notes II. Indicative. {id'eao)a'&ov I etc. Aorist 2. I {I'doGo) edov I I etc. Declined like the Imperf, Passive. wanting. Infin. Part. Subj. Opt. '&tfA,£VOg Imper. {&tao) d^ov oiaadav doG'&ai orafisvog dofievog OTWfxat d(a(iav oxaifxriv doif4.rjv axaao, gxoj {doGo) dov Note I, 18. All these are declined throughout like the corresponding forms of the Pres. Passive. — For the Attic forms of the Opt. and Subj. ngoad-oLxo, rrQoa&coficct,, etc. see notes III. Note I, 19. The Infinitive retains the accent when in composition, as ano&EaS-aL, anodoa&aL. The Imperative retains it in the Singular in composition, only when the preposition has but one syllable ; e. g. ngoa- S^ov, TiQoadov, acpov from XrjpL; when the preposition has two syllables, the accent is thrown back upon it, e. g. nsgldov, an68ov. In the Plur. the t The Aor. 2 and Fut. 2 Pass, are not possible in this formation ; except that some verbs in wfit can form them from the simple theme; see the Anom. t,svyvviui. The Fut. 3 does not directly occur from these verbs ; though the Anom. Fut. iatrj^o/iiai (note II. 4) may perhaps be considered as such. 226 § 107. VERBS. NOTES ON THE CONJUG. IN fit. accent always comes upon the preposition ; e. g. im&saS^s, ngodoa^s, Note I, 20.^ The Aor. 2 Mid. of 'iffjrjfiL does not occur ; and stands in the paradigm only for the sake of the analogy, or on account of other verbs ; e. g. eTiTdfirjv from XTnafica ; see the Anom. nho^ca. Verbal Adjectives. 'd^atiog I Grartog I doxtog I from d^izog Giatog I dorog AEIKSl II. Notes on 'iarrjfii. 1. The verb Xtrxrifxi is divided bee ween tlje transitive signification to place, cause to stand, and the intransitive to stand (comp. § 113. 2). In the Active there belong to the signification to place : Pres. and Impf Xcnrjfitf Xarrjv, Fut. or^aw, Aor. ecrrrjcra, and to the signification to stand: Perf. and Plupf. ecrrrjita, kaz^insLV, Aor. ea-trjv. The Passive signifies throughout to be placed ; but the Pres. and Impf. unaficch iarafxrjv, as Middle, together with the Future Middle crxi^aro^at, have sometimes the signification to place one^s self, and sometimes that of to place, i. e. set up, erect, e. g. a monument. The Aor. 1 Mid. itrrrjffdfii^v always has this latter signification. 2. Besides this the Perfect Active, as to its signification, is here not Per- fect, but Present ; and the Pluperfect is consequently Imperfect ; comp. § 113. n. 11. Thus E(jT?jx« I stand, kax'^xELV I stood ; scrxrjxoog standing, etc.* 3. In the Perf and Plupf there is commonly used in the Dual and Plural of the Indicative, and throughout the other moods, a syncopated form, resembling the Present of verbs in fiu As this form is hkewise found in other verbs, it will be illustrated below in § 110. 10 ; but in the mean time it is exhibited here, in order to render the inflection of unrjfii complete. Perf. Plur. eaxdfzev, sdxdixE, €(nd(Tt{v) , • Du. mxdxov Plupf. Plur. ecrxa(j,sv, saxcixs, eaxacrav Du. saxaxov, scrxdx'rjv Sul)junct. £0-To5, ijg, fi, etc. Opt. eaxalrjv Imperat. ecrxaS-L, ecrxuxa, etc. Infin. scrxdvat Particip. [Edxatag) eaxag, kaxataa, eaxmg, f Gen. kaxSiXog Ion. siTXEiag, eaaa, sag' mxog. * In some compounds, however, whose Middle passes over into the intransitive signification, the Perf. Act. can be translated in English as a real Perfect with the same signification ; e. g. dviarr]fit I set up, dvLGxafxai I rise up, dviaxtjxa I have risen up. — In consequence of this usual Present signification, the later corrupt Greek formed from this, tense a peculiar Present, oxynoj, stand; hence 3 pers. OTi^xst Rom. 14: 4 ; Imper. Grijxers 1 Cor. 16: 13. al. t There is also an irregular form of the Nom. and Ace. of this Neuter, viz. f a Tog, which was probably Attic. The flexion is always iaTcoTog, etc. See the Ausf. Sprachl. under 'laxTjue. in the Catal. of Anom. Verbs. § 107. VERBS. — NOTES ON THE CONJUG. IN jUt. 227 Hence it appears, that this Perfect and Pluperfect have assumed, in the greater part of their flexion, both the form and the signification of the Pres- ent and Imperfect. 4. In consequence of the Present signification of this Perfect, and be- cause the Fut. o-wjcro) means / will place^ and Fut. (nrjaofiaL I will place myself or for myself, there has been formed from the Perf saTTjxa Island, a special anomalous Future iafti^oi or eani^^OfiaL, I will stand, with which is to be compared the similar Fut. in the Anom. S^vrjano). 5. In like manner for the transitive signification, there is also a Perfect i'dTaxa I have placed, which nevertheless belongs to a later period. The old Attic employed instead of the Perf in both significations, either the two Aorists, or a cir- cumlocution (§ 97. n. 6). 6. In some of the editions of Homer, the syncopated form of the Plu- perf. 3 PI. ecTTaaav is found both in the transitive and intransitive sense. But the more correct orthography seems to be this, viz. Eaiaaav in its usual Sense as Imperfect, they stood ; and scnaaav shortened for ecrTrjaav from Aor. 1 sinrjaa, they placed, as Aorist, Od. cr, 307 ; which then, like the Aorists, could also be used for the Pluperf they had placed, II. y,, 56. Comp. the similar shortened form engms in the Anom. 7il}X7iQr}[i,i. 7. The form Io-ttjts ye stand, II. d, 243, 246, is a Homeric syncope for i(TT7jj(aTS or tcnuTs. III. Notes on the Subjunctive and Optative. 1. The Suhjunctive and Optative of the conjugation in fii, in their reg- ular form, have the accent constantly upon the termination ; e. g. ri/d-coy SidafiEVf tlS-eIev, tlS-uvto, etc. In the ordinary conjugation these moods, wherever the final syllable permits it, throw the accent back upon the radi- cal syllable ; e. g. rvjixrjg, tvtijmixev, tvtitoi^i, TVTixmvTaL, etc. 2. The cause of this accentuation is to be sought simply in the circum- stance, that the syncope, which is so essential to the form in iil (§ 106. n. 6, 7), cannot properly have place in these moods. That is to say, the essential characteristic of these two moods lies not in the endings fiev, te, fiuL, etc. which they have in common with the Indicative, but in the vowel before these endings. This therefore they cannot drop, but cause it to flow together with the radical vowel into one long sound ; which consequently, according to the rule, takes the accent of a contraction (§28. n. 9). 3. Nevertheless, this mode of forming a mixed sound is a diflerent thing from the ordinary contraction of these moods in verbs aw, soj, 6(o. The diflTerence of the Optative in the two forms of conjugation is obvious to the eye. In the Subjunctive the verbs in aw, s'w, 6w, contract the vowels sr}r ar], 07], ojj, in various ways ; in the conjugation in fit, this mood is more simple. Those verbs which have t) in the Indicative, {Tl&TjfiL, ^cnrjfiL,) retain always the rj and t) of the ordinary Subjunctive ; but those in (Ofii, instead of rj and rj, have always w and w ; see the Paradigms.— The Subjunct. laiag, wrra, which is also found, belongs consequently to the 228 § 107. VERBS. NOTES ON THE CONJUG. IN /M^. form to-Tceo), and is less correct and less usual ; see § 106. n. 5. — The Ionic resolution etc. of these forms, see in note IV. 8. 4., But the tendency to render these moods conformable in their ac- cent to the general analogy, — according to which the accentuation of the conjugation in fiv does not differ from that of ordinary barytone verbs, — has caused in the Passive several deviations from the above prin- ciple, which in some verbs were more, in others less usual. On this account, in the preceding paradigms, we have everywhere given the regular forms, both for the sake of uniformity, and in order to make the deviaticnis of usage more perceptible. In the two verbs tIS-tj fjii and '(It) [XL {§ 108), the deviations are for the most part peculiar to the Attics, and consist in this, viz. that the radical or stem-vowel is dropped, and then the endings of both moods are assumed from the ordinary conjugation ; while the accent, when possible; is thrown back, so that these forms ap- pear just as if derived from an Indicative in ofiai. In the Subjunctive indeed, the accent constitutes the only distinction, e. g. TiS^oifxccL instead of Ti&^fiai Aor. 2. Mid. ngoa&rjTaL, ngorjtai, etc. But in the Optative the diphthong ol is assumed, and serves also to mark thegie forms, e. g. jiS'ono, nBQi&oivTo, tiqcokj&b. Comp. xd&'TjfiaL under 'j][iat, (§ 108. II. 3) ; and fisfivoj^iai, under the Anom. fiifivrjaxo}. 5. From Xgt a^ia i the Optative alone assumes this accentuation, retain- ing its usual diphthong, and is thus used by all writers ; e. g. Xtnaio, IcTTaiTO, i(TTtti(T&s, 'itnaivTO. But the Subjunctive is always laxwfiaL, avvKTzriTai, etc. From d Id o fiai however we find these moods sometimes accented as in no. 4, which also is regarded as Attic : Subj. dldcoTUL Opt. anodoLVTO.* In all other verbs which conform to XaxafiuL and dldofiai, these moods always have the accent on the antepenult ; e. g. dwcofiai, dvvaixo, ovano inlarrjxaL, from dvvafiai', ovlva(iaij eniiXTa^iai (see in § 114) ; ovono from Anom. ovofiuL with radical o. We find too in verbs in a^iaL, as well as in xl&sfiaL, examples of transition to the form -olfirjv ; see the Anom. fidgvafjiai and xgifiajiai. 6. Verbs in vfiL commonly form both these moods from the theme in vfo, as daxvvtjg, deixvvoL}it. Still there are some examples, which shew that they could be formed here afl;er the analogy of other verbs in fit, by using simply long v instead of the usual mixed vowel or diphthong ; e. g. Opt. dalvvxo II. w, 665. n^yvmo Plat. Phaed. extr. Subj. 3 Sing. (Tiiedavvvcn ib. p. 77. d. like the old form Tvnxriai, jid^fiai. (§103. V. 13.) f * Our knowledge of this supposed Atticism, ^of which Fischer ad Weller. II. p. 469, 470, 472, 484, 485, has collected some examples even from Ionic writers,) is still very imperfect and uncertain ; and more accurate investigation has yet to determine and rectify much in the above specifications. t See below in § 110. 6, marg. note to (pvrjv, and also ib. 1 , (pd-ifir]V . — The above accentuation of the Passive forms Saivvro, 7tr)yvvro, is founded on the analogy of the examples contained in the preceding notes. Comp. XiXvro § 98. n. 9. § 107. VERBS. — NOTES ON THE CONJUG. IN f^t. 229 IV. Dialects. 1. Many of the deviations of the dialects in the ordinary conjugation, are also common to verbs in fii ; as the iterative form in uxov, which in these verbs always has the short radical vowel before this ending, e. g. Impf. xld-Ecrxov, dldoaxov, dslxvvaxov Aor. 2 (TTaaxov, dodxov. Further the Infinitives Ti&sfxsv, larafisv, Icrmfzevai (for Ti/&8vai, Idtdvai,)^ ■&sfisv, S^sfisvat, dofj-svocL (for S^uvai, dovvat), (TT^jfisvat' for aTijvaL, etc. Also the Ionic ending of the 3 Plur, in axai, axo ; e.g. TLS^saiat forhi&svxat, ididouTo, etc. — The Dorics of course in those verbs whose stem- vowel is a, everywhere insert their long a instead of »/ ; e. g. X(7Tay,i, (jjavai. 2. For the sake of the metre the epic poets employ the Inf. Tid-ri^Evai, Part. Pass. TiS^rifiEvog ; and didovvat instead of didovab. They sometimes retain the reduplication in forms where it is not customary, e. g. Fut. Sid(ao-(o instead of dcoaca. 3. The Ionics, in verbs in rjfiL from doj, change « before a vowel into s ; e. g. iaxsacri, for laxaacn comm. IcrTaai. Comp. § 105. n. 8. — Hence they have in the 3 Plur. Pass. IdTsaTUL (instead of laTaaTai) for 'unavxai ; see n. 1 above. 4. The Ionic dropping of the tr in the endings aai and uo (§ 103. Ill) appears here less frequently ; Herodot. enlcn^ai (for -aai) from Enlaxa^aL^ inhraffai' Hom. -d^io for &i(To, ficcgvao for fiagvacro, dalvvo for idaivvcro. 5. The Dorics have tl for ai ; in the Sing. tI&tjtl for xlS-rjaL ; and in the Plural, (the v being also restored § 103. V. 4,) tid-ivTL, icnavTi, dtdovxc, for -slffL, auv, oval. 6. The 3 Plur. of the Imperf. and Aor. 2 Act. in crav is made by the Dorics and the epic writers a syllable shorter, and ends simply in v with the preceding short or shortened vowel ; i. e. instead of eaav, they put ^v ; e. g. eTL&8V for hldso-av, instead of aaav, rjcrav, — av ; e. g. s(f)av for Effaaav (see (pri^i below) eaxav, /9«y, for eajfjaav, E^ijaav, instead of ocrav, vaav — ovy vv, e. g. Wov, edvVf for sdocrav, sdvaav. 7. For the 1 Sing. Imperf. irl&rjv, the Ionics say hldsa. 8. Since the Subjunctive of this conjugation is formed by a species of contraction (see above. III. 2, 3), it receives in the Ionic dialect a sort of resolution ; viz. by inserting the accented radical or stem-vowel before the ordinary Subjunctive-ending, according to the following rules : a) Verbs whose radical or stem- vowel is s or a, adopt here s as the stem- vowel (see n. 3 above) ; thus Tixf^EO), TiS-sjjg, rid^h]X8, xiS^soaai, XL&sajfiai, etc. for xi&o), fjg, etc. (x){A.uL, etc. — and S-sca, S^sj^g, S-Ew^ai, etc. for i9^c5, -^/z?, etc. laxEM, icTxsrjg, axsoj, axitjg, Opt. sUfitjV, elo, etc. Imp. oil {aq)ov, jtqoov, nQosa&s, etc. see p. 225.) Verbal Adject, ersog, sTog {a(p^og, etc.) 2. For the Attic Subjunctive and Optative, e. g. TrgoMfiai, TtQorjtai' wlto, acploLVto, ngooLtrS^s ; — and for the dialects, e.g. acpsa, ucpsm for Subj. «qpw ; Igl for 3 Sing. Subj. ^ ; see § 107. Ill, IV. 3. Peculiar to this verb, however, is an Attic-Ionic form of the Imperf. in -uv instead of -tiv in the compounds, e. g. ngd'Cuv Od. x, 100. 7](f)luv Plat. Euthyd. 51. See the Ausf. Sprachl. 4. Particularly to be noted are the Homeric forms of the Fut. and Aor. ccvsasi, avsaaifiL, etc. after another (more regular) formation ; but these occur only in composition with ay«, and as it would seem only when this preposition has the sense of back, again. 5. An old theme 'ill has sometimes been assumed, especially in the com- * Like rid-stxa.—A less usual form was sojuaj with w inserted (§ 97. n. 2) j whence the Passive form dcpiojvrat in the N. Test. Matt. 9: 2, 5, etc. See Lexilog. I. p. 296. t The accent is not drawn back because of the augment; see § 84. n.4. 232 . § 108. VERBS. — (TacCf ^fiai, tt/vvfii.. pounds ANISl, MEOIfl. But all the forms which are referred to it, are chiefly Ionic and poetical, and depend for the most part on the accent.* With more certainty may be referred thither the Homeric ^vviov, and the Ionic form ^^iMxi^ivog from ikfET/JZ (Impf. //tx/sTO or sfiezleTo) Ion. for MEOISl^ comm. fis&lr]}jLi, (it&kxo, ^s&SLfxipog. II. €1 a did set, did place ; ii fiav sit. 1. Eiaa is a defective verb, from which in the transitive sense, — yet only in some special significations, as to lay the foundation of a building, erect, place an ambush, etc. — the following forms occur : Aor. 1. eura, Mid. eladfirjv, where the diphthong is strictly the augment ; hence Part, eaag Od. |, 280 ; also for the sake of the metre Inf. eacrcci {i(f£(Ta(XL), ea-aaTO, and with the syllabic augment iaacraTo Od. ^, 295 ; which forms are liable to be con- founded with the similar ones from evvviit below. — The diphthong so however, passed over as a strengthening into the other forms ; e. g. Im- perai. daov, Part. E'laag sladf^Evog. The Fut, Mid. euTo^ai is less usual. All the defective parts were supplied from Idgvca. 2. The Perfect Passive has the following form, which most commonly has the force of an intransitive Present, viz. i] fxai I sit. Pres. rifxai, tjaat, rjotai, etc. 3 PI. ijvxai (Ion. earat, epic sVaxat) Impf. ^]firjv, 7j(T0, 7;oTO, etc. 3 PL tjvto (Ion. saro, epic staxo) Inf. rjaS-ai Part. TJiisvog Imper. i](jo, 7j(tS-(o, etc. 3. The compound 7cd-d-i]fiai is in more common use. This verb does not assume the a in the 3 pers. except in the Imperf. when it does not take the syllabic augment ; thus y.d&t]fxai, 3 xd&7]t()ct £na&ri}X7]V or xaS^^fit^v, 3 ixd&i]TO or y.ad^ii]cno Inf. 7iad^rif. 237 neither in -atrt, -ivav, nor Part. ug. * This Impf. fja, fjsig, etc. seems principally to have remained in use, in order to take the place of the Impf. 9]gx6fxi]v from sQ/ofiai, which was less used because of its ambiguity, it being also the Impf. of ag^ofiai. f 10. In the epic language we find another form of the Middle, which does not necessarily take the accessory idea of haste ; viz. Fut and Aor. 1 sl'trofiat, slaafiijVj both of which are liable to be confounded with the similar forms from sldco ; especially since Homer makes also idauTO, and does not elide the vowel of the preposition ; as xaraelaaTo ivent down. Comp. udm in § 114. * With this jjsiv And Yfiov, as protracted forms from slv and I'ov, compare the form ijsidsiv for r^dsiv or elSsiv, in § 109 under olSa. The orthography fjsiv with * subscript was introduced only by the Grammarians, on account of this er- roneous derivation from TJ'ia. The protraction itself arose simply from an effort to render^ the augment audible, without obscuring the sound of €i. The forms fjsifisv, jjstrs, fjsoav, however, which really occur, have without doubt crept into use from the seeming analogy of the Pluperfect; since at first only yifisv, T/'iTS,7Jiaav, were used ; which last form {ifCoav) has actually been preserved in the Ionic dialect; see in 1 above. t It is proper to bring forward here some examples, in support of this use of 7/a as an Imperfect. Plato Rep. 5 init. where Socrates relates a conversation, and atler mentioning the question of the other, " What species of malice he meant .?" proceeds : not iyoj fisv ya rdg iq^s^ijg tQOJV — , 6 §e IIole^aQyog inrsivas 'TtQoarjydysTO — Kot h'kaysv ccTTa — . Here every language, which distinguishes the Aorist from the Imperfect, requires the Imperfect, in eo eram ut dicerem, fal- lois dire, I was going to say . Xen. Cyr. V.4. 10, 11, where the conversation of two persons who mf et each other is related : 6 KvQog — elneVj "JByoj Ss TCQog as, 69577^ inianeipofisvogy oTtojg i'xsig, litoQevofiriv. "Byd) ds y % *W.o Faddragj vol fid rovg d'sovg, gs eTcavad'saaojLtivog y'ia — . Plat. Charmid. init. ' Hxov fitv rfj itQo- rsQaia — and xov aT^aroTttSov oiov Ss §id XQOvov oi(piyju6Pog do/ievojg y a~ inl rdg ovvr'jd'eig Siargt^dg, jtdl Si} xal sig rrjv TavQtov italaioxQav — slor/Xdov, xal avTod'i aariXa^ov x. t. X. Here the first words describe, as is usual at the begin- ning of the Platonic dialogues, the relation or situation of things at the time of the occurrence ; and consequently the ya anl tag SiatQi^dg, as is also shown by the Plural, implies duration, and is therefore Imperfect; while immediately with the simple action s. t. T. it. slaijXd'ov, the narrated fact begins with the Aorist. — Demosth. c. Steph. 1. p. 1106. Here the preceding I'yvowav faljs back into a time past, and the succeeding tyd! SejsXtig ySlns t /us, iTtlrovrov y a, is the well known hypothetical proposition, where the Imperfect marks the present time (§ 139. 9, 4) ; hence the ya, as being necessarily Imperfect, cannot be changed by the Verbal Adjectives: cpuTsag, (paiog. 1. The forms of the Pres. Indie, except (pfg, are enclitic (§14. 2). — The compounds are accented like (rv[i(fr](it, avixcpfjg • dvTicprinif avncp^g. 2. In respect to the signification of this verb, vi^e must distinguish, (1) the general one, to say ; (2) the more definite ones, to affirm, declare, pre- tend, concede, etc. all of which belong to the Present q)i)]^L . But in the gen- eral signification, to say, only the Pres. and Imperf. Act. in all the moods are in common use ; while the other parts are everywhere supplied from the anomalous U7is%v etc. q.v. On the other hand the Fut. and Aor. have by preference the more definite meanings ; respecting which it is further to be observed, that in the Imperf. and in the Inf. and PaH. Present, in order to avoid ambiguity, these meanings are more commonly desig- nated either by the Middle, or by the forms of qxxo-xsiv, which elsewhere is not used in prose. * 8. We have arranged and named the single forms of this verb above, in the manner required by their derivation. In respect to usage, however, it must be, noted, that the Impf ecprjv is commonly Aorist in sense, and is used alternately with slnov, as synonymous with it. And with this ecprjv is connected the Inf. cfdvai, which in the relation of. a conversation is always preterite, viz. where in direct discourse we find e. g. E(fr] 6 JIsql- xXijg, Pericles said, this in sermone obliquo is (fdvai tov UeQixXea, that Peri- cles said. So soon however as the Inf. Pres. is requisite, we find either U/ELV or the above mentioned cfdanuv. 4. By an aphaeresis we find in the language of familiar discourse the following forms from q)7jizi : * E.g. £q)7] GTtovSdlisiv "he said he was in haste;" h'cpaans onovSoi^siv ** he pretended to be in haste ;" (pdaxojv alleging, affirming ; ov (pdfisvog denying, since ov q)rjfii, is justthe opposite of (fTj^i I affirm, concede ; see § 148. n. 2. ' § 109. VERBS. — 'Af7^iat, o7da. 239 ^]fil say I, inquam, in animated repetition in discourse ; and so also the Imperf. t)v, ri, for s(pr}v, Bcpfj {(firjv, 103. II. 2. fjdsig comm. ^SsLd&a Attic rjdria&a ^IdsL Attic ^dBLV and ^drj P. ^dsLfisv or ^jdfiEv j]dsnB or fjcns ^deaav or fjo-ocv Future uaoy-auy more rarely dS^aw, I shall know^ experience^ etc. Verbal Adj. Neut. laxiov. The Aorist and the real Perfect are supplied from /lyvcaaryKo ; see the Catalogue. 3. The Ionics and Dorics have I'd^sv for I'a-f^sv ; the epic writers i'dfiEVCii and idfisv for sldivm ; and for the Pluperf. i]dEiv, these latter have a protracted form, e. g. 2 ijsldEig, risldrig, 3 rjeldsi,, i]El8ri, (II. /, 280. Od. t, 206. Apollon. 2, 822.) and Herodotus has i>]el8e^ with shortened ending, I. 45. See the first marg. note to § 108. V. 9. — Instead of jiffav Homer has by a sort of aphaeresis I'aav, Od. d, 772. 4. It was formerly customary in grammar to introduce here a peculiar verb to which all the above forms beginning with t were referred, and ex- plained by syncope ; while the forms oida, ddsvccL, etc. were given only in the anomalous Catalogue under Hda. There is indeed in the Do- ric dialect a verb I'aa^i, I'arjg, I'aaTL, actually extant ; but even if it be assumed that all those forms really come from this verb, it is neverthe- less certain, that usage has mingled the forms of the two themes ; and that in the earliest, as well as in the latest periods, the current language em- ployed throughout oida in the Sing, and lafisv in the Plural. So far therefore as usage is concerned, the above mixed paradigm is the only correct one. 5. Meanwhile, whoever observes more accurately the analogy which prevails in the anomalies of Greek usage, will easily perceive, that those forms, after all, really belong to oida or sl'dio. For in the frst place it is obvious, that the Ion. I'dfisv did not arise from icrfisv, but rather, according to the general analogy (§ 23. 2), the latter from the former. But I'dfisv, as well as the Inf. I'dfxsvai, belong manifestly to sl'da, and not to T(7r}iJ,i. Sec- ondly, we have for this conclusion the most striking analogy, not only in the language generally, which so easily causes the forms of the Perfect to pass over by syncope into the forms of the Subjunctive in ^t (§ 110. 9 sq.) * Syncopated for oldaod-Uj old-o&a; see $103. V. 12. — A manifestly erro- neous, but yet old and Attic form is olod^agy made by appending again the 5 of the 2 person ; see Piers, ad Moer. 283. t Not to be confounded with Xo&i, from ilfii. § 109. VERBS.- — olda. 24 1 but also in this very verb itself; for no one can fail to perceive, that the Pluperf. forms jiaii^v, fiats, differ only by this syncope from ijdELfXEV, fjdsns. But the forms I'afisv, t'o-xs, stand in precisely the same relation to oldaiJ,ev, oi'duTE ; for the difference of the vowel, which in this and similar verbs is so fluctuating, cannot be taken into consideration. To these forms was then joined the Imperat. I'ad-i, — just as xsxQax^i^, aVw/^t, to similar synco- pated forms (§ 110. 9), — and the 3 PI. Ib-acrt, (see the marg. note,) from which the secondary form l'(jrj[j,i seems first to have been derived. * 6. The sound el instead of ol in the other moods from ol5a, accords with the analogy of Eoma (Ion. oixa) Part. EMMg ; see the Anom. d'xw, and see the marg. note below. — Here too a transition into the forma- tion in (XL is not to be mistaken ; for while the participle sldcag fol- " This question is entirely decided by some very clear analogies, which will be given in § 110.9; especially tTtiTtid-fisv and ukTriV. Still, here is the proper place to take a view of the analogy of all the forms which are derived from h'otKa and oioa. Just as from tcsl&oj we find Tt^Ttoid'aj so also from al'xoj and ddo) come h'oiTca, and strictly speaking *'o*^ct^ because the s takes the place of a reduplication (§ 84. n. 6). A shorter form olxaj oI§a was adopted in the first verb in the Ionic dialect, and in the second in the com- mon language. But from the full forms iotnaj h'oiSa, arose likewise, by short- ening the 01 into t and by contraction, (consequently as if from elxaj siSa,) the forms , ,c. , Part. Eixolg^ sigo'g together with the moods slSa, elSairjVj for which see Text 6 above. A proof, how the usage of language sometimes retains several synonymous forms at once, and sometimes only one, is here aflforded even by the written language; for the Part. o^l'oMa occurs in all the three forms eoixok, sinoky ohok, while that ofoISa is found in only one, siSwg. — The Pluperf. required a new augment; eocxa took it commonly after the analogy of £0()rauw so' QTai;oP, viz. icJ jcs tv ; sometimes also regularly, except that oi was shortened into tj 3 Sing. Pluperf. ijizro, without augm. stxroj as if from Perf. e'iyfiaL, Pluperf. tjl'yfirjv. In the same manner arose from I'oiSa the Pluperf. {TjiStiv) fjSsiv. To all this was superadded the syncope, by means of which, as we shall see be- low in § 110. 9, was made from eoma (with a difference of vowel-sound) the forms 1 PI. Perf I'oiyfisvy 3 Dual Pluperf. i'ikT7]V, and from olda (with the same difference) the forms (oiS-G&a) Oiod'a idfiev and XafisVy I'orSj but in the Pluperf. from jjSsiv 'ijGfieVj fjGTSj fjoav. From this fjoav (for rjS-aav) the Homeric "laav {^orXS-aav) differs only by leaving- off the augment.— 'that "laaoL does not come from 'tatjjii, is apparent from the ac- cent, since from Xar][xt the 3 Plur. must be written laaaa (comp. 'iGTrjfxi) ; and also from another analogy of the verb I'otna, soma — (ot into t^ sik-Gaoiv) st^aatv oWa — (ofc into *^ id-GUGiv) laaGiv^ both of them Attic forms, instead of the regular iolitaGa, ol'Saoi ; where the anomaly common to the two consists in the ending aaw, instead of the otherwise exclusive Perfect- ending aoi. 242 § 110. VERBS. ANOMALY. Ibws the common analogy, the Subjunctive and Optative take the termina- tions of the conjugation in [il, viz. elda (with circumflex), stdsli^v. Neverthe- less, the epic writers could disregard this accent and shorten the long vow- el of this Subjunctive, just as well as in other Subjunctives ; e. g. ha eido- [j,sv for eldojfiev. — Further, the radical or stem-vowel was here sometimes shortened into t ; e.g. Subj. tdsco, Part. idv7a Homer. * General View of the Anomaly of Verbs. <5> 110. Syncope and Metathesis. 1. In all languages, every thing which deviates from the great mass of regular forms, follows even in this deviation a certain analogy. This analogy however is not always apparent, especially in a dead lan- guage ; because a multitude of instances in the diction of common life and in the variety of dialects, have never been adopted into the language of books. Those instances then, which to us appear to stand entirely isolated, and which consequently can only be learned and re- tained singly, constitute in the strictest sense Anomaly. Such devia- tions, however, as are found in several examples, are strictly smaller analogies, which would properly be annexed by means of separate rules and conjugations to the more comprehensive regular formation. But this would only serve to render a general view of the regular conjugation more difficult ; and therefore these smaller analogies, as well as the single ex- amples, are separated from the regular formation, and regarded as Anomaly. In verbs especially this is of great extent. 2. Of this anomaly, however, as thus defined, a part has already, on practical grounds, been exhibited in treating of the regular formation, and interwoven there as exceptions. The remaining anomalous forms will be given below in an alphabetical catalogue (§ 114), and thus left to the memory and diligence of the learner. In order to aid the learner's observation, and lead him to avoid every thing merely me- chanical, we shall not only point out under each verb in the catalogue those smaller analogies, which are followed by its irregularities ; but we here previously bring together, under one general view, certain classes of anomalous formation, which comprehend a greater number of examples. 3. One principal class of deviations from the regular formation is caused by Syncope. And since as we have seen above (§ 106. n. 6, 7), the Conjugation in /w* arises from one species of syncope, we must like- * In regard to most lexicons and indexes, it should be noted, that the precc^ding forms are usually distributed in them under the different Presents uSv), sldioj, and I'ff^y^t. So also of the compounds. § 110. VERBS. — ANOMALY FROM SYNCOPE. 243 wise refer to this kind of syncope those single parts of an ordinary verb, which agree with the forms of that conjugation ; comp. § 106. n. 8. — • The most usual species of syncope, and that which we exclusively allude to here, is the omission of a vowel between two consonants. This occurs either (I.) in respect to the radical or stem-vowel oi Xhe verb ; or (II.) in respect to the union-vowel of the endings. 4. In many verbs (I.) the vowel of the root or stem is dropped by syn- cope ; e.g. nilbi, 3 Impf. etceIe or ettIe; nho^aL, F. mt'ido^ai.* Here are two principal cases to be noted : a) In some verbs the Aor. 2 is formed solely in this manner ; e.g. TTSTO/Mttt (Impf. s'JTbTOfj.'rjv) A. 2 inxo firfv ; i/Elgco, iyelgofiai^ A. 2 TjygofiTjv awaked; aydgoj Part. A. 2 Mid. ay go (levo l assembled; on the other hand Part. Pres. aysLgo^Evoi those who assemble. — Here also belong IV/ov and eajiov, see s^fw and IVrw ; and also ^jlvS^ov, 'i]Xd-ov, see sg/ofxaL, ^ 114. 6) This syncope occurs most naturally after a reduplication; hence mngadnta from Tisgaa, and nlntco, ^IfivcOj from IIETJl, MENSl. Further also in the Perfect; as ^fi'^awPerf. {dsdsfitjxa) dsdfi)jy.a (but see other similar forms under metathesis in no. 11), nintafiaL from JIETASl, see TcsTavvv^i. See also (jLi^^lfxat in ^ilbi.-r—l^ei'Q belong also the Aorists ixeyJofirjv and euEqivov from KEXofiai and ^ENJl, with a double augment according to § 83. n. 7. 5. The more usual syncope is (II.) that of the union-vowel.^ We divide the cases of this syncope into those of (A) Present and Im- perfect, (B) Aorist, (C) Perfect. (A) In the Present and Imperfect this syncope occurs, (but so that the latter remains a real Imperfect as to its signification,) in olixat, Mfztjv, for oioiiai, o)6iir}v ; and in the epic gva&ai, EgvaS^ab, Egvjo^ for gvEcr&oci, igvEffS^UL, igvsjo, see igva ; and comp. in the Cata- logue o-£i;w, and EdfiEvai, from Edco. Here belong also the epic (TTEVTCii, (TTEVto, strivc, threaten ; and likewise all verbs in fiL, see § 106. n. 6 sq. 6. Many verbs have by means of this syncope (B) an Aorist, which must be compared with the A or. 2, or regarded as belonging to it. In the 1 pers. Active, there remains of course after the syncope only the letter v as ending ; and since this can stand only after a vowel, there arises a form which accords for the most part with the Aor. 2 of the conjugation in /u* through all the moods and participles. But it must be noted, that the vowel of this Aorist, whether long or short, whether a or rj, usually conforms to the Perfect 1 of the same verb, •■ Many cases which seem to belong to this syncope, are more correctly refer- red to metathesis ; see no. 11,2 below. t That we give to the whole of the following mode of formation the name of syncope or syncopated formation, solely because the usual union-vowel does not appear — without pretending to assert that it was once there and has been drop- ped — follows of course from § 106. n. 6. 7. 244 § 110. VERBS. ANOMALY FROM SYNCOPE. and remains unchanged throughout the flexion of the other persons and moods ; except that t] and w are for the most part changed in the Op- tative into eh ai>, ot^.; and in the Participle into f^, a, ov. Thus ^alvoj, BAIL, ^E^7]xa — £/5»jj', e^tjfisv, ^r^vai, ^airjVj /?«? dldgdaxcj^ didgaita — |'5^ay, WgoifiEv, dgavai, dgultjv, dgoig* XTsivoj, IxTttxa — EXTav, I'xt«jU£V, itTCivaL, xTalr]V, jcxag yL/VMffxco, tyvoma — syvcav, eyvcofisv, yvojvat, yvoltjv, yvovg ^i6(o, |5f/5tco/a — E^loav, i^lojfxsvj (Siojvai, ^lojrjv, §iovg cpvb), 7is(pvxa, — £q)vv, ecpv^ev, cpvvai, cf>vriv\ for cpvlrjv, cfvg. Other more complete Aorists of this kind see in allaxofiuL, ^iPguaxa, ■ dvo), nsTopai, axiXXco, jX^jvat, (fd^dvbn ; single and unusual forms see in pdXXco, yrjgdax(Of xXdo), ovxd(o, nXio), mrjo-aoj. Note 1. The Aor. sTiXav from ttXcow (for nXsco) is the only example which, since it is formed from nXaco (not ttAow), retains the w even in the participles : as n X (o g, e. g. iTimXcog II. ^, 291. It therefore doubtless had the Gen. wvTog ; i. e. 7iX(ag G. -MVTog, for ovg, ovxog. Note 2. We have seen above (§§ 106, 107) that the Imperative-ending &i belongs to the syncopated formation, i. e. is annexed immediately to the root ; hence the Imperative of the above Aorists, so far as it occurs, is everywhere so 'formed • as ^yj&L, dgu&t, yvco&i,, dv&i, PI. /9»^t£, Svts, etc. Consequently the four following Imperatives in S^t and in the g which stands for it (§ 106. 4), are to be reckoned under the Aorist forms above exhibited : Til&i, yXv&L, (T/sg, q)gig. See in the Catalogue, niva, xXvo), s/a, cpgioo. ' 7. With these Aorists Active is also connected a corresponding Pas- sive Aorist form in {at^v, oo, to, etc. which consequently corresponds to the Aor. 2 Mid. of the regular formation. It must however be noted, (1) that the far greater number of examples of this form have not the Mid- dle, but wholly a Passive signification ; (2) that in respect to the vowel they conform to the Perfect Passive ; (3) that they belong only to the earlier poetical language. Some of these forms moreover really belong as Passive to some of the Aorists Act. above quoted, viz. i^XrifArjv Opt. §XeI}i7}v — from l/SA^v (^v^pXrjTrjv), see pdXXco ixzdfiTjv, TtxdaS-di, KidpEVog — from Exrav, see hxeIvoj. See too the forms avyyvdlro, omd^EVog, under yLyvaaxcj, ovrda ; and see in reference to the Imperat. xXvd^L above cited, the old participle KXv(iEvog. * The length of the a in the forms of this verb is shewn by such examples as the ending of an anapestic verse of Aristophanes, in Herodian (Piers, p. 4G5), Sev- \ go S* av olx | dniSga- \ pEV — ; and also by the Ionic form t^grjv. Compare especially yr^oavaL in tlie Anom. yrjgdaxoj. It is observable that the g^, which throughout the language has such a preference for long a after it, is also in these instances predominant. t Theocr. 15,94; where formerly wvtj was erroneously written. Comp. § 107. III. 6. §110. VERBS. — ANOMALY FROM SYNCOPE. 245 It follows consequently, that all such forms, which exhibit the same analogy, even where no Aorist Active occurs, are to be regarded in the same manner ; e. g. nvico, ninvvfiai — {sTtvvfirjv) cxfinvvTO Xv(a, Xslvfiat — {ikvfiTjv) Ivto (p&loj, sq)&l^ab — i(p&l(i,7jv, cp^lfisvog Opt. (p&ifii]v (see in the Catal.) See also inXilfirjv in TilfinXfjfxi, tvaa-d^s in valw, sffcrvfirjv in crsva), sxv^Tjv in ;^£C(> ; and the participles xrly-svog, md^Evog {in TTSTavvvui), 'ffvfzsvog, agnd^EVog. 8. With these Aorist forms are closely connected those syncopated Aorists of the Passive, which have a consonant before the ending, as iXaxTOj dti&ui. These are formed from the simple theme of the verb ; and when this is also the usual theme, they are distinguished solely by this syncope from the Imperfect and the moods of the Present. They coincide, therefore, with their Perf. and Pluperf. Passive with- out the reduplication ; precisely like the Aorists above mentioned. They may consequently be compared with these tenses ; but not, as has often been the case, be regarded as identical with them. In signijica' lion, Active, Passive, or Middle, they everywhere follow their Present in fiai. ; and they all belong exclusively to the earliest language. E. g. dsxofiaL, idsds/firjv, idids^o, etc. dsdixd^aL — Aor. syncop. {ids/firjv) sdn^o, sdsxTo Inf. dex&UL hnperat. di^o (xlyvvfii, MiriL — {i^l/firjv) fiUxo Is^aa&ai, — sXs/^tjv, Xs^o, Xsxto, Xix^au ndXXca — {endX(jbriv) ndXxo OQVVfxL, OPSl — MQfxriv, MQTO Inf. oqd-m Part, ogfisvog Imp.ogao and some others like e/svto for iyivsro, svxto (see svxofiaL), dXzo (see aXXoiiui), sXiXixio (see iXsXl^co), X^y.Bvog, agfisvog. Note 3. The o- in the endings beginning with crd- falls away here, just as in the Perf. Passive (§ 98. 2) ; hence ds/d-at, ogdai.— Here belongs consequently the Dual form ^LuvS"r]v (see iiialvca), and the Inf. tt e ^- •& a I, where two consonants are dropped ; see nsgd-oj. * Note 4. In all verbs whose reduplication passes over into the sim- ple augment, the Indicative of thes6 Passive Aorists, when it retains its augment, is not to be distinguished, as to form, from the Pluperfect ; thus ojgi^fjv, ixToi^rjVj icpd^lfiriv, iaavfxrjv. * After the above exhibition (in nos. 6, 7, 8), the learner is in a situation to judge of the current representation, which reckons not only Xenro, Six^^ai, e.tc. (8) but also ^XrjGd-ai,, xrijusvog, etc. (7) among those Perfects and Pluperf. which cast off their reduplication ; comp. § 83. n. 6. It is evident that Xtxro, Siyfisvog, are circumstanced like ?.vtOj xrifisvocj (7) and these again like ^Xi]ad-ai,, Kzdfis- vog. To separate these latter however from the Active forms ^Xjjrrpf, h'xrav, (6) is contrary to all critical rules of grammar. Consequently all the above forms must be brought under the same law. They are Aorists, just as h'xrav, e^TjV, are Aorists ; and are to be explained by means of the syncopated for- mation, — the same which embraces as one part of its forms the conjugation in fu. 32 246 § 110. VERBS. ANOMALY FROM SYNCOPE. 9. Finally, (C) by means of this syncope, the longer forms of the Perfect and Pluperf. Active are sometimes shortened in such a manner, that all which stands between the root and the endings fitv, re, etc. falls away. Some of these Perfects adopt the signification of the Pres- ent (§ 113. 6), and then take a 2 pers. Imperat. with the ending d^t (§ 106. 4, and n. 8). This takes place in xsxgaya — xixga/fisv Plupf. hsxQa/ixev Imp. yJngaxd^i (see xga^a) avM/a (see in Catal.) — avca/^iev Imp. aVo)/^^ Eikrilov&a — sl).7]Xovd-fzsv, epic forms for iXrjXv&a (see tgxonai). The cognate Oi of the Perf. which comes from f^, passes over in this syncope for the most part into ^ ; e. g. ninoL&a from nsl&co — Horn. snsTiv&fisv ' toLxa from slxa — wiy^sv, 3 Du. Perf. eixrov, Plupf. i'MXTjv, merely po- . etical forms. Hence appears the correctness of the above derivation of i'afisv, etc. (§ 109. III.) viz. oida from sldoj — I'di^ev or I'crfiEv, I'cns, 3 PI. Plupf. epic I'crav. Imper. lud-i, Inf. epic I'dfisvai for sidsfisvai (comm. sldivui) ; with the Attic forms of the Pluperf. ^ ficr[i(:V, fj(TJE, fiaav, for ydEifisv, jldsiTS, fjdso-av. See for the forms of soLxa and olda the marg. note to § 109. III. 5. Note 5. When by means of this syncope the consonant of the root comes to stand immediately before t in the ending, this t sometimes passes over into >&, on account of the similarity of sound with the Passive endings, xixvcfd^s, ecp&ag&s, etc. Thus from the Imper. «v(w/^t are form- ed in the other persons, instead of av(oysT8, avoo/SToi), — a v (a/ & e, w^'to/^w; and thus also from Perf. i/gri/ogoc, iygrjyogajs, — i y g t] y o g S- s, see iydgo) ; and in the same manner is most naturally explairfed the epic nsn oa S^ E (see Trdccr/co), 7iS7iov&a, TienovxhaTS — ninoads ; that is, so soon as the S- came to stand before the t, it passed over into a (like X8^Ev, t'o-Ts), and the v fell away [nsnodTE) ; after which the transition was natural to the Passive form, nsjioa&s. 10. This syncope is more natural^ when the characteristic of the verb is a vowel. Such a vowel however appears pure before the ending « of the Perfect, only in a few verbs ; as we have seen in § 97. n. 7. Thus dedi/a, (see delffai in Catal.) hence Perf. PI. didLfisv, dediTs, for dedlot- ^SV, -UTS Plupf. sdsdi^Ev, edidtTs, idsdiaav, for idsdlsiixsv, te, idtdUaav Imperat. dsdiS'i. Further, as some Perfects in fjyta, in their epic syncope, cause the radi- cal vowel («) to reappear before the ending, e. g. /?f'/5j?xa (/?//?««)/?;- §110. VERBS. ANOMALY PROM SYNCOPE. 247 paaat,, ^s(3acog (§ 97. n. 7) ; we can in the same manner explain — as coming from an older form a by means of that syncope — some forms of the Dual and Plur. Indie, and of the Infin. which occur from such Perfects in the Attic and common language. E. g. from rttlri'Aa (see the Anom. xXiivat,) TETylAA — rkXa-^tv^ etc. Inf texXavav (for t*- tXartvat). And as thi^ coincides fully with the form of the Present of verbs in /u, {lOTafusv, latavat,^ so most of the other parts of the forma- tion in /ufc are likewise adopted in this Perfect ; thus Perf. Plur. TstXa^tv, TsvAaxs, T£TA«(rt(y) Dual TsxXaTov Pluperf. PI. ithXafxev, sTEjlaTH, hhlaaav , Dual hhlaTov, hexXaTTjv, Inf. xsrXavaL (short a) Imperat. xhXa&t^ xsxXaxw, etc. Opt. xsxXalrjv The Subjunctive of this verb is not used in this form ; instead of it we subjoin that of ^s^rjua, ^s^a^iev, etc. Subj. ^s^M, ijg, fi, etc. The participle alone is not formed after the conjugation in |itt, but is con- tracted from aoiq into Mg ; so that the Masc. and Neut. are alike («w? and aoq G. «0T0?, contr. (ug, MTog) ; and this contracted form then takes a peculiar feminine in wo-a ; e. g. from (Si^r^xa Part, ^s^tjxcag, via, 6g ^s^iag, ^s^bjaa, ^spug G. Ptp6}xog. Of those Perfects which conform to the above model, only the Sing. Indie. of the Perf. and Pluperf. is usual in the regular form [xsxXrjitcc, ag, s, — ixs- xXnxEiv, ug, u) ; all the other parts have the above secondary forms, which in general are more usual than the regular ones. See in the catalogue, besides xXi^vai and /5 a / j' w, also 'i9- y ?J o- x w, xe^^i'^xa, and the Perfect taxrjxa under X(7xrjy,i. (§ 107. II. 2, 3.) Note 6. We remark further ; a. That except in the 3 Plur. Perf [xexXaa-L, xES^vaaiv, e(Txa(nv, etc.) the a in all these forms is short, inasmuch as the short vowel of the ending falls away by syncope, instead of being contracted with the radical vowel ; and that consequently it is incorrect to write XExXavai, xb&vavai, ecnuvai, etc. * b. That it is only in the contracted form of the participle that the feminine in aa occurs; since in the uncontracted form in the epic writers it regularly ends in ma; e. g. /5£/?«w? /5£/5«i}toc — ps^ag fis- §(x)(Ta. * This however did not hinder the poets, especially the earlier ones, as -^schy- lus, from employing the contracted form for the sake of the metre, e.g. Agam. 558 xed'pavai. That it was short in the common languaore is shewn by the man- ner of using it in comedy ; e.g. Aristoph. Ran. 1012 rsd'vdvat. — The epic Infini- tive forms rsd'vdfiEvac, xad'vdfisv, are explained by comparing § 107. IV. 1. 24^ § 110. VERBS. ANOMALY FROM METATHESIS. c. That the participial ending uMg, Neut. «oc, (according to <^ 27. n* 10,) becomes among the Ionics sw? ; see 'itjjrifii (^ 107. II. 3), and in the Catal. S-vijayica, in which verb this is the common Attic form. — Compare also nsmMg, nemsoig, in the Anom. nlnxbi. 11. The 3/e<«fAes25 of the, radical vowel with a Zi^mW (§ 19. n. 2) sometimes changes the root or stem of a verb, especially in two cases : 1) In the Aorist 2; see § 96. n. 7, and comp. the Anom. afiaQxavcd and xtgnco. 2) In several verbs, whose simple theme has a liquid for its charac- teristic. E. g. in the root OAN, Aor. e&avov, Fut. '^avovy.ai, there takes place, for the sake of easier flexion, a transposition of the vowel, ONA ; hence rid^vrjyM, jid^va^EV, etc. In some verbs the new Present in actual use arises from such a transposition ; as in the above example, S-v^cttcco. The same takes place in the root MOA. But on account of the difficulty in pronouncing ^iX, the letter /5 was inserted between these two letters in the middle of a word (§ 19. n. 1), as fii^^Xfoxa for fiEfiXayM ; while at the beginning of a word the fi itself was changed into /?, as (HihayM.* This being premised, the three following verbs have a complete and manifest analogy : S-vfidVM, -d^avovfiaiy td^avov, js&vrjxa {OAN^ ONA) S^QOjaxaf S-oQovfxai, e&oqov, . . . [OOP, OPSl). pXwdXbj, noXovi.iaL, BfioXov, fis(ji^X(axa [MOA, MAO) See all these in the Catalogue. In the same manner belong together the defective forms bttoqov, ninQbnai ; see nogsiv in the Catalogue.! With entire certainty can be referred to this metathesis only those verbs, in which the transposed vowel is clearly to be recog- nized in some of the forms ; as the a in Tsd-vavau, TsS^valtjv, and the in {.tsfi^Xcoxa. But where merely rj appears, it may be a matter of doubt, whether to assume a metathesis or only a syn- cope, e. g. whetjjer dsfio) {JEM, AM^) dsd(i7}xa, or dsixco [dsdsfirfxa) didfirjxa, like vi(i(o vivs^rixa. Here belong the following verbs, whose Present is otherwise formed : T£p'W F. T«^(W A. tTf^OV Pf. TSTfirjXa xdixvo) F. xafiovjiaL A. exa^ov Pf. xsxfirjxa. Still the analogy is clearer, which brings such verbs, with those above, under metathesis {TJEM, TME; KAM, KM A). And this is still more certain in regard to the verb xaXioi ; although the forms xaXioi, xaXsao), xBxXrjxa, seem to indicate merely a syncope. That is to say, the Fut. xaXsaoj, or the more genuine Attic F. ;{aAw, is unquestionably the Future of a simple theme KAASl [^ 95. n. 12); while the usual Present xaXioa has arisen from this Future ; * Precisely the same relation exists between /9A«| and ^aAaxo'?^ ^lixxoi gath- er honey and fiO^t] see Lexilog. IT. art. 108. A still more decisive analogy for fioXstv, fiSfi^Xajxttj ^Xojoxoj, is afforded by the two following instances, viz. fw- Qog death, , although the whole Present may not so occur ; e. g. wcpXss, eipssj av^^aXXeof^svog, niE^svfxsvog Herod. Tiii^svv for snU'Qov Horn. etc. 9. Many barytones of two syllables, which have e in the first syllable, form other secondary Presents, by changing a into o, and assuming th^ ending io) : qiiQOi and cpogioj, jgsfico and jgofiio), ds(j,(o and dofiico, nEgS-m and Tcog&eca. ^ Here belong also the forms dadoitrjf^ivog for dsdsyfisvog' ixiovrjxay fiEfjtogrjjah eoXt^to, see ds/ofiai, hjeIvoj, (lEigofiat, siXoi). Or the radical syllable takes o> with the ending aco : 33 254 § 1 12. VERBS. ^ANOMALY FROM CHANGE OF THEME. TQdnx^^i ^w^ao) ; so also ^gatfiaoj, v(>)(ia(a, Tgomdo), (Tigacpaoif for ^QEfiM, vs(i(a, rginoj, axgicpo). The single verb nixofiai forms, besides the Presents noTsofxaL and TKxiTao^aL, still another combined from the two, viz. noxao^uL. 10. Verbs in co pure sometimes take the ending -dxto, retaining the radical vowel : yrigao) and yrjgaaxoa, iXaoixab and iXao-itOficct, (pdaxoo from 0AJI (hence cpijdb) § 109. I. 2), gvo^iai and grnxo^at. — So with the radical vowel lengthened, yiyvfaaxo) from FNOfL. But verbs in i(a most commonly go over into iGy.M : itvsio — xvl'axco, (TTsgso) — (jTsglaao). And since the Infin. Aor. 2 e^nds in «? am taken, captured, forms its tenses from 'aIAOS^, viz. Fut. dXcoGOfiat, and (with Active form but Passive sense) the synco- pated Aor. rjXojv (§ 110. 6) Att. idXwv Plur. idXcojAev, etc. with long a ; but the regularly unaugmented forms with short a, Inf. dXojvai, Subj. (xXm, ojg, etc. Opt. aXohyv (Ion. dXmriv) Part. dXovg. Perf (also with Passive signification) rjXorAa and idXcjua with short a. Homer has also Part. uXovts with long a, II. f, 487. The Active of this verb was not used, but always algstv, of which consequently, so far as usage is concerned, aXicry.ofiaL is the Passive ; but only in the special signification of algsw, and not in its general one. — avaXl avax^s, (§ 110. n. 5,) Pluperf. as Irnperf. [rjvcjysLv] Ion. ijvcaysu. Since now this Perfect has the Pres- ent signification, it takes also sometimes the Present form, as 3 Pres. av(oysi (Herodot. VII. 104). Hence Impf. ^vcoyovj Fut. avca^ca, Aor. 7lvco^a. It is to be noted, that the Perf. avooya itself never takes the augment. anavgdo} see ATP — . , ' aTiacplJl (whence also aq)i] and viTiTOfjLai), strictly touch, feel, pcdpare ; from which Aorist the Present is formed according to § 112. 10. Fut. anacp'i](j(a. — Middle synonymous with the Active. aTioXavoj, for the augment see § 86. n. 2. || vnrovgag see ATP. " aqaoiiai, Att. ' agaofxai, Depon. Mid. invoke, curse. From this there occurs once (Od. /, 322) an Inf. Act. agij^svai ; or perhaps it is Inf. Aor. 2 Pass, from APOMAI', see the Ausf. SpracU. — The isolated Homeric Part. Perf. Pass. ' agrjf^evog has a different signification, op- pressed, grieved, pained. ccgaijlaxo} jU,_ adapt, join. From the simple theme APSl come F. a^orw, Aor. 1 iiqua, agdai, etc. (§ 101. n. 3.)Aor. 2 riqaqov (§ 85. n. 2) ; whence according to § 112. 10, the Present is formed ; and thence Impf aqa- Qifjua, Od. I, 23. — With the causative sense {cause to suit, adapt) the theme APJl unites also an immediate sense, viz. the intransitive to suit. Jit close (§ 113. 2). This intransitive sense alone is found in the Perf. 2 as Present, aqaqa Ion. aqriqa, * Part. Fem. epic aQaqvIa ; and occasionally, though more seldom, in the Aor. ^jgagov. Sy- nonymous with aqriqa in sense, is the Perfect Pass. aqriQe^iaL,] formed after the analogy 'of the Fut. aqsGOi. This Future itself however, as well as the forms derived from it (see w^fiaxw), has taken the special signification to adapt one^s self, please ; into which also some of the above forms occasionally pass over, as II. «, 136. Soph. El. 147. — The Part, aqfitvog suitable is the syncopated Aorist (§ 110. 8). agtanoj gratify, please, Fut. dgtaco, Perf rigea^ai. — MID. This verb comes from APSl, of which agiaoj is the old form of the Future (§ 95. n. 15). This Future assumed exclusively this special signification, and then formed the other tenses and a new Present from itself Comp. agaqlaxa). aQvvficci, related to aigoj as nTcxQvvfxav to nralgo}, stands instead of aigo) in certain special significations, earn, acquire by labour, sc. wages, booty, etc. The other tenses, i. e. all but the Pres. and Impf come from the radical theme.| agndCoj seize, rob, has in the Attic writers dgTiocooj {ccgndoofAai), 7Jg~ nana, t^gnccad^tjv, etc. In the xoivoi, or later writers, it has dgnd'^o), rigiiGLyy\v, etc. Homer has both formations. (§ 92. n. 1.) * In Od. Sy 248 tho trans. agrigB is a false reading for aQaaaev. t In Apollonius, where dgTjgdfisvog is a false reading. Comp. aur/xsfuti and igojgsrai. t Comp. II. C, 446 with a, 121 ; and x^ 100 with t, 124. § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. APSl see ocgaQLcrxw, ccv'icD and av'^uvco augment, Fut. av^rjGCJ (§ 112. 13). — Pass, with Fut. Mid. increase intrans. ATP—. To this root, with the general signification take^ belong the two following compounds : 1) anavqabi take away. From this verb occur in the poets solely the Impf. (with Aorist signification) ociiTjVQWVf and Aor. 1 Mid. anrjvganrjv (from ATPSL). Besides these are found the two following Partici- ples, formed by a peculiar anomaly of the vowels, and closely related in signification to the above forms, viz. Aor. 1 Act. aitovgag, and Mid. (with Passive sense) ocjiovgdiisvog. 2) InavQiGnofjiat, have advantage or disadvantage, enjoy, see §112.10; Fut. sTiavgrjcrofiaL, Aor. eTcrjvgofirjv, sTiavgia&ai, and in writers not Attic inavgaa&ai (§ 96. n. 8). — The earlier poetry em- ployed also the Active form ; as Aor. inavgov Pind. Pyth. 111. 65. Suhj. eTtavgo), Inf. STiavgelv or enavgifisv. The Present inavgm, de- rived from these, is found in Hesiod s, 417. vccpvorab} draw, as water, etc. F. aq)V^(o A. ijcpvaa § 92. n. 2. A(Ii — see sucp&r] and aTiacplaicco. ccx^Of^iai^ am vexed, offended, ax&eaoficii,, r^i&iad^riv. § 112. n. 3. AXJl see ay.axiC,o}. «(«. This thenle appears under four different significations : 1) hloiv, Impf. aov (ApoUon.) commonly arjfiL q. v. 2) sleep, Aor. wo-a and (by § 112. n. 3) ccEaa Hom. 3) satisfy, satiate, Fut. aVw, Aor. uaa. Hence in Pres. Pass, axat, and by doubhng the vowel wwrat (Hesiod a, 101 as Fut. see § 95. n. 12). Inf. Act. a^svai Hom. contr. from ai^EvaL for astv. Verb. Adj. uTog, and hence with a priv. aajog (Hesiod), contr. djog (Hom.) insatiable. — See the raarg. note to ««o) and comp. AA — . 4) injure ; in this signification it is exhibited above, as contracted from ddbi q. V. . , aiogTo see ai'ga). B. §ulv(x) go, Fut. §f]GO}iat Pf ^e(3i]xa. — Aor. 2. J/?^v, like eoTfjv; thus, t^tj^ev, §rivav ' (jfjdi,^ ^r]TM ' ^ahjv, §(o. — Some compounds have also a Passive ; e. g. naQafiaivM transgress, Perf. Pass, na- Qa0el^afj.ao Aor. Pass. 7iagt^udr}v. — Verb. Adj. ^atog. All these forms come from BASl, and are declined throughout like XaT7]fiL, except in the Present; and Homer has this also with the reduplication, Part, [ii^dg and §i^m. — The Pluperf i^s^}]y.stv has in the epic language the sense of the Imperf. or Aorist, e.g. 11. ^, 495, 513. com}). ^dXXca e(3f{3Xi]xsLv. — As to ^soj, §do3, ^i]ri, see the same Subjunctive forms from I'or^v, § 107. IV. — The syncopated forms of the Perfect, e.g. ^s^dau, ^s^dvai, ^s^wg (§ 110. 10) ai'e in * In composition also apocopated, e. g. Tiaxd^d, as in 'iotTjfii. 35 270 § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. this verb unfrequent, except in the dialects and poets. — In the Aor. 2 Homer has the short forms ^axrjv for i^rixr]v, vnBQ^aaav for vjisgB^riaav, The Aor. Mid. (as Act.) occurs also in the epic writers, but fluctuates in form: e^riffUTO or (§ 96. n. 9) €/?»Jct£to, Imperat. ^i}(teo. — For /Sf'o- fxai, see below in its place. This verb has also the causative signification, cause to go, conduct, (§ 113. 2), but only among the Ionics and poets. The Fut. Act. /JtjVco and Aor. 1 t^riaa belong solely to this signification. palX(o throw, cast, Fut. ^aXoJ and sometimes 0alh]GO) (§ 112. 8) A. a^alQv, Pf. ^tpXrina Pf. Pass. ^apXi^fiCd, {Subj. see § 98. n. 9) A. 1 Pass. i§lndnv. — MID. From a syncopated Aorist {siSXtjv, see § 110. 6, 7) come the epic forms : Aor. ^V[j,^XiJt7jv (3 Dual), Pass. e^XrjTo, §li](T&ai, Opt. ^Xslfirjv, §Xuo, etc. Subj. ^XrjETUL for ^XrjfjjaL, — and thence again a Fu- ture (jvn^Xt'iGo^iai. — The Perf. Pass, takes also in epic writers the form ^(^oXrjfiai, as if from BOAESl.* — The Pluperf. i^s^XrjXELV has in epic wi-iters the sense of the Aorist {did hit), e. g. II. s, 66, 73 ; comp. Palvco, i^s^rjusLV. paaTCiCo) carry, F. ^aaraoco, etc. takes in the Passive the other forma- tion, e.g. i^aazax-C^v^, § 92. n. 1. BA — , ^l^rj^h see §alvbi. pioiiai or ^slo^iai, a Homeric Future, / shall live, which may be regarded either as a really irregular Future (like tcIo^ul, or like nia, v.doi), or as a Subjunctive used for the Future (§ 139. n. 8), instead of ^soh- fxai. It is also doubtful, whether it belongs to an old verb BEISl (whence perhaps ^loq, ^loca) ; or whether the Passive form of the verb ^alvoi assumed the secondary sense to walk, i. e. live ; in which case ^elofiai corresponds to the Active form peio Suhj. for /?a). ptpQcoGito) eat, has its forms from BPOSi. The Part. Perf. ^t^gwifcag is sometimes contracted, comp. § 110. 10; hence Soph. Antig. 1010 ^s^goiTsg. — Epic Aorist e^gav (§ 110. 6.) — The Homeric ^E^QOj&OLg belongs to a derived verb with an emphatic sense, viz. ^f^goj&o) devour. §1,6(0 live, Fut. ^njjaofxai, Aor. t^loiaa and (Aor. 2) i^lcov, §L(ovai>, Part, ^lovg Subj. ^loj, olg etc. Opt. §lmjiv (§ 110. 6.) The forms ^iotcFv.o^ai and ava^Lwo-y.opai have both the intransitive and transitive signification, e. g. intrans. revive. Plat. Phaedo. p. 72. c. d. — trans, animate, vivify, id. Crito. 9. — In the latter signification only it has the Aor. 1 i^Kaaafirjv (Od. S^, 468. Plat. Phaedo. p. 89. b) ; in the former, the Active ava^iwvai is usual. BA — see ^aXXco. * The old root of this verb had s, (corpp. t^/ivoj rdjuvc/j, rgiTtoj TQontO), and G%iXhji below,) as is shewn by the derivative ^iXoz and especially the verbal ieXirtjg in exarrj^sXhr^g. Hence BOAEQ (§ 112.9); and also, by tlie meta- thesis BEA, BAE, the forms §i§Xr}xa, ^Xslfir^j etc. (§ 110. 11.) § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 271 pXaaxavM sprout ^ pXaaxriGOJ, ifiXaaiov § 112. 13. piaayoj go, has its forms as if from MOASl, Aor. e^oIov, (loXuv, [loXtoVf Fut. ixoXovfiaL, Perf fiifi^kooxa (by § 19. n. 1 for fxifiXtoxa) as if from MAOSl, from which the Present ^Xwcrxca has arisen ; see § 110. 11. The Present fioXia) is doubtful. ^oda cry out, among the Ionics always contracts oi] into o)*, Fut. ^waofiai' ; it then draws back the accent, Aor. s^aaa / and takes o" in the Aor. Pass. i^(6cr&i]V. BOA — see ^aXXto and ^ovXofiaL. ^oaxM pasture, Fut. ^oaytfjao), etc. (§ 112. 8.) — MID. §ovXo}iat will, desire, Fut. (jovXi^aofiac, Perf ^e^ovXrjuat, Aor. i^ov- X^d^7]p, -^^ovX-^driv. For the augment see § 83. n. 5. Homer has also a Perf 2 nqo^i^ovXa prefer. — In Homer and in the old language generally, the first syllable was also short ; in which case it is written with o, as ^oXsuds, § 5. n. 3. BO — see ^odoa. ^gaxdv, %^Qaxov, an epic Aorist, crash ; different from §qix^iv steep, pqi- XE(T&ac, (3gsx&i]vaL and ^gax^jvat, to be wet. BPO — see ^L^gwcTXCj. ^QVxdo^aL roar, Depon. Passive. The Perf. Act. ^i^gvxa has in the poeta the same Present signification ; comp. firjxuofiaL and (ivxdo(j.aL. — For the Perf. ava^i^gvxct II. g. 54, see Lexilog. II. 85. r yci[,ii(o marry, from TAM^, Fut. also yanib), yafioi, Aor. eyripia, yri^ai, etc. Perf yeydf^i^ncc^ etc. — Mid. enter into marriage, take as wife or husband. The form lya^jiri&riv (whence Theocrit. has ya^i'&el- oa) is purely Passive. FA— see FENIl. yiyava, a Perfect with Present signification, / call, proclaim. Most of the other forms, however, are made as if from a Present ih « or ' id) derived from this Perfect : Inf. yeycovEtv, Impf. iyeyojvsvv (for — eov) 3 pers. iysycovei, but also {iysycavE) ysycovs; which form consequently occurs as Present, Impf. and Aorist ; see § 111. 2. rUN — . This stem, which corresponds to the Latin gigno, genui, unites in Greek the causative signification beget, and the immedi- ate or intransitive be horn. The forms are anomalously mixed. In the Active, only the Perfect ytyova is in use ; all the other forms, in both significations, belong to the Middle-Passive. So far as usage is concerned, the whole may be referred to a two-fold form of the Present : * That this is the correct representation is shewn by a comparison of the Ion. verb ^oid'Biv for ^OTjdstv help Comp. vodoj belovir. 272 ^ 114. CATALOGUE OP IRREGULAR VERBS. 1) ysivof^at refers only to literal birth. In the Present it is poeti- cal, be born and beget ; in the Aor. iyecvafirjv only transitive, ' beget, bear^ both in prose and poetry. In this last significa- tion the regular verb ysvvao} is elsewhere used. 2) ylyvofxat, old and Attic, common ylvo^ai, F. yevriao^iat^ Aor. iyfvofifjv; Perf. ysyiff]fAaiy or with Active form, yt'yova ; forms not Attic are iysvrjOfjv, yevfid^fiaofjiat. All these forms are throughout intransitive ; not only in the literal sense be born, but also and more frequently in the general sense come into existence^ fieri. With this connects itself the sig- nification to exist, to be, so that iysv6fxf]v and yt'yova serve at the same time as preterites of elvat^. Where however yayova can be translated as a Present, it has always the more special sense / a?n by birth, or / have become, etc. For ysyova there is a poetical form {yiyaa) PI. yiyay.iv — ysyda- CLV, Inf. ysya^EV (for -dvai) Part, ysyaag Attic ysyojg (see § 110. 10); as it seems, from FASl ; hence also the older form ysydxHV in Pindar for ysytjxsvai {§ 111.2).* — The form eysvio, yevro, in Hesiod and Pindar is syncop. Aor. for iyivsTO ; see also the following article. yevTO, he seized, an old verb in Homer, from which only this form occurs. It seems however to be a dialect for eXsto, as xsvto for xsXsto in Alc- mann ; comp. § 16. n. 1. d. The /instead of the rough breathing, is found in many glosses of Hesychius, etc. — In other poets this form stands simply for iyivero, sysvTO ; see the preceding article. yrjd-m rejoice, yrjd-rjcroi), etc. Perf. yiyrj&a synonymous with the Present and more usual. yfigdoi or yrigdayM), grow old, Fut. yriQaco^iai, is conjugated regularly after the first form, except that the Attics prefer in the Inf. Aor. instead of yrigaaui the form yi^gavai. This yr^qdvau is the Inf. of an old Aor. iyrJQoiv (see the ^v^f, Sprachl.) to which belongs also the epic Part. yrjQag II. q, 197. yrjgdv- ifxraiv Hes. s, 188. To this old form corresponds precisely the Aor. tdgav from didgdayM. See § 110. 6. ylyvo^at, ylvofiai, see FEN — . yiyvcaaxo), old and Attic, common yi'POJOxoj, know, from FNOSl, F. ypcoGOf.iat. Aor. i'/z^cai/, Plur. fypcof^ep, etc. Inf. yvo)vav,lmper. yvo)d^L^ /i^corca, etc. Opt. ypolf]v,f Part, yvovg. (§ 110. 6.) — Perf. iyvmi/^a^ Pass. I'yvojG^iai. * The anomalous yayddts (Batrach. 143. Horn. Epigr. ult.) can be explained from the Present-Perfect ylyaa {-dars for ~dcs ; but see Lexilog, I. note or ad- dition to Art. 2, 3) ; hence also iaysydovrai Hymn. Ven. 198 ; this last by a new anomaly as Future. t The Passive form of this Aor. Opt. avyyvoiTO JE.3chy\. Suppl. 231 (wholly synonymous with the Active; is no where else found. §114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. ,273 In the causative sense to persuade {§ 113. 2), which the com- pound ccvayL/vojcncco takes paiticularly among the Ionics, it forms the Aor. 1 avsyvcoaa. yoao) bewail, A. 2 eyoov, II. ^, 500. (§ 96. n. 5.) ygrj/ogioj see eydga. FfLN — see yiyava. AA-, dcclco. The forms v^^hich belong to this root, have four principal significations : divide, give to eat, burn, teach. 1. daloa cut, divide, distribute, has in this form and signification only Pres. and Inipf. and is solely poetic. To the same sense however belong, as Depon. Mid. the Fut. ddao^ai, Aor. edaaaixrjv, which are also used in prose ; and the Perf. dsdao-fxai with Passive sense {am divided, cut), whose 3 Plur. follows, for the sake of euphony, the root data, viz. dedalatai,. Comp. fialofiat ii^aaafirjv, vala ivaaocfxr^v. — _ The Pres, daxiofiat (see below in its place) stands in the same relation to these forms, as naTso(xav to ndaaad-aL. 2. dalvv^i entertain, give to eat. Mid. dalvvfiav feast, revel, con- sume, (2 pers. dalvvo, § 107. IV. 4,) forms, after the analogy of all verbs in vvy.t, its tenses from dalco, which however never has this meaning in the Present. Fut. dalaco, dalcro^ai, etc. 3. daloi has also in the Present the sense burn, kindle, set onjire.* In the Perf. 8i8i]a (^ 97. 4) it has the intransitive sense of the Mid. dalo^(XL burn, be onjire, Aor. 2 (idaofirjv) 3 pers. Subj. ddrjrai. 4. JAJI unites the causative sense teach, with the immediate learn. In the first, only the Aor. 2 occurs, edaov or dsdaov (§ 83. n. 7), to which the Homeric didas belongs. But in the latter sense, learn, there is found, Perf. {dsdaa) dtddacn, dsdacog, Aor. Pass. idd7]v (strictly ivas taught, i. e. learned) ; whence the new Perfect dsddrjxoi (§ 111. 3) or dsddi^fiuL, Fut. SariffOfiai. — From dsdaa, as from a Pres- ent, is derived {deddaS-ai) dEddao-S^ai become acquainted ivith, search into (Hom.) No other Present form occurs from this solely poetic verb, in either sense ; but the usual diddanoi is evidently derived from it ; see below. To this root belongs also the epic ^^w, 8riug, etc. an anomalous Future with the special signification / shall Jind.\ ddavo} bite, from AHK^, F. di^'io^ai Pf dtdi^x^, etc. Aor. I'damv^ § 112. 12. dafidca see under dsfioj. * The intransitive sense burn, flame, is assigned to this form merely from a misunderstanding of the passage II. s, 4, 7. Comp. II. g., 206, 227. t Comp. xsio) under xsT/iat § 109. II. Both are old Futures in the form of the Fut. 2, from /lA^j KESi ; and are consequently instead of Salo}^ xseoj^ with acontractio -•• - ' ..~ see § 53. n. 274 . § 114. CATALOGUE OP IRREGULAR VERBS. dugd^avo) sleep ^ Y. daQ&tiaofAav Pf. didagOri^a Aor. tdaQ-&ov,^\\2. 13. For sduQ&ov a poetic form is EdgaS^ov (§ 96. n. 7) ; and the com- pound with xara, in the Aorist, passes over sometimes into the Aor. Pass. y,(iTeddQ&Tjv, xaTadaQ&slg fallen asleep. This form may be considered as Aor. 1 for eddga&rjv (comp. nsxug&aL for -ad-ai, and nsgd-ai in nsgd-o)) ; or also as the sole example of an Aor. 2 Pass. with the characteristic &. § 100. n. 9. SaTsofiat (see daioj 1), A. 1. Inf. dajiaa&m Hesiod s, 795. See § 96. note 1. JA — see daloj. diaxai see douTcct. || dsl see dia. \\ dsldco see dEtaat. dsUvv^i point out, F. deilw (§ 107. § 112. 14.) — MID. The Ionics form Fut. dtlw^ t'dela, dtdey^av {anod&dti&ai), see § 27. n. 3. TJie Mid. dslxwiiccL has in the epic writers (II. t, 196. Hymn. ApoU. 11.) the signification salute, welcome, drink to; and consequently this signification belongs also to the Perfect with Present sense dsl- dsy ij,aL (for dsdsiy^ai) 3 PI. dsiUxaxai, 3 Sing. Pluperf as Impf. dsldsxto. — Rarer forms, all of similar signification, are dstxavaofxat, dudhKOfjiai and dedlaHOfxaL.^ dtiaaifear, Aor. tdeioa, Fut. delaofxai. The Perfect takes the signi- fication of the Present, and has two forms, of which the alternate use depended on euphony, di'doiaa (§97. n. 1), and dtdicc {c short). From de'dia come syncopated forms : dtdi^uv, dtdne, 3 PI. Plupf tdtdcGav, and in the Imperat. dtdid^i, § 110. 10. The epic writers have also dddoDca and deldia (comp. the preceding dsidsiCTo) ; so also dsldifisv etc. and the still more syncopated Part, dsidvla (in Apollon.) Hence arose a new Present dsldoj, which occurs only in these poets ; but to which all the above forms were formerly referred. ^ In Homer the Aorist is always found written IddELo-a, which is the only example of a mute doubled after the augment.f The epic poets employ dioj, Impf. ediov (short t), in the sense to fear, and also to fee II. %, 251. From this the causative signification (§ 113. 2) is cause to fee, frighten away. It is however singular that Homer expresses this idea only by means of the Passive form, 8ls- a&ai, Subj. 8l(afiav, etc. In another form 8lr]y.i, on the other hand, the * Many refer the form SaiSaxro to Slyofiatj because the meaning receive, welcome, is thought to come more easily from this. But the primitive idea is unquestionably that o^ offering the hand ; and Ssixoj probably signified originally simply to stretch out the hand ; from which likewise Sixofiatj Stxojuat, are very naturally derived. Comp. §6iSoc)ta_, deiSittj where the redupl. §st occurs in like manner, while the radical syllable is also §si. 1 Dawes, in Miscel. Crit. p. 163, has shewn that the true cause of the long syllable, by which this orthograpliy was occasioned here and in vTroS^eioaaa, ddSek, lay in a misapprehend'ed Digamma after the S (dv). §114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Active signifies to hunt, chase {ivdlsaav II. c, 584) ; and the Pass, to flee, run [8UvxaL II. xp, 475). The Infin. dk(T&cci can belong to both these forms, and has also both significations ; II. fi, 276, 304. jdEK — see dslavvfii, and ds/o^iai. difioj build, Aor. edsifia Perf. ds8^ri^a, etc. (§ 110. 4. and 11.) — The form dslixoixsv in Homer is syncopated Subj. Aor. see § 103. V. 15. — MID. The same theme furnishes also the tenses of dafidoj subdue, tame ; Pf. dsdfxrixcc, Aor. Pass. id^vi&rjV and idafirjv. — The forms da/xa and dafida are both Present and Future. In prose the usual verb in this sense is the regular ^«|U«^w. dsgxo^at or dedoQjca see, catch a view of {§ 113. n. 11), Aor. Wgaxov (§96. n. 7), also idgdxTjv and idiqx^W, all Active. ds/ofiUi take, receive. Ion. dsxoy,aL. Here belongs also (see § 112. 9) the epic dsdox7jfj,svog ivatching, lurking (II. o, 730), since dsds/fisvog is used in the same sense (11. d, 107 etc.) and in like manner also the 3 Plur. ds'/aTai and Plupf. as Impf. sds/(xrjv. Nevertheless, edsxTO, ds/S^ai.f occur also as sync. Aor. in the sense of take. — For dslds/fiai see in dslxvvfzt. Sio) bind, see § 105. n. 3. §95. n. 4.— The Fut. 3 didnoo^iai (§99. n. 1) takes the place of the Fut. 1 de&rjaofiat^ which is not Attic. — MID. dtM fail, he wanting, F. dei]GO) etc. is \xsxx?i\\y impersonal : del it is necessary , one must, il faut, — Suhj. dtfy Opt. dtoo Inf. d'f7v Part. dtov. Fut. der/osi' etc. — The Pass, diouac, der} or dtet, dnxai., etc. is always personal, I need, SejjaofAcit, tdei]&riv. The contraction into ei in this verb was sometimes resolved, even by the Attics, in order to distinguish it from the preceding verb ; e. g. Isocr. Busir. 2 togovtov dssig, and in Xenophon often dssTac, dss- (T&(XL. — On the other hand Homer has dijatv II. c, 100 ; but also another peculiar form 8svoiiab, devijao^ai. ' For dsaxaL see doaxai. JHK — see ddxva. \\ dijco, see JA — . dMay.a) teach, loses the a in conjugation : didotloi, dsdida'/^a, etc. — In the poets also dLdaG'A-i^ow. — MID. didQaaxu) run aioay, occurs only in composition : «7io^<(5'()a0xca, dcadi- dfjocGHO). From APA^ comes Fut. dguao^ah Perf df^gaaa — Aor. idgav, ag, a, uf^isv, azs, 3 PI. adgccGctv and idgav (§ 107. n. IV. 6), Subj. dgo), ag, a, etc. Opt. dfjalriv Imp. dfjad^i Inf. d(jcc~ vcci Part. d^dg. See § 110. 6, with the marg. note. The Ionics have rj throughout : didgi^axaj, dg/jaoixai, sdgrjv, etc. — This verb must not be confounded with the regular dgdoj do, to which belong the Fut. Act. dgdaoj and Aor. 1 edgaaa ; the Perf. my.a is common to both. 8i^7)[j.aL seek, a Depon. Mid. of the conjugation in fii, which retains the ri in the Passive form ; § 106. n. 3. 2T6 § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. dixsiVf sdixov, cast^ a defective Aorist. diipf^v see § 105. n. 5. || dlco see dsta-ai,, \\ JME — se doDiTocL or diaiai it seems, Aor. doaaaato Subj. doocaffsrat, {-rjiai) Horn. doite'oj seem, appear, think, from AOKSl, F. dolw etc. The Perf is from the Passive form, dtdoyf^dt' have appeared. The regular formation doxTJaco etc. is poetic. — The epic dsdoxrjpivog see under ds/ofiai. dovfiib) give a heavy sound, fall, Perf. dsdovna {§ 97. n. 4), Aor. idovnrjcra and eydov7Trj(Ta from a form F/iOTJI—, which stands in the same relation to dovjisco, as Kxvniw to rvmcxt. JO— see didcapL § 107. • ■ ' dgafistv, dsdgofxa, see rgsxcx). \\ /IP A — see didgdaxca. dvva^iai can, am able; Pres. and Impf like iGiccpai,; 2pers. Pres. dv- vaaat, poet, duvri. For the Suhj. and Opt. see § 107. III. 5 ; and for the augment, §83. n. 5. — Fut. dvvriGOfAao Aor. i^dvprjx^rjv (also idvvaGd-rjv) Perf dsduvrjpai. Verb. Adj. dvvarog possible. In Homer this verb is commonly Depon. Mid. and has SwrjaaTo instead of idvv^&r}. dvcx). This verb divides its forms between the immediate signification go in, enter, and the causative envelope, immerse (§ 113. 2). The Pres. Act. dvo) has the latter, envelope, immerse, etc. and retains it in the Fut. and Aor. 1 Act. duoco, edvaa, Pass. idvOfjv (§ 95, n. 4). The MID. dvofiai wrap mi/self up, dvaopao, tdvoapr]v, passed over into the intransitive (immediate) signification, ^o in, sink, go down, etc. which however again takes a transitive relation ; e. g. to put on sc. clothes. The significations thus belonging to the imme- diate sense, connect now with this Middle form the Active forms of the Perf dtdv'Aa and Aor. 2 (§ 110. 6) tdvv, dvvai^, dvg. Imp. dijx^v, dvve, Subj. dvoi (II. Q, 186. Plat. Cratyl. p. 413. b) Opt. durjv.* To these is still to be added a new Active form in the Present, dvvo)., which, together with the Aor. edvv, is preferred to the form dvopai, Idvodpjiv in certain connexions and in compounds. Such is the general outline of the usage in this verb ; the modifi- cations arising from the diflferent turns and shades of the signification, especially in the compounds, are lefi; to the lexicon and to observa- tion. — The Aor. Mid. edvauprjv has in the epic poets the secondary forms sdmETo, edv(TEO, Imperat. dmso, for which see § 96. n. 9. Here belongs also the Part, dvaofisvog with Present signification, in Od. a, 24. Hesiod e, 382. — From dvvco Herodotus forms also dvvsovcri, § 112. 11.5. * Comp. § 107. III. 6. Hence ivtSvpsv for inSvi^psv, like <&£cp£V for dsiijpev i «ee Lexil. I. 17. 10. § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 277 E, sdfd^T] or ia(f)S-7j, a Homeric form, only II. v, 543. |, 419 ; either from aTTTO) Jit, adapt, (comp. idyrjv, kdXwv) ; or from tnofiai follow (see be- low) for sXcpd-r), comm. eansto. See Lexil. II. 87. iysl()()D wake trans, is in the Active regular ; Perf. iyi^yegica, iyrjyeg- fioLL. The MID. takes the immediate sense awake intrans. and has by syncope in the Aor. -^ygof-itiv (§ 110. 4).* — The Perf. 2 lyQTJyoQu vi^hose anomalous reduplication was probably occasioned by the sound of riyQO^riv, belongs, like other Perfects 2 (§ 113. n. 3), to the intransitive signification, but passes over into a new Present meaning ; strictly, / am awaked ; hence, / am awake. Plupf. as Impf tygriyoQSiv. Forms of the Present, which have arisen out of iygt]yoga with like signification, are iygrjyoQooj in Homer, iyQrjyoQSco in the later prose, and ygrjyogsoj in the New Testament, etc. — From iygtjyogaTs arises the Homeric form iygiiyogd-B (§ 110. n. 5) ; and hence a corresponding Infin. iygrjyog&ai, and by a new anomaly a 3 Plur. iygrjyogS-aai. sd(o see ia&ioj. \\ kdovfiav see e^o^at. iCof^ac, ica&aCof^cii', sit, Impf only as Aorist iacc&eCofifjv. Fut. aade- dov^at. §95. n. 16. The form ixaS-e^ofirjv as Aorist occurs e. g. in Plat. Meno. 26. p. 89 extr. Xen. Anab. 5. 8. 14. The Pres. xaS-s^o^aL is thereby rendered suspicious, even in later writers. Comp. below /tw, and also § 108. II. sla a and t] (x a l', which forms properly all belong to one root ; see the Ausf. Sprachl. in i'^co. — Later writers used instead of ixa&s- ^6fj,7]v the Passive form ixa&icrS^rjv. id^elco and dAcj, will, F. i&sXrjOM, deh]GM, etc. (§ 112. 8.) Pf ^d^tXtjza. id^o). From this verb only the Perf aco&a am accustomed (§ 97. n. 2) is usual ; Ion. amdcc. , Of the Present there remains only the Homeric Part. sS^av loont, accustomed. €t'5ft) see, an old verb, from which in this signification only ddov, Idstv, idsaS-ai, etc. have remained in use as Aorist forms of the verb ogdoj, which see. In the epic language, however, there is found from Ei'doj, (which as Pres. Indie, occurs only in the later poets,) in the same signification, the Passive formation d'SofiuL, elffdfirjv {isio'dfirjv, ieLddixe- vog) for be seen and appear, viderL — See also on the signification of this verb § 113. n. 10 ; and for those forms which have the significa- tion to know, oida, jjdsiv, d'aofxaL, etc. see § 109. III. HJico. In this verb the Perfect foiaa is employed as Present, am like, seem, Part, iotxcog Att. ilaajg, especially in the Neut. elaog ; see * For the Infin. h'ygead'at (for iygiad'cusee) the £usf. Sprachl. 36 278 § 114. CATALOGUE OP IRREGULAH VERBS. the mar'g. note to § 109. III. 5. Ion. ohcc, olawg, olaog, Plupf. icoKSiv (§ 84. n. 9), Fut. eTico. The verb e'taco yield, give way, is entirely regular. In the same manner as slxug, are found also in Attic writers a few times, for the sake of the metre, sixa and elasvai,. The Pres. slx(a nowhere occurs ; and the Impf. axs (for iojxEL) only II. or, 520. The epic forms s'Cxtov, i'mTr}V, and YfixTO, e'ixTO, are on more correct principles referred in the marg. note above cited (§ 109. III. 5. comp. § 110. 9) to the syncopated forms of the Perf. and Pluperfect ; as also the Att. WL/fisv in Sophocles and Euripi- des. — For the singular form sl^aaL which occurs in Attic prose instead of iolxaaL, see the same note. a'Aw or sllXco, roll up, press together, more commonly elXioj or slXio), F. 7/(rw etc Aor. 1 Inf. sXcraL, eeXaai, Part. sXaag. Perf. Pass. hXfiaL, Aor. Pass. edXriv Inf. aXilvai or uXt^^Evai Part. aXslg (all which forms fluctuate in the editions between the rough and smooth breathings) ; comp. icnoc- XtjV, (TTaXi^vuL, from (TTsXXa). From the same root {EASl or EAASl) with the simple meaning press, impel, thrust, comes also iXavvo) (see in its place) ; and hence in the special signification, heat, lash, occurs hkewise the Aor. sXaai in Homer, e. g. Od. e, 132. — Here belongs also (by § 112. 9) the Pluperf ioXrjxo was pressed, Apollon. III. 471. — See on all these forms, Lexil. II. 88 and 76, 7. HlxaQxai see MEIPOMAL \\ elfil and sifiL see § 108. IV. V. elnelv to say, an Aor. 2. Indie einov (epic temov), Imperat. sins (compound iiQoetns, see § 103. n. I. 4). This Aor. is more usual than the Ion. Aor. 1 e tTra (§96. n. 1), Imper. dnov, incorrectly iinov, see Excurs. 1 ad Plat. Meno. The Attics however use both (inag and eineg equally ; and employ the forms e'lnate, ilnaTCo, etc. by preference.* With this Aor. 2 are closely connected in usage, the Fut. i^oj Ion. igeo) from e^'gco (which Present is employed by the poets), — and also from P^i2, the Perf a 'cQrj 71 a (§83. n. 3) Perf Pass. (Hgrjf^ao, Aor. Pass, i q g 1^ d- r; v and igge'drjv, (not Attic, stgrj- '&7]v, eigi^riv,) Qri&rivat, Fut. 3 eigrjGO/^uc as common Fut. Pas- sive.! — Verb. Adj. grjieog, g^jtog. As the Present of this verb the Greeks employed (frjfil^ as men- * If, as is often done, we assume a theme ElZSi^ we are obliged unnecessarily to assume at the same time the anomaly, that the augment 6t remains tbroucrh all the moods. But a theme JB/ilQ is also compatible with the root JSII— whence iTtog. t The Grammarians further increase the themes of this verb with loAw ; but this word is either a regular Fut. from tl'oo}^ or a Present in the sense ask, interrogate ; see i^iod'at below in its place. It lias here been assumed as a theme on account of siQrjxa; and for this reason solely it is reckoned among the verbs which take the temp. augm. 6t. But since PJ5i3 undeniably belongs among the themes of this verb, on account of tQQt'j&rjVy ^i^/u,a; so also siQtjKcc is most naturaHy referred to the same theme, after the analogy of sUrj(pa, tifiaQtat (§ 83. n. 3). § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 279 tioned above in § 109. I. 2 ; and in some phrases also ayogevtiv (properly to speak before an assembly)^ e. g. icancog ayogevecv n- va, xciicwg elnov. In most compounds ayoQevM is always employ- ed; e. g. a^ayoQSVco I forbid, anslnov I forbade; in some Xtyoy, e. g, avTiXiyo), avTe7nov. The poetic Imperat. egtiete comes from a secondary form with a inserted. Comp. Xdcaxoi, siaxco, filcryw. Entirely anomalous is the poetic i vinta or ivvinw, synonymous with uneiv ; to which {riviGnov) evianov may be referred as Aorist ; since a Pres. Indie, hhinoa does not occur,* and the Inf. has the cir- cumflex, ivi><77ielv Od. y. 93. Fut. evLffnriffb) or ivlipoo. \ eigyo} shut out, exclude, F. etgloi, etc. — But tigyvvp^v with the rough breathing, shut in, include, F. eiglo), etc. The old and epic language has for both significations egya. Hence 3 Plur. Perf «5^;f ttxat, and without augment agxaTat, are shut in. , sI'qo), see Emslv and igsor&aL. — In the signification join, connect, knit, it is a separate verb ; Aor. 1 Eiga (Herod. 3. 87 i^ugag exserens) Pf. eegfiav Pari.'hgfiivog Horn, igfxsvog Herod. 4, 190. d'cod-a see s&at. iXavvo) drive, F. iXdao) (short a), etc. Pf. ali^Xana. Pf. Pass. ih]Kc(fACii Aor. riladr]v, Verbal Adj. ikazog^ in later writers ikrjlaafiai^ t]Xcc- Gd-tjv, iXaoTog. The theme iXdo) is rare in the Present; on the other hand IXm, iXag, iXa, etc. Inf. iX^v, constitute in prose the Attic Future, () 95. n. 12. See also dla, I/Wat ; — and for iXriXa^axo see ^ 103. IV. 5. marg. note. — For iX7)Xo((j.Evog (proparoxyt. e. g. Arat. 176) see § 111. n. 2. EAETO — , EAO — see sg^ofAat. UxbJ draw, takes the augm. sl (§ 84. 2). Fut. eX^co and eXttvaM. Aor. elX^a and hXxv(7(x. Pass, solely EiXy.vay,m, eIXhv(j&7]v, from "EAKTJl. — MID. sXticj cause to hope, EXnofiai hope, Perf EoXna, the same with EXnop,ai>, Plupf. as Impf ewXtielv {§ 84. n. 6, 9). EA — see eXXo). 'EA — see algEco. ENEFK — , ENEIK — , etc. see (piga). || evetko see Emslv. * II. X, 839 and elsewhere eviano) is Subj. Aor. t The a in ivioTto) is here dropped in tiie Fut. precisely as in SiSdoxaj and dXv- GiCOJ. This Future consequently affords no proof that ivlmoj, to which as to form it certainly could belong, ought also to be referred hither. On the contrary, since the Pres. itUTtrsiv, and also the kindred forms rjvhtaTtEV and ivlaooj in Homer never by themselves signify to say, but very often when standing alone signi- fy to chide, upbraid, they must therefore all be separated from the radical verb siTteiv, and exhibited separately below; see iviTtroj. Still a Present form fvintco from eviiro) is used by Pindar at least, Pyth. 4. 358, where iviittajv stands for evinojv. — For a minuter investigation of both verbs, see Lexilogus I. 63. p. 279. 280 §114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. evrjvo&a, an old Perfect, which presupposes a theme ENE0SI, JENOJl ; inevi^voS^Sf xaisv^vods^ is, sits, lies on any thing, Homer. See § 97. n. 2, and comp. avi^voS-a above. ivd-Hv, Tivd-ov, see sQ/ofiat. ivmtco chide, upbraid,^ has in Homer a two-fold Aorist form ; either iv- EViTTTOv, more correctly tvivlnov (see Lexil. I. 63. p. 282. and comp. § 85. n. 2) ; or, by § 85. n. 3, with the reduphcation at the end, 3 pers. 9]vl7ia7isv. ivi(T7T(o, ivvsTiM, see sItihv. \\ ^vvvfii see § 108. HI. ioXrjTO see eVXco. \\ iTiavQslv, iTtavglaxofim, etc. see ATP — . iniaTaf^ai understand, 2 pers. iniGTaoat^ poet. IuIgto, or inloTj] (see the note to Soph. Philoct. 798), Impf. ^ntarafATiv. Thus far this verb follows iGTccf^iac ; for Suhj. and Opt. see § 107. Ill 5. — Fut. ini,OT7}O0fia.i, Aor. iniGTri&7]v. Verbal Adj. ijiiaxTjTog. incD am about something, occupied with ; see Schneider's Lexicon. This old verb in its simple form occurs only II. ^, 321 ; but some compounds, especially disnoj, have remained in prose. It takes the augm. H [dLUTiov] ; and has an Aor. sanov, anuv, (rnmv, {enicrnov, eTiKjTtsiv, fisTaancov, all rather poetic). — To avoid any confusion of forms, compare also sariBTs and ivEno) under dnuv. tno^av follow, dno/^f^v, iipo/Aao.- This very common Middle has an Aorist which corresponds to that of the Active Inw^ except th a in the Indie, it has the rough breathing : eonof^rjv, antod^av, anov, (anto^ OTiHO Hom.) which last forms occur chiefly in composition, inlonov, etc. The earlier poets have likewise the e in the other moods of the Aor- ist ; s(T7T(np.cci, scmiaS^ai, t(Tn6y,evoq. f But the Present Ea-Tcsxai Od. d. 826, is a false reading for EQXExai. — For eucpS^t] see above in its place. En — see elnuv. i^cco) love, poetic efjaf.iat [decl. like lorcx^aL), takes its tenses solely from the Passive form ; Aor. ^iqckt&tjv (poet. rjQaaaptjv). A real Passive is the Pres. iQMp,aL, bgua&ai, igca^svog. — Another regular form igaa is found only in composition, i^tgacroiL pour out, naxsqaijai, etc. EPrSl&xxA egdca, see gi^w, — sg/b) see also in tl'g/(a. igsUoj has the signification tear, burst, break in pieces, as transitive ; but in the Aor. 2 i^gLxov, as intransitive. (§ 113. 2.) * For the difference between this verb and the forms ivtTtxoj and Fut. iviipoj, see the marg. note on the preceding pagfe. t If we compare the forms IgtzoVj anhd'ai, and toyoVy ax^tv (from I'xw) with tTtXs, i'TThxOy inx6p-i]Vy TrrtoOtet, etc. (see § 110. 4), it appears that the former have arisen from the same syncope as the latter. The rough breathing in tnu) and '^EXQ (f'lcy) passed over into a, which then connected itself with the following consonant; thus s-gxoVj s-gtiov. The aspirated s in ianofitiv is anomalous. § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 281 igsljico cast dovm, has this causative sense (§ 113. 2) in the Fut. and Aor. 1, etc. — Plupf. Pass. igsgLTito epic, instead of ig^lgnno, § 85. n. 1. — The Aor. 2 and Perf. 2, i^ginov, igriguna, have the immediate sense, to fall down. — Epic Middle avTjgEbipafiriVy impelled upwards^ hurried off. eQi'ad^ai. ask, interrogate, an Aorist, ^^Ofitjv, agco^ai., Imperat. igov. Fut. IgriGOfiai. The Ionic prose has also a Present EXgofiau ; but employs the Impf. sig6fj,7jv, with tl'gsad-aL (so accented) and the other moods, in the Aorist sense ; Fut. slgrjaof^at. — The epic vv^riters have also synony- mous with sl'gofiat the form sgtcrd'aL as Present, as likewise sgsa both in the Act. and Middle ; which must be carefully distinguished from the Fut. igsa under slnslv. Suhj. igslofisv epic for igstofiEv. — In prose the parts still wanting are supplied from igcarda. igsoj see unuv and egidS^ai. igl^bj quarrel, regular. — 'Perf. Pass. igrjgKTfiai, with emphatic Present signification. — Another form is igidalvoj, with which is to be con- nected (§ 112. 13) the form igidrjaacrd-ai, 11. ip. 792, with long t on ac- count of the metre. aggco go forth, erro, igg^aco, ?jggrjGa. § 112. 8. In a causative sense is usually derived from this verb the Homeric anosgos, forced, hurried away. See Lexilog. II. 92. sgv&alvbj blush, Fut. igv&riGa, etc. § 112. 13. Homer has also the theme igsv&(o, igsvcrco, etc. igvxco, long v, detain, impede, Aor. rjgvxaxov, Inf. igvxcwisiv, see § 85. n. 3. igvoj or slgva, draw, has the v short in flexion. Fut. also igvai, Mid. igvo- (im II. l, 454 ; see § 95. n. 12. Hesiod, however, has (e, 816) the Inf. ugvfihvai (short v), after the formation in jxi. — In the epic writers the MID. sgvofiai passes over into the signification rescue, deliver ; in which some critics, where the syllable must be long, still write the v with one a {slgvaato), as being originally long; while on the con- trary in the signification draw, they write it with double a [igvaaaTo), as being originally short. But since it is also found short in the former meaning (e. g. II. 8, 186. /, 351), and the significations often run into one another, the lengthening of the v is in all cases more correctly marked by ua. — On the other hand the secondary form gmaS-ai, which signifies only to rescue, has among the Attics long v, iggmajo ; but in epic writers this also is short {gvatxfirjv II. o, 29), and should consequently be written, where the syllable is long, with (T(T, eggvaaaxo, giKraato ; which, however, is comipionly neglected. — Finally, there is also a secondary syncopated form (§ 110. 5) egvcrd-ai, tl'gva&ai, and gva&ai, usually with long v, egmo (once sgvTo Hes. ■&, 304), El'gvjo, ugvaxai, gvajo, etc. This syncopated form belongs al- most exclusively to the meaning rescue, guard, (except Od. ;^, 90 ugvxo drew); and must not be confounded with the Perf and Plupf. Pass, of the theme e^voj, viz. sl'gvfiaL, have been drawn. — See further Lexilog. I, 18. with the additions in Vol. II. eg^ofiat go, from EAETSSi, Fut. iXevGOfxao, Aor. rjkvd^ov, comm. 282 § 114. CATALOGUE OP IRREGULAR VERBS. ^Xd-ov (§ 110. 4), iXdsTv, Imperat. ek{^e, etc. see § 103. n. 1.4, 1, Perf. ilrjlvd^a. Verbal Adj. iXevaxtoy. The Perf. in epic writers has the form ElU]Xovd-a ; 1 Plur. with syncope dXrjkov&^ev. For the Doric i]vS^ov, ivd-slv, see § 16. n. 1. d. Further, it has already been shewn in § 108. V. that instead of the other moods of the Present sQxofiai, which rarely occur, those of dfn are far more usual ; so also instead of rjQx^H'Wi ^be Impf. ^slv or fia ; and instead of the Fut. iXsmoiiaL, the Present form sifit. i(Td^7)fi£vog Ionic, T^a&rjfxsvog Attic ; a defective Part. Perf clothed, dressed. iaOio) eat, from edw (Hom.) Fut. I'dofxao (§ 95. n. 18), Perf idrjdoi(a Perf Pass. Idriden^ao Aor. Pass, ridiod^riv. — Aor. Act. ecpayov from OAFSi. — Verbal Adj. idaarog. Part of the forms from edco come from the old formation with Fut. idscrco, etc. (§ 112. n. 3) ; where the s wias changed in the Perf Act. into o (comp. § 97. n. 1. 2), which in Homer is retained in the Passive, idrjdofiaL, adi^doTai. Homer has also Perf. Wrjda, and Inf. Pres. edfisvai (§ 110. 5) for edsiv, idsfxevuL. l(j;r£T£, scrrtov, scmofiTjVj see emsiv and Ittw. evads see avddvco. evdoj, aad-evdo), sleep, Fut. evdi^ow, aa&svdrjacj, Augm. na'&rivdov, aad'evdov, and iyiddevdov. iVQiGiiOi find, from 'ETPil, Aor. evgov Imp. evQt. Fut. iVQtiatt), etc. (§ 112. 10.) Aor. Pass. evQt&nv (§ 95. n. 4). Verbal Adj. evQiTog. —Augm. § 84. n. 2.— MID. Writers not Attic form the Aor. Mid. as Aor. 1 evgdfjirjv, instead of EVQOjj.'Tjv, § 96. n. 1. marg. note. a^&co hate, only in the Pres. and poetic. Hence a MID. (f;f'^aj/OjMa*) anaid^avofxai am hated, F. anexd^riGOfxai, Aoi*. VX^^f^V^, ccTirjx^^' (Af]v.* Pf dm'jx^v^oit, am hated. See § 112. 13. i'jfco have, Impf elyov, Fut. h%M (with the rough breathing, § 18. n. 4), Aor. (as if from 2X£l) eayov, Gxelv, Suhj. q^M, d/^?, etc. (com- pound Tiagdaxo), nugdax^l?) Opt. Gxoltjv (§ 103. II. 3. marg. note), Imperat. gx^Q (§ 110. n. 2), but in composition also TiaQa- GXB, Mid. iGXOfAfjv Imp. Gyov (naQctGXOv) — whence a new Fut. axv^c^ Perf eGxv^cc etc. — Aor. Pass. eGX^&V^- — Verb. Adj. intog and Gx^Tog. From the Aorist cr%etv has arisen a secondary form of the Present l'(TX(o, which is preferred in certain special meanings, hold, gi-asp, etc. * The Infin. is everywhere found thus accented, a7r^;f'5'fa^«tj notwithstanding the Aorist signification. But a Present e'x'd'Ofiat is not found in the earlier writers. See the .^usf. Sprachl. <5 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 283 , in which case the Fut. (r/?]o-a) properly belongs to it.* — An old Perfect from s/oj is o/twxa ; II. /?, 218 crvvoxoiicoTs.j The following anomalous compounds of l/w are still to be noted : avixo). When the Mid. dve'xeo&ai has the signification endure, it takes the double augment in the Impf. and Aor. tiv£t.x6}ifjv, i^veaxofiiiv, § 86. n. 6. ctfiniXM envelope, wrap around, Impf. ccf^neTxov, Fut. dfi(pe^ct)f Aor. 7JfA.ntaxov, d^niaxiTv.^ — MID. d^inexo^iav or dfxnoaxvov- fA.aL^ wear, have on, F. di.i(pt'^0[j,c(o Aor. iqiincaxofxriv. vniaxvovfjiai promise, Ion. (Hom. Herod.) vniaxof^cco. Fut. vno- oxTJGOf^cxi^. Aor. V7iiGx6fA.f]p Imperat. vnoGXOv. Perf. vnsGxyil^ccL. tipoi boil, F. ixptioco etc. (Herodot. 1. 48 has Impf a^ee.) Verb. Adj. ixpriTtog, iiprjTog or igjd'og. ESI and "£Sl, see § 108. Z. ^dco live has ^ca, Cris, C'^i, etc. (§ 105. n. 5.) Impf it(ov, atv9, etc. Inf. C^^v Imperat. Cv- We find also (after the formation in ^t) a 1 pars. Impf s^rjv, and Imperat. ^rj&i, to which however the preceding forms were preferred. This verb exists in good Attic writers only as a defective, along with the more complete ^lom ; for the tenses ^^o-w or ^rjaofiai, s^rjcrcc, t'Crjxa, occur in the earlier writers either "not at all, or very rarely. — The Ionics prolonged ^w into ^mo by doubling the sound (^ 105. n. 10) ; and hence arose a new Ionic formation : ^ww, ^cosig, ^cjsts, e^ojov. § 105. n. 10. marg. note. Cauyvv^t, 7/oJce, unite, Fut. C^v'io) etc. (§ 112. 14.) Aor. 2 Pass, i^vyfjv. Ccovvpfii. gird, Fut. Coiao) etc. Perf Pass, etooa^ai (§ 112. 14). — MID. rjfiai, see § 108. II. || 'jjp, ^v, see § 109. I. 4. * For the origin of eoxov^, <7;f£2V^ from eyoj^ see the marg. note to €7toj above. — The I in the Pres. Toxoj stands in the place of a reduplication like that in jui'/uvo/^ mTtrojj, precisely like the i in 'lazrjfity except that in Xayoj the rough breathing went over into the smooth on account of the %; as was often the case in the ear- lier language. t This is sometimes derived from OXOQj and ol'xojxa (see oiiyofiai) from 01- XOS}. But the true derivation appears from a comparison of the subst. oxojx?].. The simplest Perf from eyoj is oya^ and with augm. ojya ; so also from OIXQ — ojxa. With the Attic reduplication both would become in the usual manner oxajya, oixojya ; (for the i, from oXxofxai would naturally stand only once, as in StiStxro ;) but since of two aspirates, the second can likewise be changed instead of the first (§ 18. n. 1), there arose also the forms oxojuay oVyajxa; and these were after- wards retained for the sake of perspicuity. t This form^is not to be divided into ti^Tt-iayov j a(nt-tGyiXv , but into Tqfiiti,- GyoVy afim-GyHV. It should indeed strictly be afin-laxov (like afiTC-stxov) ; but the augment passed in the Aorist frorh the verb to the preposition ; rj/Lcitc-axov* 284 § 114. CATALOGUE OP IRREGULAR VERBS. r]fiV(a bend down, sink. Hence is best derived the Homeric vTisfivrjf^vxs (II. X, 491) ; i. e. we can assume that when a verb began with a long vowel, the reduplication shortened it ; consequently ifii^fivxa. The metre required the first [i to be doubled ; but instead of this, fiv was adopted, as is also the case in other words ; e. g. arcdXaixvog from naXocfirj, vavvfivog for v(avvy.og. 0. 0AN — see '&vi']v, Part. re&vfjKcog (Ion. xsd-vTjojg), commonly Masc. and Neut. xs&vecog * The forms which occur, as d'iystv, d'lyojv, are probably all to be accented as Aorists. § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 285 (Horn. Ti&v£i(x)g) Gen. Mtog Fem. T€d^ve6i(ja (§ 110. n. 6. c.) — From li&vtjxa has arisen also a secondary Attic form of the Fut. xeifvri^M or n^vi^^Ofiat. — Verb. Adj. d^vrjiog mortal. S-0Qs7,v see S^gojaxca. \\ S-gdo-a-oi see Taguaaca. 0PE^ — see tgicpa. || OPEX— see jgixoi. d^QvuTM break, Aor. 2 Pass. hgvq)rjv, § 18. 2. ^QMGxco spring, leap, forms from 0OPSi the Aor. tOogov^ Fut. a^o- QOV(xaL Ion. d^ogtofiai. See § 110. 11. ©r^i — see Ttiqpa}. H '^I'w see § 18. n. 2. § 95. n. 4. / t^^oo) see § 105. n. 6. l^^vw 56^, place, has in Homer (and also in the later writers, ol xoivoi) Aor. 1 Pass. Idgvv^Tjv, as if from "l/JPTNSl* it(o, xu-OiCp}, seat, seat myself; Mid. seat myself; F, aa&cco (for xa'&l- aoj, ^95. 9). Mid. Kud^iCrioofAai Aor. ixad^ioa. Comp. tCoficct'. IxviofAat come, more commonly a9^){j/60(M«*, Fut. 'ilo^ai Aor. 1x6 fxtjv Pf Tyfiat', cxcpTyfAccc Inf. ag)7^d^at'. The epic writers employ iu the Pres. and Imperf. the radical form WO), with the Aor. ] l$ov (§ 96. n. 9). — It is moreover to be noted, that the Pres. ww has i long ; and therefore in the epic language all the forms which belong to this Active, and which are everywhere Pres. and Impf. occur only as long. The form i}t6fj.r]v however is Aor. 2, and therefore has regularly a short i (§ 96. 2), which in the Indie, only is made long by the augment ; hence in the epic writers, who can omit the augment, it is consequently sometimes long and sometimes short ; in the other moods {^ixscrd^ai, Ixolfirjv, etc.) always short. — The derived form iHoivca on the contrary has in the Present short i — For anUaTai see § 103. IV. 3. llaoy,Ofxai expiate, Fut. IXaaofiat (short a) from the less usual 'iXcifiat, for which Homer has also llaopai. — The Active has the intransitive sense he propitious; hence in the poets Imperat. 'iXrjd-c and Ua&t, Subj. and Opt. Perf. (as Pres.) iXi]X(o, lXii}xoipu iVrTajwat see nhopai. || X(T7ip,i see § 109. III. 4. \(TX7]p.L see § 107 with notes II. — imoxapai, see above in its place. loXf^ see sx(a. || JJl see slixi § 108. V. K. KAJ — . (1) TtixaofiaL, zittadfiat, see xalvvpML. (2) jcsxa^stj', Fut. i^b-uv etc. see xrjdco and ;fa^o). xad-bCofiav, xadsvdb}, xd&r][iaL, xa&i^oo, see s'^opat, svdco, rjpui, t^w. * Comp. § 112. 12 ; further, a^nvvvd-fj in nvio), and also the epic superlative Id-vvxara from l&vs § 115. n. 6, 37 286 § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. TtalvvfiuL am distinguished^ surpass all; here belongs the synonymous Perf. xsxacFfiai, Dor. ninad^ai.* xa/o) hum trahs. Att. ^aca (long a and without contraction), F. xauaoi etc. § 95. n. 9. Pass, Aor. 1 izav'&fjv and Aor. 2 £x«??y (short a). Verb. Adj. nccvortog, zctvavog, itaviog. The epic writers have also an Aor. 1 without a, sxrjcc (§ 96. n. 1) ; and hence by shortening the 7) into s arises the Part. yJag, which occurs in Attic poets, ^Esch. Agam. 858. Eurip. Rhes. 97. In the epic language this s is again lengthened into ti (comp. gjeIo), ^tloj, etc. § 107. n. IV. 9) in Imperat. xeIov, Mid. xsiavro, etc. and the Subj. ado- }iEv (for xt]03(^£v § 103. V. 15) which stands instead of the Put. II. ■>/, 333 ; see § 139. n. 8. — The forms of the' Present nrjoj, xeIco {Inf. xaxa- xELSfiEv II. 1], 408) are of doubtful authority. aaXtcx) call, Fut, xaUao) Att. aulco (§ 95. n. 12) ; — ixotXsaa, aeKltjica, ixXrjxfr]!/, etc. (§110. II.) Perf Pass. ^ealrjfiaL am called, named , Opt. xsxXrjLirjv, xenXrjo, etc. § 98. n. 9. — MID. Kccf^vM am wear J/, from K^MS^ (§ 112. 12), Aor. enafiov Fut. aaf^ov- [icct. — Pf niKfiiiXa (as if from KMA^j § 110. 11), epic P«r^ xfX/u?;o)? Gen. oxog and euro?. xavd^oiig see hyvvp,L. xEifiaL see § 109. II. xiloiiaL call, command, F. xfXi^aofxccL etc. — Aor. ixsxX6f>i7)v (§ 110.4. 6). — But ixXso see in xXeo). xEVTsco prick, regular. But Homer II. ip, 237 has the Inf. Aor. 1 xsVca* from the theme KENTSL (whence xovxog pole). xegavwixi mix, or nc^vaco, yiiQV7]^u, old and poetic Viegao) (§ 112. 14, 15), Fut. ^eguao), Aor. ixe'gaaa with short «. On the other hand the syncope, or rather metathesis, f with long a, occurs in Perf Ki^cgaxa, Perf Pass. y.i}(gafiat, iHQadtjv, Ion. atxgfjficcc etc. Still we find also asxagaofxat, ixegaG'&rjv. Homer has in Aor. 1 also xgijaaL Od. rj, 164. — Further, the ac- cent is to be noted in the Homeric Subj. xigoyvTm II. d, 260.| aegdahco gain, among the Attics regular (Aor. xegdavai) ; in Ionic and many later writers nfgdrjoof^cci, ixt'gdfjaa^ etc. Perf xexigda- v.a (§ 101. n. 8. marg. note) and -r;xa. xscD see xEip,ai and xa/o). * That these forms belong togfethor is shewn not only by the signification, but also by the analogy of (ialvo), ^dooaTEj i^^dSarai, t Because the s is not so much dropped as united with the a; whence arose 7jj and in Attic writers d^ as is common after g. Comp. § 110. 11. t This implies a form xigafiat after the analogy of § 107. IH. 5. Comp. xqs- fidwvfii, n^ifiafiatj Subj. x^ifMJvai. § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 287 w]5(a make anxious, ici^dofiaL and ttixrjda dm anxious ; whence the Homeric Fut. xexadriaofiai (11. &, 353) with short a for rj (like -ti&rjlfii, led^aXvla). Imperat. Aor. Mid. x'ijdso-ciL for -rjaat. mxavm and Taxavofiai, reach, attain, find, mxri conceive^ is conjugated regularly after Kvita. The poets have also an Aor. 1 Mid. ixvaajitiv.* — Comp. also xwiw, A. layxavM obtain, receive, sc. by lot or fate, from AHXSi. (§ 112. 13), F. Xrilofxat Aor. tXaxov Pf HXr]%oi. (§ 83. n. 3), or XtXoyya as if from AErxsi. The Ionics made in the Fut. Id^ofiai (§ 27. n. 6.) — The Homeric Aorist Ma/ttv has the causative sense, to impaii, cause to share. AAK — , see Aacrxw. Xafi^avoo take, from AlIBSi (§ 112. 13), F. IrixpoiAat, Aor. tXa^ov Imp. Id^e and Xa^i (§ 103. n. I. 4. c), Pf. eiXi](fa (§83. n. 3).— MID. The Ionics formed Isla^rjua (§ 1X1. 3), and (from AAMBSl) Xafi- ipofiai, iXafX(p&rjv, XiXa^^ai, XufiTtTsog. Xav&avo), less often A'?]i)a), am hid, concealed, Xrioo), eXa&ov, XeXrjd^a. — Mid. Aai/i?^«j/0|Ut««, less often Xrtd^ofiav, forget, Xtiaofjiat, iXad^6p,tjv, XeXr]a(A,ai. Homer has in the Aorist lEXa&siv, XsXad-ia-d-ai ; the former how- ever only as a regular causative of the Middle, i. e. cause to forget ; in which sense Homer has also the Pres. XrjS^avoi). — In the Perf. Pass. the Ionics have short a, as XiXaafioci, § 27. n. 6. Xd(TX(o make a noise, gabhle, (Ion. hri^ioa Dor. Xdnioi) from AAKJl, Aor. 2 iXdy.ov, and as Mid. XEkaKOfiriv (Hymn. Merc. 145), w^hence, according to § 111. 3, Fut. Xdni'iaoixai, Aor. 1 iXdxrjaa.j — Perf. as Pres. (§ 113. n. 13), XiXdna Ion. XsXrjxa ; epic shortened form XsXdxvla. Xd(o see Xa. \\ AEFX — see Xayxdvoa. - Xhyo3 in the signification to say has no Perf Active, and in the Perf Passive, XtXey^at, tXtxdriv. On the other hand, in the significa- tion to collect, in which especially several compounds occur, it has Perf Act. eiXoxo^ (ovvelXoxci), and in the Perf Pass, most com- monly 6iX(yfiac (§83. n. 3), Aor. iXe'yrjp {e.g. xuTeXeyrjaccv) ; to- gether with a MID. — Moreover dcaXtyo^at converse with,has also diiiXsy^iai,, but in the Aor. dieX^'x'&tjv. Homer has also the syncop. Aor. iXsyfirjv joined myself, Od. i, 335 ; and Xsxjo counted, Od. d, 451. The old poetic Xi^av cause to lie down, Xi^aad-ai to lie, rest, has along with this form also the syncopated Aorist (§ 110. 8) iXiyfirpf, XixTo, Imperat. Xs^o and by § 96. n. 9 Xs^so. That this verb however is from an entirely different root, is shewn in Lexilog. II. 78. 9, 10. * The usual orthography nvaaafiivTj rests solely on the seeming relation to i'uvaa from xvpioj. t The short a is found e. g. Aristoph. Pac. 382. The passage Aristoph. Nub. 410 {diaXdx^oaGa) is different. 290 § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. XsXsLXfioTEg lapping, playing with the tongue ; an old defective Participle in Hesiod. See Lexil-. I. 1. p. 7, note. Ausfiihrl. Sprachl. § 110. n. 14. XeXi7]fi(XL strive, hasten, an epic Perf. that seems to belong to AIASl, but corresponds to none of the significations of that root. The sugges- tion is therefore very probable, that it stands for XsXlXrjiJiaL, dropping the last X for the sake of the euphony, from Xdaco, Xdalofiai, desire, strive.* See Lexil. I. 21. AHB — see Xufx/Savbi. \\ XijS-o) see Xav&dvco. Xrjxico see Xaaxca. || AHX — see Xa/xdvco. AIA — see XsXlrjfiaL. lladonaL, rarely Xhofiai, beseech, F. Xlaofjiav, Aor. iXLddfitjv and iXnofirjv. XovM wash. In the Present and Iniperf of tbis verb, the Attics employ abridged forms instead of those irregular ones vi^hich have the final vowel and union-vowel short ; e.g. 3 pers. Impf iXov Plur. iXov- fi€v, etc. Pass. Xovfiat, etc. Xova&ai^. — MID. The fuller forms are themselves contracted from the old Xosa (Hom. iXosvv, Xoiaaai) ; the shorter forms however have not arisen from syn- cope (e.g. Xovfiat not like oifiai ^ 110. 5); but are in like manner contracted from the theme AOSl, whence the Homeric Aorist Xoe. This is shewn by the accentuation iXovfisv, iXovxo, (not eXovj^EV, eXovTo, like exsiTo, eqvto,) and by the Inf. Xovv, which is also adduced from Hippocrates in Galeni GIossl although in the writings of Hip- pocrates himself Xovuv is everywhere read. Xvta, see § 95. n. 4 ; and for Xmo, § 110. 7. — Opt. Perf XiXvxo § 98. n. 9. X(a will, Xr^q, Xi], 3 PI. Xiavti, a Doric defective. M. fiaivof^ccc am mad, furious, F. fxavovfAao A. e^idvrjv. Perf ^t^iriva, synonymous with the Present. But the Aor. Act. efAtiva (Aristoph. Thesm. 561) has the causative sense to make mady etc. in which the compound ixficchco is more usual (§ 135. n. 2). Theocritus (10. 31) has (isfxdvrjfim {§ 111. 3) with the same Present signification as fiaivof^ai. {xalopaL see MAfL. || MAK — see (At^xaofiau fiav&avo) learn, from MHSSl^ Aor. efiu'&ov F. fiad^rjaofiac Pf fitf^a- ^7?xa, §112. 13. § 111.3. The Fut. fidS^EVfiai see in § 95. n. 16. fianieiv see fidgmo). fidgvcc/xai stiive, fight^ like lL(nap.at ; only in the Present, and in the Impf. 2 pers. fidgvao, § 107. IV. 4. Optat. fiaQvolfirjv, § 107. n. III. 5. * Such sacrifices of analogy for the sake of easier pronunciation are not un- common in the earlier formation of a language. A case similar to the above is the poetic word exTtayXog striking, terrible, which unquestionably comes from inTtMiyrjvai, ; not however by transposition, but with the ending Xog (§ 119. 13. e) for hxitXayXog. In like manner nveXog stands for itlvslog from tiXvo), nXvvo), § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 291 fA(xg7iT(o take hold of, seize, /uw^i/xu, etc. Part. Perf. (isfiuQuog Aor. 2 {E^agnov) fisfiagTiov, and syncopated 8fj,a7rov, fiunieiv, 3 PI. Opt. fxsfidnoLsv (for fiaTiouv). fidxoi^tcctjight, F. fiax^oofiut, comm. fiaxovfiat (§ 95. n. 15, 16), Aor. ifAaxsoafitjv. Pf. (xefid^irifiav. Verb. Adj. fxuiextog and fiaxv^iog. From the Fut. arose the Ion. Pres. fia/sof^uL ; and Homer has not only fiaxsLOfisvog, but even [iaxsovfisvog, all as Present. For the sake of the metre the epic winters have Fut. fiax7](T0fi(iiiy but Aor. ifj.axi(r(TaTO.^ MASl an old verb, which occurs chiefly in three forms, viz. ' 1) Perfect as Present, strive, (f^sfiaa) fisfiaaai, fisfiacog (Gen. fisfiaw- TO?), and with syncope fiifxafxsv, (lifiais, 3 PI. Plupf. ^i^iuGav, § 110. 10 sq. 2) Present Middle fiojfiatj desire, seek, ficofisvog, contracted from ^do^au', but the co remains predominant, and therefore e.g. Inf. fiwdd-ai and Imperat. ficoEo (like fivwso from fxvdo^at, ^VMfiai) ; see § 105. n. 10. marg. note. 3) Fut. and Aor. Mid. y, a cr o fi a t, efiaddfjiriv, belong to fia lo^av touch, feel after, seek, especially in compounds; thus in Homer the Impf sTis^alsTo Od. i, 441 corresponds exactly to the Aor. sTtifxaatrd- fiEvog ib. 446. Comp. daia ddaaaS-ai, valco vdaacrS-aL. fi€d-v(o am drunk, assumes its tenses from the Passive, IfA.e&vo'&fjv etc. The other tenses of the Active, except the Imperfect, belong to fis- &V(TX(o make drunk, as i^ix^vaa etc. (§ 112. n. 6.) fAslgofiuL obtain, Aor. sij.(xogov, Pf. sfifioga f § 83. n. 2. From the causative sense (§ 113. 2) oif the Active [MEIPSL) divide, distribute, (whence ^igog part, portion), comes the Perf. Pass, as impersonal and with the syllable u instead of the reduplication (§ 83. n. 3), viz. Eifiagxai it is fated, is appointed by destiny, Part, ti^agidvog. — We find also (j,sfj.6grj- TUi and fjLEfiog^ivog. fiekXoi) will, am about to, etc. F. fiellriGM etc. For the Augm. see § 83. n. 5. fitXoi concern, he laid to hearty is in the Active employed mostly in the third person^ (itXso., fxeXovac, F. f.ieXrja6i> etc. — Pass, fiikofiao I lay to heart, am solicitous, (more commonly inif^aXo/ncxt,) (^ekijaofiat^, ififXijdrjv. The poets use the Passive in the same sense as the Active ; con- sequently [xsXsraL for [liXsv. Further, they use the Perfect in the same sense as the Present ; thus Act. fiSf^TjXsv, and Pass. ^(jb^XsTav (Horn, Hesiod), which is formed from fiefisXfjTai by <^ 19. n. 1, and by short- ening the rj ; comp. (^sfiveo in f4,Lf^vt](rxoif, and agrigsp^au in agagiaxm. * Some critics for the sake of uniformity write also e/uaxyoato etc. contrary to the text which has come down to us. t In the earlier epic writers there is found only the 3 pers. i'fifiogSy and in most instances clearly as Perfect, like nexTTjxou, e. g. Od. s^ 335. But in II. «. 278, it is clearly Aorist. 292 § 144. CATALOGUE OP IRREGULAR VERBS. /M«Va> remain, has in the Perf. (^ffievt^xa § 101. n. 9. — Verb. Adj. nsve- leog. From another MENU, not extant in the Present, (whence fdvog,) comes the Ionic and poetic Perf. fiif^ova intend, purpose (comp. (ievs- aivbi), which is related to fisfiaa ; see in MJJl, and comp. yiyova yiyaa.* METISl, (xEixeTifisvog, see § 108. 1. 5. fi7ji(ao[j,ai bleat, low ; old poetic forms are Part. Aor. fxaxcov, Perf. fjisfirjTca, whence the Homeric fiefiaxvla is derived by shortening the vowel (§ 97. n. 3). Hence, since it has the signification of the Present, there is formed another Impf. e^sfiTjxov, § 111. 2. fiiaivco stain, soil. The Aor. assumes tj. The Homeric fiidv&rjv II. d. 146, is explained as the 3 pers. PI. for fiiocvS^fjcrav, filavS^sv ; but is more probably the 3 pers. Dual of the syncop. Aor. (Sing, ifiiav-jo) Dual efiidv-ffS-rjv, ifiLav&rjv, § 110. n. 3. fiiyvvfjii, also fiioym, mix, F. fil^co, etc. § 112. 14. fit^vijayioi remind, from MNA^, F. i^vi^aco, etc. — Pass. fxif^vi]axofict& call to mind, recollect, mention, ifivi^adrjv, fivrjo{>i]aofiat, fiVf]aiog. — The Perf. Pass. fAi^vrj^iao becomes Present, call to mind^ i. e. am still mindful, Suhj. (.lefivcof-iat, tj, t]Ta&, etc. see § 98. n. 9. Opt. iiifjLvrip.riv Attic fiffivoi/A7]v, or also fA.6fA^vMfAf]v, fAef^volro, con- tracted from the Ionic fxe^veM^rjv, fxefAvtoiTO (II. t//, 361).f To this Perfect belongs the Fut. 3 fA.eiAvi^GOf.iut, will remain mindful. Syncopated forms are the Homeric (liixvt] [fii^vsai) for fisfivrjaai, and Imperat. psfivso (Herodot.) for p^iiivriuo. Comp. above ^Ep,^X8jai in psXo). The simple form [fivdopai] fivap-ai in the above signification is merely Ionic ; and pvEca^isvog, pvaovTO, fiv(oeo, etc. (§ 105. n. 10. marg. note) are Ionic lengthened forms. But in the meaning to court, woo, pvaa&ai belongs also to the common language. poXuv see /SAwo-xw. pvmopaL bellow, roar, is to be noted on account of the epic forms e^vxov, pipivxa, from MTKSl. Comp. p,7]xdofiac. N val(o dwell, assumes its tenses from the Pass, and Mid. of NASI with short a, F. voKjopm Aor. ivucr&rjv or evaadfirjv, Perf (in later, writers) vivaff^au. The Act. IVaora {tvaaffo) has the causative sense, cause to dwell. * The lyric passage, Eurip Iph. Aul. 1495, where fi^fiova is Perfect of the common (liviOy can prove nothing, isolated as it is, against the otherwise invari- able usage which prevails not only throughout the Attic poets, but even in the prose of Herodotus (vi. 84). The two verbs must be carefully distinguished, even if it be thought advisable to arrange them under the same etymology. t For all these forms, see § 98. n. 9. § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 293 vdaaoD stuffs F. W^cu, etc. — vivaG^cn,^ vaavog. § 92. n. 2. vtfio) allot, distribute, F. vefuxi and vf^f]O0), Aor, hv^ifia Perf. v€vifi7]y>a, etc. Aor. Pass, tvs^iri&i'iv and ivefiS'&fjv. — MID. y«w, 1) heap up, occurs in the Pres. and Impf. chiefly in the Ionic lengthened forms v^co, vrjeco, vfjvioj. — Fut. vi]gco, Aor. evfjoa Ion. ivritiGa, etc. 2) spin, also regular, vriGO), etc. But in the Pres. the vowels eo, eov are contracted not as usual into ov, but contrary to analogy into 0), as vMOi, i^rnvzog, etc. — A new form of the Pres. is vtjdco. 3) swim, F. vsvGOfxoLt and vsvaovpat (§ 95. n. 17), evevacc, etc. 4) the poetic verb VEsaS^ai, to go away, to turn back, has in the Indie. Pres. commonly the signification of the Future, vsofiat or vsv- fiat, 2 pers. vstai, § 105. n. 7. vlCoD wash, takes its tenses from the less usual vItitcd ; thus Fut. vlipco, etc.— MID. voia think, is contracted and accented by the Ionics like /Joaw ; e. g. ywo-w, svcaaa, ivavwro. vvGxa^o} nod, sleep, vvGrccGO) and vvgtu^w, etc. § 92. n. 1. ^v^fift) shave, Middle commonly ^vgofiau o oCoD smell, i. e. emit an odour, F. oC^iGO) (Ion. o^iooi), etc. — Perf. odmda has the force of the Present. ol/o) or ol'yvvfii, open, in the epic writers separates the diphthong in the augmented forms, myvvvro, m^s. — The following compound is most used. dvolyo) or dvolyvvfit, open, has the anomalous augment men- tioned in § 84. n. 8; Impf ccvecoyov, Aor. di^t'co'^a. Inf. dvollai,, etc. Perf 1 ccvtoyxcc. The Perf 2 dvacoya has the neuter (intrans.) signification, stand open. The forms i^vot'ia, ^volyrjv belong to the later writers. olda see § 109. III. otopcti^ suppose, Impf co6iir]v. The 1 pers. Sing, is also olfxai, Impf oj{A,f]v.* — Fut. olriGOiiat Aor. wrid^riv, oirj'&fivai^. . * According to the ancient Grammarians, the forms ol^ai^ V/^V^j were em- ployed only in cases of entire conviction ; where however Attic urbanity avoided, in this way, the harshness of positive assertion. 38 294 § 1 14. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. I The epic writers employ also the Active forms, and moreover re- solve the diphthong : ol(o, o'Co^av, (long t,) whence ojLaaixrjVf mad^riv. oixofiai depart, am gone, F. oixr}GOfA,ui Pf. M'/Vf^^^^ or oi'jfwxa, see the marg. note under ex^) oxcaxa. Homer has also Mxriy-a, nagojxrixa II. x, 252. — On this whole verb, see the Ausf. SpracM. 01 — see oXonai and cpigco. oXiaddi^co (comra. -aivo)) slip, glide, oha&ilaco, wlcad^ov, § 112. 13, ollvfit cause to perish, destroy, from 0AS2, F. oIm, Aor. wleacc, Perf. oAcoAfxa. — MID. oXXvfiai perish, F. okovfiac Aor. coXoiitjv, to which belongs Perf 2 olcoXa. The poetic Part. oX6y,EVO?, ovXofxsvog, passes over into an adjective, with the active signification destructive, fatal. — The epic secondary form oXsxco arose out of the Perfect ; comp. § 111. 2. of^vvfit, swear, Fut. o/^iov^at, el, eixav, etc. 6p.eiG&ai, from 0MS2 (§ 112. 14). The farther formation is as if from OMOSl, Aor. wf-ioocx, Perf 'o^M^O'Aa, — Perf Pass. 6(AOj[.ioaf.iac, but the other forms, together with the Aorist, more commonly without g, as 6[A.cjjf40zcil, (Ofio&rjv. — MID. OfxoQyvviAi wipe off, Fut. 6[a.6qIm, etc. § 112. 14. — MID. 6vtvf]fii* am of use, profit, (decl. like iGi^fii,) has no Impf Act. (but for it employs wcpiXovv,) and takes its forms from ONASl, ovrjGO}, covfjGa. — MID. oviva^iav have 'profit, am benefited, Aor. 2 (ov^f^rjv (i^GO, 7]T0, etc.) or oji^ccfArjv Opt. ovul^iriv Inf. ovaGd^ai^. The ludic. avafirjv belongs to the later writers. In Homer how- ever it comes from ovofiai ; see the next verb. ovoiiai insult, radical form ONOSl ; hence the Pres. and Impf. like dldofiat, viz. 2 pers. Sing, ovoaat Imperat. ovoao. — Fut. ovoaofiai. Aor. avo- ad^riv and b)vo(T(xfi7]v. — Homer has also from the simpler form ONJl 2 Plur. Pres. ovvsaS^s, Aor. wVaio. on— see oQttOi. ogdo) see, Impf Ion. mgwv, comm. iojgcov (§ 84. n. 8) Perf icoQccna.f — Aor. € Ida V, id slv, Idcov, 'ids, Att. Qi^Gop.ai., Aor. MacpgofAtjv (§ 112. 13) Ion. OGcpQaiinv (Herodot. I. 80, 26) by §96. n. 1 with the marg. note. ovX6p.svog see oXXvfit. \\ ovvecrSs see ovofiaL. ovQto) void urine, F. ovgriaojucci, has the syllabic augment, iovgovv etc. §84. n. 5. ovtaca wound, ovTrj(rG), etc. — Syncopated Aor. {omav § 110. 6, 7,) 3 Sing. ovTa Inf. ovTocixsv (for omdvai) Part. Pass. omdiiEVog. — Along with these exist also the forms ovxa^w, omaas, omaa^xivog. 6(fieUa), (1) owe e. g. money, (2) ought, must, — F. ocfstX^aco etc. The form cjq^sXov, sg, s, (comm. oq)EXov,) occurs only as expressive of awish ; see Syntax § 150. — In Homer we find instead of ocpslXco also ocpsXXo) (II. T. 200), and for Mq)sXov on account of the metre also acpsX- Xov (II. ^, 350) ; which forms must not be confounded with those of oq)iXX(o increase, glorify. From this last verb Homer has in the Opt. Aor. 1 by anomaly, 3 pers. Sing. oq}iXXEL£v II. ti, 651. Od. /5, 334. oq)Xlaiiavco incur, forfeit, F. ocplriGca, Pf ojcplrjxcc, Aor. oicpXov. n. ncclCo) play, jest, F. nai^Of^aL, nai^ovfjiai. We find after this forma- tion in later writers also snaL^a, niTcaiy^au etc. but good Attic writers always have suttKra, ninaKJiiai etc. notwithstanding the simi lar tenses of the following verb. naio) strike, F. naiaco and nai^i^aco, but the remaining tenses come only from the first formation : inaiaa, Titnmxcc, inaiG&'tjv. — MID. JIAF — , nsTcageiv, see in tcoqeXv. 296 § 114. CATALOGUE OP IRREGULAR VERBS. Tiaaacr&aL acquire, eTiaacifirjv, Pf. ninay.ai possess ; — different from in«- (Tttiifjv, Tiina (or 7tEgd--(Td-ocL) like dEX-S-at, § 110. 8 and n. 3. 7ie(TeXv see nlmo). ntaao)^ nezTO), boil, bake, cook, F. nexpo) etc. from TifVrrw, which oc- curs in the Present only in later writers. nixuvvvfit expand, F. nsxoiow (Att. tistm) etc § 112. 14. — Pf Pass. ntnTctfiCit, (§ 110. 4. b) ; but Aor. Pass, again ineraadfjv. § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 297 ne'tof^atjli/. From this theme comes by syncope an Aorist intofifjv^ ntiad^ai, etc. § 110. 4. Fut. nexriaof.ia.1, comm. nTj'jOOfAac. Along with these exists also a formation in fu, viz. im a[A,aij Aor. Inxa^riv, nxdad^at etc. and from the entirely obsolete Pres. Active of this formation, comes another Aorist tntfjv, ntrjvat'^ nxdg, etc. synonymous with the two former. The forms of the Pres. nhafiau and TtExao^aL with the Aor. iTisxa- (T&rjv (e. g. Anacr. 40. 6), belong to the poets and the later prose. As Perfect, only nenoxTjfxat, seems to have been in use. The poets em- ployed also the Pres. noxuo^ai^ Tiaxaofiai. (§ 112. 9.) IIET-'— see nlnxw. || nsv&ofiav see nvvd^avofjuau. nicpvov, s7rE(pvov, I killed, the reduplicated and at the same time synco- pated Aorist (§ 110. 4) from (PENSl (whence cpovog). The participle of this Aorist, contrary to analogy, is accented on the penult, nicpvoiv.* Pass. Perf. nicfa^ai Fut. 7rs(frj(yoiJ,aL ; comp. xtlvo), xixafiai, § 101. 9, and for 7is(f)t^(T0{im see particularly §99. n. 1. See also 0A — below. nr}yvv(xijlx^ make fast ; in later writers also nriGaWt nrjTXM ; F. nrj^M etc. § 112. 14. Aor. Pass. in(xy7]v. — Perf 2 ntnrjya intrans. standfast, § 113. n. 3. — MID. nlfinXfjfAt fill ; Infin. lUfinXdvai^ is declined in Pres. and Impf like iGTi^fii. — Fut. nlrjOM etc. Pf Pass. ntnlrjGfA.at Aor. Pass. Inlriod^riv, from TIAA^ or 7i^ti&(o, which last form however has in the Pres. only the intransitive signification to be full. When in composition fz comes to stand before the initial tt, the (I in the reduplication falls away, as ennlnla^ai ; but it reappears so soon as the augment intervenes, as ev&nlyjilafTav. In .contradiction to this rule, the poets, for the sake of the metre, employ the form with or without the ^ indiscriminately. — The form- ation in doi [ni(xnlav, i^nmlav) is not good Attic, except in those in- stances where it occurs also in 'iaxri^i. For the Passive Aor. i7TXi]fj,rjv, Opt. 7iXsliJ,rjv,\ Imperat. nXijo-o, etc. see § 110. 7. ^ It was not unknown to the Attic language ; Aristoph. S^TTXl'jlXEVOg, ijJ^TTXsllATjV. From the intrans. TiXijd-ca there occurs as a poetic Perfect, ni- nXTj&ct with the like meaning, am full. nifingriiii hum trans. m^nQavai, is declined in the Pres. and Impf like iGX7jfA.o. The rest comes from HP A SI or tiqi^&od (Horn.) e. g. ingf]G'&'rjv. — With i^nlngri^t,, ivsnlfingafiev, the case is the same as in nlf^nltjfAO above ; and so also with the formation in aw. * That iticpvifjv is really Aorist, is clearly evident from the connexion in the two passages, 11. itj 827. q, 539. t The orthography TtXfjfirjV has no analogy. Instead of ft^ one might indeed have expected the diphthong w, since the form 'KifinlAvai presupposes a theme TLAAQ. But in the same manner ^qy'ij which comes from %qdv} (see below), has also in the Opt . Jf()«i7. L 298 § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. The shortened form STrgEas for errgi^ors in Hesiod {&, 856) is to be remarked ; since the analogy of inlfiTsgafitv would lead us to expect here an a. - nivco drink, from JTAQ, Fut. ntoi^iai{95. n. 18) Aor. Intov, nieiv, etc. Imp. comm. lu&o (§110. n. 2). — All the other forms are from II0S2, terf najicoxcc Perf Pass, ntno^uo Aor. Pass, inodf^v, Verb. Adj. noieog, notog. The i in 7ilofiai> is commonly long (see Athen. 10. p. 446) ; but in sTiiov etc. short. — The Fut. niov fiau belongs to the later writers, § 95. n. 16. The forms nhw, ejiLCFa, have the causative sense give to drinks and belong to the Present nmhata. • ' TimgaoKco, Ion. niTLgijoTio}, sell; Fut. and Aor. wanting. The forms in use are, Tzengaxcc, ningafiai, iuQad^t^v, -jienQaGOfxai, which Fut. 3 is in use instead of the Fut. 1 iiQa&riGOfiav, which is not Attic ; and in like manner the Perf nengccG&ao very often stands instead of the Aor. uQa&rivat. The Ionics have all these forms with 7]. The common language supplied the tenses still wanting, by means of a7iodcij(Toy,ai, cc7i£d6fii]V. The old and epic language had Fut. nEQaaco with short a, and hence contr. tieqoj, negav, Aor. insQuo-a, from Trf^aw, which we have seen in its place above in a kindred signification, and with long a in flexion. From this nsQucraL arose afterwards the other preceding forms by the metathesis mentioned in § 110. 11. 2 ; and in the first marg. note to xsgavvv^L above. nlntca fall, (long i, hence Imperat. nlnt^,) forms its other tenses from UETSi, § 112. 16. Fut. with Doric form neaovfiM (Ion. neae'oficct), Aor. enaaov § 96. n. 9. — Perf nanTCJKa. Poetic syncopated forms of the Part. Perf. are Attic nenxiaq (comp. ^f^QWTsg from ^s^qwhu) and epic nsTiTEcag. The latter implies an ori- ginal Perf form 7iB7tTi]y.a (from IIETSl like dsdfirjxa from difio)), whence nsTiTMica has been formed by substituting a cognate vowel (§27. 1); see Lexil. I. 6-3. p. 295. The regular forms of the Aor. from IIETfL also occur ; as Aor. 1 %nk(ja Eurip. Troad. 291. Alcm. 465. Aor. 2 btistov in Doric writers, e. g. Pindar. jiLTvico fall, Aor. mixvov (§ 96. n. 5). — But nLzvaa, nlTVfjfii, is the same with nlaCo) cause to wander about, Pass, wander about, rove; F. nXay^O) etc. § 92. n. 1. JIA — see niXo). \\ IIAA — , nkrj&b}, see neXu^o) and nlfxnXrmi. nltco sail, F. nlevGo^at, nXsvaovfxai', — inXevGoc, etc. Pass. nenXiV' Ofiai', tnXtvod^fiv. Verb. Adj. nXevatiog. . § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 299 An Ionic form is ttAww, nsTzlmxa, etc. Hence Verb. Adj. ttAwto?, and the epic (syncopated) Aorist euXcov, (og, ta, (afisv, etc. Part, nliag, for which see § 110. 6. and n. 1. nliqGao), nlrjTTMj strike ; rarer form nXrjyvvfii^. It retains the r] in the Aor. 2 Pass. lnlriyr}v, except in those compounds which signify to terrify, as i'ienXayrjv, accTSTiXccyrjv. — In the signification to strike the Attics never employ the Active of this verb, but instead of it narciaooi} ; which latter they never use in the Passive. The Perf 2 niTtlriya has in later writers also a Passive significa- tion (§ 113. A. 4). Homer has also the Aor. 2 Act. and Mid. but with the reduplication, nsTiXr^yov, nETrXtjyo^rjv. nvtcD hlow^ F. nvevoo}.iai,j nffvoovf-iuc, — Invevaa, etc. Aor. Pass. The Perf Pass, ninyvy^av (§ 98. n. 4) is merely poetic, with the special signification to he animated, intelligent; and after the same analogy occurs also the syncopated Aorist a^nvmo (Hom. for ccvstivvto § 110. 7) ; further a^nvvvd^i] (for avEnvv&i], comp. Idgva, WQvvd^riv), and the Imperat. u^jinvvs. 7io^s(o see § 95. n. 4. nogslv (Hesych.) enogov, gave, Part, nogwv, a defective poetic Aorist. To the same theme, with the sense divide out, allot, belongs on the principle of metathesis (§ 110. 11), the Perf Pass. nsTigcoTaL it is ap- pointed by destiny. Part. uEngm^ivog. The Infin. nsnagslv or nsnoguv in Pind. Pyth. II. 105, is better referred to a separate theme of its own, with the meaning to shew, cause to see. The greater number of manuscripts have the former orthography. no — see Tilva. — niTiocrS-s see nu(TX(o. JIPA — , ngi]d^(x), see 7ii7igaax(o and nifiTigrjiii,. TiQiao^ai, buy, a defective verb, the forms of which are used only as Aorist o( the verb o)v67ad^at, viz. Ingm^riv, 8uhj. ngicof4.m, Opt. 7iQiatfAf]v, Imp. nglaao, uqIm, Inf. nQiaad^ai, Part. nQtafisvog. The Pres. Indie, ngla^av which the lexicons exhibit, is nowhere found. We must consequently regard sTigidfirjv as a defective Aor. 2 Mid. after the analogy of sTCTotfirjv ; see nhoixm above. JJPO — see noguv. JITA — JITO — see TrsrdvvvfiL, nixo^ai, nxi'iaffa, and tt/ttto). nTi]Ga(x) stoop down, is regular ; but has in the poets a few forms from IITAIL, Part. Perf nrnTrjcog, and 3 pers. Dual Aor. 2 mriTrjv, § 110. 6. nvvd^avofJiai> inquire, perceive hy the senses, ledrn, from the poetic mv- ^of-iav, Fut. nsi)aof.icti> Aor. invd^ofiriv Pf nenvap.ac. Verb. Adj. navGxtog, uevaxog. ^00 § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VEBRS. P. galvoi) sprinkle. For QaaaaTs and iggaduTUL see § 103. n. IV. 5. ^ ^8^(0 and I'lO^o), do, F. ^i^a or (from EPFJl) SjO^w etc. Perf. eoqya. Qi(x) jlow, F. Q6vaofia(, A. e^QevGu. In this Active signification how- ever, the only genuine Attic forms are the Aor. 2 Pass. eQQvrjv with the Fut. Qvrjao^iai, and a new Perf. formed from this Aorist, viz. i^gm-jKa. § 111. 2. 'PJS — see ELnuv. Qriyvv^ii tear trans. F. qtiIm (§ 112. 14) Aor. Pass. igQayrjv. — Perf 2 tQQOiya (§ 97. n. 2) with intrans. signification, am torn in pieces, % 113. n. 4. Qiyioi shudder, Perf eg^lya {§ 97. n. 4) the same with the Present. ^lyoca see § 105. n. 6. Qinxon and gimaco, cast ; in the Pass, and Impf both forms are in use ; all the other parts come from the first form, as Ql\p(a etc. The i is long ; hence qIjizs, glipav. Aor. Pass, iggicpfjv. — For Qinia- anov see § 103. n. II. 1. Qoi'Caffus see § 103. n. II. 1. ^PT — see QBO). QVOfiaL see igvca. \\ "PfLF — see g^yvvfii. QMvvvfxo strengthen, Qcoao) etc. § 112. 14. Perf Pass, eggoifiav am strong, Imper. eQQtaao farewell. Aor. Pass. egpcoa&r]v. uaXnl^M sound a trumpet, Fut. aalniy^o), etc. §92. n. 1. Later form occXniGO). traoca see aw^w. (TOKO an old form for at'iS-oi sift, whence o-aVt in Herodot. I. 200. ^£ and aw^s. TAP— see TAJl. \\ Talaa see TAJJl. Tavvbj stretch, takes (t in the Passive, and has v short in flexion. — Fut. also tavvM, Od. (jp, 174. (§ 95. n. 12.) Pass, epic jdw^oci. tccQaGom, TT03, disturb, has contracted secondary forms, viz. (1) Amoncr the Attics the Present, S^guTTfa, where t becomes S^, and the vowel is made long ; hence Part. Neut. to S^gaxTov. (2) In the epic writers the Perfect, but with an intransitive signification, Thgrj/a am disturbed, unquiet, where the Ion. tj takes the place of long a.* — MID. raq)Elv and TCi(pi]vaL, see d^dmoi and 0_4(Z> — . TA — , the apparent stem of TSiVw, Thaxa, etc. (§ 101.) To a similar theme with the meaning lay hold of, take, belongs the Imperat. t^J take, Fr. tiens ; kindred with which (from TAT ft) is the epic Pari. A or. 2 redupl. T ST ay MV ^ taking hold of. See Lexil. I. 41. p. 162. TEK — see t/xtw. ttfivto cut, F. T6ji(a7, Aor. eiffAOv^ § 112. 12. — The further formation is (by § 110. 11), TiTfirjxa, rti^iri^iai, hn7]d^riv. For the Subj» Perf Pass, see § 98. n. 9. Less frequent is the Aor. sja^ov. The Ionics say also in the Present, Ttt/^yft) ; and Homer has further the radical form rsfioy, as II. v, 707 Ts^tL ; see Jlusf Sprachl. § 92. n. 13. — An epic form is T^?i/a>, Aor. STy,rj^a and ST^ayov, Pass. sTfidyvjv. legnoo delight, in the Passive form rsgno^at am delighted, satisfied, has in the epic language a threefold Aorist Pass, hsgqj^rjv or hdgcp&rjv, and sTag-- nrjv ; whence by transposition, (^96. n. 7) Subj. TgaTislo) for Tugnoj — and Aor. Mid. (hagno^rjv) Tsxagnopp, Subj. jagTCMfis&a. Tsgaofiai dry intrans. Lif Aor. 2 Pass. Tsgdijvcci and xtgar^nivai. — But t£^- cralvoi dry trans, dry up, ixsgariva, etc. regular. * This long vowel arises from a metathesis (§ 110, 11. 2), by which «() be- comes ga, and then this a unites itself with the following one into a long sound, just as in fiaXaxog — ^Id^, ^kaaog (ibid. marg. note). The change of r into ^ is occasionedby the easy union of the rough breathing with ^ in pronunciation; but it still remains an anomaly, inasmuch as it does not take place in other like cases; see § 17. n. 2. marg. note. — Moreover from this verb is derived the Adj. rgdxvg, Ion. rgij^vg^ rough, uneven, and not the verb from the adjective. Lexil. I, 52. p. 210. § 114. CATALOGUE OP IRREGULAR VERBS. 303 nhnov, BTSTfioVf meet with^Jind, a defective Aorist. TSTOQij(T(a see Togica. tstQalva} see Titgdoj. Tiii)^oj. Two kindred verbs must be here carefully distinguished : 1) Tev%(o make, a poetic word, regular, tsv^co, sTsv^a, rhv/f^ai, hv/- &i]V, TVXTog or TsvxTog. 2) Tvy)^avco happen, take effect, attain, F. lev^Of-iat:, Aor. ivv- Xov (epic tTV^Ga) Perf xsTViriVia^ § 112. 13. § 111.3. The idea of rvyxavco has arisen out of the Passive of Tev/o) ; hence in the epic writers the Passive forms rhv/fiaL, ixv/S^rjv very nearly coincide in sense with jvyxdvat, trv/ov. And the Perf. ts'tsi;/ a, whose Part, in Homer has the Passive signification of tevxoj (Od. (jt, 423. see § 113. n. 4), passes over wholly into the signification of the Present rvyxdvoi in Herodotus (111. 14. ult.) and in the holvoI or later writers. The Perf Pass, rhv/f^ai has also the diphthong sv ; hence in Ho- mer 3 Plur. TSJEVxajav, and Fut. 3 only TSTev^ofiai. To Tsvxo) belongs, with the Ionic change of the rough mute (§ 16. n. 1. e), the Aor. 2 tetvxhp, TSTVTcia&aL, prepare. The form togu a u for tvxbIv see in its place. TIE — , xstItj^ccl, am afflicted, Part. TETirjfisvog, and also tsxLrjOjg from the Active form. § 97. n. 7. xUto) hear, from TEKSl, Fut. re^tw, comm. xe'^OfAat, Aor. iiexov (poet. ixeKOfiTjv), Perf reToaa. In later writers we find also rsxEyfiai and ixsx&rjv. — For the Fut. , XEXEla&ai^ see ^ 95. n. 16. xlvo) see xlco. ztxgdco bore, from TPA^, TQ7]aco, etc. A secondary form which is more used by the Attics is xexgaivo)^ IxiTgriva. The Perfect is always from the usual theme, xixgrjHcc, xixQfjfiai. TCTQcoGKco wound, xQMOM, etc. <5> 112. 10, 16. The simpler form x^ww, with the more general signification injure, is found in Homer. Both forms are connected with xoqeIlv by means of the metathesis TOP, TPO. § 110. 11. t/o) honour, is in this signification only poetical, and is conjugated regu- larly. Part. Perf Pass. xEXiy.EVog. In the signification to pay, atone for, it is in the Pres. and Impf. solely epic ; but furnishes in prose the other tenses for the following form, viz. xlvo) pay, atone for, Fut. xhoj Perf xexiaa Perf Pass, xixv- G [,iao Aor. 1 Pass, ixiadrjv. The MID. xivofiat {xiaof^iai', ixiaa- fif]v^ dneTcadfirjv) has the signification j^wmsA, avenge. The Ionic form of the Present is xivvv/ai, xlvvv^ai, § 112. 14. The i> in x/j/oj is in the epic writers long ; in Attic writers short, ac- 304 — see S-gvnxo). Tgv)[0} wear away, exhaust, consume, forms its tenses from the les^ fre- quent xgviQO) ; as ergvymua, xergvyoif-UvoQ, etc. tgiuyoi eat, F. Tgo')'^o^iai. — Aorist exgayov (from TPHTSl). Tvyx^Vd), XEXvuslv, see under xev/o}. TvnxM strike, has in Attic writers commonly rvjiTrfGco, xsxvnTTjfiat, TvnT7)xtog. — Aor. Pass, ixvnrjv. — MID. tvq)co smoke, burn, trans. F. {f^uipco etc. (§ 18. 2.) — Aor. Pass. iTvq)tjv. * It has formerly been stated that the i in the flexion tioojj I'rtaa, from rivoi is also made short by the Attics. This arose from a misapprehension of the comic metro in Aristoph. Eccl. 45. Vesp. 1424. where the t makes an anapaest. See the Ausf. Sprachl. under tiojj where this correction should be made. § 114 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 305 vjticFxvio^aiy see under l/w. CD. ^AF — see idd^lM. (palv(o intrans. shine, emit light ; trans, shew, point out ; — Aor. ecptjva, Perf. 1 7T8(payxa. Pass, cpaivofzcci, with Aor. 1 icpdv&rjv, am pointed out, de- nounced. — MID. — The Pass, qiaivo^at, has also the signification seem, appear, Aor. 2 lcpav7]V, Fut. cpavov^at, and with Perf. 2 niq)7jva (§ 113. n. 3). The Homeric iterative (pavsans appeared, shewed itself, is formed somewhat anomalously from the Pass. s(pdv7]v. — The same poet has (pdav&sv for icfdv&fjaav, in the signification to appear; comp. xgalvah ^A — , q)d(TX(a. See cprjfil (§ 109. I), q>aiv(o and ft^ENJl. It is to be ob- served, that the Homeric n8(f)ri(Top,ai belongs sometimes to (palvw, and sometimes to fPENJl, I shall appear, or / shall be killed. JSjyj2 see nicpvov. (figo) hear, carry, forms its tenses from entirely different roots. Fut. o/W, with an Aoxhi Imper at. oiae, for which see §96. n. 9. — Aor. 1 and 2, ^veyxa, ^jvsyaov, from the former of which are in use the Indicative and those persons of the Imperaf. which have cc in the termination ; from the latter principally the Irifin. and Participle; Perf. Ivrivoia (comp. §97. n. 1,2) Perf Pass. Ivi]- vsyiiai Aor. Pass, riviy^&^v. — Fut. Pass. lv^yd^i](5onai or oig&i^go- fiai. Verb. Adj. oiazeog, oiazog, poet, cpsgrog. — MID. The Ionics have an Aor. TJvsixa, ivstxai. Pass, ijvslx^rjv. The theme ivtUb) occurs as Present in Hesiod a. 440, avvsvelxaTat. — It is incorrect to consider ivsyzslv as a compound with sv ; it has arisen by means of a reduplication, like ijyayov, dlalzuv, etc. (§ 85. n. 2,) from a theme EFKIl, from which again ENEKSl, ENEIKJl are lengthened forms, like AAKJl, AAEKJl ; see Lexil. I. 63. 23.— Ho- mer has in the Imperat. Plur. (jps'^xs. — For cpogslv see,§ 112. 9. and n. 1 ; and for opoQrivai see § 105. n. 16. Infrequent forms coming from otcro), are Injin. Aor. 1 avMaai and Verb. Adj. uvmatog in Herodotus (1. 157. VI. QQ), where the w has no grammatical basis ; and the Perf ngoolGTai in Lucian (Paras. 2), where the diphthong ot remains unaffected by the augment, according to § 84. n. 2. For (pqim see below in its place. ^svyo) flee, F. qev'^ofiocc and (pev'S,ou(A,at, Aor. iq)vyov, Perf ntcfivya, Verb. Adj. qtevurtog {cpvurog Horn.) Homer has also the Part. Pf Pass, necpvy^ivoq with active sense, escaped ; and a Part. Perf. necpv^oTsg fugitives ; comp. cpv^a flight. (fd^dvo) am beforehand, anticipate. For the quantity of the a, see § 112. n. 8. vlor. 1 acp&aaa and Aor. 2 ecp&i^v, qot^w, (p&fjvm^ (p&ag, § 110. 6. Fut. cpd^TiGOfiOLi, Perf ecpd^ccaa. 306 § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. In II. X. 346, nagacp&aitjaL (for -ultj) is a rare instance where the 3 pers. Opt. takes 'a). Xaivo) see /ao-xcw. XcciQco rejoice, F. x^^^QV^^t Aor. (from the Pass.) ixagtjv, and from this again a Perfect with emphatic Present signification, xf/apT^xa or Ksxdgriixai exult ^ § 111. 3. From the regular formation there is still found in the poets, Perf Pass, xsxccg^ac, Aor. 1 Mid. ixrjQcciirjv, and Aor. 2 with redup. khx^qo- [iriv. — The Fut. x^Q'h^o^m belongs to the later writers ; Homer has iCExccQ7j(T0} and -ofim. Xav8av(x} grasp, contain, Aor. exadov (§ 112. 13). — Perf xixavda (same with the Pres.) Fut. /s/o-o/^wt Od. a. 17, as if from XENJSl (comp. CTiivdbj anuaoa, and nijiov&a ndao^av). XaoKO) open, gape, forms from the Pres. /a/Vw (which is not used by earlier writers) Aor. axavov, F, x^^ovfiai,. Pf yitxriva am open, gape. X^^fji, Fut. x^<^ovfiai, Aor. lustra and sxeaov. Perf. xs/oda § 97. 4. a. c. xdffopuL see ;^0{y5«>'(w. Xto) pour, Fut. also ;f£'co, ;ff7g, /;/, Fut. Mid. x^^f^^^ (see § 95. n. 12. and Ausf. SprachL Addit. to ;f6co) ; Aor. 1 i'/fa (§ 96. n. 1), i'/^a?, i'X^e (v), Inf. x^^^ Imp. x^^^i X^^t^^, etc. Perf kfjfJxa Perf Pass, aayvpat Aor. Pass. 6](vx>r]v, § 98. n. 4. — MID. The forms ;^€t'cra), s/svaa are not usual ; although they were the original ones, as is shewn by the subst. xsvpcc, and the forms of flex- ion ixvd^rjv, i/sva etc. See § 95. n. 9 and marg. note. The epic language has Aor. 1 sxeva, whence the Subj. /si^a} passes over into the Future signification Od. /?, 222 ; see § 139. n. 8. — Aor. Pass. sync. ixvpi]v etc. (§ 110. 7.) XgaLcrpeiv to help, s/gaLo-fiov, a defective Aorist ; whence arose Fut. /^«t- (rprjaco, €/^a/(rpjcra. § 111. 3. XQO(M- From this verb there exist five diflferent forms of conjugation and flexion, with their respective significations ; all with the contraction into 1] in the common language, Ionic into «, contrary to the usual analogy. (§ 105. n.5.) 1) X9^^ *''^^^ «'* oracle is regular : F. X9^^^ etc. Pass. ti^xQ^~ Gfiai, ixQVG&fjv. The contraction into f] see in Soph. Elect. 35. Oed. Col. 87. 308 § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 2) icixQjjfit, hndj is declined like I'aTfjf^t^, — /^^(JOi, exQ^^^- MID. itl)[Qafiac borrow, ^QV^Of^ai'. 3) ygaofiat use, X9V (^ ^^"g-) X9^^^^} XQV^^^'", etc. the rest is regular. Aor. lxQri(sa(.ir}Vj Perf. i^e XQt} ^ul* Verb. Adj. XgrjOTO?, XQnatiov. The Ionic forms of the Pres. and Impf. occur partly with a and partly with g, see in § 105. n. 8, 15. 4) ygi] impersonal, it behooves, is necessary, oportet, follows in part the verbs in iiv : Inf. iQrivai Opt. XQiiri SubJ. ygr] Par- ticip. (to) XQ^(av,-\^ Impf. ixQV^t or X9V^ (never i'x^rj). — Fut. XQVf^et. 5) anoxQV impers. it is enough, sujicient ; the form dnoxQ^ is not Attic ; PI. dnoxQ(^o.iv Inf. dnoxQrji/ Part. ccnoxQOJv, cuaa, Mv. — Impf dnt'xQr]. — F. dnoxQr^oet etc. XQfovvvfAi colour, F. XQ^^^ etc. (§ 112. 14.) Perf Pass. y.txQ0JGinai. X^vvvfii, heap up, dam (§ 112. 14); in earlier writers we find the regu- lar simple form, viz. ;f o'w. Inf. x^vv, — Fut. ;f waw etc. Perf Pass. iit'xco(jp,cct. This must not be confounded with the epic xMOfiaL am angi^y^ ixojcrafiTjV. ^d(o see § 105. n. 5. j^vXb) — iipvyrjv, see § 100. n. 8. w&iw thrust, push, has the syllabic augment {ioj{tovv, § 84. n. 5), and forms Fut. w&rjGO) and (from S20S2) coaoj — amaa^ coaa^, ewoficct, etc. wvboixat buy, has also the syllabic augment {awvovfj7]p etc. § 84. n. 5). Instead of the regular Aorist of this verb (iojvT^adfArjv, wi/ijadf^tjv) the Attics employed the forms ingidfiriv, ngiao'&cit, etc. which see above in their place. ■* This Perf has in epic writers the signification / need, want. t See further on this Particip. § 57. 3. Since this Impersonal comes from ;f()aw^ this Part, is to be explained by the Ionic change of ao into £0J (§ 27. n. 10) ; •while the accent is still anomalous. And since the Ionics generally transformed verbs in doj into iojj we can thence account for the e in the Opt. t^drj; comp. the marg. note under 7rifi7tkr]fu. X This anomalous accentuation, instead of i'xqT^v (§ 12. 2. a. § 103. n. I. 1), is founded on ancient usage ; comp. Eustath. ad Od. 7t, 60. § 115. PREPOSITIONS, ^DVERBS. 30& PARTICLES. § 115. Prepositions and Adverbs. 1. The Particles are said to be indeclinablej because they are not capa- ble of either declension or conjugation. All therefore that relates to their formation and derivation, belongs properly to the sections on the formation of words (§§118, 119). Some points, however, in which the particles stand in close connexion with the flexion of other parts of speech, or in which several of their forms have a mutual relation to one another (as comparison and the correlatives), or finally certain minor changes occasioned by position or a regard to euphony, — all these, as being something analogous to ordinary flexion, can be better separated from that general head, and brought together here under a special point of view. 2. Under the general idea of particles we distinguish first the Prepo- sitions, viz. the following eighteen : «jMVY% the a comes from metaplastic forms (§ 56. 5) of the Accusative of Decl. Ill, like those in § 56. n. 8. — In the d (in ds) has passed over with the iP TOd^SV OT 0710^ 6^£v — OTio&ep nug; Ticog Twg cog — oncog 7iri TTj TTjvUa ri — ont]* i^vlna — 6iifivi'A,a The significatio ns follow the ar lalogy of § 79. Thus e. g. TiOTS at some time, once; 7io&tv from some place, etc. — Further, as the post- positive article og, besides the compound ooTig, is also strengthened by Tisg (oGTisQj etc.) so the same thing occurs with several of the rela- tives which belong here ; as wansg, rjnsg, ovthq. Note 4. Of poetic forms we fiuther adduce the following ; viz. for Tiov etc. the complete series : tioS-l; Tiod-l Tod-L o&i aud onod-i. So for not and otiol, — n6, €vco, a^co, iC(o, aivcUj vvta. These endings take the place of the Nominative-ending, when the prim- itive word belongs to the first or second declension ; and also in words of the third declension, if the Nom. ends in a vowel, or in g preceded by a vowel ; e. g. Tifirj Tifiaoj, tit^qov nregoa), ^uufAu '&avfA0tCoi, dXf]&i]g dXr]&6ija}. In other words of Dec. Ill, these endings take the place of og in the Genitive ; e. g. xo'Aa^ xoXaxevo), nvg (nvgog) nvgoM. Note 1. Nominatives of the third declension in a, ag, iq, which as- sume a consonant in the Genitive, can pass over only into kindred verbal endings, as a and aq into ot^w, alvoa, — iq into iC^io ; e. g. S^avjj.oc S^avfid^ca and &ayiialvoj, iXnlq elnl^w. Every ending not thus kindred is appended to the consonant of the Genitive ; e. g. cpvyaq cpvyadsvoj, XQijfia xgr][j.aTiCoi. 3. As to the signification of these endings, we can here take into view only general usage, and specify the fundamental idea of the greater number of verbs under each termination. a. — 60) and evo). These verbs are formed from nouns of almost all endings, and mostly express the state or action of that which their primitive word signifies ; e. g. xolgavoq ruler, noLQaveoj rule ; xoLvojvog partaker, xolvcjvsm partake ; doiiXoq servant, dovXsvo) serve ; KoAa| Jlat- terer, aoXaxsvoj flatter ; aXi]&i^q true, aXrid^svoi speak the truth ; ^acnXsvq ^ao-iXsvca, etc. All are most commonly employed as intransitives ; sometimes however as transitives, e. g. (plXoq friend, (piXim love. In general these two endings are the most common ones in de- rivative verbs, and serve therefore to express a multitude of rela- tions, which are hkewise partially included under the following endings ; thus especially the practice of that which the radical word signifies, e. g. noXsfxstv, a&Xttv ; nofinsmLv, xoqevslv, cpovsvsLV, ^ovXsv- uv ; or whatever else is in each case the most natural relation, e. g. avXoq flute, avXuv play the flute; dyogd assembly, s/t.yoQsvuv address an assembly ; limEmiv ride on horseback, etc. — The ending gw more espe- cially, as the simplest of all, is used for most of those derivatives which are first formed by composition, as sutiz/sw, iTtLxsigsa), olxodo- liim, egyoXa^ioj, {j^vi^aLxaaioj, etc. — But in all instances these endings are most commonly intransitive, b. — aw. These verbs arise most naturally from words of Dec. I, in « and rj, but also from others. They express chiefly the possession of some thing or quality in a special degree, and- also the performance of an action ; e. g. xofir] hair, y.o(iav to have long hair ; x^Xri bile, xoXav to have much bile, be angry ; Xlnoq fat, Xmav to have much fat, he fat; ^ori cry, yooq lamentation, — §oav, yoav ; zoX^a boldness, ToXfiny dare. Hence, as transitives, they denote the performance of an action towards others ; e. g. Tifi/j honour, tl^uv tiva to honour any one.* See also the verbs of disease in no. 5, 1 below. * Here and in other similar cases it may appear strange, that the abstract noun should be the primitive word, from which the verb is derived. But this case is not rare ; if, as is very common in all languages, the substantive is first derived from an older and simpler verb, and then again forms from itself a verb, 322 <^ 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. — DERIVATION. c. — o'co. These come mostly from words of Dec. II, and express : (1) The making or transforming into that which the radical word sig- nifies ; dovXocj make a slave, drjXoca make known from dijXog known. (2) The working with or applying the thing signified by the root : XQVdObi gild, fiiXjoai paint with vermilion {(iiXTog), tivqom place in the Jlre, roQvoa) form with the Togvog, turn, ^riixioco punish {^r}(xla). (3) The furnishing with or imposing the thing signified by the root ; aTscpavoo} croion, 7ixsg6(o give wings to {tcteqov), (TTavgoco crucify, etc. d. — dCco and ICoj. The first ending comes most naturally from words in a, rjg, ag, etc. sometimes also, for the sake of euphony, from other endings. Both comprehend so many relations, that they cannot well be brought under definite classes ; e. g. dvxa^co, %ei[x(x^oj, 7iQooifj,id^(o, oqI^oo, jusXl^ca, d^igli^o), Xay^ziQia, etc. Still it deserves to be noted, that when they are formed from the proper names of nations or persons, they mark the adoption of the manners, party, or language of the same ; e. g. fii]di^sLV to become a Mede in sentiment, eXXr^vl^siv to speak Greek, daQLoc^nv to speak Doric, (fiXimil^uv to he of Philip^s party. See also below in no. 5, 2. e. — cchco and vi^co. The latter ending comes always from adjectives, and expresses the making or causing to he such as the adjective signifies ; e. g. rjdvvsiv to make sweet, crsfivvvsiv to make venerahle, dig- nify. It must here be observed, that those adjectives, whose degrees of comparison in tW, toro?, presuppose an obsolete positive in vg, form the verbs in ww from this last ; e. g. ala/Qog {ataxlav from AI2!XT^) — auT/vvco. So fiaxgog, tcaXog — ^rjxvvoj, xaXXvvca, etc. — The same signification is ofl;en found in verbs in alvai, as XEVxaivsiv to make white, xoiXalvEtv to hollow out, etc. Still several of these have a neuter signification, as xaXsnalvsiv, dvaxsgcxlvstv, hecome angry, etc. They come sometimes also from substantives, especially those in [la {(Ti'jfia (TriiiaiVb), 8u^a deifialvo)), and express various relations. 4. A special mode of deriving verbs from nouns, is simply to change the ending of the noun into co ; and then the preceding syllable, accord- ing to its consonants, receives one of those additions which we have noted in § 92, as giving a strengthened form to the Present. Thus are formed from noLxlXog noixlXXm, ay/eXog a/ysXXco, xa&agog Ka&algto, fxaXaxog fxaXdaao), cpug^ay.ov cpagp^daata, fislXi/og fXEiXlacroj, nv- Qfxog nvgsaaco, xaXsnog xaXiuTM, etc. The relation of the sense to that of the root, is in every instance the most natural and obvious one. 5. There remain still the following more limited classes of derived forms of verbs : 1) Desideratives, which mark a desire, and are commonly formed by which supplants the first. This is manifestlj'^ the case in ziojj ri/n^j rifidoj ; and it may therefore well be assumed in others, as ^oijj vUt], etc. At all events analogy demands, that when no other reason exists, the fuller and more sonorous ending should be derived from the simpler; although it can well be, that some- times such a word as ^odoj may have existed earlier, and the simpler /?07/ have been later formed after the analogy of some other words; in which however the converse of this is exhibited. § 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. — DERIVATION. 323 changing the Future in -o-w of the verb expressive of the thing desired, into a Present in -(Tela ; e. g. yslaasio) I should like to laugh, noXsfitjcrdo} I long for war, etc. Another class of desideratives, is formed in aw or idea, derived properly from substantives, e. g. &avaTav to long for death, (TTQaTTj/iixv desire to be leader ; then also from verbs, by first forming these into substantives, e. g. o)VBl(T&aL {d)vr]T;7]g) — wvTjTtav to wish to purchase ; xXaioj [itXaixng] — vXavaiav to long to weep. This form passed over very naturally into a sort of imitative verbs, e. g. Tvqavviav to play the tyrant. But it is incorrect to reduce under this head the verbs of disease, as o(pd-al(jtiuv, v8sqiav, xprnqav, etc. which are better referred to no. 3. 6, above. 2) Frequent atives in -Co), e. g. gtuTciC^iv (from Qinxetv) to cast hither and thither, Mid. to cast one's self hither and thither, he unquiet ; GTsvd^siv (from cTTsvELv) sigh deep and often ; alxuv ask, alxl^eiv beg ; I'qtielv creep, kgnv^Eiv creep slowly. 3) Inchoatives in -anw, see § 112. 10 and n. 6. II. Substantives. 6. We here begin with substantives derived immediately A. From Verbs. In respect to these it must be premised in general : 1) That the endings everywhere follow the corresponding forms of flexion in verbs, viz. so that those endings beginning with a are appended after the analogy of the Fut. 1 ; those with /u and T, after that of the Perf Passive ; and those with a vowel, after that of the Perf 2. This coincidence however is not a necessary one, except in those cases where it rests on the fundamental rules of the language ; e. g. that between substantives in oig and the Fut. in ffw, as in iieiaCco -aaoj -doig, tqi^o) xQiipm tQlxpig; between those in ^6g, ^u, f.ir], and the 1 pers. Perf Pass, as in ttA/xdj ntnle- Yfiai nXe'/f^cc, etc. In all other cases, where the rules are less defi- nitely fixed, the respective terminations of the verb and of the verbal nouns present indeed a very frequent coincidence, but not a necessary one ; and many important differences occur, which will be pointed out in the following pages. 2) That the endings beginning with a vowel (as f], og, svg) are also formed from contracted verbs in tM and dco in such a manner, that e and a fall away;* except however in the shorter verbs, * It follows of course from the marg. note to no. 3. b, above, that there must be some special reason, for regarding the fuller and more sonorous verb as earlier than the substantive. It is moreover easy to see, that where the fuller form of the verb is only a prolongation of an earlier one, it is indifferent, whether we say e. g. from KTTIIQ comes nrvTroq and thence again y,rvnio), or whether for the sake of brevity we prefer in such cases to treat the usual form of the verb as the radical word. 324 § 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. which cannot drop their vowel, as belonging to the root, but only change it, as Qtoi, ^orj: Note 2. Before t and fi the letter a is inserted, as in the Perf. and Aor. 1 Passive ; and this in all nouns derived from verbs whose character- istic is a lingual, a few poetic forms excepted (§ 102. n. 1, S^avixciTog). Those from verbs pure, on the contrary, sometimes take the ^here the ending ivog is made long ; as oTiojgtvog'in Homer. 332 § 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. — DERIVATION, e. — Xog, an old Active ending ; hence dedog one who fears, timid; mnuyloQ one loho makes others fear, formidable, see marg. note to IsXl- 7]ixai in the Catalogue. The most common are the lengthened end- ings 'r]X6g and aXog, which indicate propensity and habit, as anaxrilo? deceitful, a^aqxialo? accustomed to sin, etc. /. — i^og is confined almost wholly to verbals ; it marks fitness both Active and Passive, and is appended after various analogies ; e. g. XQrjoLfiog useful from xqaoiiav, rgocpiixog nourishing, S^avdoifiog deadly, noTifiog drinkable. This ending is also sometimes lengthened by alog, as vjio^oXi^aHog. g. — Qog, egog, riQog, express mostly the idea oi fulness, e. g. ohrgog full of grief , (p&ovsgogfull of envy, voorjgog and voasgog sickly. h. — DcUog signifies nearly the same ; e. g. ■dapgaXtog (from '&(XQQog), gojiiaXsog, dst^fxaXsog, ipagaXsog, etc. i. — Tog and leog see § 102. 14. Other adjective endings are the following : a. — 6ig G. evTog, with preceding o, tj, or o, denoting a fulness ; e. g. /«^/£<^ full of grace, xXi]ugfull of woods, nvgougfull of fire. That those in i]Eig and osig admit of contraction^ we have seen already in § 41. n. 5. and § 62. n. 3. h. — rig, eg, G. ovg, serves for derivation only in composition (§ 121. 6) ; still there arises from it the special ending — (adtjg, (adsg, G. ovg, with a shifting of the accent, from -osidiig (from Eidog form, manner) ; e. g. crcprjXbiSrjg wasp-like, /vvaiyMdrjg womanly ; but most commonly denoting a fidness, multitude, and especially frequent in a sense of censure ; e. g. ipa^fimdrig, aiiiatcadtjg, lXv(a8rig,full of sand, blood, mire. €. — /iwi/, G. ovog, belongs to verbals after the analogy of substan- tives in fia, and in part first formed from these. The signification for the most part follows the active quality denoted by the verb. E. g. voij^MV intelligent, from vohv ; noXvizQuy^av busy, busily occupied, from noXvg and ngixyfia or ngdzxELv ; eTiiXTjcrfioov forgetful, etc. Finally, a multitude of adjectives arise simply through composition, of which we shall treat in the following section. IV. Adverbs. 15. Besides the general mode of forming adverbs by simply changing the flexible ending of adjectives into wg, which has been treated of in ^115, there are still the following adverbial endings : a. — driv. These are solely verbals, and express the manner of ap- plying the verbal action. The ending is appended partly in the manner of the endings jsog, Tog ; but with the necessary change of the verbal characteristic, and never with a. E. g. o-vXX^]^38i]v taking all together, i. e. on the whole, in general ; xgv^drjv secretly ; ^d8i]v step for step, slowly ; dvsdtjv unrestrained, fearlessly, from dvlr]y,i, dvsTog. — Partly it is also appended in the form -udi}v to the stem itself, the rad- ical vowel being changed to o ; e. g. o-jiogddrjv scattered, ngoTgoTiixdijv ((pev/siv — tofiy) turned forwards, i. e. without looking back. § 120. FORMATION OF WORDS. — COMPOSITION. 333 b. — dov, fjdoi', come mostly from nouns, and relate chiefly to exter- nal form and nature ; e. g. cc/sXrjdov in droves ; ^oigvdov grape-like ; nXivS^T^dov (from nXlvd^og) laid like tiles ; xvvrjdov dog-like. — When they come from verbs, they coincide with those in drjv ; e. g. ava~ (pavdov visibly^ before the world. c. — /or 81* These mark some circumstance connected with the action expressed in the sentence. Verbals especially terminate in — Ti or Tf/, which endings are appended entirely in the manner of the ending To^ ; e.g. ovo^u(nl byname; iygriyogxl waking. So especially in words compounded with a negative; e. g. a/EXacnl with- out laughing ; avidqwrl without sweating y without difficulty ; ocf^axtjisl, without fighting ; axrjgvxTsl or -/ witJwut proclamation. — Hence, and fi'om what was said above in no. 3 d, of verbs in l^a, comes the signifi- cation of the adverbs in -icnl, after the manner, custom, language, of a nation, class, individual, etc. E. g. kXXrjviuTl in the Greek manner, {n the Greek language ; yvvaLxicni in the manner of women ; so avSgajiodiajl, Po'iffjl, etc. Those formed from nouns have simply / or el in the place of the 'flexi- ble ending ; so that in exovxl willingly, avaid without injury, from axri, the t belongs to the radical form. The most are compounds ; e. g. navdrj^sl as a whole people, loith united strength, etc. avTovv/l in the same night, this very night, from an old flexion vv^, -yog 5 a^aysl without battle ; amoxugl vnth one's own hand; a^m^l without wages ; vrjTioLvel unpunished, with the negation vrj- § 120. n. 12. d. — '§, an infrequent form, which is always oxytone, and commonly, though not always, includes a palatal already existing in the radical word ; the signification is very general. E. g. ctvufil^ mixed together, pellmell ; naqaXla^ alternately; oxA«| (from oxXa^o)) coivering, squat- ting; o5«| with the teeth, from odovg. § 120. Derivation by Composition, 1. The first component part of every compound word is either a noun, a verb, or an indeclinable word. 2. When the first word is a Noun, its flexible ending is commonly changed into the union-vowel o ; which however is regularly elided, when the last word begins with a vowel. E. g. loyoiiOLog, naidoTgl^rjg, aojfAarocfijXa'^, iy^dvonojXrig (from ly^ijg, vog), drAoygaqog (from dlxfj) vof,iagx^g (from vouog and oiQXCi)> natdaycoyog (from ayco, ayoo- yri\ ncxye'S.tu (from naxog and titg). In most cases nevertheless, where the ending of the noun has v or *, the is not assumed . E. g. * This double pronunciation was determined in particular cases by euphony, and perhaps in the poets by the metre, sin«e I can be used both as long and short. In our editions it is determined, as far as possible, by the manuscripts or by the number of examples. 43 334 § 120. FORMATION OF WORDS. — COMPOSITION. iv&vdvxog, nolvcpayog, TtoXhog^og, from ev'&vg, nolvg, noXi^g. In the same manner after ov and av, e. g. (3ov(pog^6g, vavfxaxlctf from ^ovg, vavg^ and often after v,e.g. fisluyxoUa, ^elu^nenXog (from ^tlag^ c/.vog), nafxcpctyog (from Tiag, nuvTog). Note 1. The o remains sometimes before vowels, especially before those of which it can be assumed (§ 6. n. 3), that in the earher language they had the digamma ; e. g. (irjvoEidrjg, ^svosixrig, ayaS^OEgyog. But in compounds with sgyov or JEPrSl, the o is commonly contracted with the € ; as 8r}y,i0VQy6gy Xsnovgyog. Note 2. An ft) as union-vowel comes either from the Attics, or from the contracted forms of declension ; e. g. vscaxogog (from vscag), ogsoMOfiog (from ogsiig G. ogsojg), y.gE(a(fayog (from xgsag G. aog, (ag). The word y^ earth becomes in all compounds yeco-, e. g. yscoygacfog, instead of yao-, from the old form FAA. See § 27. n. 10. Note 3. Some primitives in ^a, G. ^aTog, simply change their a into o, or cast it off; e. g. aly^oarayijg, axo^ialyla, from «t^a, axo^a. Note 4. In some compounds, especially in poetical ones, the form of the Dat. Sing, or Dat. Plur. is assumed in composition ; e. g. nvglnvovg, vvnTLTiogog, yacrxglfiagyog, ognvofiog (from ogog, sog), vavGinogog^ iyxsalfACO' gog. — A shortening of this last (the Dat. Plur.) is the very common form in «(7 (from og G. eog), xEXsa-cpogog, aaascrnaXog, from to TsXog, (rdxog. Note 5. There are still some single peculiarities, which must be left to observation ; e. g. (xeamnoXiog from fxecrog ; odomogog from odog ; agyl- novg from agyrjg or agyog ; nodavLmrig from novg, nodog ; axga/oXog from axgog ; Orj^aysvi^g, (xoigrjysvrig, from Orj^t], fiotga ; iXacpri^oXog, Xa^Tcadrjcpo- Qog, from eXacpog, Xa^nag ; — and the apparently retained og of the Nomina- tive in d^ma^oTog, Xaoaaoog,* 3. When the first word is a Verb, its ending is commonly changed into f without change of the characteristic, or else into at. E. g. a()/*x«xo? from uqihv, dcaced^vfiog from daxvcj, eduKOv. Xvoinovog from Xvm^ TQsijjlxQMg ^rom TQtncD, lyeQGixoQog from iyeiQO). Here too the vowel can be elided ; e. g. cpeQaonig, ^iipaamg. Note 6. The cases are less frequent where i stands without c, as in TsgnLzsgavvog and in many from agxELV, e. g. agxtS^soogog; or where the verb takes o, as cpaivo(ir}gig, and almost all compounds with XeItkOj e. g. Xsl- noTcc^iov. — The learner, will note the forms TUfiealxgcag (from t£[iv(o, srafiov), XLnE(ji]V(xig (from Xemca, eXmov), and the form (shortened from the former) (psgsff^Log for cpegsal^tog. * Those who are accustomed to reflect and compare, will readily perceive, that in all the above forms of composition, neither Datives nor Nominatives are to be sought for. The vowels and e are the natural union-letters. Perspicuity and euphony determined the choice. Thus in zshacpogogj as also in d'eooSoroSj the a is only a strengthening sound ; iy%soifiojgog exhibits a sonorous fulness, etc. § 120. FORMATION OF WORDS. — COMPOSITION. 335 4. Indeclinable words remain unchanged in composition, with the exception of such changes as are effected by general rules, and, in prepositions, by elision. E. g. ay^lakog (from ayyi and otAg), naXaiye- i'/;?from naXat' ava^aivM, avaQyo^ai, from ava' t'Stgyofiui,, ix(3atvo}, from i'§. — ngoayco, negidyco. See § 30. 2. The v in compounds with iv, avVf ncilcv, and ayav^ has been particularly considered in §25. — For dv- and d^cr-, tql- and tqlg-j see § 70. n. 2. and raarg. note. Note 7. The preposition nqo makes sometimes a crasis ; e. g. tiqovxoj, jjtQovTTTog, for Ttgoi/oj, ngoomog ; especially with the augment, see § 86. n. 1. — For cpQovdog and the Hke, see § 17. — For the shortened forms naQ&s- fisvog, avatdvTsg, tca^^aXsLv, etc. see § 117. n. 2. Note 8. That nsgi does not lose the t in composition, follows of course from § 30. 2. But a^cpl likewise often retains it ; e. g. in u^cplaXog, ocficpisTsg, from aAg, hog. The other prepositions retain their vowel only in the Ionic dialect, especially the old Ionic of the epic writers, in some compounds, where the second word originally had the digamma. In the Attic dialect this takes place only in ettloqubIv, ijidcraad^av (§ 108. Ill), and the Adj. inisLxi^g. Note 9. In respect to the division into syllables the common rule is, that when the preposition by itself ends in a consonant, this consonant remains with the first syllable; as eta-igxoixai, nqoa-ayw, sv-ydgog, s^- rent stories, anecdotes, etc. which are thereby marked as well known, often related, etc. E. g. Plat. Charm. 7, aocpcoraTog 6 Kgixlag, og sItisv, sttI TOV ■aalov Uytav naidog — , ^' Critias is very wise, who said (according to the well known story) in reference to a (Gr. the) beautiful child — ." Note 3. In Greek prose, the article is very often omitted, where the English omits it ; especially in all general ideas. E. g. Plat. Leg. 5, d^slov yag ayad-ov nov Ti(xri, " honour is indeed a divine good." Charmid. 18, ovTt, aga (rcoq)QOcrvvr) av sl'r] aidag ; Theaet. 23, al'a&rjaig, q)f,g, i7ii(nt]fir]. * See Wolf, ad Reiz. de Accent, p. 76. Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 7. t In the passage Plat. Phaedr. 4, which is also adduced, it appears to me that T(u voaovvti is to'be taken as really definite ; since Socrates seems quite clearly in these words to mean himself. 344 § 125. SYNTAX OF THE PREPOS. ARTICLE. See further Schaef. Melet. p. 4.— rin the common language the article i» very often omitted before the words -^tog, S^eoI, ^cco-dsvg or (xiyag ^aaiXsvg (both spoken of the king of Persia) ; see Heind. ad Plat. Euthyd. 8. Phae- do. 17. and 108. Note 4. As to the poets, the Attic poetry had more freedom in omit- ting the article than prose ; but still far less than the other kinds of po- etry, which in most cases could omit or insert the article at pleasure. In Homer moreover there exists no genuing article ; as we shall see below in § 126. n. 7. ^ 125. Construction of the Prepositive Article. 1. The article is very often separated from its substantive, not only by an intervening adjective, (o 'naXog nalg^ ol vnaQXovxeg vO(AOi the existing laws,) but also by other adjuncts of the substantive, e. g. ifia- fA.vfjTO xrjg tp fiavla diaTQi^r,g " he recollected the time passed in mad- ness" In such instanpes a participle, as ysvofievt] etc. is often to be supplied ; e. g. ?J ngog TaluTug f^iayv the battle against the Gauls ; t] nglv ag'^ai^ amov dgtri] the virtue exhibited by him before he began to reign, Xen. Ages. I. 5. Note 1. The pronoun Tig is inserted by the Ionics even between the Genitive which depends on it and the article belonging to that Genitive ; 6. g. Tc5v tig Ieqbojv for tmv Ugscav rig. 2. When the adjunct thus inserted has also the article, it can hap- pen, when the euphony is not thereby injured, that two or even three articles may come to stand one after another. E. g. to Ttjg ccQeTtjg aul- log the beauty of virtue; 6 tcc Ttjg nokeojg nQayfxaxa jigaTTwv he who manages the affairs of the state; top to xrig '^&rjvag ayaXf-ia igyaoa- f.ievov' — tvoyog Jarco xu) xrjg tcov Ihvdegcov (f>&ogccg vofico, 3. But the adjuncts of the substantive can also, for the sake of em- phasis or perspicuity, be placed after it ; and then the article must be repeated ; e.g. top nalda top oop, thy son; 6 )[lhagyog 6 xag dyyeViag aiaxOfilCoDv, the chiliarch who has to bring in the reports. On the other hand the first article can in such cases be omitted, e. g. ovpecfit, dp&gcj- notg To7g ayaxfolg. Note 2. The repetition of the article is particularly necessary with the participle ; because otherwise there arises the Participial Construction, so common in Greek, for which see § 144. — Before a following Genitive the article is rarely repeated ; as o uvriQ 6 T?;g Kv^rigrjg, Anacr. Note 3. When an adjective without the article stands in connexion with a substantive which has the article, but not between the two, the ob- ject designated is thereby distinguished not from other objects, but from itself in other circumstances. E. g. ijdsTo inl nlovaloig rdlg nolhaig does not mean, " he rejoiced on account of the wealthy citizens," but, " he re- joiced on account of the citizens, because they were wealthy ;" iii cixQOLg § 125. SYNTAX OF THE PREPOS. ARTICLE. 345 xotq OQECTLV " on the mountains where they are highest," i. e. on the sum- mit of the mountains ; oXrjv ti)v vvxza "the whole night;" s/st zbv nsXsxvv o^vTocTov, where we indeed can only translate "he has a very sharp axe," but where the more exact shape of the thought is, " the axe which he has (and must have for his enterprise) is very sharp ;" itaXov yi {iol Tovvsidog i^covsldiaag. 4. Where the substantive is readily understood from the connexion, it is very commonly omitted ; and then the article stands alone before the adjunct,- e.g. 6 ifnog ticcti^q aal 6 zou cpiXov, "my father and the (father) of my friend." 5. There are here, too, certain customary omissions of nouns, as above in adjectives, § 123. 3. E. g. ' yJle'SavSgog 6 OvUnnov (sc. viog son); or also alone, e.g. 6 2ko(ppoviGxov the (son) of Sophroniscus, i.e. Socra- tes. Further, eiQ zriv Odinnov {so. xwquv) into the land of Philip ; TO. zrjg noksojQ (sc. ngayf-iava, as above § 123. 3 in zee e^a) ; at Iv aazev the people in the city ; za aaza Uavoavlav that which regards Pausanias ; za eig tov TioXefA.ov ; at ovv zco ^aoiXsi. 6. Every adjunct in itself indeclinable, can be rendered declin- able by the aid of the article. Hence adverbs are without further change converted into adjectives by simply prefixing the article. E. g. from ^eralv between, 6 f.i£Ta'iv zonog the intervening place; from ntlag near, at ntXag najfiai the neighbouring villages ; at zoze av- S^QOinoo ' ol naXav oocpol avdgeg ' tj aVco noXog the upper city ; fig TOV dvcozdvco zonov (see § 115. 6); ?; tS.al(f)vrig fASzaazaaig the sud- den removal, etc.* Here belong also ^ ov dcdlvaig, and the like ; see § 148. n. 3. — Or, the adverb with the article is placed after the noun with the article ; e. g. ozav iyeiQ^^Gx^e ix zr]g dfitXaiag zavzrjg Tfjg dyav, "■ when ye awake out of this excessive carelessness." 7. The substantive is here often omitted, when it can easily be sup- plied from the context or from the idea itself; and the adverb then has the appearance of a substantive. E. g. from avgiov tomorrow comes, by omitting ri^tga day, iq augvov the next day ; ri AvdiGzl the Lydi- an measure {dofdovia being omitted) ; ol rozs the men then living ; eg Toujilacu (for z6 oniao), what is behind), backwards. So Anacr. z6 GTifAegov y.i\ei (xoo, to-day only troubles me, i. e. what is or occurs to- day ; for after the neuter of the article we cannot always specify some definite substantive as omitted, nor indeed is this at all necessary. 8. From all these examples, in which various forms and whole phrases acquire the appearance of a substantive, merely through the remaining article of an omitted substantive, we must distinguish the two following * The Latins, who have no article, can imitate this only in some comic ex- pressions by a sort of composition, as heri semper lenitas in Terence. 346 § 128. SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLES. ' cases, where such words and phrases become actual substantives by means of an article belonging to themselves : 1) Infinitives, e.g. to nQaixav the doing, to aaxSg "ktytiv the speaking evil, itdo^ao tm negvnaxeiv I delight in walking about. How much further this usage is carried in Greek than in modern languages, will be shewn in § 140. 2) Every word and every phrase, which is to be regarded as an inde- pendent object ; e. g. to Xiyoi i. e! the word Xeyca. Plat. Protag. p. 345. e, 716^1 iuvTOv Xtyti tovto to iv.(av. — Phaedr. 129, itaTa^()7]Gua&cxi> dn ccvtov ioj Zlwg- 6* ccv iyoj TOtooda TOicode iTisieigriou, " he must make use of this language : How could I, such as I am, have laid hands on such an one !" Note 4. In ordinary cases every word thus regarded as an independ- ent object, is made neuter* In grammatical language, however, it is cus- tomary to give to every such word the gender which belongs to the name of that part of speech ; e. g. because we have tJ avioivvfila the pronoun^ we therefore find also ?/ iy(o i. e. the pronoun iya ; and so o insi, the conjunction sTisi, because of 6 (TvvdscTfiog the conjunction. Note 5. By another peculiarity the article to with its accompaniment stands adverbially, and that too with the omission of some connecting idea; e.g. to jeXsvioiov at last, xavvv [prop. t« vvv) for the present, to ano Tovds from now on, henceforth ; comp. below on the Accus. § 131. 8. — For tlie phrase Uvai tov nqoaw see the marg. note to § 132. 4. 2. c. — For some other phrases with the article to or tw, see under the Neut. Adj. § 128, and under the Accus. § 131. Note 6. The article stands sometimes in an elliptical manner even before the relative. E. g. Plat. Rep. p. 510. a, to ofioioo&h ngog to a wfiOLcod^fj, that which is compared, against that with which it is compared, where for to the Pron. iyMvo could also stand. Herod. 3. 134, ov8sv Tcjv oaa alcr;{vvrjv iorl cpsgovToc. Xen. Hist. Gr. II. 3. 17, ToXg oXoig tjfuv XaXsm) 1] dfJiioytQaTlci, to such as we are (comp. ^ 143. 6) a democracy is prejudicial. Plat. Phaedr. 34, Ttjg {avrovcriag) oS^sv civ cpgovip-Mxaxog sVt). Pollux VII. 75, TO a(T7reQ xagvov that nut-like thing. — It sometimes stands in like manner before other words which govern a clause ; e. g. to ttots del Isysiv dldaa-xi fis, literally, teach me the " when it is necessary to speak ;" fV STL XslnEToa, to ^]v nsldMfiEv vfivig, i. e. one thing still remains, viz. this, *' if we could persuade you," Plat. Rep. 1. p. 327. e. § 126. The Art. 6, r^, to, as Demonstrative. — The Art. Postpos. og, 7], 0. 1. Both the prepositive Article 6, ri, to, and the postpositive og, n, o, were in the earliest language demonstrative pronouns for ovTog or fxf?- vog. As the language became more copious and cultivated, these words gradually assumed their later and more limited usage ; but still, in ma- § 126. SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLES. 347 ny particular cases, they both retained, even in common prose, the power of real demonstratives. 2. The most frequent case is in the distinction and distribution of ob- jects ; where d (itv commonly stands first, and then 6 dt follows, either once or oftener, as the case may require. This takes place proper- ly only in respect to definite objects, where in English we employ this — that. Still, it occurs also with indefinite objects, the one — the other, another; and so through all the genders and numbers. E.g. tov fjitv iil^ia, TOV de ou, the one he honoured, the other not; to ^tv ydg avo?]- Tov, TO di ^avi'Aov, the one action is unadvised, the other that of a mad- man; TMv TToXf^iioiv (or also oi noltfitoi,) ol {Aev i&ai'jf.iaCov Tct yi- yv6fA€va, ol d' l^6o)v, ol dt avvtantvaCovTO, " of the enemies some were astonished at what happened, others cried out, others prepared themselves for retreat ;" tcxjv ^wcoi/ tcc f^iv tx^o nodag, rd d' Iotiv dno- da' — agelanov aaXojg nfvea&ao rj nctadog nXovTfTv to ^iv ydg tXtov, TO d' IntTiixfiGLv cpegei,. — Isocrates says of the Athenians, who had sent out colonies because of their overgrown population, that in this manner they i'aojaav dfxcpOTtQOvg, nal Tovg dxoXovd^i^aavTag acci Tovg vno- fielvavrag' To7g fiei/ yccQ I'Aavrjv ttJv oinoo ^cogav itaTt'Xtnov, To7g di nXelcD Tijg v7iag)[ovaf]g enoQvoav. — So also ol ^ev avTOiv — ol di — some of them — others. — For o ^iev^ 6 d' ov, see § 149 under ^ev. 3. The postpositive article stands in the same manner, og fiev, og dt, etc. d fAtv, d dt\ etc. but less frequently among the genuine Attics, It occurs very often however in the later writers, as Plutarch. Note 1. An example from Demosthenes is in pro Corona p. 248 Reisk. tioXelq "EXXrjvldag, a^ usv avaiQ(av, uq ag ds xovg cpv/ddag xara/coVj " destroying some of the Greek cities, and bringing back the exiles into others." 4. In the narrative style o, ?J, to often stands only once and with dt alone, in reference to an object already named ; e.g. o di tint, he (this one) said; Tr]v dt dnoxcog^aai (Ace. with Inf) but that she had de- parted. 5. When persons are spoken of as the subject of such a sentence, the proposition or clause can be connected by xa/ with what pre- cedes. In such instances, with the Nominative, the forms of the postpo- sitive og, fj, oi, ai, are always used ; while with the Accus. (and Infin.) those of the prepositive, tov, etc. are preferred. E. g. xoci og, dxovaag ravva, tojatv avTOv in Ttjg td'^tcog, " and he (that one) having heard this, thrust him out of the ranks ;" nccl oT, diaXv&tvTtg, iot^aivov ig Tag vrjag, Herodot. — aal tov xtXtvaai dovvat, " and that he (that one) had commanded to give it him." 348 § 126. SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLES. ^ Note 2. Here belong also the usual formulas in relating a conversa- tion : rj S' og, said he (§ 109. I. 4) ; and the elliptic teal og (sc. I'cpr)) then he sc. replied. Note 3. When a preposition belongs to the clause, [liv and ds often stand immediately after it ; e. g. iv [lev tdlg crvficpavovfiEV, iv ds xolg ov, " in some things we agree, in others not." Isocr. Paneg. 41 elg fisv rovg v^gl- ^ovTsg, ToTg ds dovXsvovTsg. See Reiz. de Accent, p. 13. 69. Note 4. The ft)rms in distributive propositions of this kind, do not always so regularly correspond to each other, as they are above exhibited. Very often e. g. ol {xsv is followed in the succeeding clause by jtvsg 5s, EViOL ds, or by a name or some other mode of distinction. All this is best learned by personal reading ; as also the cases where oi fisv is not express- ed, but is presupposed by a following ol ds, etc. Not'E 5. From the old signification of the article come also the forms Tov y.al Tov, xa xal tw, etc. which correspond precisely to our this and this, that and that, etc. This occurs only in the forms beginning with x, and is particularly frequent in Demosthenes. Note 6. Finally, in the same manner is to be explained the adver- bial use of the poetic Dative tw, on that account, therefore. II. s. 815, Fi- yvcacntca as, Ssa, — Tm tol ngocpgovsMg igsca snog, " Therefore will I frank- ly tell thee." The same can also be expressed by the Accus. (§ 131. 7.) II. /. 176, ^Alla TW/ ova sysvovxo' to xal alalovaa Tstrjyia, " therefore am I dissolved in tears." Note 7. In poetry, and especially epic poetry, the use of both articles as demonstrative is far more general ; and in Homer o, '>/, to, is almost ev- erywhere to be so taken ; those cases excepted where to, tov, etc. stand for o, ov, etc. by § 75. n. 2. In order to make this perfectly clear, one needs only to consider the following passages in Homer ; II. a, 340. d, 399. s, 715, ^, 407. Od. s, 106. These at first view seem to present on- ly the ordinary article of prose ; while to the attentive observer, to whom such an article in Homer is unknown, the context easily shews, that in all these and many similar passages the article is really a demonstrative ; but that the demonstrative force is there not absolutely essential, and is for this reason apparently weakened. The passages are few, where this word expresses an object merely as well known and distinguished, or as partic- ularly present to the mind of the poet ; or where the demonstrative force is really so much weakened, that the transition into the true Attic article becomes apparent; e.g. II. a, 167. ??, 412. fj,, 289. — Especially must we be upon our guard, not to take this form as an article, where it is sepa- rated from the substantive by the verb and the whole clause, as "ll (isv ag wg slnova aus^ri nodag Mxsa 'Igig. Here the »), as demonstr. Pron. is to be taken for our she, to which the name is afterwards subjoined [by apposi- tion] in the poetical manner: "She then thus speaking departed, the swift- footed Iris." This is rendered evident by those passages, where the sub- stantive is in like manner placed after the real pronoun ol [to him), e. g. Od. V, 106. — From this substantive nature of o, i), to, arises also in Homer the case, that an adjective is thereby apparently converted into a substantive ; e. g. II. g, 80 Tov agiatov the bravest ; a, 33 o ysgcav the old man, elder ; and often ol allot, jdXXa. In all these instances 6, ^, to, as Subst. has its adjec- § 127. SYNTAX OP PRONOUNS. 349 tive ; and the shape of the thought is strictly this : ' him the bravest,' * he the elder,' ' they the others,' etc. But here too the force of the •demonstrative is often weakened by its not being absolutely essential ; and then the transition into the common article is not to be mistaken. § 127. Pronouns. — Adjective nag. 1. The demonstratives ovTog and ods sometimes stand instead of adverbs of place; e.g. Plat. Rep. 1. init. — fjgofifjv onov eirj. Olrog, £- Itjzal) ozav iv&Vfiri&cacnv, ojl navzEg inl zi]V o'tp ersQ av S^scj^iav ^xov- / § 127. SYNTAX OP PRONOUNS. o51 fTLV — the word cctv£& aexQvowiLieva Herodot. avi^g Kag- ^aviog yicu avcmv ccfiqoregcc aygmraza, iElian. N. A. III. 2. 7. The Subject of the verb, as in Latin, whqrever it is sufficiently obvious from the verbal-ending or from the connexion, and where no emphasis rests upon it, is commonly not expressed; i. e. in cases where we always insert the substantive pronouns /, thou, he, it, etc. Note 5. But an adjunct can nevertheless be subjoined by apposi- tion to the omitted pronoun ; e. g. 6 ds Malag t?;? "AxXavTog dianovov^ai, amdlg, " and 1, the son of Maia the daughter of Atla^, wait upon them." Lucian. 8. The word denoting the subject is also omitted, when the verb itself expresses the customary action of the subject ; e. g. aaXni^ei or Grjf^al- veh " the trumpeter gives the signal with the trumpet." So too in Demo- sthenes, avayvMGeTCii' vpAV, he shall read aloud to you, spoken of the 356 § 129. SYNTAX. — SUBJECT AND i>REDICATE. ordinary official reader ; and so in Herodotus of other ordinary employ- ments in sacrifice, hunting, etc. e. g. II. 47, 70. Comp. note 6 below. 9. The same takes place where in English we use it^ and thus indi- cate an operation of nature or of circumstances ; e. g. vei^ it rainsy where we are not to suppose an omission of Zsvg, although the Greeks often said Zsvg vec, etc. So too -nQOGti^aivet, it announces itself ^ e. g. in the air ; iSrjXoDoe de and so it shewed itself, etc. Xen. Mem. 1. 2. 32. 10. Impersonal Verbs, as they are usually called, i. e. such as imply no definite person or subject, are of another kind. In them the subject is not left in obscurity, as in those just mentioned (no. 9), but the action to which they refer, whfether expressed by an Infinitive or by another dependent clause, is the real subject of such verbs. The peculiarity of them therefore con'sists simply in this, that their subject has not the form of a poun, to become which however the Infinitive needs only the article ; e. g. t^eatl fxoi/ amtvau, i. q. xo anihvav a^sGzl [aqv, lit. ** the going away is permitted to me," i. e. it is permitted to me to de- part. Of this kind are dil, X9^, ^"^oygri, doyial, (all of which see in the Catal. of Anom. Verbs,) tiq^iui, it becomes, is proper, hda'/^exao it is possible, etc. These admit in part likewise of personal constructions, which require no special illustration. In like manner whole phrases, like ex^c loyov, consentaneum est, are in this sense to be considered as impersonal. 11. The English indefinite subject one, some one, (Fr. on. Germ. man,) is most commonly expressed in Greek by the pronoun tig (§ 127. 4). In certain cases it is made by the second person, as also in Eng- lish, e. g. q^ahiQ av, you might say ; or as in Latin and English by the third person Plural, or by the Passive, chiefly in the phrases (faai, Xiyhxai, but also with other verbs ; e. g. Thucyd. VII. 69 qthq naa- Xovoov if To7g ^eyalotg dywavv. Note 6. The word tIq can be omitted, and consequently the verb stand alone in the 3 person, when under the idea of one, some one, we un- derstand either (1) the person on whonl the action is incumbent (comp. no. 8 above), e. g. xbv Xafinxijga ngoai-vs/icaxca, " let some one bring hither the lantern," Xen. Symp. V. 2 ; or (2) the indefinite subject of a preceding verb, e. g. ova e(ttiv ogd-big riyuu&ai iuv p) cfgovL^og fj, " it is not possible to be a good leader, unless one has capacity," Plat. Meno. 38. 12. When on the other hand a Nominative stands without a verb, the verb ahcxi is most commonly to be supplied. E. g. "EXlriv lyM I am a Greek; xa xiav q)iXojv zoiva' — ^ii^ajvldr] ov gadvov ancoxsiv' ao(fog yag xat '&£7og 6 (xp7]q. Note 7. Some words are not easily found construed otherwise than in this elliptical manner. So especially hot^og, e. g. xaya ndax^LV oxtovv § 130. SYNTAX. — OBJECT. 357 eroi^og, iav fit) ravS-" ovT(og txV I^emosth. So even without ^/w, e. g. Luc. Catapl. 10 xttt ^^]v iyyvrjTCig vfMV sTOijxog naQacrxsff&ai. Somn. 6. See Heind. ad Plat. Phaedr. 69. Valck. ad Phoen. 976. So in Horner eTii,- dsvi^g needy, e. g. II. s. 481. l. 225. See cpgovdog § 150. — In like manner the Nominatives xQ^^v and avaynv, necessity, S^s^ig right, are used alone as im personals, icni being omitted, lY is necessary, it is right ^ e.g. ov v.al tovto avdyxf} ; is not this also necessary ? See Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 68. Tho same holds good as to the use of the Neut. of verbal adjectives in tbov in the Nominative, e. g. ttoitjtsov faciendum est, one must do ; see § 134. 10. The JVominative Absolute is different ; for this see § 145. n. 1 sq. § 130. The Object. — Oblique Cases. 1. That on which an action is exerted, or to which it refers, consti- tutes what is called the Object ; and always stands in one of the three cases, Genitive, Dative, or Accusative. These are hence called depend- ent or oblique cases, casus obliqui. 2. The immediate object, upon which the action of a transitive verb is directed, and without which we cannot conceive of such a verb, commonly stands in the Accusative ; e. g. Xa^i^avoi tt^v aanida I take the shield. The remote object, which may stand along with the Accu- sative, or with an intransitive verb, is usually dependeiit on a preposi- tion ; e. g. Xafi^otvco ttjv danlda a no z ov naGao(},ov "I take the shield from the nail;" tOTT^na Iv tm Idacfei " I stand upon the ground." 3. Of the relations and adjuncts which may thus constitute a remote object, those which occur most frequently are for the most part ex- pressed by a case alone, i. e. without a preposition. For this purpose, two cases are specially employed in those European languages which do this, viz. the Genitive and Dative. E. g. in German ; " Ich gebe das Geld dem Manne" I give the money to the man, or I give the man the money. ^' Er versicherte mich seines Wohlwollens," he assured me of his favourable disposition.* 4. But when we come to particulars, we find that languages differ much in this respect from one another. What is expressed in one lan- guage by one case, is given in another by a different one. Very often one language employs a preposition, where another needs merely the simple case ; and not unfrequently both modes are usual in a language at the same time. E. g. he told it me or to me ; I will write him a letter or a letter to him. Note 1. All this must be constantly borne in mind, in order to form a correct judgment on the subject, when in Greek a relation is expressed by a simple case, which in English and other languages requires a prepo- * It is hardly necessary to observe, that the English language can in general mark these relations only by the help of prepositions. — Tr. 46 358 § 130. SYNTAX. OBJECT. sition. This has often been accounted for by the assertion, that in such clauses in Greek the preposition is omitted, which elsewhere governs the case in question. Such" a view can indeed sometimes serve to ren- der the idea of such a clause or proposition clearer to our minds ; but it by no means necessarily follows, that this preposition was formerly always actually employed in this connexion, and was afterwards omitted for the^ sake of conciseness. It is often impossible to specify, in a particular ex- ami)le, what preposition would have* had, in this instance, just this partic- ular case. We must therefore keep in mind only the idea or relation expressed in such a proposition; and assume, that this idea is also in- cluded in the form of the case. All three of the oblique cases are used in this manner in Gr(;ek ; as we shall see in the following paragraphs. 5. We may assume it as a principle in the ancient languages, than which nothing is more common in respect ta both species of the object, that, so soon as a person or thing has been once mentioned, and the relation or reference to the same is sufficiently clear from the verb it- self, the object is not expressed; just as in the case of the subject and the possessive pronouns, § 129. 7. In this way the multiplication of pro- nouns so common in modern languages is avoided. We wish here only to call the learner's attention to this characteristic of the ancient lan- guages; subjoining a few examples. E.g. h f, d' av twv qivkcuv nXeloTOv ojgip avdgixciJTaTOi, Inatvovavv ol noXliao, where ramt^v must be mentally supplied before incctvovaiv. — Xenoph. Hell. III. 4. 3, inayyeiXafxavov tov '^/yrjadccov ttJv nrgcxTeiccv Agcsilaus offering himself as leader of the expedition^ didoaatv ol yiaxsdcii^f^ovioi (so. avTo3) oGaneg ^itjoev. — Athen. 8. p. 339, ov i]v lid'r], rag x^'^Qocg ovu aqjiiftac (sc. ccvtov). It follows of course, that in these and all other instances, the pronouns can be equally well inserted, whenever required by emphasis or euphony. Note 2. Another instance of the omission of the object, is that of the reflexives kavTov, ifiavxov, etc. which takes place, or can be assumed as taking place, whenever a verb which is elsewhere always transitive, be- comes in certain circumstances intransitive ; as e. g. several of the com- pounds of ayuv to lead, in which the intransitive idea to go predominates, commonly with the accessory idea of pomp or multitude ; e. g. i^fx^gri- o-£ T^g bbov, Tigocra/ovTog rov rvgdwov, " he went out of the way, because the tyrant was approaching (i. q. approached himself)." Such instances belong propei'ly to the lexicon. — There is here a twofold caution to be given: (1) We must not be too ready with this mode of explanation, and especially must not apply it to prose writers, until we are convinced that the usage in the phrase in question is established by custom. (2) We must not regard the omission of haviov as everywhere a necessary suppo- sition ; since in many verbs it is philosophically more correct to assiune that the verb had oiiginally both an immediate and causative sense (§113. 2) ; e. g. in oqpav go forth and urge on. <5) 131. SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE. 359 Note 3. The case governed by any verb, can properly be further gov- erned in the same manner only by the participle of that verb. The substan- tives and adjectives derived from the same verb, usually change the case into the Genitive or render a circumlocution necessary. We find however not unfrequently in Attic writers, not only the Accusative but also the Dative of a verb, joined with a peculiar force and conciseness to the verbal noun or adjective. E. g. uHoXov&rjjixog tlvl addicted to something, ri emcnoj dia- vsy,7j(TLg the distributing to each, nqog inldsL^tv tolg ^ivotg in order to show to strangers; — xa fisTsojQU q)Q0VTi(TX7Jg one who meditates on things above the earth (Plat. Apol. 2.) from cpgovxl^uv n meditate on any thing ; — Plat. Alcib. II. 7 avrixoov sivai evia ys x^i^d xs xcxl ngm^a /syevtjfiiva not having heard of some — occurrences (elsewhere ocvi^xoov slval TLVog). — The adjective e'^agvog is always so construed, and in connexion with the substantive verb {sivai) signifies therefore to deny, disown, and governs (precisely like aQviidd^ai) not only the Infinitive {j£^aQv6g elfit noiriffm), but also the Accus. e. g. ottw? /w^ E^aqvog sasL a vvv Xiyug, Plat. Euthyd. p. 283. c. Note 4. Many verbs can have not only a regular object, but by means of a conjunction can likewise be followed by another clause or proposition, instead of a proper object. We sometimes find both modes of construction at the same time in one verb; e.g. xal xQi]}iar€C TtagacTxsvd^ovTaL xal (plkovg, x al on (o g avaaiv w? nid^avbixaToi XsysLV, Plat.G org. 77. — twv noXXcav txavcog Idovxsg T7]v (lavlav, xal '6 x i old tig av- %MV ovdsv vyLsg tiquxxsl, id. Rep. 6. p. 496. c. § 131. Accusative Case. 1. The most natural use of the Accusative, viz. to designate the im- mediate object (§ 130. 2), requires no further illustration. We adduce here therefore only those instances, in which Greek usage differs from that of other languages. Note 1. The particular instances of verbs which in one language take the object as immediate in the Accusative, and in another language take it only as remote, i. e. either govern the Genitive or Dative or require to be construed with a preposition, can be learned only by practice and from the lexicon." Thus e. g. the idea to imitate takes in Greek, Latin, and En- glish, the person in the ilccusative, but in 'German in the Dative. E. g. fiL^Eixat xov 'UgaxXicc, ' imitatur Herculem,' ' he imitates Hercules,' ' er ahmet dem Heracles nach.' Further, we say, ' he swore by the Gods ;' but the Greeks say xovg S^eovg ^fioaev. The following examples may also be. noted: xoXaxsvsLV faivn upon, flatter, XavS^oivsLV (xLvd) to be concealed from, adixtlv do wrong to, McpsXslv be useful to, uTcodLdgdo-xEiV [xLvd) run away from, etc. all of which, contrary to our Enghsh usage, take in Greek the Accusa- tive. 2. Verbs which properly have no transitive signification, i. e. verbs neu- ter or intransitive, can yet sometimes be conceived of as transitive, and can thus take an Accusative. E. g. from ge'co flow, it can be said in Greek, at nrjyal gtovac ydXa kcci fitXi,^ where we say, " the fountains flow with milk and honey." Such instances are easily apprehended, and belong to the lexicon. 360 § 131. SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE. 3. It is a characteristic of the Greek language, that it often coii- nects with a verb, the Accusative of the corresponding or kindred ah- stract substantive. This is chiefly. done by way of modifying, Hmiting, or rendering definite the general idea expressed by the verb ; some- what as in English to run a race^ to dream a dream, to die a death, etc. The Greek language however carries this much farther than the Eng- lish. E.g. ^ri l3ioi/ ijdtaTOv he lives a most pleasant life ; yXvi/ivv vn- vov iiotf-icia&at to sleep a sweet sleep; y,tvdvvsvG(a tovtov zov nivdvvov " I will expose myself fo this danger ;" (pavsgcog xov Ti6l€f.iov nolsfjiTi- oo^iav " we will wage the war openly;" »J adimu tjv -^dUovv as "the wrong with which I have wronged thee" (comp. no. 5 below) ; inif^s- XovviciL TzaGccv tmixiXsiav. The Greek language avoids in this way the enfeebling accumulation of such words as our make, do, have, etc. — For the same construction with the Passive, see ^ 134. n. 2. Note 2. Sometimes even a predicate with the verb uvai has such a kindred Accus. connected with it ; e. g. 8ovl6g icrxv ra? (^s/icnag dovXslag, ' he is the slave of a very great slavery.' The advantage of this mode of ex- pression will be apparent, from the vain attempt to give it with equal force in English. — In verbs which are in themselves transitive, this con- struction assumes a shap^e not indeed strictly logical, but yet entirely per- spicuous ; as ayvoelv ayvoiav aiaxiaTtjv, ' he is ignorant with a shameless ignorance.' 4. The Greeks often employ the Accusative to express also that which in the nature of the thought and language, is the remote object. Thus the immediate object of noiiiv is the deed done, of Xtyevv the words spoken ; the remote object, in the usual acceptation, is the person to ox for whom any thing is done or said ; yet the Greeks always say Ka-AOig ttoihv riva do evil to any one, maltreat him, itanojg \(ytiv xiva speak evil of any one, calumniate him. But many verbs are also of such a nature, that their action can be conceived of as exerted in a two-fold manner, and in reference to two different objects, both of which are immediate, and consequently to be put in the Accusative. Thus in English the verb to wrap ; as 7 wrap the child (in the cloak), and I wrap the cloak (around the child). 5. From this two-fold \^erbal relation, is to be explained the usage so frequent among the Greeks, that such verbs very commonly exhibit both these relations to an object in the Accus. at the same time, and in the same clause. To speak more briefly, such verbs govern two Accusatives, one of which usually denotes the person, and the oth- er the thing, to which the action of the verb refers. E. g. r/ noirioco amov ; what shall I do to him 7 nolXa dya'&cc xriv noXi^v inoif}Gev. So didaQxovai zovg naidag GOicpQOGvvi}v, — one of the few instances where § 131. SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE. 361 the Latin, an(J also the German and English have the same construction ; * docere *aliquem artem/ 'einen die Kunst lehren,' 'to teach one a trade ;' Qri^alovg ^QW^^^ ^rrjoav. — So especially the ideas of clothing and talcing aw at/ ; as hdveivxi^va top ;ftrwi'a; vuodfli^ nva aag^uztvag to pull on coarse shoes for any one; ov ttjv ipvxrjv acpflXsTO whom he has deprived of life ; iiegov naida ixdvaag j^itojvujTov iavvov ixelvov ^fiq)isa8v. — zovg nolt^lovg ti^v vavv ansaxsgriiAa^iev. — Further, xovto f^7] dvaynciCe ^8. — ov gs anonQvipct) zdg if^ag dvangccylccg. Thus too the ideas of entreating, asking, etc.* 6. The Accusative expresses further the remote object, when, as is very common in Greek, it is employed to specify the part, circumstance, or definite adjunct, by which a more general assertion is qualified. E. g. naXog iaxt xo ooj^a he is handsome as to his body, nodag coycvg swift footed, novHv xcc aniXt] to have pain in the legs, dXyM zdg yvd- {)-ovg ' — d^ccvf-iaaxog xd xov noXtu.ov admirable in the things of war, 2^vgog riv xrjv naxgldu he was a Syrian as to country, ^JcoKgdifjg xovvofjia Socrates hy name. In like manner the names of games and contests are annexed in the Accus. to the verbs expressing the different kinds of action in the games, etc. as dgafXHv xo oxddvov, vtytav OXv{.inca, tGxecpav6)a-&ao Uiid^tcc. Note 3. This is the well known Greek construction which the Latin poets so often imitate, e. g. os humerosque deo similis. In English a prepo- sition is necessary, viz. as to, of, by, in, etc. and likewise in Greek a prepo- sition, especially Ttard, is sometimes employed in such examples with the Accusative. Hence commentators commonly sup}>]y jc«t« at once in all such instances, as if it were omitted.' But it is better to accustom our- selves to regard the Accusative in itself as a case of the remote object in > Greek ; see § 130. n. 1. — For the same construction with the Passive, see § 134. n. 2. 7. Verbs which never take a substantive in this manner in the Ac- cusative, admit this case nevertheless, so soon as a pronoun or other more general word takes the place of a definite designation or circum- stance. E. g. XL igojum avxM ; *'for what, how, shall I use it V ovk oida, o,xi GDC y^goj^ao, lit. " I know not /or what, how, I shall use thee," i. e. what I shall do with thee, how I shall treat thee; ndvxa avdai^o- v£7v " to be fortunate in all things,'^ etc.t Note 4. From these two usages (Text 6 and 7) are to be explained * It is not meant to be said, that all such verbs, or that th investigate something, i'^STaamog xwogjitfor investigating something ; ol ttquh- Tixol TOiv dixalojv, from r« dinccta. The exceptions to this rule, where the case governed by the verb remains along with the adjective, are noted above in § 130. n. 3. 2) All words signifying "plenty or tcant, value or want of value. E. g. (.lenxog -Oogvpov full of tumult, fxeGtov toxi to ^riv qjQovTidMV — dei- G'&ai )[g}]fAaTO}p to want money , a'^iog TtfA7]g worthy of honour. From the idea of ivant or need we may explain how delaS-aL in the signification to ask, entreat, takes a Genitive of the person ; one has need , of the person for his object. 3) Very many verbs of still other classes ; especially those of the fol- lowing significations, viz. remember and forget, [.it^vrj^iat lov '^qovov, jrig dkzfjg incXav&a' vaiab care for, contemn, admire, as inifAelea&ai^, x^deo&al zivog, care for, take care of any one, 6hyo)Q€7v, %uTa(pQOVHVf davf^dCsi'V^ etc. spare, cpeldeod^al xvvog desire, wish for, naidsvoewg tnt>d^v[x€lv* rule, surpass, overcome, d.v&QMnoiv dg'^eiv, t]dovf]g xqutsIv, negc- iivao TOu ixx^gov accuse, condemn, y.aT7]yogs7v, Ttaraycyvwaxuv. But all this must be understood with many exceptions and limitations ; since many such verbs take an Accusative, in order to express the same relation. Most verbs of sense also take the Genitive, those of seeing excepted. E. g. oC^ov fAvgojv to have the smell of ointment, vey.gov firj aTtrea&ao not to touch a corpse, rovg dovXovg lyevae trjg ihv&eglag' — (xkovco natdiov xluiovzog I hear a child weeping.i 4) Particularly however all words in the Comparative Degree take the Genitive of that with which the comparison is made. E. g. * Here belongs the verb f^av rivog to love, with the primary idea of desire; on the contrary (piXelv ttva implies only good will. t The verb duovoj commonly governs the Accusative of the sound, and the Genitive of that which produces it j but both not without exceptions. See Steph. Thesaur. • 47 366 'J 132. SYNTAX. — GENITIVE. (Atl^oiv tfxou greater than 1, aoq^ttiTSQog iazc zov diduOitaXov he is tmser than his teacher, TcaXXiov tf.iov adfig thou singest better than I; agerrjg oudii^ itii^fAa tGTt osfxvongov. Note 5. The fuller construction of the comparative is elsewhere with »J, than, qaam, (see among the particles § 149,) which however is only used, when the construction with the Genitive cannot be applied. The Greeks are so fond of this latter construction, that they even put in the Genitive an object to which the comparison does not directly refer, e. g. fitl^ova ifiov disTtga^iv. Aristoph. Eccl. 235 (tltIoi tig T?Jg TBxovatjg (laXXov sTiLTiifupsisv av; i.e. "who more than the mother?" — The ambiguity which may thus arise> can be removed only by regarding the nature of the thing itself; e. g. Herodot. nyga^lda anskijisTO nolVov iXdcra-o) tov najQog, i. e. lit. " which was much smaller than hi^ father ;" but properly, " which was much smaller than (that left by) his father." — The following construction is of another kind : ^sl^mv rat unovxi ylyvEXUL ^Xd^r; jov tts- TTOiTjxoTO?, i. e. ?J Tw mnoiriy.oxu Note 6. The words aXXog and txtQog sometimes imitate the compara- tive, e. g. aXXog e^ov another than /, exega xovxcav other than these, different from, etc. 6. In respect to the following and other similar remote relations, it will be found upon reflection, that they are all contained in the same manner in the idea of the Genitive itself; although for familiar grammatical ex- planation it is shorter to assume the omission of some idea, commonly that of a preposition. 1) The more definite qualification or limitation of a general proposi- tion, where we use in respect to, etc. E. g. iyyvraza ccmm eifit, ytvovg I am very near to him in respect to race, kindred; Herod, ajiuig'^'ag^i- vcop naidwv childless in respect to male descendants ; nag'&f'vog Mgaia ydfiov ripe in respect to matrimony ; daavg div^gtov. — Here belong the Genitives before which it is customary to supply ti/saa on account of; as fvdaifAOvlCco Gt TOV xgunov 1 pronounce thee happy on account of thy disposition of mind; ohxtigo} ae tov nadovg. Comp. for the Infin. § 140. n. 1. 2) The relation of value ; since both the value itself and the price can stand in the Genitive (Genitivus pretii) ; e. g. dgw^^irjg ayogd^eiv TV to purchase something for a drachma ; nXeioTOV tovto Tif^wfxai I esteem this of the highest value. — So the goods or wares bought or sold (Genitivus mercis); e. g, rgsTg ^vag naitdrjxs tov innorv he paid three minae for the horse ; xgri(xuia tovtmv nguTTSTai he lets himself be well paid FOR them; see on Plat. Meno. 28. 3) In verbs signifying to take hold of, etc. the relation of the part by which a whole is taken hold of E. g. Xa§e7v or more commonly XaBi- Gd-at TLvd Tiodog, X^^'&os, to seize one by the hand^foot, etc. trjs X^tQog § 133. SYNTAX. — DATIVE. 367 «/£ to lead Mm by the hand, rov Xv'aov roiv wiojv Kgavo) I hold the vjolfjiY the ears. Care must be taken here not to confound the above with Xa^Hv tiva xstgi to take hold of one with the hand. 4) In answer to the question when; but only of indefinite and contin- ued time (comp. ^ 133. 3. 4). B. g. vvKvog, -tj^tQag novuv xi, to do any thing BY night J by day; uoIXmv ri^egojv ov fASfielezrjica I have not practised for many days ; l^aias qvy. acpii^viiTo.i Itmv f^vgiwv he comes not thither in ten thousand years. Plat. Phaedr. p. 248. e. Note 7. In the above sense of the Genitive there is sometimes an omission of the preposition tisqI, of, concerning ; e. g. sItis ds fioi, naxQoq ts xal vUog Od. X, 173. To explain this Genitive more exactly it will run thus : " this of or relating to my father ;" for the idea this need never be ex- pressed when the thing itself follows. See the note to Soph. Philoct. 439. Note 8. Sometimes the omission of the idea on which the Genitive depends is very clear, at least in the train of thought ; e. g. in the follow- ing phrases : tovto ovx egtvv avdgbg (Tocpov " this is not the action of a wise man ;" — ov navxog uvai " not to be every man's affair, ^"^ i. e. not to be easily accomphshed by everyone; — toiv adlxcov egtIv "it is one of the unjust things," i. e. more briefly, "it is unjust." Here too may be classed the instances above in no. 4. 2. c, d. Note 9. A very common omission is that of the word olmg house be- fore the Genitive of the possessor; e. g. uafi^^v ug ^AXxi^Locdov we entered into the house of Akihiades. Hence the usual constructions «V adov, slg adov, lit. in or into the house of Hades, i. e. the infernal regions. — The in- stances where the article of the omitted word remains (e. g. of viog, ;f w^a, etc.) are given in § 125. 5. Note 10. A frequent though obscure omission is where the Genitive stands in exclamations of wonder or grief,— somet[mes with an Interjec- tion, e. g. oY^oi Twj' xaxbjv, alas what misfortunes ! a Zev, rrig navovgylag, O Jupiter,what cunning ! — and sometimes alone, e. g. ttJ? TVXTjg O {gloomy) fortune ! tijg naxmrixog O the stupidity ! For the Genitives fiov, oov, etc. before their Subst. instead of a Dat. commodi, see § 133. n. 4. — For the Genitive of a substantive in place of an adjective, see § 123. n. 4. § 133. Dative Case. 1. The fundamental idea of the Dative is directly opposed to that of the Genitive ; since in the Dative the idea of approach lies at the basis. The Greek Dative corresponds in general to the Latin Dative, and to the English to and for with their case ; but it includes also many rela- tions which with us are more clearly expressed by other prepositions, as by, loith, towards, against, etc. which require no special illustration. E. g. dovval TLvv to give to any one, Ix&Qog xivi hostile to or towards any one, neld^£0\>(xL toig vofiocg to obey the laws, or be obedient to the laws, etc. 368 § 133. SYNTAX. DATIVE. 2. The Dative is employed in connexion with the following ideas, viz. 1) 0( union, coming together ; e. g. oiivXelv Tt>vt> have intercourse with any one, fiax^ad^al tlvl fight with any one. 2) Of likeness ; e. g. Of.iot6g tivv like, similar to, any one. Hence it is also put after avTog the same, as omog Igtiv 6 avzog i^elvoy this one is the same with that. Note 1. We have seen above (§ 132. n. 5), that an object is sometimes put in the Genitive after a comparative, to which the comparison does not directly refer. Just so here the Dative is sometimes put after o av- Tog, where this pronoun strictly refers only to an intermediate third object. E. g. T« ama nua-xoa (rot I suffer the same things with you, i. e. as you suffer \ ntvEiv ano S^riXrig xaxa ravxcc (forT« avTu) xotg pQscpsaLV, to suck at the hreast in the same manner with (for as) infants ; Orjcrsvg y.uTa xov avxov xqovov "llgaxXel /svo^isvog Theseus who lived at the same time with {as) Hercules, — Here likewise arise ambiguities, as xa avxa U/oj ixslvco I say the same TO him, or as he, 3) After every action which tends to the advantage or disadvantage of a person or thing, i. e. Daiivus Commodi ei Incommodi ; see notes 2, 3. 3. The Dative expresses further the following ideas : 1) The instrument ;* both in general, y^Qyia&al tlvl to make use of a thing ; and also in particular, e. g. naxaaaeiv Qa^dm to strike ivith the rod ; GfiiXri nenot^rifiivov made with the knife or graver ; xngcoansTui piXei eg xov w^ov — . Kindred with the instrument is that in which or bv which one is or DOES anything. E. g. r?J fAtv i'^ovala xvgavvel.^ xaig d' evegyealaig dt]- fxayoyyei, through his power he is a ruler, hut through his benefactions he is a favourite of the people ; naao xo7g xotovxoig (i. e. virtues of the Lacedemonians before mentioned) liaidu av rjyriGaio aaviov. Plat. Alcib. I. 38. 2) The manner, e.g. xavia lytv^to zcods rw xgoniothis occurred in this manner; dg6iA.co nagrjld^ev he approached running ; fieyah] anou- df] ndvia luQaTxsxo. 3) The cause, e. g. g)o'/?(X) huQaxxov I did it from fear ; ip v6- OM TLvl to he ill of some disease ; dlyelv xivi to have pain from some- thing ; Ti{^vf]Xiv anonX^lla. — ov ydg dygoiiilcc notdi xovxo. 4) A definite time when (comp. § 132. 6. 4) ; e. g. nagfjv xtj xgixtj rjfitga he was here on the third day ; xtj vaxsgaia xriv povXriv ixdXovu on the next day they called together the senate. * The Latins employ for this purpose their Ablative, and call therefore Ablati- vus instruvienti that which in Greek must be named Dativus Instrumcnti or Da- tivus rei inservicntis. § 133. SYNTAX. — DATIVE. . 369 Note 2. Under the Dative of advantag-e and disadvantage is included, first, that relation of the Dative which is common to almost all lan- guages ; w^hich exists e. g. in the Homeric aacra ol xcna KXoj&sg — /ELVOfiivo) evr,(Tav {TtaT-svrjiTciv) " what the Fates have spun for him ^at his birth (of good or evil) ;" MeveXum tovSs nXovv iaisUafisv " for Menelaus (for his benefit) have we undertaken this voj^age," Soph. — On this is founded the less direct Dative of advantage or disadvantage, which is subjoined with reference to the purpose or wishes of a person ; e. g. eTcsiduv ja/io-Ta ali- Tolg ol rcaldeg tw Isyo^sva ^vviaicnv, where it would have been enough to have said, " so soon as their children — ;" but the amotq refers to the ex- pectation of the parents. In like manner this Dative refers to the emotions excited by an action ; e. g. i] fAiprjQ ia as noLuv o,t/. av ^ovXjj, 'iv avrji fia- xuQLog fig (Plat. Lys.) where it would have been fully intelligible simply to have said, "in order that thou mayest be happy ;" but the amfi is add- ed in reference to the mother's feelings. — So also in the case of disadvan- tage, ol TTUTSQEg tovg VLslg naqa^v&ovvTat, oiav avTotg e^afiaQjavao-L (Plat. Sophist.) where we are not to seek in amotg the persons kgainst whom the transgression is directed (to their disadvantage), but simply a minor reference to the feelings of the fathers. — From such passages we can now advance far- ther and easily comprehend those instances, where in a manner peculiarly common in Greek, the Datives ^ol, aol, etc. are inserted, merely in order to give to the discourse a touch of feeling and sentiment. A striking ex- ample of this apparently superfluous Dative occurs Od. 8, 569 ; where it is said to Menelaus, that the gods (564) would send him to Elysium, ov~ vsit E^Eig "j^XsvfjV nal acfiv ya^^gog Juog icrcn. Note 3. Out of this same Dative of advantage, has arisen the usage of joining to a whole clause or proposition the Dative, instead of the Genitive belonging to a substantive ; e. g. iul Tijg ctfia^rjg ds o-q^L bxssjo rj p^Ttiq (Herod. 1.31.) "upon the wagon sat to them the mother," instead of "sat (ftXrjxeog one who is to be loved, must be loved. The verbal in xog, on the other hand, corresponds to the Latin participle in tus both in form and sense ; 372 <5 134. SYNTAX. VERBS PASSIVE. though not in construction, in respect to which it is merely an adjective. E.g. nXexTog braided, GTQemog turned around, noirjiog made (i.e. not natural), aataoxevaGzog prepared. More commonly however it has the idea of capability or possibility, like the Latin adjectives in ilis, Engl. He, hie, etc. E.g. OTgenzog versatilis, versatile; ogaxog visi- bills, visible ; d'AOtatog audible. 9. In consequence of their Passive nature, these verbals refer in con- struction to what would be the subject of the verb in the Active ; (that in jog however only in its second signification :) and in such a man- ner, that this subject stands with them in the Dative, by no. 4 above. E.g. ^ nohg co(peX}]Tta oot Igto the state must be benefited by thee, i.e. '"thou must be useful to the state;" tovto ov qyiiov IgtI i^ot, this must not be said by me, i. e. I must not say this. Very often how- ever this reference to the person or subject is omitted, and the sense left general; e. g. Ivxtog 6 rotovzog vofiog :iai ovy, iaxiog zugtog elvai, '* this law must be repealed, and not be suffered to remain valid." 10. When the Neut. in rtov stands in this manner, with or without iGTiv, it corresponds to the Latin Nom. Neut. in dum, e.g. Xeyiitov ioziv or simply lezitov '* one must speak." It takes then all the con- structions and qualifications of the verb ; e. g. dgexi^v t^Biv nuQaxiov *' one must strive to have virtue;" rdig loyoig TigoGszTt'ov tov vovv " one must fix his attention on the words ;" zavia ndvxa noctjxiop fxot '' aH this must I do." — The corresponding usage in respect to the Neut. in roV, (but without such verbal constructions,) occurs e.g. in ^Lmxov iazo "one can live;" xo7g ova i^izov ioxt, "who cannot go out," Hesiod. '&, 732. Note 3. The Attics use also the Plural of the Neut. Verbal in xiov in , the same significaiion (comp. §129. 1). E.g. ^adiazsa "one must go ;" avviyiTioTE iffzl X7]v xQvya (see the Anom. nlvoi) "one must drink up even the dregs." Note 4. By another Attic peculiarity the form in xiov, as if in conse- quence of the idea 8u which lies in it, sometimes takes that which would be the subject of the Active, in the Accusative instead of the Dative ; e. g. Plat. Gorg. 507. d, xov (iovlofxivov tvdal^ova dvat aojcpgoavvrjv dL(axTBOV nal aaxrjxsov. See Heind. ad Plat. Phaedr. 128. Note 5. Since Deponents (§ 113) are also used passively in some of their forms, the verbal adjectives are formed from them in a Passive sense ; just as elsewhere from regular Actives. E. g. sgya^oixat, I ivork, egyaazov what can he or is accomplished hy labour, igyaazEov one must work. Indeed, in certain verbs whose Passive or Middle assumes a new signification, which may be recognized as a new simple and Active sense, the verbal adjectives in some familiar instances have both significations, viz. that which comes from the proper Active, and that from the Passive or Mid- dle. E. g. TTstoTgoj' "one must > convince" from nud-a, and "one must § 135. SYNTAX. — VERBS MIDDLE. 373 obey" from nsld-oy.m. — From Tginofiai turn aioay, go away, is formed a very unusual verbal adjective to express this sense, viz. tlie form jQanijiiov from the Aor. 2 Pass. hgaTti^v. § 135. The Middle. 1. In treating of the use of the Middle, we must distinguish ac- curately between the Middle as to signification and the Middle as to form. This is necessary, because usage has by no means so definitely and regularly separated the significations of the Passive and Middle, even in those tenses where a double form exists, that under the name 3Iiddle we can at once understand both form and signification. One point at least we must assume as firmly established, viz. that in Syntax that only is a real Middle, which has a Middle signification under a Passive form. Note 1. This definition includes the Aorist Passive, which, as we shall see farther on, has in many verbs a Middle signification. For al- though its form, according to the general analogy, is not Passive, but Act- ive ; still it has been removed from the Active by long and uninterrupted usage. This tense therefore is to be regarded as a real Passive ; which nevertheless, like other Passive tenses, is susceptible of the Middle signifi- cation. 2. We have already seen (§ 89. 1) that the fundamental signification of the Middle is the reflexive one ; which arises very naturally out of the Passive signification. The full and proper reflexive sense exists, where the subject of the verb is at the same time its immediate ob- ject, and consequently stands with the Active form in the Accusative. Thus from loua) xiva lioash some one, the Passive is lov^iai I arn wash- ed, and this as Middle signifies I wash myself, bathe. So anotyiuv, dnay' Sao Tiva to strangle, hang some one. Mid. ajiayxea&cci, ccnay^ciG&ac, to hang one's self; dnix^vv, dnoayslv^ restrain. Mid. ccnextod^ai restrain one's self, abstain. It is however to be observed, that this first and proper sense, although it seems to be the foundation of the whole doc- trine and use of the Middle form, actually constitutes the real Middle sig- nification only in a very limited number of verbs : indeed only in a few which occur very frequently in this wholly reflexive meaning, and which (besides those above adduced) express some ordinary action in refer- ence to one's own person ; e. g. to dress, laipe, shave, clip, adorn ivith a wreath, etc. In all other verbs, this direct reflexive sense, when requisite, can be expressed only by means of the reflexive pronouns ifiuvTOv, iavTOv., etc. 3. The reflexive sense is often converted into a new simple meaning, i. e. one which has no reflexive reference to the subject ; e. g. oiakXeip to send, OTeXXsa&av lit. to send one's self somewhere, i. e. to travel. In 48 374 § 135. SYNTAX. VERBS MIDDLE. this way the Middle in many verbs passes over into a real intransitive, E. g. navatv cause to cease ^ navtad-av lit. cause one's self to cease, i. e. to cease, leave off ; nla^6i>v cause to wander about, nla^SG&at wander about, rove; evo)-)(^av entertain, avtayHGd^ui, feast, revel, etc. Note 2. These Middles obviously correspond to their Actives, pre- cisely as immediates to their causatives. There are also some Passive- Middles, which in a similar simple signification appear as Deponents ; e. g. ysvo^ai taste, cn}7ioi.iui decay, rot, tlnojAdi hope ; of w^hich the infre- quent Actives can be expressed in English only by means of a circumlo- cution with cause,^make, let, etc. as y£V(o cause to taste, er}7i(a cause to rot, etc. slma cause to hope. See also the Anom. fialvofim. 4. But the Middle can also readily become a transitive; and as the Passive often has with it an Accusative as object, (§ 134. 6 sq.) so likewise has the Middle. The simplest instance of this is when, as with the Passive, one of the two objects (Accusatives) of the Active remains with the Middle ; e. g. Ivdvitv nva yncova to put on one's coat for him. Mid. hdvaaox^av yixmva to put on one's own coat. But the Middle can also take an object of its own, whenever there arises (in the manner mentioned in no. 3 above) out of the reflexive action a new simple sense which can be regarded as transitive. E. g. negacovv xiva to set one over sc. a river, Mid. nsgaiova&ut' lit. to set one's self over, i. e. to pass over, and then it takes the river in the Accusative, Tifgcci- ovaOao TOP Tlygiv to pass over the Tigris ; cpo^Hv to frighten anoth- er, q)O0€7o^at>\it. to frighten one's self, i. e. to fear, and then cpo^eia&at Tovg xf^eovg to fear the gods ; liXletv to pluck, ilXleGd^ai to pluck one's self, i. e. pull out one's own hair, — and as this is an action of lamentation, hence TiXUo'&ai riva means to bewail any one by pulling out the hair. 5. In all the preceding instances, the Mid. sense arises out of the usual transitive construction of the Active with the Accusative, viz. q)0§ov(.iat> {ox iy(a q)o^o) ps. But as the subject of the Passive (§ 134. 5, 7) some- times comes from the construction with the remote object, viz. the Dative, so this is sometimes the case with the Middle ; and then the other object, which stood with the Active in, the Accusative, stands in the same manner with the Middle. E. g. ngoGnoitiGai rivi to to adjoin something to any one, i. e. make it his own, (as a territory to a state, etc.) tiqoo- noi'7]oaalvt(j&aL^ to demonstrate, naQsxsiv and naqix^ad'ai, to present. Very often too the Middle is used only in certain secondary shades or turns of signi- fication, or in other connexions ; as in alquv to take^ aigtta&aL to choose ; Xa^slv and Xa^scT^ai, etc. But such instances must be learned by obser- vation and practice, like other peculiarities and anomalies of idiom. The learner must nevertheless here be particularly upon his guard ; because a reference may very easily be imperceptible to us, which the Greeks in- stantly perceived and felt. Note 5. On the other hand, the learner must not suppose, that the Middle of all verbs really exists, where, as to the sense, it really could ex- ist. An attentive observation of usage, and a good lexicon, will in every instance shew whether a verb has the Middle, and also whether this has a definite sense, and if so, what it is. Note 6. Where a remoter reference to the subject, for the sake of em- phasis or perspicuity, is expressed by means of a pronoun, as s^avioVf ifiog, etc. the form of the Middle still remains (where it can have place), although this is then not requisite. Thus Demosthenes says (in Mid.) yi- ygafifioiL iiiavra ravra, I have written this down for myself. Note 7. In the reflexive sense is included the strictly reciprocal (mu- tual) action. Thus ^ovXevsiv means to take counsel^ resolve, — ^ovXsvea&ai, to consult together, or as a common Middle, to consult one^s self, reflect ; diaXvsLV to reconcile others, diaXmo'd'ca to become reconciled with one another. Note 8. From the proper Middle must be excluded all those Middle forms, of which no Active form exists, and which are therefore to be re- garded as Deponents of the old Passive form. Such are dixofim take^ ids^dfiijv ; alad-dvofiai, perceive, jja&ofi.rjv. § 136. Perfect and Aorist Passive as Middle. 1. We have already seen (§ 89), that the forms which constitute the real Middle are : The Present and Imperfect, the Perfect and Pluper- fect 6f the Passive form ; and the Future and Aorist with a peculiar Middle form. 2. The whole Middle form has no connexion whatever with the signifi- cation of the real Passive ; while on the other hand, in many verbs, the Aor. Pass, has at the same time the signification of the Middle. E. g. zuTccaXhsG&cct^ lay one's self down, 'Aaiealld^riV ' analXaTTeo&ai re- move one's self, go away, dnrjXXdytjv. Further d,am^&rivav, 7iXayx^V~ vav (from nXd^aG&ai), evcD^V^Vvai, neQatcDd^rjvao, q:off7jd^fjvac^ mi- Gd^rjvDci, ivavTCM&fjvat, v,olfir]drivav, ogsx'&tjvcci, ^tctTOcnXayrjvcct^ etc. E. g. Xvaag ti]v noXiogalccv dntjXXcxyi] having raised the siege he rer tired; aoi^tjd^tjti lay thyself down to sleep; i^aatjO^fjv tiyvriv I exer- cised myself in the art ; xuTenXdyrj zov 0iXvnnov he dreaded Philip. § 137. SYNTAX. THE. TENSES. * 377 Note 1. The regular Middle form of the Aorist in such verbs is un- usual or 6bsolete. In some it has a special signification ; e. g. (tzsX- XttrS-at travel, Aor. cnaXi^vai ; but (TTsXXecrS-aL dress one's self^ also send for, cause to come, Aor. (nsiXaad-at. Note 2, Several of these verbs, whose signification has more of the Passive nature, as q)o^st, where the sense manifestly requires the Perfect, " which they have left to us in books." But in eve- ry discourse where the past is often mentioned, and so mentioned that the mind always remains in the present, the Aorist is nevertheless most commonly employed in Greek, contrary to the usage of our language, where the Perfect alone would in such a case be used. It is indeed, for the most part, only when the speaker wishes particularly to express the exact relations of time, that the Perfect, and in narration the Pluperfect, are employed ; where nevertheless a regard to euphony has always great influence on the choice. — The indefiniteness therefore, which has given to the Aorist its name, is limited solely to time past. ,NoTE 1. The Aorist stands instead of the Pluperfect, e. g. Xen. Cyr. V. 1. init. " her husband was ambassador in Bactria, EJisfiips ds ctmov 6 'Aa-avQLog tteqI o-v^^a/lag, i. e. had sent him. Thucyd. oi ^d&rjvaloi EV&vg insidr] ave/ojgrjarav — $vi.ip,a%ot i/svovTO. In the poets this Aorist is far more common than the Pluperf. itself. ' 4. That which was contemporary, and which is adduced in a narration by way of qualification, must necessarily have had some duration ; thus the cessation of that action still co/itinues. Whoever says in Greek / have known it, says at the same time that he now no longer knows it. Whoever says oinov uK0§6fi.r]nay conceives this house to be still standing ; if ho saj's (oxoSojuyoa^ he leaves this at least undecided ; but he says the same when he definitely knows, that the house is no longer standing. * The Greek Aorist thus seems to express alone that which less copious lan- guages refer to other tenses, e. g. the Latin to the Perfect, the English and Ger- man to the Imperfect. § 137. SYNTAX. THE TENSES. 379 " all slept ; then arose a cry." Even when it is something in itself momentary, ( e. g. " I opened my mouth in order to call him, as he enter- ed,") we cannot well conceive of it otherwise, than as having com- menced a moment previous. Thus the idea of duration connects it- self naturally with the Imperfect ; and in opposition to this, the idea of something momentary, is connected with the Aorist. Hence arises a second idiom of the language, in consequence of which the Im- perfect is employed in the progress of the narration, not merely to express a contemporary qualification of the Aoristj,but alternately with the Aor- ist, whenever the fact narrated is to be represented as having had some duration. E. g. Xen. Anab. V. 4. 24 tovg /m^V ovv neXTuazag ida'Sccvto ol §aQ^aQOv {they received them, momentary) Kal if.ia/ovto {and fought with them, continued) ; ind d' iyyvg riaav ol onXixat, (as they approached, natural Imperfect) tTQanovio {they turned to flight, mo- mentary); Kou ol nelxaGral ev&vg Huovio {pursued them, continued). — This often causes a difference of sense, which is easily overlooked ; e. g. when it is said 6 hvmv e'§tdQUfA£, ytul }ia&vXaxT(& amovg, we must necessarily understand a continued barking; if it were nadvXaxirjGS, it would mean but a single bark, as momentary as the e'§edgaf.i8v. — And thus it comes, that the Imperfect is always used, when anything past is to be represented as customary, or as having often occurred ; e. g. Mi- Xo}v 6 KQOTiovvairig riad^i s fivccg ngecoi/ eixoai^, ''^Milo the Crotonian ate twenty minae of meat" i. e. was accustomed to eat so much. 5. In what has been said above, we have ascertained the use of the Aorist to be the expression of that which is momentary in time past, principally in narration. It follows of course, that this is not limited to that which is literally and strictly momentary ; but that the speaker or writer employs this tense, in all cases, where, along with the fact, he has also the completion of it before his mind, — he employs it for every thing that he wishes to represent as momentary or transient. But this dis- tinction between that which is momentary and that which is continu- ed, exists also in reference both to present and future time. For these however, the language has in the Indicative no double form to mark the distinction ; while in the dependent moods the Greek can always mark it in both these periods. These moods in Greek- may be regarded m respect to time, in a two-fold manner. (1) Each mood has the definite time of its Indicative. (2) In the Present and Aorist however, the de- pendent moods in themselves mark no time whatever, (like the Present Infinitive in English,) and are only rendered definite in respect to time, when and so far as it is necessary, by means of the Indicative on which they depend in the discourse or in the thought. In this way arises 380 § 137. SYNTAX. THE TENSES. therefore a double and (in respect to time) equivalent form, tvtitsov or Tvxpat, (pdrjg or (piXi^arjg, etc. of which the Greek language avails it- self in such a manner, that it employs the Moods of the Present to mark a continued action, and the Moods of the Aorist to mark a momentary one. E. g. vi^here Demosthenes says, (Phil. I. p. 44. Reisk.) tqiti- Qtig TievT^xovra ncc^uGitsvciGcxod'al €pri(xi, deiv, ux avxovg ovTCi) xdg yvMficcg Ixetv — , he wishes to have the galleys fitted oniimme- diately, and hence the momentary Aorist ; but the disposition of mind which he recommends by yvMfAag I'x^iv should have duration. And when he says further, p. 45, 'iv 17 did xov (fj6§ov — riavyiav I'x^, r} nuQidMv xavxa difvkanxog X7](pdfj^ it is obvious that here iXV express- es duration, and Xf]q)&rj is momentary. So also with the ImperativCy ibid. p. 44. init. ineiddi/ ccjiavxa dxovGrjxe, ngivaxe, nal (ad] tiqo- xegov nQolcif-i^dv6T€. Here the moment of kqIvuxs is clearly marked ; the formation of a preconceived opinion however is in itself something gradual, and the orator had marked for it no particular moment in his own mind ; hence ngoXa^pdvexs. See Hermann ad Viger. num. 165. b. It is however easy to perceive, that this differ- ence in many respects depends entirely upon the view of the speaker or writer ; and that therefore, in innumerable instances, it is really indif- ferent, whether Ityevv or Ittai, Xt'ye or h"^ov, is written; since the re- ality of the distinction would not be thus at all affected. Note 2. An action of longer duration can also in the dependent moods be expressed by the Aorist, when at the same time the final completion of it is not only before the mind, but is regarded as the end and purpose of the action. E. g. Plat. Crit. 15, xwy ■jialdav evexa ^ovXu ^fiv, ha avjovq i)t^giilji]g xal naidEvarjg. 6. The Participle of the Aorist always has the express signification of the past, and sometimes coincides entirely with the signification of the Part. Perfect. E. g. dno(3aXo)v having lost and consequently now possessing nothing; ^adwv having learned and therefore knowing; x^ccvojv, xelevxriaag, having died, dead; at ueaovxsg the fallen, the dead. Note 3. Thus e. g. Demosthenes says, (Mid. 52. Reisk. p. 57(5. 23,) " of a discourse full of merited reproaches, the true author is o nagtaxrjxwg xa SQ/a, — ol'x 6 icrxsfi^ivog old" 6 [isgi^vn'jCTag xcc dUma Xe/elv, i. e. he who has afforded the facts, not he who with consideration and care has pre- pared himself to speak that which is right." Consequently fxtgi^vricrag is entirely parallel with the two Participles Perf. and is manifestly used in order to avoid the less agreeable {xsfisgifivrjyMg. Note 4. We have hitherto spoken chiefly of the Attic dialect. In Ho- mer the Aorist, like many other forms, appears only in the commencement of its existence, i. e. the other tenses had not yet become so definitely separa- ted from it. The Imperfect especially cannot yet in him be distinguished § 137. SYNTAX. — THE TENSES. 381 from the Aorist. We leave the examples to the learner's own observa- tion.* — In Herodotus also, andiperhaps in the Ionic dialect generally, the Imperfect, especially in continued narration, is often employed as Aorist, at least according to our notions, i. e. it is used to narrate actions or tran- sient events, the occurrence of which as contemporary with other events does not necessarily appear from the context. E. g. III. 28 ixuXse, ixeXsvs, and very often rjgojTa, afisl^ETd, etc. I. 31, 35, 36, etc. Note 5. Whenever anything customary, or of ordinaiy occun*ence in the world, is mentioned elsewhere than in narration, instead of the Present by which this is expressed in other languages and usually in Greek, we often find by a special Grecism the Jloiist, which is then in the fullest sense indefinite. E. g. Demosth. Olynth. II, niy.gov nraia-fia ave/alrKTS xal diiXvas navTa "a slight mistake often disturbs and destroys all again." Id. Mid. 21 ov yaq ^ nXrj/r] nagiinfjas ti)v oq/^jv, ccXl^ 7/ uxiiila ' ovSs to rvnts- ad^ai — icTi dsLvov, aXXa to £(jp^ v^qh, where the mxl shews how the pre- ceding nagsarrjo's is to be understood. Isocr. Paneg. 12, speaking of the great games and assemblies of the Greeks, in opposition to the constant concourse at Athens, says, at fisv ccXXai navrjyvgsLg dm noXXov /govov trvX- Xsyucrai Ta/iojg dLsXyS-Tjcrav, tJ ^^ h.t.X. See also Heindorf ad Plat. Phaedo. 49. Note 6. Another case, where the Aorist seems to stand instead of the Present, is the Indie. Aorist after the question t/ ov; E. g. tl ovx eTtoLt']- ffaiiEV ; lit. " why have we not done it .^" i. e. let us do it ; tl ova Ecpgaaaq^ i. e. ' tell me now.' — See Heindorf. ad Plat. Gorg. 126. Note 7. The Greeks further enjoyed a great freedom in the choice of tenses from this circumstance, that in a narration, where the real time was obvious from the context, they could everywhere introduce the Present. This they did not merely in whole sentences, as we also sometimes do in animated discourse, but in the midst of a sentence or construction, — and even the Pres. Indicative in the midst of citing another person's thoughts in sermone obliquo. E.g. Xen. Anab. 1.3.14 slg de sItie — , (TTgaTrj/ovg eXk a-d^ a t aXXovg to? Ta/KTia, st fxij ^ ov Xsx a i> KXiag^og anaysLv. Ibid. I. 7. 16, where it is related, that the army of Cyrus came to a trench ; then follows immediately Tavxriv ds ttiv racpgov ^acnXsvg [liyag 71 i si ccvtI igv^arog, insidrj ttvv S" dv et a l Kvgov ngoasXavvovTa. Ev- ery other language must here in both instances have employed the Pluperfect. Note 8. Some verbs however are of a nature which seems to * We adduce here some passages, in which the Imperfect stands in the same connexion with the Aorist, where however there is no such difference visible in the action as to imply any difference in the two tenses; II. a, 437, 438, 465. ^, 43-45. Here it would be absurd to assume, that the disemharking of the mari- ners, the cutting up of the flesh, the throwing on of the large cloak, must have been present to the mind of the poet as actions implying duration and requiring time ; while the leading out of the (many) victims, the fixing upon the spits of the ^man y) pieces of flesh, the girding on of the sword, appeared to the same mind as mo- mentary. Still more decisive is XsiTts, ^. 107, comp. 106. — On the other hand it will be of great use in readincr Homer to observe, how the far greater number of deci- ded Imperfects which ar'e intermingled in the narration, mark a necessarily and manifestly continued and repeated action. Besides, it will not be easy to find in Homer the converse of this exchange, viz. the Aorist to express a contemporary circumstance or a repeated action. 49 '382 § 137. SYNTAX. — THE TENSES. disturb the regular succession of the tenses. Thus especially tjxw / eome is always to be regarded as a Preterite, / have come, i. e. I am here ; e.g. Plat. Crito init. agTt ^ixsig ?/ nakai,- So oc/ofiai, lit. I go awm/y stands commonly for / am gone ; by which means the Impf. M/tTO ac- quires the appearance of a Pluperfect. See the Ausf. Sprachl. in th« Catalogue of Anom. Verbs. Further Tty.Tuv nvvcy besides the signification to beget, bear, has also that of to be the father, mother, of any one ; and hence it is often to be taken entirely as a Perfect : noXkov as S^vfiTolg a^ioy zIkiu naxiJQ. Note 9. In every language^ especially in familiar discourse, there arise certain phrases which seem to contradict the general laws of the language, because their origin has become obscure. In like manner there are phrases in Greek, which cannot be reduced to the rules here given for the use of the tenses ; and which -therefore the learner must note, without being led into doubt as to the principles which flow from the coincidence of the great body of examples. Here belongs espe- cially the phrase ^v aga instead of the Present, in drawing certain infer- ences ; (see Heindorf ad Plat. Phaedr. 35 ;) originally perhaps : " it was then always (and is still) and I remarked it not," where however only the general tone has remained in this phrase. Further, certain Aorists of the first person, as T^ad-ip, iTi^VEcrcc, are used in conversation instead of the Present, in order to express a decided emotion or disposition of mind in any action ; see Herm, ad Viger. not. 162, and the author's note to Soph. Phi- loct. 1289. 1314. See also the epic stiXsto under the Anom. nsXa. Note 10. From the circumstance that the Present and Imperfect always imply duration, and consequently not completion, arises the usage, that several verbs, whose action can strictly be expressed as complete only by the accession of another verb, (e. g. to give completed by to receive, to send away by to go away,) are used in these tenses merely to express this partial (incomplete) action, or as it is called, de conatu, i. e. an endeavour or purpose, though these expressions are not exact. E. g. Herodot. VII. 221 Asojvldrjg cpavsQog ecttl (here for r^-v by note 7) tov ^dvTiv anoni^nar, 'iva ^i] (TVvaTioXrjTal ccpi' 6 ds anonf^no^ivog amog (xsv ova ctnEXine (did not leave him, did not go away), jov ds nalda — uTisTisixipE, where the last Ao- rist constitutes an antithesis to the preceding Present. So dldacn, edldov, are very often to be translated by to'ojfer ; and nsl&sL is strictly only suadet, not persuadet. See also the examples referred to in the Index to Demosth. Mid. under Praesens. Note 11. The Perfect has also a Subjunctive and Optative, and the Future an Optative, which are actually employed, when the species of uncertainty peculiar to these moods (see § 139), coincides with the time marked by these tenses. E. g. u&e 6 vlog vsvia^^ov O that my son might have conquered ! d' jiveg ElarsXrjXv&oisv if perhaps some had entered ; elnsv art 7}^0i 7}p,sQfx TQtTTj hc said that he icould come the third day. But since in such instances the moods of the Present and Aorist, with the help of the context, are generally suflicient ; and since also the Indicative is very common in sermone obliquo (comp. note 7 above) ; the forms in question are used only when they serve particularly to promote perspicuity. They require therefore here no further illustration. But even then, instead of the proper Subj. and Opt. of the Perfect, writers prefer to use in most verbs the periphrastic form, e. g. necpiXrinMg w. and bXtiv. — The Imperative of § 138. SYNTAX. FUTURE 3. 383 the Perfect occurs in its principal form, i. e. in the second person, for the naost part only in verbs whose Perfect has the signification of the Present; as xsxgax^h >ts/i]V£T£ (see the Anom./wcrxw), jj,sfj,vrjcro. The third person has, however, chiefly in the Perf Passive, a definitive final sense, "*' let it be done, finished ;" and often affords an energetic mode of expres- sion ; e. g. vvv ds tovto TeToXixtja&o) smstv, let it be ventured. — Arist. Vesp. 1129 ns7i£iga(T&03 let it be tried, i. e. try it then. Some further peculiarities of usage in the Aorist, Imperfect, and Fu- ture, see below under the Moods, § 139. §138. The third Future. I. The Future 3, not only in form but in signification, is properly compounded from the Perfect and Future. It transposes that which is past or completed into a time future. E. g. Plat. Rep. 6 iq noXcrela TiKtojg i(f}iOGfA7](fd^f]OSTaL it will be left behind) ; — aiHTrjfiai' possess, fief.ivt]fia^ call to mind, TtsaTrjoof^ao, fiSfxvi^GOfiat. 3. The Attics, in many verbs in the Passive, employ the Fut. 3 as a simple Future Passive. Besides the verbs Stco and ncTTQaay.co (see the Catal.) this is chiefly the case with nenavGOfxao, KexoxpOf^cci,, which must never by any forced explanation be referred to the original Fut. 3. So in other verbs, where this Future is employed by the Attics alternately with the ordinary Fut. Pass, and in the same signification; e. g. ^e^Xriaofiai^, Xalt^o^M, and others, which are left to the learner's observation. Note. In some verbs the Fut. 3 has a particular emphasis ; and im- plies either (1) it shall, I will ; e. g. Soph. Aj. 1141, where to the words of Menelaus, tv aoL (pQaaco ' rovd' e(nlv ovxl ■&ci7rriov — it is answered, (tv 3' avjaaoiKTEi' xovxov d.g xE&dipsxaL {comp. § 151. I. 6), where the common xa(p^(T£TOiL would be far less forcible ; or (2) immediate action, haste, etc. e. g. 384' § 139. SYNTAX. — OPTATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. cpQoi^e, HOC TtsTiga^sTai (Arist. Plut. 1127. cf. 1200) lit. speak, and it shaU be done, i. e. immediately. From such passages the former name of this Future, viz. the Paulo-post Future, seems to have been derived. The Moods. § 139. Optative and Subjunctive. 1. At first view the Greeks seem to have the Optative in addition to the moods of our modern languages. But if we compare the use of it with the remark made in § 88. 3, viz. that in conjugation this mood conforms to the historical tenses, just as the Subjunctive to the primary tenses ; it will |De found that the Optative corresponds very nearly to that which in Latin and also in English is the Subjunctive of the Imperfect and Pluperfect, which on the other hand is wanting in Greek. We say e. g. in the expression of a wish, " O that I had — !" although the true time is the Present. So in narration, " he inquired into every thing in order that he might JcnowJ' In these and similar cases the Greeks use the Optative; while their Subjunctive stands where we often say if he be, that he has, that he says, etc. 3. The Optative therefore constantly accompanies the historical tenses ; so that the relatives and particles (those compounded with av excepted, see no. 7 sq.) which in connexion with the Present and Fu- ture require with them the Subjunctive, in connexion with the historic tenses take the Optative. E.g. ovx J'/w or ovu olda onoi, zganci)- p,ai {non habeo, quo me vertam) " I know not whither I can turn my- self; ovu ft/ov, DUX TJdeip onoi Tgocnoifi7]v {quo me verterem non ha- bebam) *' I knew not w^hither I could turn myself;" ndgeipt, ha tdco "lam present that I may see;" nugtiv, Xva \doipi " I was present that I might see." Note 1. For the exceptions which this rule admits, see Hermann ad Viger. num. 350. Heind. ad Plat. Protag. 29. But the general and fun- damental rule cannot thereby be shaken. The same animation of man- ner, which, as we we have seen above, often introduces the Present into a narration of the past, can easily be the occasion, that a speaker or writer should sometimes forget the dependence of his construction on the past. 3. For the same reason the particles and pronouns, which in sermone recto require the Indicative, take in sermone obliquo in narration regularly the Optative. E. g. rigevo, li ovtcog i'xot' *' he ask^d whether it were so;" £%e'§e p.ov, ore iq ddog cptgoi fig rryV iioXtVj i^vneg d gear] v, etc. The exception to this is found in § 137. n. 7. 4. The conjunction dncog (§ 149), when it refers to a Future tense, is followed either by the Subjunctive or by the Fut. Indicative ;* and * Comp. the marg. note to note 8 below. §139. SYNTAX. OPTATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. 385 retains these even in connexion with the past. E. g. Thucyd. II. 3, 'ivveXeyovro — onmg fii] did tcov odojv qjavegol ciacv lovTtg. III. 4, InQaoGov, onojg Tig fioi^Osiu rj'^€o " they urged, that some help should come;" id. I. 65 ^vve^ovXsvsv ovto) noislv, onojg 6 alxog avxiap], " he counselled to do thus, in order that the provision might hold out." — The same holds true of the strengthened negation, ov fii^, in every sense (§ 148. n. 6) ; e. g. in entreaty, Eurip. Med. 1151 ov firj dva- fisvrig a(jj} cplloig *'be not thus disinclined towards thy friends." Soph. El. 1035 «U' ovTiOT i'i ifiovys /m»J fiad^rjg xods "but never from me shalt thou learn this."* Note 2. The Subjunctive can nevertheless in narration pass over into the Optative, as with Xva ; e. g. Xen. Laced. 2. 2 edbwsv aww fiatnir- yocpoQovg, onag Tificogolr} {Tovg natdag), ots 8ioi. See also the example in note 3 below. 5. In order to understand fully the further use of these moods, an accurate knowledge of the two particles el and civ is necessary. These are employed in a great variety of ways, partly in their simple form, and partly in composition. 6. The conjunction ei has two principal significations, if and whether. In both these meanings it is followed, in more accurate writers, only by the Indicative or the Optative, not by the Subjunctive. Epic writers nevertheless, and others not Attic, are excepted. 7. The particle «V, for which the epic writers use the fully synony- mous enclitic Y,tv or >c£, can sometimes be rendered by our perhaps. Commonly however it cannot be expressed by any corresponding parti- cle in other languages ; but only gives to a proposition or sentence a stamp of uncertainty and mere possibility . This serves either to mod- ify or to strengthen the Subjunctive and Optative ; while it can also be imparted to the Indicative, (the Present and Perfect excepted,) and other verbal forms. This particle commonly stands after one or more * Dawes, in consequence of too limited observation, proposed the rule, that in good Attic writers the Particles oitojg and ov iiy) never have the Subjunctive of the jirsf Aor. Act. and Mid. but always instead of this the Fut. Indicative. This rule was found to be often confirmed by manuscripts ; and on this ground in modern editions a multitude of passages have been altered even without the au- thority of manuscripts ; since for the most part this required only small changes like aT^s^nto GH. With ei it forms iai^ or ^V or av.* Epic writers combine all these words in like manner with xi, as oie xev^ etc. and for eai/ they have ei mv or cci nef. All these classes of words receive, through this addition of av, the idea of mere possibility, and thus are regularly followed by the Subjunctive ; and then such clauses, if they come to stand in connexion with the past or with a clause in sermone obliquo, either remain unchanged, or else the simple words (el, OTS, instdri, og, oazig, ooog, etc.) with* the Optative come in their place ; e. g. nageaof^at, iav tv dtt], — aiprj nageaead'ao ei re dtoo or deriGoo. So in the example in note 2 above, oze dtoc stands for the orav daj] which would be required in direct discourse. Note 3. Epic writers employ both the Subjunctive with «t, and the Optative with the particles compounded with «V or xs, e. g. Od. rj, 315. There are likewise examples in Attic writers, where the relative and particles combined with av have the Optative in a dependent propo- sition, without casting off their av; e.g. Xen, Cyrop. 5. 5. init. STiiaTsX- ksv aiTw ^]X8LV, oTiojg (TV^i^ovlog ylyvono, o,xi av doxolt] ngatTHV, " he sent for him to come, that he might advise that (whatever it might be) which might seem best to be done." See also Demosth. Mid. 5. note 2. So ojav in ^schyl. Pers. 448. Such passages are nevertheless rare ; and we must mark in all of them, whether the Optative does not stand in one of the significations peculiar to it, viz. (1) With the idea of an action repeated in time past (see note 6 below), for this Optative is not altered by the av; see the examples in Matthiae's Grammar § 521. n. 1 ; (2) When the Optative with av forms the conditional Future (see no. 13 below) ; e. g. in Plat. Euthyd. 9 Vfielg icris, nag av av xakhcrja rig avro y.d&oif where fia&ot av belongs together, might or could learn. 9. The Greek language has a peculiar variety of expression for hi/po- thetical or conditional propositions ; in respect to which the following are the most essential points. In every conditional proposition, the condition is either possible or impossible. The possible cases either express at the same time uncertainty, or not ; and in the uncertain cases the speaker either holds out the prospect of future decision, or not. Hence arise the following cases : 1) Possibility without the expression of uncertainty ; 6i with the In- dicative. E.g. el i^g6vTi]G€, xat ^'(Jr{)at//6i' " if it has thundered, it has also lightened ;" €i xv i'x^ig, dog, " if thou hast anything, give it me." * See § 117. 2. This contracted avj like tdvy usually begins a proposition or clause, and is thus distinguished from the radical form av. See no. 7 above. § 139. SYNTAX.— OPTATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. 387 2) Uncertainty with the prospect of decision ;* lav with the Sub- junctive. E. g. lav Tt i^Mfiev, dcoaofiev, "if we should have any thing, we will give it thee ;" eav rig tlvu roiv imaQXOvTOiv v6- fAOJv fjirj ycaXojg I'x^cv T^yrjiai, yQaqta&w, " if a person should consider any one of the existing laws unsuitable, let him petition against it."— Here the protasis implies, " and that will shew itself," or " and we shall see that," etc. 3) Uncertainty without any such subordinate idea ; el with the Op- tative^ and in the apodosis the Opt. with av. E. g. el xig Tama nganoi, ut'ya p.' uv ojcpekfjoece, "if any one should do this, he would render me a great service ;" et Tig luma x«x>' avra litia- aeifv, evQOL av — , "if any one should investigate this, he would find — ." Here nothing further is implied than perhaps, " but I know not whether any one will do it." 4) Impossibility or disbelief, or generally when one will indicate, that the thing is not so. In this case Attic usage almost without exception employs the Imperfect for the present or an indefinite time, and then in the apodosis uses the same with av ; e. g. n TV elx^Vj tdidov av, " if he had any thing, he would give it thee." — Here is necessarily implied, " but he has nothing." 10. When in this last case both clauses refer to the past, the Aorist must stand instead of the Imperfect, at least in the apodosis : si XV io'/ev, tdcoitev av, "if he had had anything, he would have given it thee." The two clauses can however refer to different times; e. g. el tnelo&iiv^ ov'A av riQQOjOTOvv " had I obeyed, I should not (now) be ill." — It is al- so a matter of course, that when a proposition not conditional would stand in the Perfect, it passes over as conditional into the Pluperfect, just as- the Present into the Imperfect ; e. g. el ydg amaQn^] xd ipriqlopazu riv, ov'A av Oiltnnog xoaovxov v^giKei /govov. When the apodosis (in 4) refers to the past, but at the same time? expresses duration, it stands in the Imperfect with av. E. g. Herodot, VII. 139 xal ovTOi av in" ay^cpox^Qd ri "ElXag jylvexo vtio IIig(Trj(n. De- mosth. Mid. p. 523. Reisk. navx" av ehyev ovxog xoxs. 11. All these cases are modified by being put in connexion witl* a Preterite, according to the principles above laid down, and by which they must be judged'; e. g. '/mi, el xv e^ov, exeXevae dovvaiy " and, if one had any thing, he ordered him to give it up ." Here ht-^ XevGs does not belong to the apodosis, but to the preceding context f * See Hermann's acute exhibition of this subject, ad Viger. n. 312. 388 <5 1^^' SYNTAX. — OPTATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. the Optative stands solely on account of the connexion with the Prete- rite (by no. 2 above), and dovvat, contains the apodosis; as if it stood y.al iy.t'kevae, h xv tyot^ dovvav. 12. When the particles and'phrases to which av is subjoined, are fol- lowed by the Subjunctive of the Aorist, this constitutes a Preterite by sup- position or anticipation, and consequently, when the connexion refers to future time, it forms a Future Preterite, Lat. Futurum exactum. E. g. X9V di OTCiv fxiv ji&fiad's lovg v6f.iovg, oiiolol ztve'g stov OY.oixelv' tnsidav da {f-fjad^s , (pvlarief^v acci ygriod-at, "when however ye (shall) have once given them — ;" inetdai/ ccnocvTa d'AOvarjTe, yglvars, "when ye shall have heard all, then judge ;" avrr] ?J naQaoy,tvi^ diafisJvao duvrjaeiai, tcog av TiiQiyevw^eda tmv ty&QOjv, i. e. " until we shall have van- quished the enemy ;" dcacpd^sgn o,tc av Xd^r}. In this construction the sense of the Future lies in the whole connexion ; and the Aorist has only its own peculiar sense of time past. 13. The Optative with dv (no. 9. 3 above) is only the apodosis of a supposition. This supposition however may be suppressed, and then the Optative with dv can stand alone. It is therefore thus used, in every simple proposition which is to be expressed merely as possible, and where in English we say can, could, might, would, should, etc. E. g. TO GOJjiiaToeideg Igtlv ov rig dv dipaiio, " the corporeal is that which one can touch," i. e. if he will ; yevotro d* dv ndv iv ra> [iangco XQOvco, " all can happen in the course of time ;" V^^'<^? ^^ -d^aaaalfxriv tavTU, "gladly would I see this;" dXX* ovv, einoi xig dv, "but then, might some one say — ;" 'icoig dv ovv xiveg tiiiTi^riaaiav zo7g aiQri{.a- voig " perhaps some might censure what has been said." — Hence it comes, further, that this mode of expression, in consequence of the tone of moderation peculiar to the Attics (§ 1. n. 1), takes the place of certain and positive affirmations. E. g. ov ydg dv xaya rjdr] yaya- v7]fAava rrj vvvl §oridala nojXvaai ldvv7]dah]fAav, " for that which has already taken place we cannot by any present assistance well hinder ;" ovx dv cpvyoig ' thou wouldst not escape ;' which mode of expression very commonly stands for the ordinary Future. So also leyoig dv for the Imperat. kt'ya. 14. The Greek language can further change every conditional or uncertain proposition, or every one which is so expressed, so far as the construction is concerned, either into the Infinitive or into the Participle, — only leaving the dv in its place. In this way the Greek has an advan- tage over every known language, viz. that of being able to give the force of an Optative or Subjunctive to both the Participle and the Infin- itive. E. g. oiovxai dvaiiay^aQaQy^ai dv avpfid^ovg nQOola^ov- § 139.,SYNTAX, OPTATIVE AND SUBJ0NCTIVE. 389 reg " they suppose they would again be able to carry on the war, if they should obtain allies," (from ava/xaxioacvz «V, fl Xal3oi(v); — zaUot iyimnco, noU* civ &% w v dnslv^ i. e. though I could still say much. He- rod. VII. 139 vvv d'i '^d(&f]vaiovg civ rig Xby mv (one who should say) GayTtjgag yavtad^av zrjg 'JEJkXudog ova av i'^a^iaQiot. Plat. Crito 9 o* ^cfdicjg dnoniivvuvTeg kui a v a (3 tco g x 6 fi ( v o i y* av, el oTolv tjoav, " who lightly kill, and would also perhaps bring back again to life, if they could," (from civ€^i(x)GA0VT\av). In this way is often produced the sense of an Injin. and Part. Future ; e. g. Demosth. Phil, I. oux tartv tva avdga av dvvrj{)^jjvai tiots anavxa xavxa nQuS.ai, " it is not possible that one man should ever be able to accomplish all this," where duvr^&rjval nova without civ would have expressed a past. See also the example from Isocrates in § 144. 4. a. — After ouadcci,, ilnl- ^Siv, etc. this is the usual mode of expressing the Future. Note 4. The position of uv depends wholly on euphony ; or perhaps also on the need of making the uncertainty expressed by it, Earlier or later perceptible. This must be noted, in or(ler that, with reference also to the connexion, we may readily refer av to the word to which it belongs. E. g. Plat. Phaedo. 116 oifxai av, w? c/ci Xsya, noiolg, where «V belongs to the Opt. notolq, thus : oloy.aL, notoXg av, Mg iyoj Xiyoj. So also in idoxsi av ^jfuv rjdscog navxa dianQa^ai, the av belongs to the Infin. "it seemed to us that he would gladly execute all , (^t«7^^«^£^£y av). Demosth. Olynth. I. 13 Tl ovv av Tig bI'tiol Tama Xsysig 'i]fuv vvv; for Tl ovv, HTiOL Tig av, zavia L tj. v. where consequently, if the strictly requisite comma stood after ovv, the av would appear to stand for idv ; which however cannot govern the Optative. Plat. Tim. p. 26. b, om av oid^ si dvvalfifjv anavTa ev fiV7]fir] ndliv Xa^slv, "whether I could," st dwaL fir^v av, i. e. if I were to be asked. Demosth. c. Aristocr. 680. 26 ix tovtov ' %ov ipr}(fl(riiaT0g xvQO)&svTog av, tl p) 5^' ^jfidg, ijdlxrjVTO ol ^acriXng, i. e. si TO \pr](fii(j(xa ixvg(o&i] (without aV,comp. no. 10 above), ol^acnlug TjdlxTjvx" av (would have been offended), si ^rj di^ o^ndg (i.e. had it not been for us, see ^ 150). — In a sentence somewhat involved, av is often found two or even three times repeated, without any further addition to the sense, than that the limitation of the proposition is rendered more perceptible, because several parts of the assertion are thus affected at the same time. See Heind. ad Plat. Phaedr. 138. Herm. ad. Vig. num. 283. Note 5. The particle av often gives to the Indicative the sense of a customary action ; e. g. Demosth. pro Cor. p. 301. Reisk. " no one of the earlier orators has acted in so many capacities at the same time, dXX' 6 fisv ygdqjojv ovx av inQiff^svev, o ds ngsa^tvcav ovx av sygacps " whoever pro- posed, laws did not usually go as ambassador, and vice versa^* Note 6. A further and special use of the Optative, is when it stands in the protasis, instead of the Indicative of past time, to express something which took place repeatedly or customarily. E. g. ovg fxsv I'd o l * Comp. further Soph. Philoct. 290—92. Aristoph. Pax 640. 41. Xenoph. Anab. I. 5. 2. Schneid. 50 390 § 139. SYNTAX. — OPTATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. svTocxT(og accl (jiMTifi lovtag, ngoasXawav avxolq oXrivsg dsv 'tjQcoTa, xal stie} 71V& LT o — sTCipvsL, " whoGver he saw," i. e. so often as he sslw any ; where then inel tvv&olto must necessarily follow in the Opt. Horn. II. ^, 198 ov 5' av dijixov x' avdga I'doi, — ^ooowxa t" iifsvgoLf "whatever man of the people he saw," i. e. so often as he saw, etc. — sngaTTSV « do^siev wtrw, " he did that which in every case seemed to him right." Xen. Cyrop. 1. 4. 3 oaa enegooTMTOy Ta/v uTtsxQLvaTO, "whatever he was asked, he answered always quickly ;" VTisgcoov H/sv ottot' ev uv6g iazi Xtysiv, dVj ddvvarog aiyav, " he is not distinguished in speaJdng, but is unable to be silent." Eurip. deival yv- vuiiitg evgla-ASLv ity^vag " women are very skilful to get up quarrels." — Or the Infinitive is here of a Passive nature, although the Active form is more commonly used, as in English, while the Latins employ the Supine in u. E. g. (jadiog voriouo easy to observe] nolig yuXeni] Aa- 0e7v' — -^dv axoveiv pleasant to hear, sauve^auditu; Horn, duv^ia Idt- od'at* a wonder to behold, mirabile visu. Still in this case the Inf. Pas- sive is not infrequent ; e. g. ■&fikv(fiavrjg ocpd^rivat feminine to behold,. i. e. of a feminine appearance. So in Horace niveus videri. 4. When an Infinitive which thus serves to qualify the preceding dis- course, does not stand in a sufficiently obvious connexion with that which it qualifies, especially in consequence of other intervening words, it is commonly introduced by the particle wgts, less frequently by wg, in English as, so as. This conjunction then, if the sentence be com- plete, refers back to a preceding demonstrative. E. g. i^v di nenaidsv- fiivog ovTcog, coorrf ndvv gadlcog syeov ccgxovpTcc, " he was so educa- ted as very easily to have what satisfied him ;" qjUoTif.i6TaTog f]v.j ojots Tuxvia vno^etvav rov tnaivBlad-at aufna ," he was exceedingly ambi- tious, so as to endure all things in order to be praised ;" veonaQol tiatv 7] WOTS sidtifat, o'lojv naxegiav ioTtgi^vzai " they are too young to know of what fathers they are bereaved ;" tog f^iagov {Afyoclco eixdoao (a pa- renthesis) " to compare small with great." 5. The Infinitive is used further as a neuter substantive (§ 125. 8), like the Infinitive in English. The Greeks however employ this form with far greater freedom than we ; since they furnish not only single Infinitives but also long clauses with the Article, and then employ them in all the constructions which occur with real substantives, in order to bring them into connexion with the rest of the discourse. E. g. TO (pvlos'iat^ zdyadd zov yizt} a aod" at yccXsnojzegov "to keep wealth is more difl^cult than to gain it;" to jM^V ovi^ inlog'AOv it aX slv Tova dvev zov zd n^ngay^iva d € on v v v a i. ^ loidogia ioziv (De- mosth.) "lo call any one a perjurer, without showing what he has done, is a calumny ;" to Xeyevv, (ag del, fxtyoazov lazt, (ir]f.iHOv zov (pgovelv 6V' — z6 nXovzHv iazcv ev zm ^grja&cco (.idWov ij h zco xexztja&cct, * This Aor. Mid. is inthe epic usage simply Active ; see § 135. n. 4. § 141. SYNTAX. THE INFINITIVE. - 393 In this manner the Greeks can employ a preposition, where otherwise a conjunction would be necessary; e.g/AOriva eQQtxpt xovg avXovg dta to triv o\pvv avzfjg nocs7v a^iogcpov, " Minerva threw the flute away, because it distorted her countenance." 6. Further, between the Infinitive and its article, other subordinate clauses can be inserted. E. g. i6 d'i, oaa y i^dtwg 7\ ipv^t] dtxerai., ravia I'AuvMg ixn6v67v idoyJfxa^e, " but this he recommended, to work off properly whatever nature gladly receives." Note 1. The Infin. with the article in the Genitive, sometimes ex- presses a purpose, but commonly only in entire phrases. E. g. owi ctnijXS^s, Tov fii) donEiV a^^lelv, i.e. "in order not to have the appearance of being neglectful." Here it is usual to assume an omission of IVe^ta. See Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 30, and comp. § 132. 6. 1. Note 2. The Infinitive of some short parenthetical phrases can be referred to the preceding constructions ; e. g. anlMg smelv to speak briefly, i. e. in short ; comp. no. 2 above. So i{j,ol doxslv means, as it seems to me, in my opinion^ where the Infin. although without to, takes the place of an Accusative (comp. § 131. 6. and n. 6.) — So axomat fisv omaxrl, nayxaXcog l/et, " thus to hear, is most excellent." All these phrases can more or less be introduced by ag, as wj ys ovTwal axovaaL, etc. §141. Infinitive with its Subject. 1. When the Infinitive has a subject of its own, the fundamental rule is, that the subject stands in the Accusative. Thus the Infin. with to, e.g. TO d^aQxaveiv avOgMuovg ovrag ov S^av^xaGTOv, ** that men should err, is nothing wonderful ;" oudtv ingdx^V, ^^a ^o iaeivov fi7] TidQelvav^ i. e. '* because that person was not present ;" ovdtnois 6gd(og iyei (see § 150, ^x^cv) to yMUcog Tiaox^^^^ ccuv- veoxl-ut avTcdgoivia 'Aaxcog ''it is never right, that he who has suf- fered evil, should avenge himself by requiting evil." 2. In Greek, as in Latin, we find especially^what is called the con- struction of the Accusative with the Infinitive. This occurs when, after verbs on which another clause immediately depends,— especially after verbs with the general signification to say, be- lieve, etc. — the subject of the dependent clause is put in the Accusative, and then takes its own verb in the Injinitive. In such- cases in English we either imitate the Greek construction ; or we put the subject in the Nominative and the verb in the Indicative, and then introduce the dependent clause by the conjunction that. E. g. ol fiv&oXoyot> qjaal, ToV Ovgavov dwaGxevciao tiqojtov tov naviog, "the mythologists say, that Uranus first ruled over the universe." 394 § 14*2. SYNTAX. THE INFINITIVE. 3. Very frequently however the subject of the Infinitive is not ex- pressed, when it aheady stands in connexion with the preceding verb. This takes place not merely as in other languages ; (as in English with to ; e. g. dto^uL aou na^uf-uvecv " I entreat thee to remain ;" avi/ei- 7ieTi> o^ioXoyo} "I confess to have assented;") but generally speaking, almost always when the subject of the Infinitive is the same as that of the preceding clause. E. g. tcpri onovda^aiv " he said he was in haste ;" where even the Latins prefer to repeat the pronoun of the Subject, dixit SE festinare. Note. In the use of the Infinitive for quoting the language of another, or in any other dependent discourse, the Greeks likewise go farther than the Latins in this respect, viz. that they more* frequently employ this con- struction with the relatives and also in the protasis. E. g. Plat. Alcib. I. 40 Bcpt) TiaQsk&Blv /(agav — rjv xaXstv jovg eTtixoiQlovg ^covrjv — " he said he had passed by a country w^hich the inhabitants call the zone — ." Herodot. ug 8s aga {j,lv nqodxiivau tovto, avaa-vsvd^avTa ig tglg ovofid- (SUL 20ASlNy "as this presented itself to his mind, he groaned three times and pronounced the name of Solon." — Plat. Phaedr. 84 (Tvvsvxofial aoi (I entreat with thee), si' 7r«^ afXELvov tav^ rjfuv sivai, ravra ylyvsad-ai. — Xenoph. Mem. L 1. 13, StangaTrig id-avfiacxEV, si ^i] cpavtgov avxolg icTTLV, oTt ravTa ov dwarov icniv av&gwnoig evguv ' etisI xal Tovg fii- yucnov cpgov ovvroig ettI tm negl tovxojv Xsysiv ov zavxa do^a^sLV. Here the protasis with stieI, since, is put last, as is common in such con- structions. The apodosis hes in the whole of the preceding sentence. This the writer had delivered in his own person ; the protasis he gives afterwards in the person of Socrates, and indicates this by the Infinitive of quotation. See also Plat. Alcib. I. 55. not. 7. § ^^^- Infinitive with Cases. — Attraction. 1. When the subject of the Infinitive has other adjuncts, either attri- butes or predicates, in the form either of substantives or of adjectives, it follows of course, that where the Accusative of the subject is expressed, these adjuncts are also put in the Accusative. E. g. Mfxriv as nagsl- vav fA.6vov' anavxeg vofilCofisv, xiqi^ yrjv ocpalgav slvai,. 2. But whenever the subject of the Infinitive is not expressed, there occurs a species of Attraction which is peculiar to the Greek language, viz. these adjuncts are put not in the Accusative, but in the same case in which the implied subject of the Infin. is expressed in the preceding clause. Consequently, in the absence of the regular subject, they are in a certain measure at- tracted by the next preceding verb. There are two modes of this at- traction : 1) When the omitted subject of the Infinitive is at the same time the § 142. SYNTAX. THE INFINITIVE. 395 subject (Nominative) of the preceding finite verb on which the Infin. depends, the adjuncts connected with the Infin. must in like manner stand in the Nominative. E. g. *J[lt^uvdQoq eqccOKfv ehat Aiog vlog, Lat. dicebat se esse Jovis Jilium. This holds true also when the subject is not expressed even with the first verb. E. g. eqjaazig elvav deaTiortjg imtaa avzovg, elvai, -d^eog, " I persuaded them, that I was a god." ivo^ilCovio ovd' avx ol aojd^riaeG&at " they supposed, that they themselves would not be saved." II. dj 101 6i;/^o *^7i6\X(ovtj Qt^ei^v tyiaxofi^riv o'txade voaTtioag^ " vow to Apollo to bring him a hecatomb, when thou shalt have re- turned home." Here voaitjoag in connexion with Qtletv stands in the Norn, because of the pronoun av implied in fvyjo. 2) When the omitted subject of the Infin. stands with the preceding verb only as immediate or remote object, the adjuncts connected with the Infinitive must in like manner stand in that oblique case in which their subject thus stands as object. Thus in the Geni- tive : idiovio ccvTOu, elvai, ngoOvfiov, "they besought him to be of good courage." Or in the Dative. E. g. I'laOTi (4,01,, ysvtGd^av evdalfxovL, as also in Latin, licet illis esse beatis ; anHntv ccmolg vavzaig iivac " he forbade them to be sailors ;" xalg noleav xovio (xaX- Xov XvavxeXel, fj dovlutg oqjx^rjvai' yiyvofitvaig. — Or finally in the Accusative, where it again coincides with the rule. E. g. KiXf.v(o as elvat TiQod^vfiov. See further on this Attraction § 151. 1. 3. The same attraction takes place, when the clause with the In- finitive has the article ro before it. E. g. ugog to ov(.i(fjiQov Cooat did TO (piXavxov elvao "they live only for profit, because they are selfish;" Arifxooi^tvi^g aefivvpsxac tm ygaqecg (xno(fvye7v, "Demos- thenes is proud that being accused he was acquitted ;" ov ydg ixmf^- novxcci im xm dovXot, aAA' tnl xm ofxovoi xo7g Xemofievoig ilvai (of colonists) " they are not sent out to be slaves, but to be the equals of those who remain at home ;" Iq^ rjfi7v iaxi x o inieiiCiai aal cpavXovg ehao " it depends on us to be respectable or worthless." — When on the other hand the subject of the Infinitive stands in the preceding clause as Accusative, the Infinitive has as usual its ad- 396 § 142. SYNTAX. THE INFINITIVE. « — = . ■ . — — — .. — . — _ . juncts in the Accusative. E.g. inidft^e tag noUielag nQoe'/ovaccg TM dinaiOTtgag elvat, " he shewed that states were more power- ful than others by being more just." 4. In Hke manner in the construction with coarf, the Nominative stands with the Infinitive, when the preceding clause requires it. E. g. ovdelg TfjXrAovzog earco nag v^uv, mgts tovg vofiovg nag cc ^ ug firj dov va i dixfjv, " let no one among you be so powerful, that hav- ing transgressed the laws, he cannot be punished." Note 1. From the above illustrations it is sufficiently evident, that it is incorrect, in such phrases as vniaxBTO avxhg noLi]7;|Wart»^, wv 6 Ftloiv tntrganSTO avzm. So when the requisite Accusative would strictly express only a re- mote object; e. g. Dem. Mid. 35 dliitiv mv civ ccdtxrj&rj zig lu^^aveiv, from the expression « adiyiov^av, "in which I am offended." Note 2. The ear having once become accustomed to this construc- tion, it became usual, even where the corresponding demonstrative was § 143. SYNTAX. CONSTRUCTION WITH THE RELATIVE. ' 399 expressed in the first clause, to let the relative still follow in the same case ; e. g. Plat. Gorg. p. 452. a, ol dr](XLOvg/ol Tovxtav, mv inrivEatv 6 to (TxoXiov TioLTjO-ag.* Xen. Oec. 2 vno ys tovtojv, mv av d^ajioLvcav xaXtlg, ov xfaXvo^ai. This last is at the same time an example, where the Accu- sative which is dependent on the second clause [dtcrnolvaq), is also drawn into the attraction. 4. In case of attraction, the antecedent or noun of the first clause is frequently removed from that clause to the second in such a way, that, together with the relative, it remains in the case required by the word on which it depends : {LieTudidcog ccvzco^ ovneQ ccmog t'leig ohoV tv ngoaqe^erai, oTg tyti qiloig' dnoXavM, wv i'/oj dya&cov' — ygoj(A€i/ot> ofg einov Ttgoaiaraig, evdalfiO- vsg iqGav (from "yQrjo&av TTgoGidiri to have a director or superior), " having those superiors, whom I have mentioned, they were happy." — It sounds still more strangely to us, when to all this is added the inver- sion of the clauses : oTg tyei, qlkoig tv nQOGqegeiai, " the friends whicK he has, he meets with kindness.". 5. When the antecedent would express no definite idea, or has been already once mentioned, it is often omitted ; and then the relative stands alone in a case not properly belonging to it ; e.g. fA,efivrif.iti)og d}v inQa'S,£ for fief^vj]fA,iPog t 6) v n gay fid t ojv, coi/ anga^ev, and this for cc tnga.'S,ev' — delvoragd iattv, a fieXXw Xtyaiv, 0)v e'lgrjua, for decvoxega I'AeivMv, a eigri'Aa' — ^iSTtnt^nero dXXo GTgdrsvfia ngog co ngoGd^iv tlySj for ngog tm ovgurevf-taTi, o ti. e. — And with the inversion: oTg eyo) ygajf-iai for « ^X^, TQVTOtg ygojfiai. 6. In one instance the Nominative of the relative also suffers this at- traction ; viz. where in a complete sentence, the Nominative of the relative oTog would stand with the verb ahui, as ndi^v rjdecog yagi- ^ovTui dvdgl Totovto), oTog ou el, " very gladly do they gratify such a man, as thou art.'' Here not only the demonstrative, but also the verb aivac is omitted, and the relative olog is then so attracted by the prin- * Itis usual to make this formofthe sentence, as beingthe most complete, the ba- sis, of the doctrine of attraction ; but improperly, at least according to my convic- tion, after having examined the whole subject; see § 151. I. Only the omission of the demonstrative could cause the relative to be construed with (i, e. at- tracted to) the antecedent substantive, and thus the whole to be rounded off. But when the Attic writer or speaker, in using this mode of connexion now become familiar to him, for the sake of emphasis added further the demonstra- tive, it is easy to conceive, that he would not therefore be obliged necessarily to return again to the original mode of construction, i. e. without the attraction. 400 5 144. SYNTAX. CONSTRUCTION WITH THE PARTICIPLE. cipal clause, that together with its adjuncts it assumes the case of its antecedent, and is even inserted before the same ; e. g. navv i^deojg )[(xgl- Coviat oico 00 1 avdgi. In such instance^ too the noun itself often falls away ; e. g. /aAfjroV ijgov, itccl o lO) ys i fio I ajiogov, " what thou ask- est is difficult and not to be answered, at least by such an one as J."' — The construction where the article of the omitted noun still remains before such relatives, — To7g o'loig iq^uv — we have already seen in § 125. n. 6. 7. When a relative by means of verbs like to be, to name, to believe^ etc. is followed by another noun in the same case, it usually conforms in gender and number to this noun, and not to its proper antecedent. E.g. ndgfaiiv ccvzfo (f.6^og, nqv aidcj itccXovfiev "he is haunted by a timidity, which we call shame ;" Plat. Cratyl. 48 tov ovgavov ovg di] noXovg y.uXov6tv. So also with the omission of the proper antecedent, e.g. ildv iv iqfuv, ag tXnidag ovofiaCofiSv, "there are (emotions) in us, which we call hopes." An instance where the relative governs two clauses^ which strictly re- quire different cases, see below in § 151. II. 4. § 144. Construction with the Participle. 1. The Greeks have Participles in most of the tenses, and avail themselves of them far more frequently than our modern languages. Hence they have the great advantage, that, by combining this construc- tion with thatof the relative and Infinitive, they can interweave several pro- positions or clauses in one sentence without confusion; e.g. inelva fxovov dieti^si, a Tovg idovvag i^yiiio ji&vj^Titvai. In this sentence a, is the ob- ject oildovrag, this again is the subject of jeOvriy.tvat, and this latter is dependent on riyfno. Here we can only say^ " he related only those things, as to which he supposed those to be dead who had seen them." Demosth. Ti^ctTe amm ova iluooovog 7] baov aaiaS^sig Travasrai zrjg vpQiwg, '' appoint him no milder punishment than such as shall cause him, having once suffered it,, to desist from his pride." 2. Besides this, th6 Greeks can change into participles, not only all- verbs which are connected with others by means of the relatives, but also almost every verb which is introduced by the particles as, be- cause, according to, that, so that, etc. and whose subject has already been expressed in connexion with the preceding verb ; those particles be- ing then dropped, and the participle taking the case of its subject. In- deed, such a change usually takes place, whenever it can be introduced without affecting the perspicuity. E. g. tneoy,e\liafxf}v tov ixcugov voGovvTa, can mean, according as the context may determine, not only § 144. SYNTAX. — CONSTRUCTION WITH THE PA.RTICIPLE. 401 **I visited my friend z^Ao was ill," but also "when he — , or because he was illj" — -[(o ^eyoiXm 0aailH ov Jiaigtov Igzvv avdgog a'AQoaa^at ^rj ngoGyivvi^aavTog, " the custom of the country forbids the Persian king to listen to a person who does not (or if he does not) prostrate himself." — Xen. Mem. I. 4. 8 to awfia avv^gfiOGzai a oi^ iai^qov fii'gog Xa ^ ov- T I ixaoTOVj *' thy body is so composed, that thou hast received a little of every thing." Note 1. The participles which have thus arisen fi'om the relations ac- cording as, in that, etc. are in translating (from the Greek as well as from the Latin) often to be placed before the verb which they accompany, and then connected with it by and. E. g. Demosth. oi/tw 8h tw? /vb}(xag e/uv ug iav dsj], nlsvcnsov elg xa? j'tt?? avTolg i f/, ^ a cr tv. Here, as usual, the personal Pron. rjfXtv is omitted after nlsvajiov ; for avzolg here means our- selves and belongs to the participle, and with this to the omitted t^fuv : "We must make up our minds, that if it should be necessary, we must ourselves embark and set sail." In English the participle could indeed be retained, but not so well : " that we ourselves, having embarked, must set sail." 3. The Greeks employ the Participle of the Future especially to ex- press a purpose, where we employ a clause beginning with that, in or- der that, or the Infinitive with to, in order to. E. g. xavxa fxad^Mv 6 Kvoog ensfixpi xov Foi^Qvav inoipofxsvov — "Cyrus having learnt this, sent Gobryas to see, or that he might see — ;" tov ddtKOvvra naga Tovg dty.aoTccg aysiv ds7 dliC7jv dojoovta, in order that he may he pun- ished; Demosth. xovg ovfifADc^ovg dn Gw^evv, aal t ov g r ov t o n o i- rj GOVT ag Grgaricorag iii7if'fA.neiv, where the article stands with an indefinite noun (§ 124. n. 2. 1), " and to send out soldiers in order to accomplish this.'^ 4. Certain verbs, the most important of which appear in the examples below, govern or take with them in Greek a participle, where we era- ploy the simple conjunction that, wath its clause. Here, as in the other participial constructions, such a participle, considered as a verb, either has the same subject with the preceding verb, and consequently stands in the Nominative ; or it has a different subject, which is connected with the preceding verb as an immediate or remote object, and then it stands with this in one of the oblique cases. a. Examples of the Nominative ; where as usual the proper aiibject can be omitted : auTxvvo^ai ravxa noicav or noii^aag, " I am ashamed thai I do or have done this," i. e. of doing or of having done ; on the contrary alcjyfvo^av noiuv means, '' I am ashamed to do it, and have therefore scruples still ;" usfxvrjao avd^gcoTcog wV, remember that thou art a man; ov avvkoav [lUTrjv novovvTsg, " they perceived not that they laboured in vain." — Herodot. III. 1, dta^sfiXrjfisvog ov ^av^avug ; " knowest thou not tha 402 § 144. SYNTAX. CONSTRUCTION WITH THE PARTICIPLE. thou art deceived?" Demosth. Mid. 18./, iv fj /ag amog midalfioiv jldst ysyovMg noliTEta — , "in which state he was conscious of having become happy — ," (oida ysyovwq /know that I have become) ; — Isocr. axoTiovfisvog £VQL(Txov ovdaiJ.6jg av ocXXwg tovto dLaTtga^oiixsvog, "on reflecting I FOUND that 1 could in no other way accomphsh this" (comp. § 139. 14). — Hence also especially in Passives arising out of the following construc- tion (6), i^sh'jXe/xxat rifiug uTiaTuv " he is convicted of deceiving us f^ an- 7]yysX&rj 6 flHhmiog jijv ^'OXvv&ov noXiogxtav, " it was announced that Phil- ip was besieging Olynthus." b. Examples of the Accusative : ol IIsQcraL diafivrjfiovsvovo-L tov Kvgov Exovta (pv(nv — " the Persians relate that Cyrus had — ," lit. " they retain him in memory as one who had ;" hence passively, o Kvgog dLa(ivrj{xovsvsTaL s/cav, see the preceding construction (a) near the end ; — oida (twoI- (T ov TO} Ttt ^iXxiaxa Hiiovxi " I know that it will be of advantage to him who shall have given the best counsel," from the impersonal construction with (rvficpsgEL it profits. c. Examples of the Genitive and Dative : ri(T&6y,i]v avxMV olofisvotv Eivai (Tocpcaxdxojv "I perceived that they thought themselves very wise," (o-ocjpcoTWTwv for -ovg, on account of the attraction, § 142. 2. 2) ; — ovdi- noxs fiExefiiXfjiTS [xol (nyrjcravji, cp&sy^a(j.8Vbi ds noXXamg (from {XExccfxiXsL fioL I repent) " I have never repented that I have been silent, but often that I have spoken," (a sentiment of Simonides) ; — Plat, de Leg. p. 857. b, ovdsv diacpigsi xw xXsnxovxtj (xsya i] (T(xixgov v'cp eX o fiiv (a "it MAKES NO difference to the thief (i. e. in his punishment) that he has taken much or little ;" where we could also translate " whether he has taken much or little." Note 2. In verbs which have with them a refiexive pronoun, e. g. avvoida ifiavxco lam conscious to myself, this participle can stand in either of the two cases connected with the verb : avvoida ifxavxo) aocpog av (Plat.) and aavxa) (rvvridsLg adiKovvxt (Demosth.) — "Eavxov ovdEig bp.o- Xoyei nunovgyog av (Gnom.) where it could also be xaxovgyov ovxa. Note 3. There are still other verbs which, contrary to the usage of. most other languages, take the dependent clause in the participial form in both the ways above mentioned (3 and 4). Particularly deserving of notice in this respect are those verbs, in which the Greek construction cor- responds entirely to the English, but is most widely removed from that of other modern languages. E. g. enavaaxs avxov (rxgaxr^yovvxa, lit. " ye have caused him to cease being general," i. e. " ye have dismissed him from the office of general ; ov Xi'j^oj xalgav " I will not cease rejoicing." Note 4. The participles of those verbs which are followed by a Nomina- tive, as shm, xaXelad-ai, commonly change this Nominative into the case in which they themselves stand. E.g. v/uv d8 oiaiv ^Ad-riv aio tg ov Tiginu " but for you, being Athenians, it is not proper ;" etcoqevovxo dia iMV MfXivocpdyav TtaXovfiivcav Ogccxuv, where in the resolution of the Part, into the finite verb, Oglxxsg is the subject of aaXEUrd^ai, " who are called Thracians." Note 5. A more complex participial construction takes place, when such a compound clause or proposition depends, by means of the Infini- tive, upon a verb in such a way, that the participle suffers attraction. E. g. § 144. SYNTAX. — CONSTRUCTION WITH THE PARTICIPLE. 403 il'grjtai^ avTotq anavxav iv'&adE ^ovXsvcrofjiivotg " it has been notified to them to come together here in order to hold a consultation," Aristoph. Lys. 13. Here the Part, stands with the Infin. vctiuvtuv in the Dative because of «i/Tot?, insteadof the Accusative ; while aTiavTbio-L (iovlsvaofXivoL is to be explained by Text 3 above. Xen. Mem. I. 1. 9 (comp. § 142. n. 2) a Tolq uvd-QMUQig Wojxav oi S^eoI (lad-ovcrt diaxglvsLV " what the gods have permitted to men to decide by their own learning." Here (xuS^ovaL does not belong immediately to avd^QMTcoig, but to 8ianQlvuv, though it stands in the Dative on account of avS^gcoTioig. Note 6. Sometimes for the sake of emphasis, when the participle is placed before the other verb on which it depends, the particle ovxtog, or ensija, or also six a, is inserted between the two. E.g. ixQi]v avTov, Ta ovxa avaXlaxovTa, MaTiSQ iyoj, ovxo) fis acpaigucr^ai ti]v vIxtjVj " it was necessary for him, in that he expended what he had, like myself, so (i. e. through this expenditure) to deprive me of the victory," Dem. Mid. 20. b. — oTav oi av&gojTvoL svsgysTelcr&aL ngog zivog i]yr}(Tdfisvoi, ensizct Tot'Tov ay« (TTo^a s/coaiv sjiaLVOvvTeg, " when men, supposing themselves to have received benefits from any one, then (i. e. in consequence of this their belief) have him always on their tongue with praises," Xen. Hier. VII. 9 ; — ov dvva^Evoi Evguv rag odovg, sha nkavMfisvoi anwXovTO, " not being able to find the way, they thus perished in wandering about," Xen. Anab. I. 2. 25. — For the particles eneita and eha in this and other constructions, see further § 149. Note 7. In all participial constructions, there strictly hes at the basis a relation of time ; i. e. the action of the participle, in whatever connexion it may stand with that of the other verb, is almost always to be regarded either as antecedent, contemporary, or future, in respect to that other ; and is put accordingly in the requisite tense. But in viewing this relation, a mode of conception is often possible, difierent from that which is familiar to ourselves ; and hence it happens that we often find in writers the Part. Aor. where we should expect the Part. Pres. and vice versa. E. g. in the Homeric ^'Jlg unojv ojigvvE fxsvog xal ■&v^6v kxaarov, we should expect the Present Isycav ; for in tha.t he so speaks, by his discourse, the leader en- courages his troops ; but he must also already have said something per- suasive, when they become moved. So also in Xen. Mem. III. 6. 2, Toidds Xs^ag xuTso-xev avxov. — But the Part. Pres. can stand when both actions are conceived of as continued or constantly repeated ; e. g. Xen. Mem. I. 2. 61 (of Socrates) ^sXilovg yag n o lwv x oi) g avyyiyvo^ivovg a7isTC£(A,7isv. Here -koiricrag would refer only to a single instance ; but the meaning is, "he made (customarily, every time) those who came to him better, and then sent them away." — The Part. Pres. stands also for many actions which are necessarily connected with, or presupposed by, the folio w- " ing one, and must almost be conceived of as one with them, as to go, run, lead, bring, etc. E. g. oXxaS' lojv Mvg^LdovEacnv livaaaE (II. a, 179) "go home and rule — ;" axij ds S-ewv (11. g, 707) " running he placed himself — ;" eyxog tffxrjos cpigMv ngog xlova (Od. a, 127) " bearing the spear away he placed it by the column ;" xal fiE xa&l^Ei aycov (Plat. Charm. 2) "he leads and seats me — ;" Herodot. VIII. 118, xohg 8e ngocrxvviovxag ixTirjdsEiv — , because the genuflexion is conceived of as inseparable from the act of quitting the royal person. — Other instances nevertheless are 404 § 145. SYNTAX. CASE ABSOLUTE. real deviations from any logical relation of time ; and arose, perhaps, from negligence, or partly also from some necessity ; e. g. atQarriyriGag^ iXQ^ag ETioUi, i. e. as commander, as archon, while on tha contrary the Part. Pres. would here denote the proper action of the verb. Other examples are left to observation. See further especially the examples of the not infrequent anomalytDf a contemporary Part. Aor. subjoined to an Aorist, in Herm. ad Viger. not. 224, and also p. 343. See too Xav&avsiv in the fol- lowing note. Note 8. The Greeks sometimes put as a participle that which, ac- cording to the sense, would be the principal verb, and then make this de- pend on another verb, which in this way supplies the place of an adverb ; see Gregor. Cor. in Att. § 36. Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 86. Such subordi- nate verbs are the following : ivyxdvsiy, and in the poets xvqeIv, happen, come to pass : wg ds ijX- S^oVf ETVx^v anioiv, " as I came, he was hy chance going away." lav&avEiV he hid, concealed: xavra noiriaag tladsv inmcpvytav, "having done this he fled secretly, unperceived.^^ Or the reference may be to the subject itself: tov cpovsa Xav&dvsL ^ocrxatv "he nourishes itncon- sciously his murderer;" elads miKav " he fell unawares,''^ which phrase belongs to the anomaly mentioned in the preceding note, because the Part, stands in the Aorist, while the verb itself is also an Aorist. So also Xd&E ^itaaag "live. unnoticed." say also ifi7]Vf oi(v %dqiv, on my, thine account. t For the Prep, vjg, see § 146. 2. 410 § 147. SYNTAX. — PREPOSITIONS. For although they serve also to express various secondary relations, yet these are all of them easily developed from the radical idea ; some peculiarities excepted, which will be readily learned by further study and practice. Thus e. g. when ix refers to the cause and is to be translated on account of, as ex Tovjov on this account, therefore ; or when it implies simply succession of time, e. g. vvv ysXoJfisv ex t(xw nqoad-ev SaxQvoJV. Further when eig, like ' the Lat. in, has the sense of against, or when it expresses a simple refer- ence, in respect to, e. g. tmv slg noXe^ov ijiKnyjfibiv euTlv. Or finally, when •JiQo takes the meaning of the Lat. pro, and of our /or, in behalf of, (but only in the sense of protection or advantage), e. g. diaxLvdwevsiv nqo tov Sadi- H(x)c.. Xen. Cyrop. 4. 5. 44, Ovx aQxiaoj ngaTTav tcqo Vfiav, b,Ti uv dirj " I shall not be able to do for you (for your benefit) that which is necessary." Comp. uQOvqyov ^ 115. n. 5. — A special signification of elg see in note 5. Note 2. The significations of tlie following prepositions should also be familiarly impressed upon the memory. ava means originally on, upon, (comp. civo) and the compounds,) and in this signification governs also the Dative in the poets, 11. a, 15. Od. Xy 128. But the most usual signification in prose is in, on, through, spoken of a greater space or time. E. g. ava nao-av ttjv yiqv " throughout the whole land ;" ?} (f>r,^ri t'jk&sv ava jt)v noXiV " the report went through the city ;" ol ava to nsdlov " those scattered about in or on the plain ;" ava nacruv ti^v rji^igav " through the whole day." In this last phrase it is to be observed, that when the article does not stand with rjfiijja etc. and consequently nag is equivalent to exaaTog (§ 127. 6), the expression refers to a plurality of days, years, etc. as ava naaav I'j^iQav every day, daily, Cyrop. I. 2. 8 ; ava nav hog every year, yearly, Herodot. V. 114. civTi as a simple preposition, has lost its original signification, against, contrary to, (for the compounds see note 9 below,) and signifies most commonly instead of, for, in the relations of change^ exchange, purchase, value, etc. did Tov through, spoken of space and of the means ; — dta top on account of, e. g. 8ia ytaxsdaifiovlovg ecpv/ov " they were banished on account of the Lacedemonians;" dia as i)i&ov "I am come on thine ac-^ count ;" — but also through, denoting the cause, e. g. diu rovg ■&E0vg sv TiQocTTcj " through the gods I am prosperous." fi^TCi TOV, after, post ; — fisrd tov, with ; — [Aera t w only in the poets, among, inter. d^cfit TOV and negl x6v, about, around, in answer to both the ques- tions whither and where ; for the Dative in answer to where, is less frequent with these prepositions. From this signification comes the idea of inde- terminate nearness. E. g. ay.(fl xa ogt] i/ivsro " he was about the moun- tains," i. e. in the vicinity of them. Hence also the idea aficpl or tisqI tl or Tiva s/eiv or elvai, to be about any person or thing, i. e. to belong to, be- occupied with, etc. (See § 150 under ^x'^^iv.) — negl tm with the idea, of care, anxiety about anything, is subjoined to verbs signifying to fear, have confidence, strive, etc. — ccfiq)l tov aiid negl tov signify of, con- cerning, de, e. g. to speak of any thing ; further cpo^eta&at, cpdoveLxelv neql TLvog, and the like. Still ap.(fl is less frequent in this sense than neql. vntQ tov over, supra, ultra, in answer to whither ; Herod. IV. 188, § 14^. SYNTAX.— PREPOSITIONS. 41 1 ^mTsovcn vnsg xov dof^ov, over the house. — vniQ tov over, ahove,'jn an- swer to luhere. But this last takes also the idea oi^for, in behalf of, instead q/*, chiefly in the sense o^ protection, care, etc. E. g. nqaxTHv, dnnv vnsg Tou y.oivov "to act or speak /or the commonwealth, defend it," etc. wtto- S-avelv V7TSQ tov cflkov " to die for or instead of one's friend." Note 3. That the Genitive prefers the idea of going forth, departure, separation, (§ 132. 2,) is particularly evident in these three prepositions — naqa, ngog, vno. These retain with the Accus. and Dative their peculiar significations ; but with the Genitive they are all most commonly to be translated by from, of In respect to these the following is to be observed : nccga xov, to, towards ; but in answer to the question where, only hy, hy the side of Besides this it has the signification of the Lat. praeter, i.e. besides, above (more than), against; e.g. e/slv oipov naqa tov vcqtov " besides bread to have vegetables ;" enovn naga Tovg aXXovg " he labours more than others;" Tuvxd iffxi naga Tohg twv S^scov -d^scr^ovg "that is against the divine laws;" naga do^av contrary to expectation, praeter opinionem. — naga to) means solely 6i/, by the side of — nagd TOV means of from, by, after the ideas to come, bring, receive, learn, etc. and sometimes^ also after the Passive (§ 134. 3). ngog to, at, hy, has the Accus. more in reference to the question whither, and the Dative more in reference to where ; ngog tov means be- sides this, towards, in reference to a disposition of mind as friendly or un- , friendly, etc. — ngog tov, of from, by, on the part of, after the ideas to hear, receive praise or censure, and often also after the Passive (^ 134. 3). It is moreover the usual form of swearing, like our by, e. g. ngog twv -d^sMV by the gods. vno tov under, in answer both to whither and to where ; — vno tm under, in answer to where; — vno tov of from, by, most commonly after Passives (§ 134. 2) ; but also after Actives which have a Passive sense, as' nda/siv itself; likewise -d^avuv vno TLvog "to be killed by any one ;" fia&stv vn KvdyxTjg " to be taught % necessity." Demosth. Cherson.p.94 dv 5' vno Tbjv nvevfiuTcav fii] dvvcjfj>s&tt,i.e. hindered % the winds. Even actions can in this way assume a passive shape ; e. g. inolrjcre tovto vno daovg '^from or out o/*fear;" vn dgnijg noiuv tl, "from a principle of virtue," Herodot. VIII. 1 ; or when the passive relation of their object is particularly prominent to the mind, e. g. Soph. Philoct. 1117, ov (riys dolog £(T/£ vno x^''QO? if^dg, the same with av/s iax^^m 86X(a. — With the Genitive also vno sometimes retains its primitive signification undery e. g. ^710 nodcjjv Plat. Protag. p. 321. b. Note 4. The prepositions inl and jtwra require the most attention.; but still observation and practice must do the greater part. In respect to these, however, the following remarks may afford the learner some aid. inl has certainly as its fundamental signification the idea on, upon; most commonly in answer to where, with the Genitive, sometimes also with the Dative, e. g. icp mnov oxuad-ai and Kvgog icp Xnnoj inogsvsTo ; and in answer to vjhither, with the Accusative, e. g. inl X6(pov Tivd xaTacpsv- ysL " he takes refuge upon a hill," i. e. flies to it. But at the same time ini is employed more generally, and stands for at or in; and in answer to the question whither^ also for to, towards, for; and this wherever 412 § 147. STNTAX. PREPOSITIONS. the context renders obvious the more exact sense of these expres- sions. With the Accusative it stands especially for the definite direction upon or towards any thing. Examples of all these significations will rfeadily be found in reading. We remark only further, that with the Genitive it like- wise stands in answer to the question whither, in the sense of /o, towards, for, etc. e. g. inoQsvovxo tTii ^^ugdsoiy ' — ari^/ovTo (tfiey set sail) iitl Tijg Xlov — ujte7iXev(tev in oXkov. — Further, Inl tov aften specifies a time by means of something contemporary, especially pei*sons ; e. g. f.(p 7]ntav in our time (comp. § 145. 2) ; inl tmp thjlexsqwv nqoyoviav. — The Dat. Im TM in a local sense expresses i)articularly the idea of close by, e. g. inl jfj ToicpQO) on the margin of the trench ; nvgyovg inl tw noxafita omodofxsi. It expresses also, like ngog, the idea in addition to, besides ; e. g. inl nuai tovtoiq nXrjyag ivsTEivs jioi. Very often it marks the object and condition of an action, e.g. naQU(jzEvat,E(T&av inl tlvl *' to pre- pare for something;" in inaivco navxa novov vnsdvETO ' — inl rovToig Blgijvrjv inoirjffuvTo " on these conditions they made peace," comp. § 150 icp Of. Finally inl toj expresses also power, in such phrases as icp rjfilv iaxi "it is in our power ;" see examples in § 129. 1. <5> 142. 3. — So too the Accus. inl TOV often expresses the object of an action, but most commonly with the following difference : iXx^slv inl xovxo) (Dat.) i. e. in order to effect it, iX&E7v inl xovxo (Ace.) i. e. in order to fetch it. yiaxd. The fundamental signification of this preposition, as appears from the comparison of xttTw and the compounds, is down from, followed by the Genitive. E. g. v.axa xmv nExgojv glnxEiv xiva "to cast one down from the rocks;" i]llovxo v.o.xa xov XEi^ovg; — also under, in such connexions as acpa- ViC,E(y&ai Kuxu xijg ■&aXa(Ta-rjg " to disappear under the waters," Herod. VII. , 6. More frequently nevertheless naxa xov occurs in the signification to- wards, e. g. for or against, chiefly in relation to language, thoughts, etc. e. g. Einslv xo aXrj&ig xaxd xivog " to speak the truth against any one ;" less frequently of praise, e. g. snaivog y.axa xov ovov, Plato Phaedr. p. 260. 6. ycaid TOV in a local sense expresses in the most general manner the being at or in some place, where the more definite significations (whether above, below, within, upon, etc.) either are not meant to be or cannot be given, or are understood of themselves ; e. g. xaia yijv xal xaxa S^dlaxxav " by land and by sea ;" ol xaxa xi]v \4.alav vno ^aadEl, ovxEg "those in Asia who are under the king." Hence generally it expresses every relation of place, time, and circumstances, which naturally arises out of the ideas themselves ; e. g. o\y.ovcn y.axa VMfiag "they live in villages, vicatimf"* iaxij- vovv xaxd xd^sig "they encamped in ranks ;" hence xaxd dvo two by two; xavxa (XEV iyivExo y.axd xi]v voffov " this took place during the disease ;" xaxa xavxTjv xijv diacpogdv ovxojv Aay.E8aLp.ovmv ngog ^A&rjvalovg " the Lace- demonians being engaged in this quarrel with the Athenians ;" al xaxd xo awpa 7]8oval " the physical pleasures ;" xaxd ndvxa xtxQv/cjvxaL " they are wearied in every limb ;" and in like manner a multitude of other relations, which practice will easily teach. Very commonly it corresponds to the Lat. secundum, according to, e. g. xaxd xovxov xov loyov dpEivov iaxiv wds "according to this representation it is better so;" xaxd JJXdxava "according to Plato," i. e. as Plato says ; xaxd xijv xd&EXov "according to the plumb- line ; noi7j(T(a xaxd xd xov ^acnXEcag yqap^iaxa "I shall act according to the letters of the king ;" diopai avxov xaxd ndvxa xgonov " I have need of him in every way." § 147. SYNTAX. — PREPOSITIONS. 413 Note 5. The Prep, elg referring to persons means to, but always with ihe accessoiy idea of their dwelling; e. g. Horn, dg ^A/cc^i^vova ^Ho Aga- memnon," i. e. into his tent ; xaXssv xi fxvv Eig s Exatnog "each invites him to himself," i. e. to his own dwelling ; Lys. uaeX&av elg tov narsga rov i^ov *' entering the house to my father." But slg with the elliptic Genitive [§ 132. n, 9) is more general, " into the house of Alcibiades," etc. Note 6. The Dorics employ the Prep, iv instead of dg, with the Ac- cusative ^ Pind. Pyth. 2, 21. 5,50. See Greg. Cor. Dor. 159 with the notes.— Atio apparently for iv see below in § 151. I. 8. Note 7. That the prepositions are sometimes separated from their cases by some intervening word or words, we shall see in § 151. III. 1, 6. — Sometimes also the object of the preposition is apparently wanting, viz. when its place is supplied by a relative clause. E. g. Soph. Philoct. 469 ngog naxQog, ngog si' xl uol ecrxtv cplXov, where u xi stands for o,xl (§ 149, under u), and consequently the proper Genitive of nqog [navxog) is want- ing ; "by thy father (I conjure thee), by — if anything is dear to thee," i. ©. by all that is dear to thee. Note 8. Sometimes however the object of the preposition is really not expressed, because it would only be an unpleasant repetition of a word already once given. In such instances most languages employ an adverb, (e. g. thereby, therefor, therein, etc.) and when the prepositions them- selves are so used, they stand adverbially. In Greek this commonly takes place in prose only with ngog ; e.g. xalngog, ngog di, and thereto, and further, besides, moreover, etc. In Ionic and later writers we find too fisxa thus used ; as [xsxa ds, but afterwards. — The poets say also naga, therevnth, there- by ; iv, therein, etc. and the Prep, nsgi (or nsgt) in the epic writers takes as an adverb the signification very, especially. § 117. n. 3. Note 9. In this manner have arisen all the instances of composition with prepositions. They all consist of the radical word with a preposition taken adverbially ; as dia^alvbi * I go throughout,^ etc. § 121. 2. The signification of such compounds is in general easily deduced from the particular sense of each preposition. We only remark here in confirmation of the above, that the compounds with avxl commonly receive the signification over against, contrary to ; e. g. avxixaxxBuv to place over against ; avxiXiyuv to contradict ; those with ava, up; and those with yMxd, down-, e. g. ava^alvsiv, yaxa^alvsLV, to go up, to go down. — In respect to secondary significations, or those compounds whose sense is not obvious from the simple preposi- tions, we note here the following : aficpi- with the idea of two sides ; e. g. a}j,(pl^3oXog ambiguous, ava- often means back, e. g. avanXuv to sail back. 8ia- takes the sense of the Lat. and Eng. dis-, in two, e. g. diatmav to pull in two, in pieces ; dta^Evyvvvai disjungere, to disjoin, to separate, iv- often stands in answer to the question whither, e. g. iyx^^^ io pour into. Ttaxa- most commonly expresses the idea of completion; e.g. xaxa- ngaxxsLV perficere, to finish ; cngicfuv turn, xaxacrxgicpsiv turn around ; m^ngavav bum, xaxanifingdvaL burn up. — Hence arises then the idea to make an end of, destroy, e. g. xaxaxv^smiv xiiv oiaiav to 53 414 § 147. SYNTAX. PREPOSITIONS. gamble away one's fortune. — In both instances it corresponds to the , Latin per- and to the Germ. ver-. fisja- takes the sense of transposition^ change, Lat. trans- ; e. g. /xera- ^i^a^uv to can'y to another place, transport ; ftsjavoslv to change one^s mind. Tiaga- in some compounds derives from the sense praeter, that of to miss, fail of, etc. e. g. naQa^aivuv to miss or mistake (purposely) the laws, i.e. transgress) nagogay not to see perfectly, overlook; nagacniovdog truce-breaker, from cmoydal. Note 10. From the circumstance that the prepositions, as above men- tioned, are in composition to be regarded strictly as adverbs, the poets are able so frequently to separate the preposition from its verb by means of oth- er intervening words. This is called Tmesis. E. g. dm tb qri^aa&ai, inul- ^sig for xal diaggif'^imd^m ; also in the Ionic prose, especially by means of (hv for ovv ; e. g. Herodot. II. 39 wtt' wv tdovTO for anadovto ovv. Homer separates the preposition entirely from the verb, and even places it after the verb; so that the preposition sometimes comes to stand before a case which is not dependent on it. E. g. nSXsfiov nsgl t6v8s (fvyovreg, for nsgi- cpv/ovTsg Tovds tov noXs^ov' — ix &v^ov kUod^ai for e^sXeaS-aL S^Vfiov' — x « t a ^ovg "Xntglovog 'lIsXloio *'H a S- l o v — ivagi^ov an" tvtsa (more accurately ttTTo § 117. n.3) for aTrevdgi^ov svTsa, etc. — The perusal of Homer therefore is very much facilitated, by assuming that he has properly no compound verbs, but merely simple verbs with adverbial prepositions standing either near or remote from, before or after, the verbs. Hence comes the usage in Ionic prose, that in those emphatic repetitions to be mentioned in § 149 under pV, instead of the compound verb, the preposition only is repeated ; e. g. Herodot. III. 126 o ^£ x«t« fisv bxtslvs Mngo^dxEa — , xwtoc dk TOV MLTgo^ccTSca nutda. — Even in Attic prose we must refer to the same usage the insertion of the qualifying t/, 5omet cxTTuq lir\ nagmxai " no one will receive money who is not present," indefinite ; on the other hand ovtoI dcnv, 1 ov S' otlovv Tovq noXefxlovg ^XariTovat (Xen. Cyrop. 6. 1. 28), definite, "these are they, who do not injure the enemy at all." f. Hence all those shorter phrases, which can be referred back to one of the dependent constructions, have always fj,rj. Thus the preposi- tive article as an ellipsis of the relative with the verb eivul, e. g. xa p) xald, for uTiva p) y.ald iaxiv, whatever i. e. all which is not handsome. ject of the thought, while the first is merely the antithesis of the second. We give here the passage from Thucyd. I. 121, literally : r^ Ssivw civ sit]. Si ol fisv sxtivojv ^vfifiayoc snl dovXsia rfj avrwr (psqovrsg ovu dnsQovaiVy runslg ds stiI rm Ttfiojqovfx,£Vot rovS eyd'qovg xal avrol ccfia aoj- Lsa&at, ovz a^a Sarcavjjoofiev. Here the ovti in the first clause is necessary and natural, because a notorious fact is expressed. But in the second, the ova appears so much the more strange, because the matter is even represented as impossible ; in which case consequently p/ would seem to be just as necessary, as in the similar example in §149 under fjitVj (aiGXQOv ioTiv si jurjds rovs Xoyovg ). The case is the same with the two passages adduced by Hermann p. 361, from entirely different writers, where similar double propositions are introduced by §stvdv sly and ov stands with equal strangeness in the second half. All this seems to point^to some common cause ; which I find in the circumstance, that from Sstvov si which expresses surprize, after the insertion of the first clause the proposition passes impercepti- bly over, by means of ov, into the interrogative tone of surprize and censure. Consequently, the above sentence from Thucyd. closes with the interrogation, o^x UQa danavrjoofisv ; in like manner in Herod. VII. 9, by '''EXX7]vag Ss — ov rtfioj- Qijaojusd'a; and in Andocides de Myster. p. 13, sv vfup Ss ov aojd'7/Goju,ac ^ which seems to me to be a very natural turn of the thought. In this way also other passages, which may still remain, can probably bo explained by further criticism. In Herod. VI. 9 ft — ov icon'jGovaij the manuscripts give fi^. In Eurip. Cyclop. 428 sXr ov yQi^ksrs, the si has the signification of whether, which is susceptible of both constructions. See the note to Plat. Meno. 23, and Herm. ad Eurip. Med. p. 344, where in the passage cited from Pla.t. Protag. 77, St ova alayvvofiat " whether 1 am not ashamed," the ovx is occasioned by the transition from the direct question, ovx aloywsi', " art not thou ashamed .^" 418 ' § 14S. SYNTAX. NEGATIVE PARTICLES. So Xenophoii says (Anab. IV. 4. 15) of a man of veracity, that he had constantly stated xa fii] ovxa wq ovx ovta. Here Ta_ ^t] ovra is the el- liptical form of the dependent proposition axLva fii] ^Jv, whatever was not, i.e. ' the untruth ;' but om ovra is the participle of the definite and di- rect negation om saxi; for with the finite verb it must necessarily stand thus: xa y,i] ovxa om taxLV, ' what is not, is not.' So further the Par- ticiples without the article, when they stand elliptically for one of the above constructions, e. g. 7]dLov ccv s/QMfirjv tw ^dlxiPiddi] fxrjdev xEy.xrj- fiivM " I would rather have intercourse with Alcibiades possessing noth- ing," i. e. u fj.'Tjdsv inexTTjxo " even if he possessed nothing ;" but ovdsv xBxxrjfisvM "rather with Alcibiades i^ft-o possesses nothing." g. But every negation is likewise dependent, which is governed by anoth- er verb. Hence with all Infinitives, (those excepted which are mentioned in d, as belonging in sermone obliquo,) fir] is -by far most frequently em- ployed. The ground of this is partly to be sought in what is said above ; since most Infinitives can be referred back to such propositions as those already described, e.g. to fii] xifiav yiqovxag avoaiov daxL, 'i.e. i/* one does not honour — ,' consequently a supposition. But even when the ne- gation in question is a fact, the Infinitive still retains fx% e. g. to firj nsi- aS^ijval fioL aixiov gov tmv xaxcjv, i. e. the fact that thou hast not believed me. In this manner p; stands not only after diofiai, keXeiko, vniaxvov- fiai,, etc. but also after dsl, ccvd/xrj, and the like ; even when these words do not imply a necessity founded on the will of a person, but a physical necessity. h. To this general principle can also be referred most of those instances, according to which some Grammarians assert that ov serves to render neg- ative entire propositions, and ^^ only parts ; e. g. xlg ovv xgonog xov xaXcog xe, xal fii) yqdcfEiv ; Here certainly flr^ only renders negative the v.a- ISig, which is to be supplied after it. But even if it stood alone it must also read, xlg ovv xQonog xov fiij xaXcag ygdcpuv ; and the p; has consequently its ground in the dependence of the Infinitive ygdcpsLV, — fully, xlg ovv XQonog, sV x ig ^ovXsxai ft rj xaXug ygdipEiV ; See further the similar phrases § 151. IV. 3. So in the question dga dsl p naQayEVEa&ai, ?/ fit]', this last means "or shall I not?" and the p/ then renders negative merely the dependent Infinitive naQEycVEd&av. The force of 8e% is not thereby destroyed ; it means " am I compelled no^ 147. n. 10. In general, fxsv can strictly never be employed, unless Si, or at least some other particle of a similar meaning, correspond to it in the succeeding clause. But nevertheless, (1) on rhetorical grounds the apodosis is sometimes omitted, or otherwise expressed ; (2) in some common expressions, where the apodosis is to be regarded as entire- ly obliterated, fiiv is employed (like quidem) merely to insulate some person or thing, and thus to exclude every thing, which one perhaps might otherwise expect ; so especially e/o) ^iv (equidcm), etc. See Heind.adPlat.Charm.36.Theaet.49. — It is however also to be noted, that in the epic poets f^sv often stands for p/y, for which see below. From f.isv — ^g, come the forms o jMfV — d de — , or og [.lev — 6g dt — , which we have already seen in § 126. Similar distributives are formed with the help of the same particles, for the various adverbial relations ; and indeed not only the demonstrative and relative forms, but also the indefinite forms are so employed : rtoTS fisv — nois 8s — sometimes — sometimes — , or once — again — ; and so also with tots and ots (§ 116. n. 9). So further zf] (ih — ttJ ds — ,• or n^j ^sv — or?) 8s — , in one way — in another way, etc. svd-a fisv — s^S-a 8s — , etc. In re- spect to all such distributives it is to be remarked, that sometimes such a formula stands without a verb in reference to a preceding proposition ; where consequently (isv in itself alone seems to have an affirmative sense, something like our indeed, forsooth ; e. g. ndv- Ttt? qiiXrjxsov, aXt ov tov fisv, tov ^ ov, "one must love all, and not the one indeed, but the other not ;" nagijcrav ov/ 6 fisv 6 8^ ov' aXka ndvisg, " they were present, not the one forsooth, and the other not ; but all." oma and |W?irf, ovdt and firidi. Both these forms express a negative connexion, and cor- respond to the Latin neque, and not. There is between them, how- ever, this difference, that ovts, fiijTs, aflfect parts of propositions, or represent that which is denied as belonging to that with which they connect it ; while ov8s, ^rj8s, on the contrary, rather connect whole propositions and sentences, partly by way of strong contrast, and partly by way of transition and in the regular progress of discourse. OvTs and p^xs are more copulative, like the affirmative y.al; ovSi and firj8s more disjunctive, corresponding to 8s. When now ovts or pjxs is repeated, these negatives refer to one another like the Lat. ne- que — neque, neither — • nor; but when ovds or [ir]8s is repeated, this is only a continued negation, the same as ov8s alone. Besides this simple connective power moreover, the forms ovdiy fir]8s, correspond to the special significations of the particle xal; for as this in affirmation denotes 1) also, 2) crew ; so these denote 438 \§ 149. SYNTAX. VARIOUS PARTICLES. in negation 1) also not, 2) not even ; which last signification these particles always have when they stand in the middle of a clause. Primarily ov8s and ^?j56 signify hut not ; and so we must frequently still understand them in epic poetry; where also they are often written sepai'ately oh di, ^r\ 8i* In the common language this ' concurrence of 8i with the negative was avoided, either by placing the words differently, or by using «Ua or amq. alXa has the strengthened sense of 8i, and corresponds at the same time to the Germ, sondem. — Besides this, it has in animated style a great variety of uses, which can be learned only by practice. It stands especially in an abrupt manner at the beginning of paragraphs or of whole books ; where it is sometimes to be translated by well ! sometimes by indeed, truly ; but often also not at all. — aXlu yccQ, see the notes to Soph. Philoct. 81 and 874. yoig,for, always stands in a sentence after some other words, like the Lat- in enim. — The use of this particle is very various and elliptical, especially in dialogues, where we must commonly supply before it in thought small phrases, like " I believe it," — " no wonder," and others, which attention to the context will readily suggest. Here belongs too its use in questions ; where we nevertheless in Enghsh very commonly use then / as ivho then ? is then — ? etc. We must be particularly on our guard not to be led astray by this particle, when it stands, so far as we can see, superfluously, in a clause which has been announced by a preceding demonstrative. E. g. Xen. Mem. 1. 1.6, l4AAa p)v stioIsl xal rads nqog tovg iTitxt}- dslovg ' xa fxsv y cc q avaynala (tvvs^ovXevs nqaTTuv, etc. Here we merely say : " He did for his friends all this, or the following, viz. that which was necessary he advised them, etc." See also Plat. Lys. 14. Heind. In these cases yaq simply takes up the preceding an- nunciation ; just as in many instances our namely. ovv therefore, consequently, stands only after other words in a clause. — For the ovv appended to other words {ogxlgovv, eic.) see § 80. 1. § 116.9. — Hence are derived ov^ovv, ovYMW. The particles ov% and ovv express in the tone of as- sertion an illative negation, consequently not, therefore not. Hence arose in daily language a manifold use of these particles, which is in general obvious from the connexion, and is in part also indicated by the accentuation. (1) Placed interrogatively they express the thing denied as being, in the opinion of the speaker, affirmative. Eu- rip. Orest. 1238, Ovxovv ovddr] xads xXvcov gmEt xixva ; "wilt thou then, hearing these reproaches, not save thy children ?" Plat. Phaedr. p. 258, Omovv, iav ^h ovxog ififisvj], ysyrjS^ag anig/exaL ex Tov S^saxgov ; "does he not therefore, if this (his work) remains good, de- part from the theatre rejoicing?" — (2) This interrogative form, through the habit of hearing it from those whose opinion affirmed that which was therein denied, became itself an affirmative form without inter- * Also even in Ionic prose : Herod. 5. 35, TToAAccff eJxs elitlSa? fisTr/GSG'&at (of being dismissed) fnl •&dXaaaav • fi^ Si vsojtsqov ti itotevarji tiji Mtlrrrov (but Miletus making no new movement), ovSafia x. r. L § 149. SYNTAX. VARIOUS PARTICLES. 429 rogation. Soph. Antig. 91, Ovy.ovv, crav drj fii} trd^ivoi, nsTravaofiaif ** therefore I will cease, when 1 have no longer strength." Plat. Phaed. p. 274. b, Olxovv TO fiiv rixvi]q xs xal UTsyvlug Io'/mv niqi ly.uviHq i/sxoi, " let this therefore be enough said on art and want of art." — (3) Wholly different from these is oimovv, when, without implying an inference, it expresses simply an emphatic nesration ; Soph. Ajax 1336, 'AX^ aixov tfinag ovx i/a xoLovds fioL Omovv uxLfiuaaifi «V, *' But although he was wholly such towards me, yet I would not, by any means, dishonour him." Soph. Philoct. 872, Ovxovv AtqiX- dai xovT sxXfjaav EvnoQMg Ovxwg ivsynuv, (x)ya^o\ axQuxvilaxai, " Not lightly did the Atridae bring themselves to bear this." — This sameness of the accent in the forms under 1 and 2 [ovkovv], in distinction from that in 3 [omovv\ is given by general tradition in all the editions. With this coincides the testimony of the ancient Grammarians ; see in Hermann ad Vig. not. 261 ; to which may be added Apollon. de Conjunctione p. 496. 9. Phrynich. Bekkeri p. 57 ; all of whom assume this difference only between the illative and the negative words.* From the form in 3 it is not usual to distinguish the direct and illative negation, consequently not, in the accentuation ovuovv. Since however it is an established custom, to distinguish such compound particles as retain their original signification unchanged, by writing them separately, it seems to me that this is also the most natural here, and also no violation of the tradition ; e. g. Plat. Phaedr. p. 275. a, where Thami)s, after saying to Theuth that men would becorne foi*getful through this security, coiitinues : Omovv or better Ovx ovv ^vi]firjg alt vnofivrio-Ewg cpdgfiaxov svQsg, " therefore not for the mem- ory but for the recollection hast thou found a medicine." Eurip. Orest. V. 1640 : Men. "Oaxig ds rifia (.irjxsg — Or. J^vdalficov ccpv. Men. Oixovv or better Ovk ovv avys, " consequently thou not." fix a and en fix a bothjnean 1) after, afterwards ; 2) //^e?i, see Herm. ad Yig. n. 239. Both often assume a tone of censure and reproach : (1) The ground of the indignation or surprize being first stated, e. g. xavxa 5?; xoXfiag U'/Eiv — , six eya) crov (pslaofiai ; "thou art so bold as to say this, and then (after all this, notwithstanding) shall I still spare thee .?" (2) When it stands at the beginning of a sentence, with reference to the discourse of another ; where we also can say : " thou wilt then consequently — ," or more briefly, therefore, itane ; e. g. sTrce xoXiJ.i](Tsig xov viov ano&vi](7xovxa slaogav ; " wilt thou therefore (or then) bring thyself to see thy son die ?"— Xen. Mem. 1. 4. 11 sjisLX am ol'si ^)Qovx1^uv (sc. xovg S^sovg xav av&gwnojv) ; 01 TXQMxov fxsv — i. e. since they nevertheless first — etc. In all these relations both particles are also construed with participles, as we have seen in § 144. n. 6. The instances however, where sixa * In some recent editions, Hermann and others have first begun to distinguish the illative interrogation by the accentuation ovxovv ; which I cannot approve. The forms under 1 and 2 have essentially one and the same affirmative significa- tion. The tone of interrogation itself is a rhetorical accent, to distinguish which by a grammatical accent, is what can be prescribed to no language. Both species of tradition are here against it; for the Grammarians, in all the passages abova referred to, do not mention the interrogative meaning in this connexion. 55 430 § 149. SYNTAX. — VARIOUS PARTICLES. and %7ima are supposed to be dependent on \he following participle (Herm. ad Vig. not. 219), all admit of being referred also to the pre- ceding one ; which is to be preferred as being the more natural con- struction. av 1) again, another time ; 2) on the other hand^ vice versa ; ^) further, and then also. ngiv hefore, sooner, is in its signification a comparative, and takes there- fore, when it refers to another clause, the particle ^', than, commonly with the Infinitive ; e. g. nglv i] ild^uv ^s before I came. Often however tJ. is omitted, and tiqIv becomes itself a conjunction ; ngiv iX&elv fis. But ngh civ skS^(o refers to future time. vvf dt] just now, this moment; and especially with the preterites, Jwsi now, a moment since, hefore. 710) and TiMnoze. In these particles the idea till now, hitherto, lies at the foundation ; yet they are never subjoined to direct affirmative propositions in this sense. Their usage is limited to the following cases : Most commonly they are appended in this sense to negative particles, and then express the English yet, still, Lat. dum ; ovna, (xtjTtM, not ' yety nondumj where however they must not be confounded with the similar epic forms, for which see § 116. n. 6. The form TKanors however is seldom appended to the simple ov or ^^ ; but we find ovdsTKonojs, (AtjdejKOTioTi:, never yet ; and indeed, in reference to the past, this form is almost solely in use, so that the form without ncj (i. e. ovdsTioTs never) is mostly used only in general, or in relation to the future. See Wolf ad Demosth. Lept. 76. Lobeck ad Phryn. p. 458. Moreover both ttco and tcmtcots can be separated from the negative particle, by the intervention of other words. Except with a negative these particles stand only occasionally, and indeed emphatically, with interrogatives, with relatives, and with participles used instead of the construction with the relative. Thuc. III. 45 jig 710} — ; Dem. Phil. I. ocra tkotiots rjlnlaaf^sv '*>what we always hoped." Plat. Phaedo. p. 116. c, uQitnog tmv tkotiotb dsvgo aq)i)(oixivb)v. ncofiaXa see in § 150. Ill, alone means yet, still, yet further ; and with a negative ovxhi, ^rjxitLf no more, no further. fia and vi] are particles of swearing, which are always followed by the object by which one swears, in the Accusative ; e. g. vt) Jla by Jove ! — The oath with vi] is always affirmative ; that with fid on the con- trary is subjoined both to affirmations and negations ; e. g. val (id Jla and ov fid Jla ; but when it stands alone, it serves merely as a negative ; fid Jia, no, certainly not ; nothing less. 2. These and some other particles have in Greek various other uses, which require a more accurate acquaintance with them than can be given here. This is especially true of several particles, which have formerly been called expletives, Particulae expletivae. We can in- deed talk about a usus expletivus ; but must not misapprehend it. In 5 149. SYNTAX. EXPLETIVE PARTICLES. 431 all languages there are particles, which are often employed only for the sake of completeness, or in order to produce a well-sounding fulness, yet never without their own peculiar sense ; although they could also be omitted, since that which they express is often understood of itself. In estimating thesp particles in Greek, peculiar caution is necessary. Their full and original meaning has in most cases become partially lost; and they now give to the discourse only a slight colouring, which we can- not properly feel except after long acquaintance and practice. For this purpose, however, a knowledge of the fundamental significations of these particles is necessary ; for which the following may in part serve. yi (enclitic) properly, at least, for which however yovv is more usual ; while ys is almost always used wherever a single object or a part is named with reference to the whole or to a greater number. Hence it is so often appended to iym {s/cays) ; by which means one always places himself as it were over against all other men ; strictly, / at least, I for my part. Not unfrequently it can also be translated by certainly, truly, certe, €KQa (epic KQ and qoc, of which the last is enclitic) always stands after other words,* and means (1) most commonly therefore; (2) where it seems to be without any power, there lies at the basis the idea conformably to nature or custom, properly, ex ordine, rite ; hence it serves as a transition to a proposition which may be anticipated. — (3) After el, iav, etc. it means perhaps. The interrogative particle uga, num ? which stands at the begin- ning of a sentence, is different.f to/ (enclitic) is strictly an ancient Dative for tw, and means in conse- quence of, therefore, certainly ; which significations however are in toI itself extinct, and therefore Toiyag, TOtyaQtoi, roiyccgovv, are found as strengthened forms of them ; — toLvvv is used when one proceeds with an inference etc. as it were, " now I further say," hut now. — The parti- cle Tol by itself, retains only a sort of confirmatory sense, something like our words indeed, forsooth, just, also, yet, etc. ncciTol, (1) and truly ; (2) and yet truly, and yet ; (3) although. fievTOi', (1) indeed, truly, certainly ;l hence (2) hut indeed, neverthe- less, a more emphatic form for di. T aga, x ag, (§ 29. n. 8,) are aga strengthened by to/ in the poets. drj strictly now, at present ; (for which ^jdrj is more usual ;) hence it serves in various ways to increase the vivacity of discourse ; e. g. «/« ^?i come on now ; tL dij / what then ? — It means also certainly, in truth. * When sometimes aga or ag' ovv stands at the beginning of a clause or sen- tence, it is in prose always to be changed to aga, which in such cases is an interrogative supplying the place of a direct assertion. See Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 27. t The Attic poets can nevertheless change the quantity, and use aga for therefore and aga as an interrogative ; but their position in a sentence remains the same. t This particle has come from fir^ (epicfiiv) and toi', comp. § 150. 1. 432 § 149, SYNTAX. — EXPLETIVE PARTICLES. After relatives, e. g. otrttg drj, onov di^* it serves to render them more general, lohoever now it may be, ivherever now it may be, etc. or also some one or other, somewhere or other, I know not where, etc. fii^v^ (Doric fiav, epic [xsv and fiav,) a confirmatory particle ; (1) in truth, assuredly ; (2) but certainly, nevertheless ; e. g. Plat. Soph. 1 aal [xot doxH S^sog ^h oidaixwg uvea, S-dog fjLr\v. ye f.if]v (epic ys fiev) yet certainly, but truly ; hence it is likewise a stronger ds. See Excurs. I. ad Arat. — yal fir}V immo, yea! and in contradictions atqui, but yet, nevertheless. So in questions which follow a negative of another speaker^ e.g. noTs fii]v ; when thenf rig fxi^v / who then'^ (i. e. when, who else then'?) Hence tI (XTjv ; equivalent to why not '^^ V f^V^ (Ionic and epic rj fiiv) is the usual formula of oaths and affirmations; sometimes with the Indicative, ■>] [itjv i/o) EJia&ov tovto " I swear, that I have suffered this ;" and sometimes with the Infini- tive, dependent from other verbs, as oixvv{a,l t] jirjv dcoasiv " I swear to give." Also in the third person : vjiedi^uTo ?} firjv p) cctioqeIv avrovg TQocpijg " he undertook, solemnly promised, that they should not want for food." ov firfv^ (1) yet not, assuredly not ; (2) as a negative assertion corre- sponding to the affirmative ?] /utjV. In dependent clauses, ^?) p;v. '&rjVj (enclitic, and peculiar to the Ionic and Doric poets,) also a con- firmatory particle, which however gives to the discourse much the same tone, as when we say, / thought though ; hence especially in a contemptuous and sarcastic sense : t] S^riv^ ov S^^jv, but yet though, but not though. vv, vvv, (short and enclitic ; only in the Ionic dialect and in the po- ets,) strictly the same with vvv, for which it also sometimes stands ; (2) for ovv therefore, now ; (3) like our expletive now, then, etc. e. g. S^vTjTog 8e vv y.al av xhv^aL " and thou too now art born mortal," 11. 71, 622. neg, (enclitic, and probably derived from nsgl in the sense of very, §147. n. 8,) wholly, entirely; — hence uxtjisq lit. entirely as, — xuItieq so very much too, however much, i. e. although ; in which sense nsQ stands also alone. nore (enclitic) once, some time or other. In interrogatives it expresses surprize, e. g. jlg noxs eaxtv ovxog / luho now can this be ? 710 1; (enclitic) someiohere ; (2) perhaps; (3) in conversation, when one says anything half interrogatively, in order to found something upon the answer, yet^ but yet, yet perhaps. See Ind. ad Plat. Meno* in voce. The same with greater emphasis is di^nov ; and when to this is joined a tone of half contemptuous defiance, so that the opposite as- sertion is represented as inconceivable, this particle becomes 81'inov- ■&EV. Dem. Mid. 26 eoraVat yccQ s^so'tccl 87]7iovS-ev avxb) " for there, I think, he is likely to be allowed to stand." * These are usually written separate)}^ ; but so soon as the strengthening nor^ is subjoined (§ 80. n. 1. § 116. 9), they are more commonly all written in ono word. § 150. SYNTAX. — PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. 433 § 150. Particular Words and Phrases. ov fjiriv aXla or ov fxivTOO dlXa (comp. § 149. 2) means properly : yet no ! rather — ; commonly however it stands for nevertheless ^ mean- ivhile ; sometimes also for rather. ov^ OTt> and ov^ oncog. These two forms of expression are often re- garded as synonymous, though they are in reality opposed to each oth- er. Before each of them some verb like Xi/oo is to be supplied. When the form ov/ otl then follows, the proposition is affirmative ; e. g. Xen. Mem. II. 9. 8 y.al ov/ otl fiovog 6 KqUmv ev 'ijav/lcc riv, aXXa y.al ol cplXoL avxov (where (lovog belongs only to Kgkcov), Theophr. ov/ oxv avicfv «V, alia xal ivav^saTsgag y.al xuXXlovg inolrfas^ " it would not only have sprung up, but also, etc." Dio. Cass. 42. p. 285 Javei^o- fisvog ov/ oTi naqa tmv t^twTwy, uXXa xal naga tmv noXscav, " not only from private persons, but also from cities." When this phrase is to introduce a negation, this must be already implied in the proposition itself; and then it can be rendered still stronger by ctXX' olds. De- mosth. c. Timocr. p. 702. 2 ou/ otl tmv ovtojv aTiEO-Tsg-fjfiTjv civ, aXX^ ovd^ av s^rjv. Thucyd. II. 97 xai'T/y ds (Scytharum potentiae) advva- xa i^iaovad-aL ov/ otl xa iv rf/ Evgurct], aXX' ovd^ ev TJi^Aala e&vog tv Tigog EV om egtlv x. t. X. — More commonly, when the negative is to be expressed, ov% orcwg is used, where consequently ontag as, becomes equivalent to that not. E. g. Demostb. c. Polycl. 1225. 12 ?; Se yij ov/ OTTCjg TLva xagjiov rjvsyyEV, aXXoc xal to vdag ex Tcav cpgEvawv ETreXmsv, "not only the earth no fruit," etc. Xen. Hellen. V. 4. 34 idldaaxov tov dijfj.ov, w? ol AaxsdaLfiovLOL ov/ oncog Ti^ibig7jaaLVT0, aXXot xal EJiaLVECTttLEV TOV ^cpo^glav, " that the Lacedemonians not only would not punish," etc. ib. II. 4. 14 ov/ oTicog adLxovvTsg aXX^ ov8^ ETiidrj- (xovvTsg EcpvyadsvoixE&a, "having not only not done them any wrong, but not having even entered the land, we were banished." Ovxovv (i. e. ovx ovv see p. 429) oTiag fivrja&ijvaL av TLg ixoXfirjcrs — cpXavgov tl, aXX^ ag iv ocp^aX^dlg — ^aaLXiag — exacTTog diExsno.* Less frequent in the same sense, were ov^ ooov and ovx oTov. The former stands for ov/ otl, — at least Thucydides uses it with a second ov subjoined for the negation, IV". 62 ol ^sv ov/ ocrov ovic ^]{ivvavTO, aXX' ovd^ E(7(od-r]aav. — Ov/ otov stands for ov/ orcag. Polyb. oil/ olov wcpeXeIv dvvaLT^ av Tovg q)lXovg, aXX old^ avTovg (tco'C^lv. Preceded by ^u?;, both otl and oTimg must have VTvoXd^j] TLg or the hke supplied ; or they are to be taken like the Lat. ne dicam. They are in this way stronger than with ov/, and both have a negative sense. Xen. Cyrop. 1.3. 10 p/ oTtcog og/Eta&UL iv gvO-fio) aXX^ ovd^ og&ovcrd-at idvvaffd-e. ib. III. 2. 21 ovx av ^{isig a(Tq)aX(ag ig/a^olfxs&a, fii] otl ttjv * The example adduced bv Viger. VII. 10. 5, without citation of the place where it is to be found, ovx oTTOjg rovg iroXsfiiovg x. r. X. where ol% OTTOjg stands affirmatively for not only, is without doubt spurious. On the other hand the example cited by Budaens (p. 911) from Athenaeus without specification, where ovx OTL is negative (ovx otl t^^ojv nva TTQOG^Xlnovtsg aAA* olSs aU^r'^lovg) comes from an uncertain age. 434 § 150. SYNTAX. PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. tovx(ov, uXV 01)8' av tijv ruiBxsqav. Mem. I. 6. 11 Ttaltov Toys ifia- TLOV 1] jrjV olxiav ovdsvl av fii] otl ngotxa dolrjg, aXk^ ov8 ' av sXaixov xijg tt^lag Xa^av. All these constructions are easy to fill out and explain. When p) oxL follows, the mode of expression becomes still more emphatic, and is then to be given by the Latin nedum, much less, not to say. Plat. Cratyl. p. 427 doxn tiOL ^adiov dvai ovxba xa^v fia&siv oxLOVv nqay^a, p/ oxv xoctovtov o dij doyisT iv xolg fisylcrxoig fiiyiaxov Elvai. Phaedr. p. 240. d, a y.al Xoyo) iaxlv oacomtv ova enixignsg fiij oxi dr] Eqybj. Xenoph. Hellen. II. 3. 35 ov8s nluv, p) oxi avaLQEir (T&ai xovg uvdQug dvvaxov i]v. In the same sense Lucian uses ov/ OTTCjg, e.g. Diall. Mort. 27. 5 ovd^ fitriaVat j^a^at ov/ oTiag ^adi^sLV idvvaxo. Sometimes a seeming objection is intro'duced by ov/ oxl, which is then immediately (commonly by means of aXXa) refuted ; fully : " not that it troubles me — , but — ." If no refutation follows, ov/ oxl can be rendered by although, etc. See Heind. ad Plat. Lys. 37. Protag. 66. oil iiri after negatives, except. TO di — , an elliptical phrase which it is hard to fill out, and which serves to introduce a proposition contrary to what has been before said, something like our since nevertheless, but since. See the illus- tration in Heind. ad Plat. Theaet. 37. and also mine ad Menonem 37. TO f^u] — , more commonly to [ii] ov — , with the Infin. equivalent to OJOTS fXT] so as not, that not, quo minus, quin ; see Excurs. 11 ad De- mosth. Mid. p. 142 sq. Comp. also xov ^r\ ^ 148. n. 9. Tt often passes over into a modifying, or also into a generalizing parti- cle, in some measure, or also in something or other. Hence ovxi, pLtixL, not at all; which compounds however can be again separated ; e.g. 0VX8 XI Bgya II. a, 115. — For the Tmesis with this xl [vno xt) see § 147. n. 10. fi^Tt ys not to say then, much less then, nedum, probably derived from (17] OXL, which see above. ov nBQi, e.g. OV nsql xov XLfKOQ^ffaad-aL, an« xal — "not to speak of vengeance (i. e. this is out of the question), but we shall even — " ' Thuc. IV. 63. oaov ov, or oaovov, tantumnon, only not, i. e. almost, e.g. xov fiiXXovxa Kal oaovov nagovxa noXsfiov " the impending and only not yet present war." To fill out this mode of expression, we must conceive ' it thus : ' only so much is wanting, as is necessary to make it not a pres- ent war.' OGOv by itself stands elliptically with the Infin. in the following manner : disvsLfii-v emaxM oaov ajio^jjv "he distributed to each just so much as he could live from." More fully Thucyd. IH. 49 ?; ngoxsga yaiJ? 8q)&a(T8 xocrovxov, ocrov ndx^jxa aveyvcaxivai to xpi'icpLcr^ia " the first ship arrived just so much sooner, that Pacholas had read the decree." ooog, rj, ov, stands in S-av^iacrxov ocrov and similar phrases, as in Lat. mi- rum quantum, *' so much that it is wonderful," i. e. uncommonly much. In a similar manner it stands before or after superlatives of quantity, § 150. SYNTAX.r— PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. 435 e. g. nXuaxa oaa, or oaa nXudxa, quam plurima, exceedingly many. See § 151. I. 5. OGDci, i](iugai, every day, daily, (e. g. Plat. Charm 51. extr.) and so also ocrog with other specifications of time. The foregoing is also con- tracted, into oarjfis^ai. avd^ Mv stands (§ 143. 5) for avxl iv.slvcav a — ; e.g. Xa^s tovto avS^ biv sdcoxag fioi,as in English, "take this for what you have given me/* instead o^ for that which. But it is also further used for avrl toxjtov^ OTi — , on this account that, because that ; e. g. /w^tv gol olda, av^ oiv rjl-&£g, " I thank thee because thou hast come." In the same manner stands iqi* CO strictly for inl tovtm, o — , but commonly for fnl tovtm ag — ; and since inl with the Dat. implies a condition, e(p o) means on con- dition that — ; e. g. Xs^o) aoi icp w cripjasL " I will tell it thee on condition that thou wilt be silent." icp' Mxi has the same meaning, for eiiI tovtoi, aaxE — , but common- ly takes the Infinitive ; e. g. jjgs&rjcrccv icp onE a-vy/Qaipai vofiovg "they were chosen on condition or with the commission to make laws." eais, (not eg t«, for it stands for ig ots: Dor. I'o-xe,) till, so long as ; see § 146. 3. To? before an Infinitive means such that, so constituted that; e.g. ol ngocrd'sv odovTsg naai ^caoig oIol xipiVELV slalv, ol ds yopLCptou oIol Ttaga Tomoiv ds^afisvoL halvsLV, " are so arranged that they cut, — that they receive from the former and crush ;" — or with the negative, e. g. ov yag riv olog ano navxog xegdalvsLV, " he was not such an one as to do every thing for the sake of gain." oToQ If, oioffTs, means, when spoken of persons, able ; of things, joo55i- ble ; e. g. olog ts eaxL navx anodu^ai " he is able to accomplish all ;" uXt ol'x olovTE TovTO " but this is not possible," This form of ex- pression diflTers in usage very slightly from the preceding one ; since olog and olog ts are strictly entirely synonymous ; see rt in § 149. oTov eiaog, as is natural, as one can suppose. ovdiv o7ov, nothing such, i.e. "there is nothing comparable, if—;" French, " il n'y a rien de tel ;" hence e.g. ovdh olov axomao twv XoyMv avTOV, 'i. e. " it is best to hear what he says." aXXo, else, is used with a negative or interrogatively in order to strength- en assertions ; where commonly there is the omission of some verb- al idea. E. g. Xen. Cyrop. I. 4. 24 sKElvog ovdh aXXo ?; xovg nsjiroi— norag nEgiEXavvav iS^Ecijo. Mem. 2. 3. 17 t/ yocg aXXo i} xivdvvEvaEig^ inidEt^cti, (TV pLEV xgrjdTog — slvca x. t. X. In such connexions, if aXXo- takes the apostrophe, it commonly also loses its accent \ e. g. Plat. Apol. p. 20 Sl ol'dsv aXt o] dta aocplav riva rovro xo ovopia taxij— aa. Phaedr. p. 231 wots ovdsv vjioXEmExaL aXl^ rj txoleIv ngod^vpitag^ o,TL av a. T. X. Meno. 9 "Oxt ovdsv aX^ ij snLXitxxsig, " because thou dost nothing else but command." ^Eschin. c. Timarch. oiors ptr^dsv aXt i] xag aia-xvvag avxto nEgifivav. In this shape this aXt has the appearance of the apostrophized form from aXXa ; and hence many in such cases write aXt . 436 § 150. SYNTAX. PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. To these same forms of expression belongs also the interrogative alio Ti, lit. " is there any thing else than — ?" E.g. Plat. Gorg. 81 d }iiv ycAQ Tvyx<^VEL -lama alrj&ij ovia, u liysig, alio tl i] 'tj/xuv o ^log avuTSTQafifiivog av el't] ; " if this were true, would not then our hfe be destroyed ?" In this form of interrogation the particle ?; is very commonly omitted, e. g. Plat. Rep. p. 369, alio xt ytwqyog /uh sig^ 6 8s olxodci^og ; " is it not so then — one is a husbandman, the other a builder ? From such constructions it arose, that all' fj was used for wm, unless, except; e.g. Aristoph. Ran. 1105, Om ojirhravT ul)i i] fid^av xalsaai xal ^vnnancAl utieiv. In most cases however there occurs before this all^ i] an ellipsis of the thought, which cannot well be supplied by words ; e. g. Isaeus de Aristarch. Hered. p. 261, o vo^og ovx €« TOJV ttJc: sTCLy.hjQov xvQiov Eivai, al)i i] jovg naidag — xquteIv tcov /Qrj(A.uToiv. Plat. Phaedr. 89, rlvog ^kv ovv evsxa xuv rig, g has in suppositions and questions the meaning perhaps, forte ; fully, "as it often happens," Heind. ad Plat. Phaedo. 11. Ind. ad Plat. Meno. etc. del. When this phrase stands before participles, ael means in every tim£, in every case, always; e. g. o asl ^dLxijfiivog, "he who in every 440 ' § 150. SYNTAX. — PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. instance (i. e. so often as the supposition has place) suffers injustice ;" o ubI aQx^^v "the archon for the time being." qgovdog has no other construction whatever, than that of being con- strued as a verb, with the omission of sivai : he is gone, has disap- peared; e. g. (pQovdog yocg 6 aviigfor the man is off; q)Qovda navxa all is over! Comp. § 129. n. 7. ag'Sccf^tsvog, e. g. utio g-ov ag^dixsvog Ht; beginning from (or with) thee ; hence and thou first of all, thou before all. In this mode of expression the participle is always connected with the principal object spoken of. E. g. sdTLV oarig ^Ad^ijvaloov, ano crov ag'^a^i^vog, ficcXkov ds^aix* av dovXog ysvia&m r] dsaTioTrjg', "is there a single one of the Atheni- ans, and thou most of all, who would rather be slave than master ?'* TiavTsg ovTOt ano twv ^mbjbw .aq^a^ivov ovdelg ticotiots sijjs^sv admlav. See Ind. ad Meno. etc. in v. Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 60. lifXXetv, to be about to do, to be on the point of; a Greek auxiliary verb before the Infinitive, by means of whidh the action, regarded from the time indicated by the verb, is placed in the future. Thus ^ilXw noiuv I am about to do, leaving it undetermined whether this comes from my own will (/ intend), or not {shall, am destined) ; ijfieXXov nacFX^LV " I was (then) about to suffer." The difference between the Present and the Aorist of the subjoined Infinitive, lies here again in the dura- tion or transientn ess of the action. But very commonly, by a sort of pleonastic usage, the Fut. Infin. is employed ; e. g. Dem. Mid. 21 "and all this he did in presence of persons ot ocvjov enaLviaEdd'ab [isxa Tavra iJixslXov, qui eum erant laudaturi,^^ where we must say more ' circumstantially, " of whom he could presume, that they would praise him." — Out of this natural signification of the verb arise two others, which must not be confounded : (1) the hypothetical, conjectural, e. g. Horn, omw nov J it fiiXXet — qilXov stvaL, where we also make use of our auxiliary will, " thus then will it be agreeable to Jove ;" (2) the signi- fication to delay, i. e. to be always about to do, always intend. Ti d" ov ^iXXu ; Ti 5' om b^eXXe ,- why shall he not ? ivhy should he not^ i. e. most certainly, assuredly. — But also without the negative the signification comes to the same thing : rl ^sXXei ; lit. what {then) shall be ? hence, why not ? certainly. Heind. ad Plat. Hipp. maj. 17. iQ'/eodao and levac with the Part. Fut. to be about to, to intend, like our Eng. to go ; hence e. g. oneQ j](x igm>, ce que fallois dire, what I ^vas going to say. , idiXstv (but never S-sXslv) when followed by an Infin. must ver/ often be rendered as an adverb before a finite verb, willingly, voluntarily ; , e. g. dojQHff&cu s&iXovdL, lit. " they are willing to make presents" i. e.- "they willingly make presents," Xen. Hier. VII. 9; Kvqm i'afisv i&sXi^cravTag nei&ecr&aL jovg fxev — Cyrop. I. 1. 3, where the Part, stands merely on account ofl'a-fiev by § 144. 4. b, — consequently I'afisv oTi ^j&eXrj(rav nel&eaS-ai, that they voluntarily obeyed. — Comp. the similar case with the verb Tvyxava etc. construed with a Participle, § 144. n. 8. (f'^aviiv to come before, anticipate. This verb, besides its simple use. ^ 150. SYNTAX. PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. 441 has a threefold construction and signification, which must first of all be clearly distinguished. 1) In a positive proposition with the participle of the principal verb {§ 144. n. 8), it means to do he/ore^ sooner than, another ; or be- fore something else can take place ; e. g. tcp&aaa avxov iiaQiXd^tav " I arrived earlier than he ;" Ecp&rjv umcov " I went away before." Hence to do in haste, e. g. Herod. IH-i 78 (p&avu %a to|« Kazsko^Bvoq. 2) In a negative proposition with a participle, and connect- ed by Tial with the following clause, it means no sooner — than ; e. g. om- Ecp&fjfiEV iXS^ovTsg aal vocrotg ihlqi&tj^sv (Isocr.) "we had no sooner arrived, than we were seized by illness ;" i. e. in one and the same mon^ent we arrived and were taken ill ; ovx ecpS-rjcrav vfiag xaTudovlMo-dfiEvoL zal ngmov avxov (pvp]V tcaTsyvaa-av (id.) "they had no sooner subdued you, than they banished him first." Comp. vcfia above. ' 3) In a negative sentence with the participle expressed or implied, but without any further necessary connexion, ov (fd^avsLV is used for to he ready, not to fail ; and thus imparts to the verbal action ex- pressed by the participle the accessory idea o^ certainty and speediness. In this sense it never occurs except in the Optative with av f and (1) instead of the Imperative: oux av (p&avoLg Xsyav "be ready, fail not, to tell us," i. e. tell us at -once ; (2) as confident prediction, promise, etc. e. g. oujf «V (p&dvoL^L (in answer to a challenge) " I will not fail, I am ready f ovx av cp&dvot. uTiod-^jcTxcav "he will not fail to die," j. e. will not escape death ; ti ovv fiij np.wQridmd'B xoviovg, om av q>d^dvou TO TiXijd-og TOVTOLg Tolg ^rigioig dovXsvov " if then ye do not punish these, the multitude will inevitably be in slavery to these beasts." — It is as obvious as it is singular, that this negative form of expression coincides with the affirmative one, in (J) above. In order to explain this contradiction, we may probably best assume, that om av (p&dvotg is strictly an interrogative phrase, which was used instead of an ani- mated Imperative {wilt thou not instantly — ?), and thus in daily usage by degrees lost its interrogative tone ; whence also in the poets the ov stands last, e. g. Eurip. Heracl. 721 cp&dj^oig d" av ov — . So soon now as ovx av (p&dvoLg became equivalent to a direct Imperative, it was very natural to say in the same sense ovx av q)d-dvoi(XL and oi'x av (p&dvoL. In this way the sense became indeed imperceptibly in- verted ; but we find the same fact in all inferences beginning with ovxovv, where this is not interrogative ; for precisely as ovxovv ajisifii is synonymous with anu^i ovv, so also is ovx av (pd-dvoLfii noiojv sy- nonymous with q)&dvotp,\av noiSiV. elvoco. This Infinitive seems to be superfluous in some phrases in Attic writers, especially in excov uvai (originally probably a fuller phrase, "so that I am unconstrained"), if it depends on me, of my own accord, etc. ovx av sxmv nvai xpEvSol^riv " I would not intentionally lie." Different from this is uvai, in xo vvv slvai,for now, for the present; * The single instance adduced by Stephens without the Optative, is a muti- lated example belougin^ under 3. 442 5 15^- SYNTAX. PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. TO TTjfiSQov sivaL x9V^o{j,E&^ aviM for to-day we will use, etc. See on the phrases which belong here, Reiz. ad Viger. n. 178. ed. Herm. i^en' with an adverb means lit.io have one^s self, i. e. to find one's self he circumstanced; but can generally be translated by the verb to fee, e.g. x«Aw? £/«i it is ivell ; ug eI/s as he was (i. e. undressed). Often with a quaUfying Genitive, e. g. aig sl/s fioQ(pijg {in or as to shape) ; w? Ta/ovg bI/ov, smovTO, lit. " they followed as they were as to swiftness," i. e. they followed as speedily as their nature admitted. • So also before prepositions, e. g. ccficpl ti)v aafiivov l/et t« nolla "he is comtnonly about the fireplace ;" ol u^icpl yrjv s/ovTsg the husbandmen ; nvd^ofikvob Tov Tiegl TO Igov s/ovTa vo^ov " the law respecting the temple," Herod. II. 113. — In the poets s^stv stands sometimes in like manner be- fore adjectives and pronouns, e. g. %x^^' 'tcivtov it is the same thing, Burip. Orest. 308 { I/' ^(Tv^og id. Med. 550. s/sLv forms also sometimes with the participle of the Preterite an emphatic circumlocution ; e. g. italai S^avfiaaag exca (for S^avfia^a) I have long wondered — ,* Soph. El. 590 xovg natdag ea^alovcr^ l/£t? thou hast cast off thy children ; Plat. Ale. II. 5 disdrj(p6Tsg s/ovctl. See Valck. ad Phoeniss. 712. Herm. ad Viger. num. 183. Here exstv corresponds in a certain measure to the Eng. auxiliary have. tfmv is subjoined to ih.^ second person of some verbs, Ti^^Xriquv, cplv- (XQHV, nal^SLV, in order as it were to bring them home more to the , feehngs ; much as we would say: "thou wilt but have thy jest," nalQug s/cav : — " thou only makest thyself sport," XrjQEtg s/cav. The origin of this is easily recognized in the interrogative form, e. g. tI B/cov diaTgl^sig ; lit. " what hast thou then that thou so delayest ?" shorter, " why delayest thou so then ?" Comp. Ruhnk. ad Tim. 257. Brunck. ad Arist. Thesm. 473. Herm. ad Vig. num. 228. Ti 7ia&o.)v and r/ |()vd\ oTccag vctimXejo, for ayomccL, oncog i]8e anbiXixo. See also an example in § 138 note. Compare ad Plat. Meno. 27. — This species of attraction is indeed wholly different from the preceding ones, since there remain two clauses ; and instead of the proper case in its natural connexion we only find a new one, after which, however, we must again supply the original word in thought. But nevertheless the yri is manifestly attracted by the oida ; and thus it is ef- fected, that out of two propositions which merely stood in juxtaposition, are formed two propositions interwoven with each other, and therefore approach- ing nearer to unity ; especially when they are arranged in the following manner : y7]v onoarj icnlv £t5«Vat(Xenoph.) ^'to know how great the earth is ;" TovTov ovd" si yiyovEV ^dsLV (Demosth. Mid.) "as to this person I did not even know whether he existed." 7. It is further to be reckoned as attraction, when certain adjectives with eo-tIvj instead of standing in the JVew^er, take in like manner the sub- ject of the following verb as their own subject. This is most striking in the case of dlxa Log. From 8ly,ai6v etal firi, for nal onoxs fti^y Plat. Alcib. I. 13. 4. A very striking and common ellipsis with the Attics is, when of two contrary conditional propositions, the first remains without apodosis. This takes place only when the first proposition is in its nature a matter of course, and the speaker therefore hurries to the second as alone being of importance. E. g. Plat. Protag. p. 325. d, (after the exertions of a father to educate his son have been related,) xal iav ^sv sxav ndd-7]TaL' si Se ^uij, MdnsQ Ivlov dia(TTQ£(p6(j,svov sv&wovcnv anedalg yal nXi]yaig, " and if he obeys voluntarily — (here the apodosis is a matter of course, good^ it is well, it needs nothing further, or the like ;) but if not, they make him, like a crooked stick, by means of threats and blows, straight." 5. It is also common, after a clause beginning with the postpositive article o, a, to omit the corresponding tovto saxiv or Tavra icrtiv, which refer to it ; e. g. jcat o f^ahoTct ijvlixai fxs, oxl xal atvsidi^v (ie " and what most vexed me {was), that he also reproached me." Or also without ttXL', see e. g. Dem. Mid. 2. b, where after oi d^ iv Vfuv icrxtv vnoXoma, we must supply xavxa iaxiv, and then the clause begins again. — In this kind of ellipsis the instances with the superlative are the most frequent, sometimes with, and sometimes without oxl, e. g. o ds TtavxbJV deivoxotxov, oxt rrgog xovg ^ag^dgovg uvfjtiiaxtav inoLt^aaxo, (where first iaxl, and then xovxo icrxtv is omitted,) " what {is) most of all {is this), that he has made an alliance with the barbarians." xal o navx(av ysloLoxaxov, xal xov xvva xrjg ^Ugiyovr^g avijyaysv, "but what {is) most ridiculous of all, he has also brought up hither the dog of Erigone," Lucian. Deor. Cone. 5. Commonly after this ellipsis the particle ydg is inserted, which for us is superfluous, e. g. o 8s ^sycaxov, ov ydq yj&sXsv, etc. Comp. ydg in § 149. 6. The words xovxo iaxtv oxl alone are also omitted, when such a pre- ceding adjective has the prepositive article ; e. g. t o d s y. s y Ca x o v, ndv- xa xavxa ^ovog xaxsLgydaaxo. — Kal xo navxcov aVaxLcrxov, Tigoasiprjqilaaff&s. The same takes place in the familiar formulas of proof, Tsxfi^]QLOv 8 i or (Ttjfis'LOV ds (sc. xovxav saxl tovto) "the proof of it is this," etc. E. g. arjy.SL0v ds, xdlg novr^Qotg ^vvovaLa^ei, i. e. " and as a proof, he associates with bad men." — This form of expression also usually takes ydg ; e. g. Demosth. Androt. near the end : "the people of Athens have ever prized honour more than money, xsx^iJQLOV d s, xQ7]fj.axa (isv yag nlsidxa x(av "EXX'^voiv noxs a/^^ ^^ ndvd-^ vtcsq cfuXoxi^lag ay^jAwcrev." The expressions to Xsyofisvov, xovvavxlov, and the like, see in § 131. n. 6. APPENDIX A. On Versification.* ^ 1. For the full understanding of what follows, it is necessary to pre- mise some remarks on the different kinds of Greek poetry, and their con- nexion with the dialects. All the species of Greek poetry have their ori- gin in three principal classes of poetical diction, viz. The Epic, or poetry of narrative, The Lyric y or poetry of song. The Dramatic, or poetry of action. 2. Each of these classes of poetry, in its most complete form, became appropriated among the Greeks to particular tribes. The Epic was formed and cultivated among the Ionics ; the Lyric among the Dorics and JEolics ; and lastly the Dramatic among the Attics. Hence it arose, that each of these classes, in language, metre, and adaptation to music and song, united the character and more or less of the dialect of the tribe in which it was chiefly cultivated, to the peculiarities of its own nature. Comp. <5> !• 10 sq. Note 1. It must here be noted, that in speaking of dramatic ^nd Attic poetry, we mean chiefly the iambic and trochaic parts of the drama generally, and the anapaestic parts of comedy, in which the strictly dramatic dialogue is contained. The other parts belong more or less to lyric poetry, and the choruses wholly so. 3. The chief influence which is hence exerted upon the metre and poetic quantity, is, that the epic diction has more softness, and, in order to bring the narration more into the restraints of metre, more license in the forms of words and in the pronunciation. Dramatic poetry, on the other hand, and particularly comedy, being derived from the language of ordi- nary life, confined itself more strictly to the customary forms ; and of course more particularly to the language and pronunciation of the Attic people, of which it sacrificed very little to the metre. The lyric diction approached in this respect more nearly to the epic ; from which, as the mother of all Greek poesy, it derived the greater part of its poetical lan- guage and forms ; while with these it mingled also the harsher and rougher peculiarities of the Doric dialect, and thus exempted the melody of song; from the monotony of^ narrative recitation. 4. The alternation of long and short syllables in discourse is called^ from its impression on the ear, Rhythm. So far as this alternation fol- lows certain laws, which Hmit it by a certain measure, it is called Metre. Single parts of such discourse, which can be embraced and recognized by the ear as a metrical whole, are called Verses. * In order to render this work complete in itself, the following treatise oa Greek Versification is here subjoined fi-ora the author's Schid-Grammatik, Ber- lin, 1826. 8th Edition.— Tr. 452 Appendix A. — versification. 5. Verses are subdivided into smaller sections of a few syllables each, which are called Feet. The most usual feet are the following; viz. Spondee '• e. g. dovlovq Trochee - " e. g. 8ovXog Iambus ^ - e. g. Xoyovq Pyrrhic - " e. g. loyo? Dactyle _ - « e. g. xiimsTs Anapaest - ^ - e. g. Xsyeiai Tribrach ^ >■' ^ e. g. Xi/frs Note 2. In the examples here adduced, each foot consists of a single word. All verses however are measured by feet, of which the beginning and end fall in the middle of the words. 6. To determine the measure of the feet and verses, a short syllable is assumed as unity, and a long syllable as the dcJuble of this, or two. Every such unit is called a time or interval, mora. Note 3. Consequently the tribrach is equal in time to the tro- chee and iambus ; and the -spondee to the dactyle and anapaest. 7. The length and shortness of syllables, or their quantity, is deter- mined by the rules and principles given in § 7. For the use of the Hiatus and Synizesis in poetry, see § 6. n. 3. § 29. and § 28. n. 6. § 29. n. 11. — It is here only necessary to remark further, that in most species of poetry the last syllable of every verse is common, i. e. a short syllable can stand instead of a long one, or a long- syllable instead of a short one. 8. In some kinds of verse, and likewise in sections of verses, there re- mains, after dividing them into their feet, a single syllable over and above. This is called the eataledic syllable. A verse whose symmetry requires that this syllable should be counted instead of a full foot, is called a cata- lectic verse ; while if the syllable is regarded as supernumerary^ it is a hypercataledic verse. The principle's by which this is to be determined, must be sought in more extended treatises. 9. The most common kinds of verse are those, which consist in the repetition of one and the same foot. Among these the dactylic, iambic^ trochaic, and anapaestic, are the most frequent. 10. The most usual dactylic verse is the Hexameter, which is employed in epic and heroic poetry in uninterrupted succession, without the mixture of any other species. It consists of five dactyles and a spondee. But instead of each of the first four feet a spondee may stand; and as the last syllable of every verse is common (no. 7), instead of the sixth, a trochee^ e. g. 1. KXv&l (xsv,''AgyvQ6T0^^ , og XQVurjV aficpL^i^rjxagj 2. KlkXav T£ ^a&s7jv, Tsvidoio tb icpi avdaasig, 3. SfiLvd-sv, eXtcoxe TOi xoi^QI'^vt' inl vrpv eqExpa, 4. ^ u 8ri note tov xarot nlova fxrjgl^ exijot 5. Tavgoiv r]d^ al/av, rods fiot KQt]r]vov isXdag* 6. TUTEiav Javaol ifici docxgva ao1(n /SeAeacty. Appendix A. — versification. 453 I - Note. 4. Sometimes also we find a spondee inserted in the fifth place instead of the dactyle. Such a verse is called a spondaic Hexameter. E. g. axooTccrrj xooi'op^ noXydslgadog OvXvunoLO or - — I - - 1 — - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - 11. The (dactylic) Pentameter is composed of two parts or halves, sep- arated by a close or cadence; each of which parts consists of two dactyles and a catalectic syllable. - - 1 - - 1 - II - - 1 - " " I - For the first two dactyles, and for them alone, spondees may be substituted. The middle syllable is always long ; the last, as the final syllable, may be also short. This kind of verse is commonly found only in connexion with the Hexameter ; so that one Hexameter and one Pentameter follow each other alternately. A poem of this kind was called "Ehyoi, Elegi; for which at a later period the Siiig, Elegia became usual. Hence an apothegm or inscription in one such double verse [dtajL/ov) is called eh- yslov. 1. "Elnlq sv c(v&qoj7toi(Tl fiovrj S^sog ead^lt] svscttlv, alloL 8^ QvlvixTTOvd' exTrgoXiTiovTEg e^av. % M/sTO fih nlcTTLg, (xr/aXf] 'Steog, m/sto 8^ av8QMV S(xi(pQO(TVv% XaQLTsg t"*, at cplls, pjV eXmov. 3. ogy.OL 8^ oviiSTL tikjtoI iv av^gamoLai^ 8Uaiov, ov8s S^soiig ovddg ilc'CsiaL a&avdiovg. 4. EVCTs^icov 8' av8gb)V ysvog scpd-Lxo, ov8s S^ifiiaTccg ovHETL yL/vojcrxovcr ov8s fiev evcrepiag. 1. % 4. I--1 -1 n- 12. The iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse, is measured by dipodes, i. e. double feet or pairs of feet. In accordance with this, verses of four feet are called dimeter, those of six feet, trimeter, etc. The Latin names 58 454 Appendix A. — versification. on the contrary, quatemius, senarius, etc. refer to the number of single feet. ' 13. Every iambic dipodCf instead of the first iambus, may also have a spondee ; thus --,--or--,-- Hence it follows that in every iambic verse the spondee can stand in every odd place, in sede impari, 1, 3, 5, 7. 14. In every foot also a long syllable can be resolved into two short ones. Consequently the tribrach may stand instead of the iambus in every place except the last. Inasmuch, however, as the last syllable is common, the last place can be occupied by a pyrrhic ; and in all the odd places, instead of a spondee, the anapaest and dactyle may be sub- stituted. - Note 5. Of the feet of four units or times, however, the ana- paest can also stand in the even places. Still this does not hold of tragedy ; which does not easily admit the anapaest even in the third and fifth places. 15. Hence arises for the Iambic trimeter or Senarius the following scheme. But the other kinds of feet, especially those of three syllables, must not be so frequent as to obscure the iambic metre. rXaaarjg ^dXicrtu navTu/ov ntLQta xgaTslv o xal ysQOVxt nal via) Tifxijv cpsgsi, 7j yXwaaa (ny'i\v naiglav Ksmri^ivr]. — I - -. El TO avvs^wg xal noXXa xal Ta/sag lalsiv riv tov (pQovstv 7iagd(Ti]y,ov, at /shdovsg iliyovr av ^jfiav aotcpgovscnsgcd' nuvv, - — , — I - -, — I - -, — - -, — I--, — j - -, — . . _, . _ 1 . _ . _ J . _ . . nXovTog ds ^acravog io-iiv vcv&gojnov rgoTitav, og av svnogoiv yag ala/ga ngaxxri ngdyfiaxaf tl Tovxov dnogrjiTavx av ovx oI'el noiuv ;* - -, - M — , — I - -, - - --, — I — , — I --,-- - - -, - - I - -, - - I - -, — See § 7. n. 19. Appendix A. — versification. 455 ^ianoiv , otav tig o^vvovxoq natacpgovfj, oviog xaTa(pQ0ve1v twv Ssmv ifiol dontlf Hal nqoTEQOV ofMoaag avtog ijiiagytrjusvau .,._ |... ...| . . 16. Besides the senarius, the most common species of iambic verse is the catcdectic tetrameter (no. 8 above). E. g. JBV fioL yhoiTO nag&ivog xaXrj xs xal xigsiva - - — I — , — I — , — I — , " The rules and licenses are essentially the same in this verse as in the senarius ; and the catalectic syllable is connnon. 17. The trochaic dipode, instead of the second trochee, may have a spondee : - -, - - or- -, - - Hence it follows, that in trochaic verse a spondee can stand in every even place, in sede pari, 2, 4, 6, 8. — The rule holds also here, that in every foot a long syllable can be resolved into two short ones. The tribrach can therefore stand in all the places ; and the dactyle and anapaest (instead of the spondee) in all the even places. Note 6. Among the feet of four units, ^however, the dactyle, though very seldom, is found also in the odd places. 18. The most usual trochaic verse is the catalectic tetrameter. E. g. Novg oga, not vovg aaovEu ' xdXXa xwqp« xal xvq)loc - -, - - I - -, - - I - -, - - I - -, - "ixsov ' c5? civavdgov axXsMg xaxS-avtlv. Alvoj xads. ...,_. I _.,.._ I _.,__ j _., . The catalectic syllable is common. 19. In the anapaestic verse, the spondee can stand instead of the ana- paest, by uniting the two short syllables into one long one ; and then again, by resolving the second long syllable of the spondee into two short ones, a dactyle can be introduced. As an example we give the catalectic tetrameter so common in the comic poets. E. g. ''Ox iyoj xa dlxaia Is/av TJvd-ovv xal (T(oq)go(TVVT] vsv6fii(TJ0 ^avsgov fxsv E/cay oi^uL yvavai xovx dvai na- -; and the dactyle intead of a spondee with the arsis on the last syllable ( — ')', is read thus — ^^ « ; but the anapaest where it stands for the contrary spondee (-' -), thus ^' v. _. , Consequently we must read Xs/sts, Xs/stui,, when these words stand as trochaic or dactylic feet ; and on the contrary Is/sTs, As/sTttfc, when these words stand as iambic or anapaestic feet. In do- ing this, however, the learner must be on his guard not to prolong in pronunciation the short syllables which have the arsis; since by this means they would become long, and thus destroy the metre.* Note 7. The learner \^411 do well first to exercise himself, by marking with the ictus all the preceding schemes of verse, and then pronouncing the verses themselves accordingly. To facilitate hi» progress we subjoin here some examples not there adduced, with their ictus. Hexameter. — Ground- Scheme. -' - - 1 - - - 1 -' - 1 - - 1 - - 1 - - Example. ' igya veojv, jovial 8s fisa-av, sv/al ds ysgovTOJV Pentameter. — Ground-Scheme. -' — 1 - - 1 - II -' - 1 - - 1 - Example. firj fisTQsiv (TXOLVca JIsQcndi ti]V aocpit'jv -' - 1 -' - 1 - II - - - 1 - - - 1 - * Compare on the mode of efFecting this, the marginal notes to § 9 note. "We at least cannot make this ictus audible in any other way than we do the ac-' cent; and consequently can only make it perceptible when we scan, i.e. pro- nounce the verse according to the metre, without reference to the grammatical accent. See p. 37, 38. Appendix A. — versification. 457 _^ 1 — I — ■ — — Senarius. — Ground-Scheme. Examples. cpvfflv novr\Qav ^ha^aXslv ov Qad^pv --', - - I --'-,--' I --',—' rafiLslov aQBTijg icnb aoiCfQOGVvr] fiovtj — -,—'-!--,- - 1 — - , — Iamb, tetram. catalecL — Ground-Scheme. Examples. aU' amo niqi tov irgoTsgog utcelv nqma dlufiaxoviiaL _ _'^ . .' .^ , _ .' v^ . _' I _ _', . .' . 1 . -', _ -d-vvvua S^sgua xuTacpaywv xax smmmv aagixTov - -'. - - i - -' -, - - I ---'-,--' I - -', - Troch.^ tetram. cataled. — Ground-Scheme. , - -, - - I - -, - " I - ^, - " 1 - ^ - Examples. nigiogaq [I ovxcog vtv avdgcav ^ag^agav xsigovfxsvov ) 1 J wA/la ^oc Jl ov gadiiog omwg av avrovg dlscpvysg elnsg hvxov t(ov fisXav twv flJtXoxXeovg ^s^gcaxotsg _' .^ .' „ _ I _' -, -' - I -' -, -' - ] -' - - ^ -' ^ -' - - I - -, -' - I ^' - -, - " I -' -, - Anapaest, tetram. cataled. — Ground-Scheme. — -',—- I —-', — -' 1 —-, — -' I — -', Examples. al)! oXoXv^uTE cpoiLVOfisvfjGlv Tuig ugxaiahiv Ad-rivaig xoii d^avfiaaTalg nav noXwiivolg iv 6 nXEivog dj]fj,og tvolxst _.'., _.'.,! -.'^, --' I ,--', --' I ..-', - - -, - - 1 --'-,-- I ---,--' I " ^ -', - 21. The Caesura is properly the division or separation, by means of the ending of a word, of something which rhythmically or metrically belongs together. Hence there arises a Caesura 1) of the Foot; 2) of the Rhythm, 3) of the Verse ; all of which must be carefully distinguished, since the word caesura is very commonly used without addition for each of the three. 458 Appendix A. — versification. 22. The Caesura of the Foot is where a word ends in the middle of a foot ; e. g. in the first (dactyle) of | Mijviv «- j si,ds, and in the second (spondee) of I OvXo^i- | vriv ^ | -. This is the least important of all, and is without any influence of its own on the metre ; since the division into feet is in a great measure arbitrary. 23. The Caesura of the Rhythm is where a word ends with the arsis, i.e. where the arsis falls on the last syllable of a word ; by which means the arsis is separated from the thesis. Such a final syllable receives from the ictus a special emphasis ; so that not unfrequently the poets place here a short final syllable, which by this means alone is made long, and fills out of itself the arsis ; comp. § 7. n. 16 sq. Of this prolongation by the caesura, the epic poets particularly avail themselves ; e. g. T7]ls^axE I nolov as STTog cpvysv sgjiog. odovrcov ; Avxaq etiht amolcfu §sXog \ ixsnsvxeg ecpulg.* 24. The Verse-Caesura is where the final syllables of words fall into such places in the verse, that a Rhythm which by this means is made full and pleasant to the ear, closes, and another begins. To judge of this requires a deeper knowledge of versification, than can be imparted here. — In a narrower sense that is called a verse-caesura, which occurs in certain determinate places, and of which every verse must have at least one, when it is not faulty.- In this sense the name is understood, when we say of a verse, that it has no caesura. This point also we cannot here ex- haust ; and therefore subjoin further only the following remarks : a) Several kinds of verse have their caesura in one fixed place. Such are, of the above kinds, the following: [1) The pentameter, in which a word must end at the division mentioned above. This caesura is never neglected. (2) The iambic, anapaestic, and trochaic catalectic tetrameter ; all of which have their natural caesura at the end of the fourth foot. This caesura is sometimes neglected. b) Other kinds of verse have more than one place for the caesura ; and the choice is here left to the discretion of the poet. Still some one caesura is commonly the principal one. In hexameter the predomi- nant caesura is that in the middle of the third foot ; either directly after the arsis, e. g. Mijviv asids, S^sa, \ JIi^XifiadEa) A/iX^jog Ovx aga fiovvov et^v | igldav yivog, oKX etu yalav or in the middle of the thesis of a dactyle, e. g. ^'Avdga fiot bvvetie, Movtroc, j nolvrgoiiov, og fiala noXXd. The first species is called, by a modern expression, the masculine caesura ; the second the feminine (or trochaic). It rarely happens that both are wholly wanting in this verse. In such case, however, they are replaced by a caesura in the second or in the fourth foot, * This usage is most known from epic writers; and since, in hexameter verse, which always has the arsis at the beginning of the foot, this caesura and the •caesura of the foot fall together, this circumstance has often occasioned the errone- ous supposition that this prolongation is effected by the caesura of the foot (no. 22). With this was connected another erroneous idea ; for the name caesura was also given to the case, where a word was cut in two in the division into leet. But it is easy to see, that in all cases where any effect is produced by a caesura, it has respect alone to the ending of a word ; which therefore may be a monosyllable Appendix B. — greek alphabet. 459 which are then usually masculine, and produce the best effect when both occur together ; e. g. akXa viov \ avvoqvvofiEVOv \ xlvvvto (pdXayysg. Note 8. In order to guard against misapprehension and confu- sion, we remark here further, that writers on metre, when they speak of the caesuras of the hexameter, often understand, in a wider sense, only those which occur in every place of the hexameter, and by the choice and alternation of which, depending as they do solely on the poet, the positive euphony not only of single verses, but also of the whole series of verses, is produced. But on account of the many final syllables in every verse, the mere ending of a word is not enough to mark a verse-caesura in this sense ; but it must be con- nected with some perceptible break in the sense, or with some strik- ing position of the words. In this way the verse-caesura then forces itself upon the ear, even over those indispensable caesuras, which, as well as these optional ones, must not be wanting, but which also very commonly comprehend the latter in themselves. APPENDIX B. History of the Greek Alphabet, p. 21.* It may not be superfluous to give here a short view of the history of the Greek alphabet, as derived from the ancient accounts and internal evidence. The ancient tradition was, that Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phenicia to Greece, to jvhich Palamedes afterwards added four more, viz. S-y I, (p. Xf and Simonides still later four others, viz. ^, i], yj, at; Plin. VII. 56. On comparing however the Phenician alphabet, as it has come down to us in the Hebrew, it is very apparent that this story nmst be thus understood ; viz. that the Phenician alphabet was introduced into these western countries in a more or less perfect shape ; that some tribes, perhaps those in Greece Proper, were satisfied with sixteen letters ; that they were not however unacquainted with the more perfect system of other tribes, but adopted by degrees such other letters as they found conve- nient ; and this, according to the tradition, occurred at two different epochs. Taking away now the letters ascribed by Phny to Palamedes and Si- monides, there remain the following as the sixteen ancient letters, viz. a^ydBiitlfivongcTTV, The same letters are also given in Schol. ad Dionys. Thr. p. 781. K But since this alphabet certainly ended, like the oriental one, with t, there can be no doubt that the v was transferred to its present place from later alphabets ; since it was originally the same with the Bav i. e, Fav. Marius Victorinus, 2468. If now we restore this F or 2*, which was used at a later period only * From the author's Ausfuhrliche Sprachlehre, Bd. II. Abth. ii. p. 375, Berlin 1827 ; or Edit. 2. Bd. I. p. 9 sq. Berlin 1830. 460 Appendi^c B. — greek alphabet. as a numeral, the traditional alphabet of Cadmus was unquestionably the following : A B r J E F I K A M N O n P. 2 T and the names were *jiX(pa, JBiJTa, Fafiiia, AeXra, Et, Fav^ '/wra, Kamra, Aa^§8a, Mv, Nv, Ov, JTt, 'Pm, 2ly^a, Tav. The letters which were afterwards adopted, so far as they belonged to the original Phenician alphabet and were in use among other tribes, viz. ^, % S; |, assumed their original places. The others, which were added later, and were formed either by a change of the old ones or in some other way, were annexed after the T. In this way T became the nineteenth letter ; since the T, which was formed from the Fav by splitting its upper part, was already placed after the T, while the F itself was omitted. Indeed the F was employed as a regular letter of the alphab.et only by a few tribes ; in the others it was afterwards used, along with the Kornia, only in the sys- tem of numerals, and was dropped in the alphabet. If now we count these two {Fav and Kotetcu), and also reckon 2lyy.a and Sav as two, which they were originally, we obtain from A to T inclusive just the twenty two Phenician-Hebrew letters ; and, as we shall see, also the very same letters. The oriental alphabet contained four sibilants, Zain, Samech^ Tsade, Sin; and there were likewise four in the Greek alphabet before T, viz. Z, ^, 2^ and 2av. The names Smnech, Tsade, Sin, correspond clearly to the names 2lyfia, Zijjcc, 2av ; and the name Zain is consequently merged in Ai. Just as clearly however can we recognize in the forms of the Greek letters t, a, |, the common forms of the Hebrew Tsade, Samech, and Zain (22, 0, 1)' We see then evidently, that the four sibilants in their wander- ings from tribe to tribe became confounded, and exchanged their places in the alphabet. But this took plaice in such a way, that a sibilant came to stand in the Greek alphabet in the place corresponding to each Phenician sibilant; as is evident of itself in the case of ^, ^, a. The place of the old 2dv consequently was between 77 and Komra. The Zain [dsain), which along with ^ was as superfluous as 2(xv by the side of cr, was not however dropped like the latter ; but common usage employed it as a double sound or letter ; or perhaps it was retained because the original dialectic sound dsi passed over, among the Greeks, into ksi. In the oriental alphabet, several of the soft or gently aspirated conso- nants were at the same time employed as vowel. letters. This continued to be the case in Gl'eek (including the Latin dialect) with "/wra . and with Fav or 2*, the Latin V. The ^'Alcpa was considered in Greek sim- ply as a vowel ; inasmuch as the consonant power of the oriental Aleph was regarded by the Greeks merely as an affection of the vowel sound, or the spirit us lenis. The Phenician He and Hliith were sounded alike by the Greeks, (because they could not easily make the distinction between these two aspirates,) and furnisli^d therefore two forms of the spiritus as- per. Of these the one (E) still maintains its place in manuscripts in the form of the breathing placed over a letter 6 or h; while the other (11) is often found on coins and in inscriptions. In the Latin alphabet this H has retained its original power, and occupies nearly the same place as the 7} in the Greek alphabet, viz. immediately before the 7, — th^ O having been dropped by the Latins, like all other aspirates. At the same time Af1»ENDIX B. GREEK -ALPHABET. 461 this double form (E and H) furnished also two forms for the vowel JG, and in this shape alone they remained in the alphabet, and were early em- ployed to distinguish the quantity. This was afterwards imitated also in the case of 0, by writing a double o, which still appears in the cursive w, and had precisely the same form in the ancient cursive alphabet, as we still find it in Egyptian Papyrus manuscripts.* The Greek O corre- sponds of course to the oriental Ain, and has the same place in the alpha- bet. Of the five letters then which were annexed after the T, the origin of T and Jl has been already shewn. 01 and WT are simply modifications of n%, as is evident from their names and value. XI in like manner is a modification of aI ; since this latter in the Italic-Greek and Latin alpha- bets was written X, and corresponds to Xt both as to name and value, pre- cisely as Wl to 0%. Moreover its real transition in the dialects into the guttural sound ch, has its parallel in the Spanish language. Of the remaining letters of the Ionic- Attic alphabet, viz. those which were ultimately employed only as numerals, the jP retained the same posi- tion in the Latin alphabet, with a more strongly aspirated pronunciation ; hence the F stands there likewise after T, and in its double capacity of vowel and consonant. The Konna (Latin Q) has in all the ancient alphabets, the Phenician included, the same name with Karnia, except that it was pronounced with the deeper vowel u or o. We see therefore that the sound w, which it exhibits in Latin, was also originally connected with it. In the Greek dialects which are most known, the Kornia appears to have early lost this peculiarity, and become, as in some of the modern European languages, equivalent to a simple /c, and consequently to Kau- jTce ; while it preferred nevertheless a connexion with u or o, as is still to be seen on coins and in inscriptions. See Boeckh's Corpus Inscript. Graec. I. n. 166, with the note ; where too may be seen the old form of the Konna (^) corresponding to the Hebrew and Latin letter ; its form in the numeral system ( *^ ) being merely simplified for the convenience of wi'iting. The 2uv, in consequence of the above-mentioned exchange of places among the sibilants, assumed the place of the oriental Tsade, and stood accordingly between II and Konna. It is therefore singular, that in the numerical system it does not stand in the same place ; at any rate, we may hence draw the conclusion, that this system did not become fixed until a long time after the difference between 2av and Sly^a had vanished. In order to complete the numerical system the letters last adopted were also employed ; but with these the system, reached only to 800 ; and therefore to mark 900 the sign 2ay,nX was added, by an arbitrary proce- dure, quite at the end. In doing this, however, some reference was probably had to the usage of other tribes, who, like the orientals, used the ancient alphabet in a complete form as a series of numerical signs, and consequently with the 2av in its ancient place. The abbreviation Sampi Qi^ was without doubt similar to the letter ^dv, (which was everywhere conspicuous as a brand upon horses,) if not entirely the same. See Sca- liger ad Euseb. p. 115, Indeed it seems to me probable, that this numer- * The form Si seems to have been derived from on by shortening the side strokes and swelling out the middle. 59 462 Appendix B. — greek alphabet. ical sign received the name ^afnii, as well as this more mpdern form of abbreviation, only at a later period ; and that earlier it had merely the name ofSdv, and was the simple ancient letter ;* which however had probably long since lost its original place in the alphabet, and received this new one by arbitrary convention. [For the sake of illustration, the Hebrew alphabet, with the correspond- ing Greek letters, is here subjoined : ABrJEFZHOIKiAMNSOn q P 2 T a IS y 8 8 I 7] ■& b n I ii' V l(o-) on gar It must however be borne in mind, that the present Hebrew square char- acter is not the proper one, with which to compare the Greek letters. The latter were derived from the Phenician alphabet, the characters of which are for the most part extant in the ancient Hebrew letters as found on coins. To these the Greek letters bear a close resemblance ; particularly r, J, E (Phen. 3 ), H, A, O, 11, 2, etc. As to the four sibilants, the ancient Hebrew or Phenician forms of Zain and Samech are unknown ; the power and place of the former at least have passed over to the Greek Z. Samech and Sin appear early to have been confounded by the Greeks, who finally retained the name of the former in the place and with the form of the latter ; perhaps also the form of Samech (a) was also retained in the small alphabet. The place of Samech was afterwards filled ,by the double letter a, the small form of which (I) bears a strong resemblance to the old Hebrew Tsade. The place of Tsade remained vacant in the Greek alphabet ; though probably it was not so Originally, but was filled by the ancient 2oiv, as supposed by the author above. If this last hypothesis be well founded, we can perhaps easilj' explain the origin and name of the later numeral sign ^afim. In order to find a sign for 900, the old letter 2!dv was adopted ; but as both its name and form had long since been confounded with those of 2lyfia, it became ne- cessary to distinguish it by marking its ancient place in the alphabet, viz. " the 2dv which stood next to 77t." This was done by appending the ITt to its name, and combining the forms of both letters. On the relation of the Greek letters to the oriental alphabets, see Hug's Geschichte der Buchstabenschrift ; Fischer ad Weller. T. I. p. 147. Gese- nius Geschichte der Heh. Sprache und Schrift, § 44. The ancient Hebrew coin-let'ter may be seen in Beyer de JVummis Hebr. Samaiitanis, p. 224. Eckhel Doctr. JVammorum vett. T. HI. p. 404. Also in the alphabets of Gesenius' Lehrgebaude der Heb. Sprache^ and Stuart's Hebrew Grammar. — Tr. * In a Greek sentence upon an Egyptian Papyrus of nfearly two thousand years before Christ, the Sampi appears with only one stroke in the middle, and J8 therefore the same as an inverted Sin. See the explanation of this papyrus by the author, p. 25. Appendix C. — tables for declension etc. 463 APPENDIX C. Tables of Words for Declension and Conjugation. FIRST DECLENSION, p. 68.* u/oga market "Ayx'KTriq (long i) Anchises adoXsG-xrjg prattler "Ad-riva Minerva Alvdag ^neas axavd-a thorn ufiilla combat agovga ploughed land a(7xoXla business yaXi] weasel yi] earth yXcoaaa tongue do^a opinion txL^va adder l^(xiV7i zone ri(iiga day S^dlaacra sea S^vga (short v) door Ksyigonldi]g (short i) Cecropides xECp aXf} head , itXsTiTrjg thief y,6gri maiden xgnrjg judge y,Ti(TT7]g founder Xavga lane XvTtrj (long v) grief fA>aS^r}xi]g scholar usXiaaa bee (xigHiva solicitude^ Mldag (short t) Midas fidlga portion ViHTj (long t) victory vviKpt) bride ogy^ ivrath ogvL&o&Tjgccg G. a, birdcatcher nigarjg a Persian nXmjgd side nvxTTjg boxer TivXt] (short i;) gate gl^a root (Tiiia shadow 2nvd-rig (short v) a Scylh cnsyrj roof (nod porch (Tcpcuga sphere (jcpvga hammer (T/oh] leisure GMTrigla deliverance tafxlag steward rs/vkrjg artisan vXfj (long v) forest . cpiXla friendship Xctgdjoy yXdXva outer-garment X^gct country xpvxn soul lian SECOND DECLENSION, p. 7a Feminlnes in og. ' 1. Besides trees (§ 32. 3) also the following plants : Tj ^l§Xog or §\)^Xog and ^], 6 ndnvgog, the papyrus-plant ri xoxKog the scarlet oak ; but o Ko^i'nog a berry, and especially the scarlet berry (T/olvog bulrush vdgdog spikenard gd(pavog cabbage * These Tables of Words for Practice are arranged simply in alphabetical or- der, that the learner may be exercised in judging which of the rules given in the grammar is to be applied in each instance. 464 Appendix C. — tables for DECLEy.sioN etc. With these connect §v(T(TogJine linen §l^Xoq and diXjog hook doxog beam ga^dog rod ^alavog and axvXog acorn. , 2. The following stones and earths : o, ri Ud^og, as Fern, chiefly of rare and precious stones. agydog clay KQVGToXXog crystal ; but o KgifsiaXlog fXdcpalTog asphaltus ice. ^aaavog touchstone, trial iilltog cinnabar yvipog gypsum auTicpSLQog sapphire ilXsiCTgog (also To^^Xsmgov) am- afiagaydog smaragdus ber xlxavog limine. With these connect cififiog, yjd(jfiog, oiy.ad^ogy tpcciiud^og, sand xpijcpog pebble, vote nXlvd-og tUe vaXog glass §o)Xog clod Tiongog filth ovS^og dung . oTTodog ashes aa^oXog soot 3. Belonging to the idea of vessel, receptacle, etc. xi^caiog ark Xrjvog wine-press X^^Xog chest anaxog (^, o) kind of ship G-OQog coffin ' (nd^ivog {i), o)jug (XQQixog basket Xrjxv&og oil-flask xdgdoTcog kneading4rough ngoxoog, ngoxovg, watering-pot uadfiivd-og and ' xd^LVog stove nmXog bathing-tub. S-oXog {'^, 6) cupola 4. Belonging to the idea of if^ai/: odog and xsXsv&og way ajganog and rgt^og footpath oi^og (o, 1]) path rdcpgog and v.ana:og trench 5. The following single words : xigcrog and 7^718*^05 continent {xijgivd^og tivine yijffog island zr^^swog toga vwTog disease Pag^ixog (/;, o) lyre 8g6(rog dew ' Tafiiaog runnet yvoc&og jawbone . ysgavog crane xigxog tail xogvdog, xogvdaXog, lark givog [i], 0) hide xoxXog (0, i]) snail ipla&og {'t], 6) mat ^ and with a difference of meaning »/ Xsxi/&og yolk 6 Xsxi-&og peorsoup. Words for Practice. ayydog messenger ^ afinsXog vine asTog eagle avd^gtanog man ad^Xog combat, struggle agyvgog and d&Xov prize of combat ccgyvgiov silver Appendix C. — tables for declension etc. 465 eQ/ov work EVQog east-wind ^icpVQog west-wind l^dxiov over-garment i'ov violet nagiclvog crab , naaaksQog tin 6 nsgaaog cherry-tree 6 xoTLVog wild olive-tree firjlov apple 7j fxijXog apple-tree fioXi^og or fioXv^dog lead fjLOQiov part voTog soutk-wind ^vXov wood oixog house Ttaidlov child ^odov rose aidrjgog iron (TTiaafiog spasm UTQaTog army ravQog bull cpdgfittitov medicine ^ (ftiyog beech-tree cpogxlov burden %aXx6g copper XgvQog and Xgvalov gold THIRD DECLENSION. Catalogue of words which have the syllable before the case-ending long.* p. 77. Nouns in ig and vg which in flexion have d ; all Feminines. aiplg vault xXfjig (Ion. for xXslg) key §ttX^lg goal y.vri^lg greave vMglg sea-crab 7ig7]7clg stand, base itij7(lg sap qacftavlg radish xijXlg spot, stain '^i^cplg pebble dayvg puppet or which in flexion have -5- ^ ayXig kernel of garlick 7j fisgi^Lg string In ig and vg which in flexion have ■^ I'g sinew ij qlg nose ■^ dxxlg ray V yXco/lg point ''EXsvalg 2ciXoL(ilg Fogrvg ^ogtcvg In (XV, vv, ag o naidv paean o [ioavv wooden tower 6 ipdg starling In ag G. xog TO cpgiag well In I G. nog pXdl^ fiXowog stupid 6, -t] ogvig bird 1] xMfivg bunch, tuft o, ri S^lg heap, shore o 8sX(f)lg dolphin t^ bubble, blister a tsttl^ cricket 6 xoxxv^ cuckjoo In I G. xog • 4 V^^'* crumb. In yj G. nog o lip, xvlipy S^Qiijj, names of insects 6 QLtp bulrush 6 yvip vulture ' o ygvip griffin, condor Words for Practice, p. 79. The, letters before the case-endings, which cannot be determined by the general rules given in the grammar, are subjoijied in parentheses. All the following words have the vowels a, i, v, before the case-endings short. Those which have them long are given in the preceding Table. 1. Words having a consonant before the case-ending. o ayx(ov elboio ?] I'lOt? {d) strife ^ octjdav (o) nightingale 6 S^equtkov {ovt) servant o arjg {s) air o if^ag {vt) thong o ald^t]g (s) ether ^ xar^^Xnp (9) ladder ^ al^ {/) goat . 6 icX(ov bough o avdgiag [vt) statue ^ xogvg {S^) helmet o ftlwy (0) axle o xTsig [sv) comb ^ at'Aa$ [a) furrow 7] y.vXi^ [x] cup V §^^ ix) cough TO tcvfia wave o ysgcov (ovt) old man . ■^ XalXaip (tt) storm 6 ygvip (tt) griffin {v long) o Aolymv ri 8alg (x) feast 6 Xdgvy^ {y) larynx tJ dag {d) torch 6 Xipvv («) haven 6 dgdxojv (ovt) dragon, »; liy^ (x) lynx n '^EXXdg {d) Greece 6 firjv month o ''EXXi^v a Greek to vixiag nectar ^ iXnig {8) hope 6 ovv$ (/) nail, claw Appendix C. — tables for declension etc. 4«7 o OQTV^ iy) quail TO ov&aQ (t) udder 6 nivriq (t) poor man o nlva^ {y) tablet 6 noL^rjv (s) shepherd ri nrsQV^ [y) wing ^ nxy^ [x) fold VI aaq^ [y) flesh vj GELQi]v siren TO (TTOfia mouth 7; 2tv^ iy) ?; Tlgvvg (t^) o cfsd^uQ louse 7] cpXsip {(3) vein ^ (jpAol (/) flame o (f)(x)Q thief TO qpw? (t) light 6 x^^'^'p (/5) steel ' o xeL(j.Mv tempest, winter 71 /EAt^wv (0) swallow 6 x^v goose 7] x^tav (0) earth 7j xtf^v (0) snow 7j x^ocf^^'? W war-garment ?; aip countenance 2. Words having a vowel before the case-endings, and more or less contracted, p. 84. TO av&oq flower 6 ^oTQvg bunch of grapes TO yevog race 7j ysvvg jaw-bone TO (jy.tTiag cover o] dgvg oak o Innsvg rider TO y.6[A^L gum 71 jtriTM Latona o iiavTig seer o fAvg mouse 6 oQEvg mvie TO oQog mountain ^ oifag face ")] 7i£i&(a persuasion 6 niXeyvg axe (§51) TO nsnsQL pepper tJ nlivg pine ■1] Tioitjffig poetiy •i] TCQoc^Lg action 6 (TTaxvg ear of grain 7] cpmig nature ADJECTIVES, p. 103. Examples of adjectives in og of two and three endings, for applying the rules in § 60. 2 and 4. All are to be considered as having three endings, w^hich are not limited to two by some definite rule. ayuTirjtog beloved adiyog unjust ad^liog unhappy afxaxog invincible a'^Log worthy (iQKTTEQOg left ^agvTOvog barytone ^aaiXiyog royal yecoQyiyog agricultural yvp,v6g naked dilLog right (dexter) 8riXog manifest didlLS^og set with stones Siaq)ogog difference dlxaiog just dvvarog possible iXacpQog easy eQvS^gog red Evxaigog opportune ^rjXoTVTiog jealous 7jfilyvp,vog half-naked 'd-avfidaiog loonderfid S-stog divine S-egjxog vmrm ■&v7jt6g mortal I'diog own hgog holy xtt&agog cleans pure 468 Appendix D. — catalogue op regular verbs. xoivog common ngoS-Vfiog ready, mlling XdXog talkative asfivog venerable Xelog smooth " anXriQog hard Xivyiog white aocpog wise fiaXaxog soft (rndviog rare fiovog alone atsvog narrow ^ivog strange taXatTKagog miserable o^vd^Vfiog ivrathfvl rvcpXog blind oQ&og right, straight (fLXoTsxvog loving children noXvqxxyog gluttonous j^wio? lame APPENDIX D. Catalogue of Regular Verbs, p. 196. Preliminary JVotes. 1. In this Catalogue, it is to be assumed of every verb in respect to which nothing is specified, that it has the Aorist and the Perfect after the first form ; and that its whole conjugation is sufficiently obvious from the rules given in the grammar. This is also the case in respect to every particular tense, which is not expressly specified. Consequently, when e. g. under any verb there stands simply Aor. 2, in order to shew that this verb has this form of the Aorist, it refers solely to the Aor. Act. (and Mid.) while the Aor. Pass, and Perf Act. are to be made according to the first form. 2. Where the Aor. 2 Pass, is specified, the Aor. 1 Pass, must neverthe- less be always formed ; since it very often exists as a less frequent form together with the Aor. 2 ; and the verbs in which it was not used at all cannot with certainty be specified. 3. The Perf. Act. in a multitude of verbs is indeed not in use ; but still this can rarely be affirmed with certainty ; and therefore it is to be formed in every verb according to the appropriate analogy, and then the Perf Pass, derived from it. 4. The formation of the Passive can also be admitted without scruple even in intransitive verbs ; since there are examples where the 3 per. Pass, of ititransitives is employed. 5. To form the Middle, however, from verbs in which it is not in use, would be an exercise ' in barbarisms, without utility. In order, therefore, to be able to practise here with certainty and profit, the Mid. is specified under all verbs in which it is found. It must however be noted, that in many such verbs it occurs only in certain compounds, which must be learned from the lexicon. For practice in formation, however, the sim- ple verbs can be used without scruple.— When nothing further stands than MID. the Aorist and Fut Mid. conform to the same tenses in the Active. Appendix D. — catalogue op barytone verbs. 469 6. All verbs are regarded as regular, of which the several forms accord with the rules given in the grammar, without reference to their signijicalion or its anomalies. Hence not only Deponents both of the Passive and Middle form (§ 113. 3) stand in the catalogue ; but also those verbs in which sin- gle tenses deviate from the appropriate signification of their form. This, however, is marked in all important cases. 7. The name — Fut. Mid. — immediately after the Active, shews, that such a verb (by § 113. 4) assumes the Future from the Middle form, though with a fully Active signification. 8. The expression — Pass, takes o-— refers everywhere to the Perf. and Aor, 1 ; but stands only with verbs m which this does not follow as a mat- ter of course. §§ 98, 100. I. Barytqne Vei?.bs. p. 196. ayoiXXm adorn. MID. he ostentatious. ay/sXlo) announce. — ;MID. — Aor. 2 Act. and Mid. are less usual. ayslgoj assemble. — Att. redupl. — ^ MID. ccyxo) strangle trans. MID. intrans. add) contr. from aelda sing. Fut. ^ Mid., cid-goi^a) assemble cc&vQoj play alxl^G) abuse alvlo-(TO(iaL, nofioci, Dep. Mid. clothe in riddles, alga raise. See § 101. n. 2, and comp. Anom. Catal. — MID. aiaaca Act. and Pass. Depon. spring, hasten. Att. wttw or «TT(Jt>. cu(Txvv(a shame. Pass, am ashamed. ^ See § 101. n. 8. atG) hear, only Pres. and Impf. — Augm. § 84. n. 2. axovoa hear, Fut. Mid. — Perf. cat^itoa, Plup. ^xrjxosLV §85. 2, 3.— Pass. takes 0- ; Perf Pass, without re- dupl. aXaXoi^a) shout for joy, F. |w. § 92. n. 1. alslq)(o anoint.— Perf. § 85. 2.— MID. aXXaffcra^ ttw, change. — Pass. Aor. 2. aXXofiav Dep. Mid. leap, § 101. n. 2. and comp. Anom. Catal. afA^Xvpoo blunt. afi^l3a) change. — MID. 60 afAsXyM milk ap,vv(o ward off. — Perf wholly want- ing.— MID. avvta complete, § 95. n. 3. — Pass. takes 0-.— MID. anxa kindle. ccTCTOj fasten to. MID. seize, touch. ccgdo) water. Pass, only Pres. and Impf. ugp-oTTOi) and agixo^co adapt. — MID. agv(o draw water, forms its tenses like avvco. — MID. ccgxoi) rule. — MID. begin. a(Tn(x^op,ai Dep. Mid. embrace, sa- lute aa-JTaigo) palpitate acngaTTKo lighten, glisten §adl^03go. Fut. Mid. ^amta dip. Characteristic cp. — Pass. Aor. 2. (idttXXa milk ^{](T(Tb}, TTO), cough ^la^ofiaL Dep. Mid. force. Pass. § 113. n.,6. pxdmoi injure. Charact. /5. — Pass. Aor. 2. ^Xinoi see. Pass. Aor. 2. § 100. n. 7. ^Xv^co spring up (as water). ^ovXsvM counsel. — MID. ^gd^o) or ^gdacro), ttcd, boU, ferment, winnow. Fut. ota. §gip,b3 murmur, roar. No Aor. and no Perf. 470 Appendix D. — catalogue op barytone verbs. §gsxoi, wet, soak. — Pass, witli Aor. 2, am wet. ysfia am full. No Aor. and no Perf. ysiKa cause to taste. MID. taste. yXvcpca cai-ve. Aiigm. of the Perf. § 83. n. 1. yv(ogl^(o recognize yQa(pa) write. — Pass. Aor. 2. § 100. n.a— MID. daxgvoj weep, davsl^o) lend on interest.— M.ll>. bor- roio on interest. §sQ(afay. — Pass. Aor^ 2. deaTio^o) rule 5£i;a) moisten Ss/o^au Dep. Mid. receive, take. — Pass, see 'J 113. n. 6. 5tx«^ft) judge. — MID. dicjxa) (not a compound) pursue dovXsvo} serve dgina pluck. — MID. ihliC,(a accustom. Augm. et, § 84. 2., sixa^w conjecture. Augm. § 84. n. 2. €txM yield. Augm. § 84. n. 2 and 4. Not to be confounded with the Anom. unto, ^igyta exclude. Augm. § 84. n. 2 and 4. See also Anom. Catal. iXsyx(o confute. — Att. redupl. — Perf. Pass. § 98. n. 7. kXtcrcTO}, TTO), wind. Augm. ei. — Perf. Act. does not occur. Perf. Pass. eXkiyfiUL and ih'iXiy^im. — MID. tlKw, see Anom. Catal. elniC,(a hope. — tXna) see Anom. Catal. eogra^o} celebrate. Augm. § 84. n. 9. sTiely oj (not a compound) impel ; Pass, hapten iTTLTrjdsva be diligent. Augm. § 86. n. 5.- igya'Co^at Dep. Mid. work. Augm. 8L. — Pass, see § 113. n. 6. ignda prop. — Att. redupl. — MID. egEcr(T(o, ttw, roiv. Fut. aat. igsvya spit out. — Aor. 2. — MID. igl^w strive, emulate. — Att. redupl. kg(i,riVEV(o interpret Egnoj creep. Augm. el. im^G), comm. £|«t«^w, examine Evd-vva make straight Ev/ofiai Dep. Mid. j^rai/. See § 84. n.2. ^']d(a delight i}KO) come, am here. No Aor. and no Perf. S^DcXXa sprout. — Pierf. 2. S^dXnta warm S-avixd^(o wonder at. Fut. Mid. S-iXyo) enchant d-Egl'Cco harvest S-'^yca whet -^Xl^o) crush. — Pass. Aor. 2. § 100. n. 6.* S'gava) break in pieces. — Pass, takes o-. ■^-tiw, see Anom. Catal. Idgvco set. — MID. i&vvoj} make straight ixEXEVoj supplicate ilxElgoi Act. and Pass. Depon* desire Itittevoj ride urxvbj am able naS^algia (not a compound) purify, — Aor. 1 takes vi. — MID. yialv(a kill. — Aor. 2. — Perf. whol- ly wanting. — Pass, only Pres. and Impf. uaXvTtTO) wrap up. — MID. KafiTiTO) bend. — Pass. Perf. § 98. n. 8. xElgco shear. — Pass. Aor. 2. — MID. xeXevco command. — Pass, takes or. heXXco land. F. TcsXcrco, § 101. n. 3. xrjgvaaca, ttw, proclaim iCLvdvvEva be in danger xXeIo), see Anom. Catal. xXsTna steal. Fut. Mid. — Perf. § 97. n. 1. — Pass. Aor. 2. xXlv(o incline, § 101. 9. — Pass. Aor. 1 and 2. — MID. rarely. xXv^oi rinse xvl^o) itch, bum xoXd^o) punish. Fut. Mid. xoXovoj mutilate. — Pass, with and without or. xofii^a bring. MID. receive, xovio) bedust [xovlaoj, xExovifiat) xonxbi cut. — Perf. 1. (epic Perf. 2.) — Pass. Aor. 2. — MID. Appendix D. — catalogue of barytone verbs. 471 ^galv(o accomplish xqIvo) judge, § 101. 9. — MID. Tigovoj strike. — Pass, takes ,i'a}, see Anom. Catal. fialvofiat, see Anom. Catal. fiaXao-aoj, ttco, soften 'fjiagalvo) cause to wither. — Aor. 1 takes a. — Pass, withe?'. fiEficpofiai Dep. Mid. censure jisva, see Anom. Catal. fiEQl^G) divide out. — MID. firjvvoo point at fiialvoj soil. — Aor. 1 takes 9^. fioXwoj stain, soil vifiG), see Anom. Catal. V£V(o nod vTixo^ai Dep. Mid. swim vlcpca snow vofxl^oj suppose odygofxai Dep. Mid. lament olxTELQCo bemoan 011103^(0 wail, § 92. n. 1. — Fut. Mid. oTtiXXca land, trans, and intrans. o^vvoj sharpen, irritate ovsidl'Coj reproach^ revile ovofxa^co name onXi^oi arm. — MID. ogsyoj reach out. — Att. redupl. — MID. oqI^o) hound. — MID. ogvacra), ttw, dig. — Att. redupl. — MID. Tcaidsvo) educate naXalco wrestle. — Pass, takes (t. naXXo) brandish. — Pass. Aor. 2. ndcrffo) bestrew. F. aca. — MID. naTOKTab), see Anom. Catal. navw cause to cease. — Pass. Aor. 1. § 100. n. 1. — MID. Ttsid^oi), see Anom. Catal. Ttslgco pierce. — Pass. Aor. 2.: nifinoo send. Perf. § 97. n. 1. — Perf. Pass. § 98. n. 8. — MID. ' TiBvoixai am poor ; only Pres, and Impf. nsgalva accomplish. — Aor. 1, § 101. 4. — MID. nd^oi press niuTSVio believe TtXaacra), TT(«,/o?7n. F. (Toj. — MID. TiXsxo} braid. — Pass. Aor. 2. — MID, nXvv(o wash, § 101. 9. Tivlyoa suffocate trans. Fut. Mid. — Pass, suffocate, intrans. Aor. 2. § 100. n. 6. TTogsvcj bring, conduct. — Pass, jour- ney nogl^a procure. — MID. gain, acquire ngdcTcrco, ttw, do, find myself {\yg\\ or ill). Has always long a, § 7. n. 4. — Perf. 1 have done. P^f. 2 ni- ■ngaya have been well or ill. (But see the Ausfuhrl. SpracM. in the Catal. of Anom. Verbs.) — MID. nginoj become ; only Active. ngico saio. — Pass, takes O". TiTalo) stumble. — Pass, takes c. TTTi^craoj stoop down ttt/o-o-o) stamp. Fut. crca. nxvdGW fold. — ■ MID. nxvoa spit. — Pass, takes tr. nvd-(xi (long v) cause to rot. — Pass. am rotten. gaTCTO) sew, \ 92. n. 5. gsTcco sink glmoj, see Anom. Catal. (Talvoj wag,fiatter ; only Active. — Aor. 1 takes ij. 472 Appendix D. — catalogue of barytone vERBiar. (TalQco sweep. — Aor. 1 takes t]. — Perf. 2 has the special signification grin, as Present. (Ts^o^m Dep, Pass, venerate ado) shake. — Pass, takes cr. — MID. (jrifialvoi mark. — Aor. ] takes n]. — MID. £ldo}iaL Dep. Mid. spare (p-d-iyyofiaiTDeip. Mid. sound. — ^Perf. § 98. n. 7. (pd^elgb), see Anom. Catal. qiXiyoo burn trans. — Pass. Aor. 2, § 100. n. 7. aL Dep. Mid. dance Appendix E. — technical expressions. 475 oxsca drive trans. — Pass, drive intrans. TiagoLveoj am enraged. — Augra. § 86. . h.6, narico tread TiEivuo) am hungry, § 105. n. 5. nsiQao) tempt, prove. — nsLQaofxai with Fut. Mid. and Aor. Pass, attempt, undertake negdca, see Anom Catal. nrjdaoj leap. Fut. Mid. nXavaoj cause to ivander. Pass, wan- der nlsorsxTEOi am covetous TcXiJQOOJ Jill novsco Act. and Mid. labour. Fut. ?;(ra} and £cra> Titsgooj furnish ivith wings TToolsco sell QL^oo) cause to take root. Pass, take root Gi]}iEi6(a mark. — MID. o-t/ao) am silent. Fut. Mid. criTsofiaL Dep. Mid. eat (nc37i(xa) am silent. Fut. Mid. (TxiQjda) leap about, spring (j}id(a, see Anom. Catal. cTTTww draw, has a short in flexion. — Pass, takes cr. — MID. (nscpavooi crown. — Mid. avXdbi plunder crcfiQiydoi swell from fulness TsXm finish; retains e in flexion. — Pass, takes a. — MID. rrjgm watch tifido) hxjnour. — MID. TifxojQEO) help, avenge. — MID. ToXfido) dare TQEOJ tremble, § 105. n. 2. Retains e in flexion. tQV7id(o bore TQVq)dco am effeminate, revel (pd-ovEbj envy (piXsa love (po^EOfim Dep. Pass. /ear q)OiTda) visit q)V(Td(a blow XaXdcj relax, remit, yield; has a short in flexion. Pass, takes V. %elq6(o Act. more comm. Mid. sub- due, subject to myself XWQS(o go away, yield. Fut. Mid. ipdoi rub, § 105. n. 5.— MID. APPENDIX E. Technical Grammatical Expressions. I. Greek. 1. Letters, (noixuct letters ; (poovrJEVTcc xal av^jKpojva vowels and conso- nants ; aq)(ova mutes, 'tjfj.lcpwva semivowels, vgyd* liquids ; daaia, ipiXd, fis-- aa, rough smooth, middle. — ijihTJiiov, an old letter used only as a numeral, p. 22. 2. Accents, etc. nQoatodlat accents ; but under this name are also commonly included quantity, breathing, apostrophe, and hypodiastole (§ 15. 2. comp. § 7. 1) ; o^e7cc, ^agslbCi, nEgiffncjixivrj, grave, acute, circumflex.—' nvEvy-ara breathings ; dacTEia xcd yjiXrj (sc. ngoo-codla) rough and smooth. — (TTiy^il, teXeIu (TTt/p/, point, period, fiiar} (myfiri colon, vnoartyfir] comma. — Xgovog quantity, s£> ag cuJQ avro ^rfyy y^ydp -^ ya ^ y^ ^ y^9 ^ ylvsxai ?e^ yp« X^ ygo D^ dia IV. eivat c/j^ ev 01 'Gri Inatdrj ^Mj Inav wh am ^ €p 4^ av vT^ Tcara ^cS^' xa(pdXaLOV ^^ L&* lidxcov fj^ fiad" JJL. fiav /v^ fiav fjJ^ [lav jui^ fiata V. OLOV Osyj ovx (ZW ovxog /Zjj^ napa f nap nape 'Tf no po 6a <\, constr. 365. n. dxgodoiiaLf flexion, 155. n. 6. a;ia;x£>',Aor.2160.n.3. aXri&eg, 437. dXiiXiq)cc 165. n. 3. dXXd, ana/«^,and oth- er like phrases with aA;i«,428,.433. aXXofxaL, Aor. 101. n. 2. aXXog, sTEQog, 351. — c. Gen. 366. n. 6.—aXXo tJ, aXX" »; 435. — aXXo tI )'] ; 436. — aXXwg t« xat 436. — «Xs 76. n. a.X(f>i 96. dXojTTr)^ 75. a^ua 408. — a/ua ( — nou) Sijnt. 439. dfisXsL 438. cc fine/ CO 48. n. 3. dfi(pl, dficpig, 311 n. 4. — ol d^(fi 439. ctficpoTSQOv 125. — Synt. ^ 436.— «>(pw 125. aV, idv, o]v 317. — Synt. 385, 386.— aV c. Inf and Particip. 388. — c. Indicat. 389. n. 5. — av omitted, 391. ccvd apocop. 318. ava up ! 319. ava Vocat. 82. n. 5. dvdyxrj Synt. 357. dvTJTtTov Augm. 134. n, , f- dvfjQ 35. — avsQ 81. n. 1. — dvrjg with pers. ap- pellat. Sv^f.342.n.2l dv&' Mv 435. dvla 33. n. 10. -avog quantit. 77. n. 1. ccvvo), uvvtb), 154. marg. -dv(o (Verbs) quantity ^ 255. ocvmaxog 305. dvuxEQog 112. marg. — ocvcaxigb) 311. avtox&E 246. n. 5. a|£T£ 162. n. 9. ao changed into sw 55. n. 10. 70. n. 5. -ao 2 pers. Pass. 199. GREEK INDEX. 481 -aog, -8ft)?, 55 marg. UTiag Synt. 351. anstgye Augm. 134. n. ^ 4. aTcs(p&6g 48. n. 3. wttAco? sintiv 393. n. 2. ano apocop. 319. — utio 319. — in composition '415. n. 12. aTtodidgdo-Ksiv c. Accus. 351. n. 1. "djioXXm Voc. 82. n. 3. — with long « 35. — Accus. 90. anovkcrd-m (long a) 35. aTtcxnuTbi 311. aq, «^c{,_318, 431. — aqa and aqa 431. — a^' ovv 431. "tt^a («?'/) and aqr] 34. marg. «^€T7) and ^'Agriq 111 m. ^Aqriq {a) 35. ag^ocfisvog Synt. 440. agvb), agvTOJ, 154. m. ag'/J]V Adverb 310. -a? quantity 69. n. 5. acrd-fxoi 324. m. -ao-t local form 313. -acry.ov iterative 198. aaaa, a -«/o^> 316. n. 5. a/gt and a;^^t$ 53. — Synt. 408. -aft), with cognate s, 213. n. 8.— derivat. and signif. 204, 321. — desiderative 323. -aoiv into -e(ov (Dec. I) 70. n. 5. /? inserted, 49. n. 1. 248. /? arising from (i, 248. ^(XTiToj flexion 149. n. 5. ^uinXsvTEgog 113. n. 2. Bav, numeral letter, 22, 460 sq. ^rjdso 162. n. 9. ^XaTiTsiv c. Accus. 351. n. 1. /3Aa| 109. m. 248. m. ^6X£(T&8 55. n. 3. ^ogsDcg, ^oggvcg 68. ^oiXofiaL Augm. 132. n. 5.—i%vXbi. 200. ^ovg 85. ^djg, ^(av, 85. / nasal, 23, 25, 168. m. ydg 428, 450. // for fj, in Perf. Pass. 168. n. 7. ys 431. /€ ^usV, ys firiv 432. ysyaxeiv 272. -yiXoig compound Adj. 106. n. 5. yigag 89.— ysga, tw, 60, 89. n. 3. ysoj- 334. n. 2. yr^ 68, 334. n. 2. y^(>«$ 89. yXacpv 96. yXvqxa 32. y^ai)? 86. (5 characterist. 147, 148. 5 inserted, 49. n. 1. dasg 81. n. 1. dat (t) 60, 92. n. 5. -ds 44. n. 2. 313. 5s Synt. 425, 426. dEcdEyfiaLf dEldsxTO, 274. ^ftv (in phrase) 437. dElcrd-ai c. Gen. of pers» 365. 88(T7ioTa 69. III. 2. dsvgo, dEVxt, 312, 315. dEvxaxog 115. marg. %^at 245. 5sft) 154. n. 4. 437. dj Synt. 431. dijXog EinL Synt. 445. ~8riv, -dov, adverb, end- ing 332, 333. drJTToxE appended 315. dfjTxov, d/jTxov&EVy 432. 8ta («) 102. n. 1. diu prepos. 409, 410. diayELv, diaylyvEad-at, biaxEXEtvy c. Part, as adverbs, 404. dlxatog sifzi ngdxxELv etc. 445. dUrtv Synt. 409. n. 2. 8i6, dioxL, 311, 423. diipfjv 213. n. 5. 8oL(Oy doLol, 113. doxovv absol. Synt. 407. n. 7, 2. dogv^s 71. m. dvvafiat Augm. 132. n. 5. dvvaxov Synt. 407. n. 7,2. dv(T- in compos. 136, 335. dvuEo 162. n. 9. 5(3 96. 482 GREEK INDEX. E £ for a before liquids 55. n. 9. t in verbs in a(o 213. n. 8. e inserted 58. n. 3. 119. n. 1. 123. n. 2. £ as union-vowel 138. s for £L 55. n. 3. s changed into 8i> 52, 54. e for 7} in Subj. 203. n. 15. 8 Synt 350. -sa for --7]v 229. n. 7. -ECtL, so, 2 pers. Pass. 199. comp. 213. iav, 7]V, (iv, 385, 386. comp. 424. -eaxo 3 PI. 200, 213. kamov Synt. 350, 351.-- omitted, 358. n. 2. id(o retains a 155. n. 7. i^rjiTSTo 162. n. 9. iygrjyog&s 246. n. 5. iywda, i/Mfiat, 62. n. 9. Wofiai 158. n. 18. kdovfiau 158. n. 16. idvasTO 162. n. 9. esQfiaL, -[livog, 279. Uffaaxo 232. IVjv from £t^t 234. m. fTjo? 97. m. e^eAEiy 5[i/nf. 394, 440. i&TjiJTO 215. m. £/ diphth. 26.— resolved into rji 55. n. 8. — in dissyl. verbs, contr. 212. n. 2. bI- Augm. temp. 133. -SL 2 pers. Pass. 200. et c. Indie, and Opt. 85, 423.~« pi 416. — el ds y,r\ 422. — u (17) did 439. — si ydgj el xal, 423. "Sia (nouns in) 69, 325, 327. -£ta, stag, etc. Opt. 199. n. 4. eldat signif. 261. slsv 233. m. sVtjv from slfit go, 235. 3. sVd-E 39. n. 2. stxa^eo Augm. 133. n. 2. eljfoo-t, (Ttv, 53. elxcav 93. cUov Augm. 133. n. 1. -ELv instead of-rjv 231. 3. Eivat, verb omitted 356. — slvai Infin. ^?/n.f. 441. — I'oTt and £(tt/ 233. S.—s(TTLv oV 354. n. 3. 438.~l'o-Tt, phra- ses with, 438. eItveq elliptic 449. Eig with person 413. n. 5.--C. Gen. 367. n. 9. sh&a Hom. 235. 3. eha 403, 429. eita, ETiELTa, after Parti- cip. 403. El'jig 423. El'to&a Augm. 133. li. 1. 165. n. 2. ex see £|. — €«- un- changed before all consonants 50. kmjEQog, ExaffTog, 125. EXa(TTSQ(0 311. ixdviisv 276. m. €X£t, exeIS'ev, exeIcte, 315. ixslvfj, EXEivojg, 316. n. 7. ixEXEiqla 48. n. 3. Exnaylog 290. n. EU]Xvd-a 165. n. 3. elfiLvg 52. n. 2. €^ot ^oxfifcv 393. n. 2. £v- unchanged before 0- and ^, 52. n. 3. Ev for £(.g Synt. 413. — £V To7$ 438. ivdoxaxog 112. m. £j/5o- TttTO) 311. fir^uw Ttya Tt 361. EVExa 317, 439.— omit- ted 393. n. 1. See Prepositions. EVEXEv before consonants 317. EVL, EVEcrvL, 319, 438. — See ag svi. svd-a, Evd-EV, 315. £^| (I'S) 42. — £| and ix 53, 54, 317. ~ with the Passive 370. 3. Elaqvog 359. n. 3. I'lfo-Tt 438. ~ E^ov 407. n. 7, 2. Xoixa, EoXncc, etc. 134. — eoixa, olxoi, 241. m. ioX'Tjxo 278 €0?, «, 6v 119. n. 7. Ena(fr\ 48. n. 3. ^7r£6 423. — inEi7] 318. ETlELXa, ETCELXEV, 317. after Particip. 403. n. 6. comp. 429. £7r£(Toy 162. n. 9. £7ri for^ ETiEaxv 319. — £(p* W, E(p WTfi, 435. BTibdEvrjg 357. fikXwj/ 244. n. 1. fi^ofy and (piXuv 365. m. "Eqixiag, 'Egfiijg, 68. EQfjLBVog 279. EQqddaxai 201. 5. EQvofiaL 154. m. egxEffd-at, c. Particip. Fut. 440. -£0*4 (r) -£(70"t(i') 82. n. 2. ECTxaaav and arTao-ay 227. 6. IWfi 435. ^ £(TTt see Elvat iaxaxog 112. ^T£^060$ 127. hsgog 125. --Synt.S51. c. Genit. 366. n. 6. ixriaim, oi, 69. III. 1. £Tt 430. exoLfiog Synt. 356, 357. -£1/ and -ot, Vocat. 39. EV for £0 59. n. 5. 158. n.l7. 172. n.l. 200. III. 4. 214. n. 13. EV for f) in Fut. 155. n. 9. EV in compos. 136. Bvadov 267. GREEK INDEX. 483 ev&v and svd^vg 310, 317. ivg 58. m. -Eva (Verbs) 204, 321. I'xsa 212. m. ExsLVf ex(ov, Synt. 442. sqpTjv, preterite 238. i(p w, see inl and og. ixgr,v Accent 308. ra. iipvyrjv 171. n. 8. £0) 55. n. 10. 70. n. 5. 308. m. -SO) (Verbs) 204, 321.— dissyllab. not contr. 212.n.2.— for -G) 253. EM}csiv etc. 134. n. 9. '241. m. eojg Synt. 408. Z. t 23, 51, 52. — as characteristic, 148. -Cs 51, 313. n. 2. ^fiv 213. n. 5. -Jw characteristic 148. — frequentat. 323. H. rj pronunc. 24. 7) for a 55. n. 7. — in Crasis 61. — in Dec. I, 69. ~ in Verbs 155. n.7. — in Verbs in da 213. n. 5. 7) for a 69. IV. 1. 1] for £, 55. n. 8. 7] he said, 239. ^ and t] Synt. 424. — 432. -7j«t 2 pers. Pass. 199. ^ d" hg 239, comp. 348. n. 2. 7}s for ^' 318. TjS^og in comp. 85. n. 4. 310. n. 1. ^'l for £t 55. n. 8. »jta,^a,Impf. 236,237. Tjxto-Ta 312. 7Jj{a) Synt. 382. ^Xs Vocat. 97. ^^t-, 115. m. ^jj/ a^a 382. n. 9. — ^v ^ for ^yt(5s 312. n. 7. i^j' 5' l/w 239. ' tjvl, TjvidE, 312. n. 7. ^'ttwcjpov 160. n. 3. -rjg heterocl. 92. n. 4. ^'o-^»?»'forPres.382.n.9, -r^at 3 pers. Sing. 220. n. 10. -Tjdi local form 313. T^aacav 111. — i](jgov ^ (tt) 312. ^Jrot 40. n. 3. — in Cra- sis 61. n. 8. riv diphth. 26. nXh fiXh 317. 0. ^ in Crasis 61. S- for 0- before /u, 324. n. 2. -S-a see -o-i^^of S-dnTCj charact.149. n.5. S^affacoViS, 110. S^aTEQov, etc. 61. S^dts-- Qu Synt. 436. ■d-avfiaf '&b}Vfia, 55.n.ll. -d^avfiacTTov oaov 434. -d-uvai and i9-i;£tj' 48. S^£io(iEV 203. m. -^s^i? %n<. 357. -^£j/ and -^5 53, 312. S-EQana, S-EQajiEg, 93. n. 8. -^^v 432. '&7i(T&uL 215. m. -^t Imper.202,216,242, 246. — Adv. 312. S^oifiaxLov 4b7. n. 2. S^gdacroj 47» m. S^QVTiTOi characteristic 149. n. 5. ■&V£tv see &slivaL. -&(a (Verbs) 254. /. t and V long in the pe- nult of verbs in w, 32. — Augment 133. t elided 63. n. 3. V pron. 116. -i adv. ending, 333. i demonstrat, 53, 127. 315. t subscript, in Crasis 60. — in the local end- ing Tjcri, 313. m. — in 717], etc. 316. — false in Perf. and Aor. of Verbs X, ^, v, q 164. m. 172.m. comp. 215. m. -L quantity 80 n. 3. -Id, iov, log, forms of nouns, short, 33.n.l0. ~ long, 327. -talvb) (Verbs) 172. n. 2. -idco desiderat. 323. idgooj contr. 213. UvaL Synt. 440. — Uvat> Tov nqoGOi 364. m. -l^oi deriv. and signlf. 204, 322. ~ flexion 148. 'M, l&vg, 310. n. 4. Id-vvTaxa 312. n. 6. VAswg 55. m. l^Ev, I'fiEvai, 235. 3. Vv pron. 118. n. 6. -Lv Nom. ending 75. m. tVa, tVa t// 423. -Lvog quantity 77. -lv(o (Verbs) quantity 254. n. 8. — from ~l(a 255. ~i^ov 162. n. 9. i'ofiep 203. n. 15, 'innog, '^, 65. n. 3. Igog, hgog, 59. n. 5. la&liog 324. m. Xaav 241. m. -M7XW (Verbs) from -i(a 254. X(Tog and laog 34. d, 14. 484 GREEK INDEX. -lot (Verbs) quantity 33. n. 10. -iM from Verbs in i^a 156. n. 14. K. X of Perf. 1 falls out 166. n. 7. X for n [hots) 316. n. 10. xa^d 311. n. 5. xal (Crasis) 61. n. 7. — Synt. 424. — xal fid- Xct, xal ndvv, 425. — jtal og 347, 348. n. 2. — xat eI, nav si 423. xal ds 425. — xal jaina 436. — ;t«i;«n' c. Ace. 359. xovla 33. n. 10. KoTina, num. letter 22, 460 sq. xoQvacrw flexion 149. n.5. xgiccg 89 and n. 3. xqI 95. xqIvov, id xqIveu, 98. XQVVOi 174. x^o;^?;?', ^^oxa, 93. xQVTttco flexion 149. n. 5. xTslvco 174. XVXEOJV 90. XVVTEQOg 113. xi'^£iv c. Particip. 404. X dropped 290. Xuag, Xdg, 81. n. 1. 99. Xav'&dvEiv c. Accus.359. — c. Particip. 404. Xexto 245. XeXvto Horn. 169. n. 9. Xe^eo 162. n. 9. Xeovteu, -t?/, 68. XsvxdvaL 172. n. 2. A?;/a} see navEaS'ai. XIticc, XlTca, 99. Xlaaofiai flexion 149. n. 5. — Aor. 2. 160. m. XOITTOV, TOV, 437. — XOL- nov 437. M, fi inserted 49. n. 1. — omitted in reduplic. 297. ^d Synt. 430. (xa&EV^uL 158. fiaS^MV, tI, 442. fi.axQdv Adverb 310. IxdXicna 312. — fidXi- axa fiiv 437. fidXXov 312. — fidXXov di 437. fidv see /uify. -juay for -firjy 202. n. 7. fidcTTL, fidanv, 93. fxaari^oj flexion 148. n. 1. fiaxovfiai 157. fiiXE (Vocat.) 90 and m. (xeXXelv Augm. 132. ~ Synt. 440. y,E(jivri(xaL 131. fiEfiVOJfj.rjv 169. fiEV, HEV — ds, etc. 426 sq. — ^EV for jU7]V, see jw^jv. -^cy, -^Fvai (Infin.)202. n. 9. 229. ^ivToi (Crasis) 61. — Synt. 431. — [isvTav 61. -fiEg for -^Ev 202. n. 8. -fiEffS^a, -fiEcrdoVj 202. n. 8. fjiEcrarog 112. n. [XETCC^V 439. ^£/^t, /w«/^t?, 53, 311. Synt. 408. /lit] Constr. 415 sq. — widi'Subj. or Optat. 419. --'' ^7'} interrog- ative 420, ,~ inde- pen(Jent 422,, n. 10. — firj before Sub- stant. 419. n. 3. — [If] ov 420. n. 6. comp. 421. n. 7. — (ifj p]v 432. — p; ellipt. Synt. 449. — /u?) ox/- Synt. 433. — to /u»; c. Infin. 434. — xov fi^ 393. n. 1. ^{XTj Subst. see -fiog firjds 427. fiTjds slg 113. fj,rjdEig,'f^7]&Elg, 113. [i7]xETL Synt. 430. fii'iv Synt. 432. fi7j7lOT£, fil^TKOg, 316. p^TTOj 316. %n;. 430. firiTE Synt. 427. pjrt, /UT^Tt ys, 436. -/ut Dor. for -co 220. n. 10. GPvEEK INDEX. 485 fila 68. n. 2. fznjvat 172. n. 2. fj,tfietaS-aL c. Accus.359. fiiv, vlv, 45, 118. n. 12. ^v for jiy, 284. /uj'ccof, ^va, 68. {xo/ig, fioXig, 46. -|Uo?, 0-^0?, Subst. 324. fiovcnlv, liovdojxsv, 62. iY. V final and moveable 52, 127, 317. — in Verbs contr. in Im- perf. 212. n. 3. — v changed in pronunc. 52. n. 4. — V inserted 284 rjixvco. — before the ending of verbs in (0 255. — in aw 256. — in Perf Pass, of Verbs A, fi, v, g 174. — V before ^ 174. n. 8. — vi^ith a privat. 335. y«//t39. n. 2. 317. viaTog, vslarog, 112. n. vf]- 336. n. 12. yri 430. WjTrj 112. n. vlacrofxccL 153. m. vlcpCt, TTjV, 93. voacfL, iv, 53. -VTL 3 Plur. 201. n. 4. vv, vw, 53. — Synt. 432. -vvfiL from -0) 255. vvv^ vvv, 43. m. — vvv 8^ Synt. 430. I and xp pronun. 50. n. 1. — origin 459 sq. I for L£xw 294. oXiyoarog 115. m. oAo7ra^rl66. — ofDec. I, 68. — of Dec. Ill, , 84. o}xvvpiL c. Accus. 359, ooi; 122. n, 1. oTtodanog 127. oTToxe 424. onov 424. o:T:wg constr. 384, 4^ oqyavau 172. n. 2. o^?Jaf. 215. m. 220. m. oQdio 162. n. 9. -0? for -01'? 71. n. 4. — in Nom. Sing. 72. m. og pure 77, 82, 83. og 120 sq. 347, 397. See also o. — i(p oi, eqp* WT«, a»'i9'' b)v, Synt. 435. — 0? fj,EV — og 5s 347, 427. ~ o 5« Tiaj'Twv dsivoTaTOVf etc. 450. 0(70? 434. — oaov ov 434. — oorov ellipt- 434. oTav c. Optat. 386. n. 3. OTS, oTs, 316. n. 9. — c. Optat. 386. OTECOV, OTSOLffLf 124. U. 4. oTt, oTti 317, 423. — oTt (iri 434. ov diphth. 26, 27. oi/, ova, ol'Xi 42. »^n<. 415 sq. — ov before Subst. 419. n.'3. — ov ^»/ 385, 420. n. 6. — 01* /u^v 432. — ov (.n]v aila 433. — ov navv, ov (pri^iiy 419. n. 2. — ov nsgl Synt 434. oi' see £. ou^fi »%n/. 427. — ovde slg 113. — ov^ ag 422. old slg, ovd-dg, 113. — ow^etg ooTt? ov 421. n. 8 435. 435. ovuhv Synt. 430 - ovdiv olov ovdsv aXt rj 486 GREEK INDEX. omovv, ovaovv, SyntA2d. ovv 428. -ovv 315. oiveaa 62.^ Synt. 423. 0V710TS, ovTiojg, 316. ovTioj 316. Synt. 430. -ovg, ovvTog, 77. n. 5. -ov(jcra,usimes of places, from oecrcra, 56. n. 17. ol'jg ,%n<. 427. ovTL ^ynt. 434. ©{'TO? heus ! 123. n. 3. — Synt. (as Adverb) 349. — in phrases, 436, 437. ovToog after Farticip. 403. n. 6. ov/ otL, ovx oaov, etc. 433. ovx I 317. oVst 200. o(x) doubling of vowel in Verbs in ow 214.n.ll. -6(0 (Verbs) 204, 322. — not contr. in 1 pers. 212. n. TTdS^cov, Tv; 442^ TiaXiv before conson. 52. n. 3. Ttaga apocop. 318. — with Pass. 370. — noLQu 319. — Tiagal 318. nagaxQVi^oi 311. nagsati Synt. 438. nag Synt. 351. — navxa. every one, 353. n. 3. ndtsQ 81. n. 1. nama^ai c, Particip. 402. n. 3. ^ TiB^d for ^sTtt 319. Ttuvriv 213. n. 5. nmdvm 172. n. 2. nmo^ffu 164. n. 1. 165. ninod&s 246. n. 5. niTtrafiuL, ntmrjojg, ni~ jiTwxa, 131. nig Synt. 432. -nsg 122, 314. nsga, nigav, 312, 317. nsgl omitted, see Prep. — oi nsgl Synt. 439. — ov negl 434. — negl 710X^01; 437. ntd-L 244. nlofiai 158. niovfiat, 158. ttXs's? for TToXfiE? 112. m. nU]v, nXi]v si, Synt. 408. n. 1. nXvvbi 174. nltag 244. nodanog 127. no&soj 154. noLstv Tivd 11 360. (ttoAAm) tw 7roXA« 362. 437. jToAAaxt? Synt. 439. TToXAooTo? 115. m. noa-sidojv Accus. 90. nodjog, nodxacog, 127. noTs and ttoi^ >%ni. 432. noTL 317, 318. — apo- cop. 318. nojvLa (« ) 102, 108. nguog 107. nglv Synt. 430. TT^o (Crasis) 136. n. 1. ngo1y.a adv. 310. ngog with Pass. 370. — in compos. 414. i^. 11. — ngog ae S^scav 449. ngomjytov (Augm.) 134. n. 4. ^ ngodio, nogga, 311. — Tov ngoaa (tfiVat)364. m. ngoxi 317. ngoTov Synt. 437. ngovgyov, ngovUyov,6'2. — Adverb. 311. — ngovgyiccksgov 312. m characteristic 147, 149. nvslog 290. nir nvgog and {nvg)'nvg6g: 32. n(6 and ndmoxs Synt. 430. noofiaXa 437. P. ^ prefers « after it 67, 102, 172. n. 2. 244. m. ~ Q doub" led 50. ^', ^^^, 27, 50, 336. — gg and ^(T 46. -galvw, (Verbs) 172. n. gsa, gsla, 112. (Ot/ow contr. 213. glnxo) flexion 149. n. 5. X (T prefixed 49. n. 4. — g added 53. — with change of sense 317. — (7inPerf.Pass.168. n. 6. — in Aor. 1 Pass. 170. n.l.—(T for strength 254. n. 7. — ff in compos. 334. m. — in derivat. of sub- stant. 324. ~ doub- led in Aor. 1, 154. n. 5. — dropped in Pass.endingsl99,229,. 245. n. 3. -aai, (TO, 2 p. Pess. 199^ 217, 229. ^afinl, 22, 461, 462. (r5 for ^, 46. n. 4. 147, -(Ts adv. 312. -(Tsi(o (Verbs) 323. a7}fisgov, rrjiisgov, 317. -ad^a 103. 12. -(TL, -dLV, on names of cities, 53, 313. -(Tt, (TLVy 3 PI. changed 201. -o-t, ffiv, 3 Sing. 202, 220. n. 10. GREEK INDEX. 487 -trt?, -aia, Subst. abstr. 325. axdmo) 149. n. 5. -axov, -(TxofiTjv, itera- tive, 198, 214, 229. -crxco, Verbs in, 254. a^ao), (TfijjVf 213. n. 5. -(Tixog, -fiog, Substant. 324. (70-, XT, 46, 147, 148. n. 2. 149. (TTci/sg, (Ttlxsg, 93. 148. n. 1. avv see ^vv. — (tvv- 51, 52. — in compos.414. n. 11. (TW8l6vTt 438. (TVv^S^Tjg Gen. PI. 85. n. 4. o?,57. avaxsa&aL Passive 260. n. 9. (r(p- enclitic forms 43. (Tq>stg with the same subject 350. (TcpsTEQog 352. — pecu- liar use of, 351, n. 5. (Tcpv'Cco flexion 148. n. 1. (Txs? 244. (Txolriv 199. m. SiimgaTEg Voc. 82. n. 3. aSig 107. T. T« see TO lalla Synt. 436. T«V 61. n. 8. xav, 123. n. 2. TOV xttl tovy 348. -to? verbal 175, 371 sq. TOTS — oTs, 316. n. 9. tov foYtivog 124. n. 3. tovvavxlov on the con- trary, 362. n. 6. toiJto with Genit. 364. n.,4. tgav^a, tg(avfioi,55.n.ll, tgn]g7]g Gen. PI. 85. n.4. TT see (T(T. tvyxdvM c.Particip.404. tvvvog, tvvvovxog, 127. tVTiM 157. m. tvxov Synt. 407. n. 7. Tw for tLvl 124. n. 3. T. V in Augni. 133. V for £v in Perf. Pass. 168. n. 4. VL diphth. 26. -v{j.L Subj. and Optat. 228. -vvog quantity 77. n. 1. -WW Verbs 204, 322.— from verbs in vto 255. — quantity 255. n. 8. vTtal 318. VTio apoc. 318. — with Passive 370. — vjio for vjcsaxL 319. -vgog Adject, {v ) 32. -vco (Verbs) quantity 33. n. 10. 153, 154. 0. cpdvai as preterite 238. 3. (pavsgog s^fii Synt. 445. (psgtsgog, q)sgi(Txog, 113. (psgco, ol'ffca, etc. 256. q)Eg(ov Synt. 443. q)d^dvELV Synt. 440. — c. Particip. 404. -g)t, q)LV, 94. (polvi^ 11. n. 2. ffgig imper. 244 488 GREEK INDEX. (pglaabi 149. n. 5. qigol^LOV 47. m. cpgovdog 47, 107. Synt. 440. X X before fi 51, 325. n.4. XalgsLV c. Particip. 404. Xafial and x&o'f^otXog 49. n.a Xagiv Synt. 409. n. 2 and m. XBliduv 93. n. 7. XSQEiOJV 111. xd-a^aXog 49. n. 3. ;^^a(» flexion 155. n. 6. — contr. 213. n. 5. Xgsav indecl. 95, 308. Synt 357. n. 7. Xgsoog Genit. 101 m. XgW'^'^'i 69. ip, I, origin 50, 51, 459, 461. yjoiw, ipjjv, 213. n. 5. ipvxoi flexion 171. n. 8. n. (o in the Attic ending short, 40. — com- pared with Dec. Ill, 93. m. 03 for o 55. n. 10.-- for o and ov 55. n. 4. - 0) in Particip. Perf. 202. n. 6. 0) contr. from o??, 271. 0) in compounds, 334. -0) for ~(ag Adverbial ending, 311. -co, (av, (og^ ag, Nouns, ^ 92, 93. w and o) 319. n. 4. — w fiils see /uele. — a %a,v see ray. coAAot 61. -m Nouns (Decl.) 90,. _^ 92, 93, 328. . m>a^ etc. 62. (bvTLVOiv (Accent) 44. d. 2. -«o (Dec. II) 72. n. 3. a) TioTtoi 319. n. 4. -w?, -bjg (Adverb.) 309. . -wg Nouns 92, 93. d»g, ft)?, 42. ~ Synt. 422. ~ Prepos. 408. — with case absol. 406. n. 5. — big IV t, dig snog emsiv, 438. — b)(T7isg 432. — oicTTs 392, 396, 423. -ftjo-w shortened and contr. 156. n. 13. (av diphth. 26, 120. n. 4. G>{'Tog 56. n. 11. tjq)slE'tv c. Accus. 359. — with double Ac- cus. 362. wcpelov 312. Synt. 437. ENGLISH INDEX Note. The following Index embraces only some of the more important prin- ciples and particular examples, which are scattered throughout the work. The general division and arrangement of the subjects must be sought in the Table of Contents, after the Preface. — Tr. A. Mbreviations 22.— Table of, 478, 479. • Mstract changed for the concrete 325. — as Ace. after verbs 359, 360. Accents 36 sq. — Tendency to be drawn forward or back 41 sq. — in verbs 196 sq. — in compounds of d'ig and dog 223. n. 13. comp. 225. n. 19.— of Gen. and Dat. 67. n, 9. — drawn back 41, 82. n. 3. 197.— shifted in contrac- tion 59. — in composition 339 sq. See also Anastrophe. Jlccusative in v 80. — Ace. with the Pass. 3^71.— with the Mid. 474.— with sv v. itaxa/g Xsysiv v. notslv 360. — after oildaj anovojy Xiyoj, in- stead of the subject of the dependent verb, 445. — in apposition to a whole clause 362. — as remote object 361 and n. 4. — of time 362. — double Ace. 360.— Ace. 0. Infin. 393.— Ace. absol. 406. n. 4. 409. n. 7.— as form of ad- verbs 310. Mjectives 330 sq. — instead of Subst. 342. — instead of Adv. 342. — as predi- cate 255. — without a verb 356. n. 7. — before a Gen. 363 sq. — Masc. re- ferring to persons instead of Neut. to things 445. — Verbal. Adj. in riog and Tog 175.— Synt. of do. 371.— from De- pon. verbs 372. (.vBuyi(ra.v and fiivXivB-iTsv (§ 285) ; iriBfjv and It<- Bovv (^ 300) ; «f and ?i(TBx, ictTai and 'ia-rui (§ 305). 4. The second future active and middle, which, except as a eupho- nic form of the first future, is purely imaginary, has been wholly re- IV. To distinguish between regular and irregular usage. What student, from the common paradigms, does not receive the impres- sion, sometimes never corrected, that the second perfect and pluperfect, the second aorist and future, and the third future belong as regularly to the Greek verb, as the first tenses bearing the same name ; when, THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $I.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY in point of fact, the Attic dialect, even including poetic usage, pre- sents only about fifty verbs which have the second perfect and plu- perfect ; eighty-five, which have the second aorist active ; fifty, which have the second aorist and future passive; and forty, which have the second aorist middle ? The gleanings of all the other dialects will not double these numbers. Carmichael, who has given us most fully the statistics of the Greek verb, and whose labors deserve all praise, has gatliered, from all the dialects, a list of only eighty-eight verbs which have the second perfect, one hundred and forty-five which have the second aorist active, eighty-four which have the sec- ond aorist passive, and fifty-eight which have the second aorist mid- dle. And, of his catalogue of nearly eight hundred verbs, embrac- ing the most common verbs of the language, only fifty-five have the third future, and, in the Attic dialect, only twenty-eight. To some there may appear to be an impiety in attacking the ven- erable shade of vi-jeru • but alas ! it is little more than a shade, and, with all my early and long cherished attachment to it, I am forced, after examination, to exclaim, in the language of Electra, 'Avt) . t iH IfUgH^ planning^ &c. ; or that, in the translation of the middle voice, the forms of ^^ plan " are to be changed into the corresponding forms of " deliberate'''' ; and, in that of the passive voice, into the correspond- ing forms of "Z»e 'planned.^'' V. To arrange ike whole in the most convenient manner for stvdy and reference. The inflection of each word is exhibited upon a sin- gle page, or, if this is not possible, except in the case of ^ouXtvu, at a single opening. Words which the student may wish to compare, are presented, as far as possible, at the same opening. Thus a sin- gle opening exhibits all the nouns of the first and second declension, another, the declension of the numerals, article, and pronouns, anoth- er, the verbs hfti, uf^U and t7^/, &c. In the quarto edition, a single opening presents all the tables of declension ; another, the whole reg- ular conjugation of the verb, including its terminations, paradigm, and translation ; a third, all the verbs in ^;, &c. With respect to the manner in which these tables should be used, so much depends upon the age and attainments of the student, that no directions could be given which might not require to be greatly modified in particular cases. I would, however, recommend, 1. That the paradigms should not be learned en masse, but gradu- ally, in connexion with the study of the principles and rules of the grammar, and with other exercises. 2. That some of the paradigms should rather be used for refer- ence, than formally committed to memory. It will be seen at once, that some of them have been inserted merely for the sake of exhibit- ing differences of accent, or individual peculiarities. 3. That in adjectives and words similarly inflected, each gender should be repeated by itself. The association of forms which is fixed in learning the nouns, will not then be broken up in passing to the adjectives. The order in which the genders are repeated, seems to be indiflferent. In the tables, the neuter is placed next to the mas- culine, because it is of the same declension, and has, in part, the same forms. 4. That in the first learning, and common repetition of the para- digms, the dual should be omitted. It is little more than a mere va- riety of the plural, of comparatively rare occurrence, and, from its regular simplicity of structure, may always be suppHed with perfect ease from the tables of terminations, or from general rules. That it may he omitted or repeated at pleasure, it is placed last in the fol- lowing tables. If any should object to this arrangement, as inter- fering with old associations, let them remember, that the book is de- THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY signed for those whose only grammatical associations connect the plural immediately with the singular. 1 have no desire to change the habits of those who have already learned the Greek paradigms, but to discover, if possible, the best method for those who are yet to learn them. 5. That, in learning and consulting the paradigms, the student should constantly compare them with each other, with the tables of terminations, and with the rules of the grammar. 6. That the humble volume should not be dismissed from service, till the paradigms are impressed upon the tablets of the memory as legibly as upon the printed page, — till they have become so familiar to the student, that whenever he has occasion to repeat them, " the words," in the expressive language of Milton, " like so many nimble and airy servitors, shall trip about him at command, and in well- ordered files, as he would wish, fall aptly into their own places." Hanover, N. H., Aug. 10th, 1841. I CONTENTS OF THE TABLES alphabet; Vowels, INTRODUCTORY TABLES. Page.] . 7 1 Consonants, Page. 32 72 27 1 Greek Inflection, TABLES OP DECLENSION. I. Terminations of the Three Declensions, 8ft II. Paradigms op Nouns. B. I>iquid, Syncopated, *arin^, avn^^ xvuv, a^vos, . • • 83 C. Double Consonant, Aiwv, ehovs, yiyxSf (piXwy^y avu^y vrvv^ . . 83 D. Pure, a. Masculine and Feminine, f*iX'^s, tTtfivs, vekiSf r^i- ri^vis, /Sow;, y^etvs, vavs, 84 x^dTTiSt 'H^axXsW, . 85 /3. Neuter, riTxos, urru, j;, (io^ieif, 80 B. Feminine, «/»/«, ^v^a, ykSui, ri- TX^, Kt^KS, 82 Op Two Terminations. A. Second Declension, ccimoi, uyri^aos, . . . 86 B. Third Declension, ap/jjn, lu- X^^^'h ^irevf, eet^m, f^ii' Z,uy 86 Of Three Terminations. (p'lXtoSf iro , ^"^^• Page. 1. US, evdtiff • . . 90 3. r^us, . • • • 2. Ivo, &ficjX« . 172 of (hovXivu, . . 146 8, ilfti, 9. tTfti, 173 IX. A. Mute Verbs. ui. Second Aorists, I. Labial, 1. y^x«/, 175 XI. C. Double Consonant Verbs, 4. xi^fiai, 176 1. av^u or uv%ivu, 157 5. Ki7fteii, 176 3. KiKUfjcfiai, iXriXty/jtoLi, 157 . .-Jk Tmnrr"""- '-■""-'-'-' ^51. Table of the Vowels. Orders. Class I. II. III. IV. V. A E U I Sounds. Sounds. Sounds. Sounds. Sounds. 1. a s ij I 2. d V o V 1 Simple Vowels. < ^ ' ( Long, T^. t ,1 • < Proper, 3. at h oi m Diphthongs mc. < ^ ^ ^ I Improper, 4. a jf a vi Diphthongs in v. < , ^ ' 6. av av ov Improper, 6. dv r^v ov ^ 60. The Consonants. (Table I.) A. Associated Consonants. Class I. Orders. Labials. Class II. Palatals. Class III. Linguals. 1. Smooth Mutes, 7t X T 2. Middle Mutes, /3 r h 3. Rough Mutes, q) X d 4. Nasals, [i 7 V 5. Double Consonants, y) 1 r B. Unassociated Consonants. A e mal fjnaai xigaoL D N. a(U|uaT£ 9(0Tfi rjnats xigars, xsgaf, xiga G. aatfjidtoiv qxatoiv ^naToiv xtgdroiv, xEgaoiv, xeg^v ^278. I. Formation of the Tenses. Prefixes. Tenses. Terminations. Active. Middle. Passive. Present, w, (11 oiiai, fiat Atlgm. Imperfect, ov, V 6(iriv, (ii^v Future, 003 aO(l(XL -d^rjoofiat 2 Future, riao^iai, Augm. AORIST, aa adfirjv ■&7}V Augm. 2 AORIST, ov, V oiirjv, fitiv fiV Redupl. Perfect, xa fiai Redupl. 2 Perfect, a Augm. Redupl. Pluperfect, KUV flfjP Augm. Redupl. 2 Pluperfect , SIV Redupl. 3 Future, aofitti §379. II. Flexible Endings. Class I. Subjective. Orders. 1. Prim . 2. Second. 3. Imp. 4. Inf. 5. Part. S. 1 2 S V, ill ? &l vah V, t N.vtg VToa 3 at * TO] m P. 1 (ItV (ItV G. vTog 2 T8 rs T8 vxarig 3 vat aav, V, sv Tfoaav, vrmv D. 1 ftSV flBV . 2 TOV ■tov tov 3 tov rrjv r(ov Class II. Objective. Orders. 1. Prim , 2. Second. 3. Imp. 4. Inf. 5. Piirt. S. 1 fiOCl (iriv a^at N. (livog 2 oai, at 00, 00, flii'T) 3 rat TO a&(o flSVOV P. 1 2 3 a&s vxai (isa&a VTO o&s ad-(oaav, a&mv G. fiivov fiivfig D. 1 2 fis&a, a&ov flS&OV (is&a a&ov a&oy 3 a&ov a&ijv a&mv - m^w ^^ m Wmm WipV^rT.^^HHO :ii 'PW^ THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO Sl.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY S284, Vn. Active Voice of the Present. Ind. S. 1 §ovXBV(a 2 ^ovXivug 3 ^ovXsvst Imperfect. i^ovXtvov i^ovXBVtg i^ovX^B Future. P. 1 ^ovXsvofiBV 2 §ovXivht8 3 ^ovXsvovai i^ovXsvofisv i^ovXevBTS i^ovXivov §OvXBVaBXB ^ovXBvaovai D. 2 ^ovXsveiov 3 I^ovXbvbtov i§ovXBvhriv ^ovXsvasTOv Subj. S. 1 ^ovXsva 2 ^ovXsvTjg 3 ^ovXsvp P. 1 ^ovXivatfiiV 2 ^OVXSVTJTS 3 ^ovXeVwat D. 2 ^OVXSVTJTOV Opt. S. 1 ^OvXBVOlfll 2 ^ovXBvoig 3 ^ovXsvoi P. 1 ^ovXsvoifitv 2 ^ovXbvoits 3 /iovXtvoiBV D. 2 jSovXcvotTov 3 ^ovXBVohriv ^ovXBvaoiiit §ovXBvaoig fiovXtvaot ^ovXbvgoi^bv §OvXBVaOLTB ^ovXsvaoiBV §ovXBvaonov ^ovXBvaoltfjv Imp.Sv 2 §ovXbvb 3 §ovXBvix(a P. 2 (SovXbvbts 3 l^ovXsvBTtoaav, fiovXBVovTiav D. 2 ^ovXbvbtov 3 ^ovXbvbtmp Infin. ^ovXbvbiv ^ovXbvobiv Part. povXBixav ^ovXBvaoiV ■ itpiii (14 Regular Verb ^ovXeva^ to plan, to counsel. Aorist i^ovXevoa i/SovXsvaag s^ovXmas Perfect. ^f^ovXsvxa ^s^ovXsvxag ^s^ovXsvxs Pluperfect. i/Ss^ovXivxsii' i^s/SovXsvxsig i^f^ovXsvxei i^ovXevaafisv i^ovXtvaatB t^ovXivaav ^s^ovXsvx(X(isv /ie^ovXsvxaxs ^i^ovXevxaat i^spovXsvxeifisv i^e^ovXsvxHts i^s/SovXsvxsiaav, i^s^ovXevxsaav i^ovXsvaaTov i^ovXsvaaTi^v /iefiovXsvxaTov i/Ss^ovXevxHTOV i^s^ovXsvxBhfiv ffovXsvaa (SovXsvajjg ^ovXsvarj (SovXsmatfisp ^ovXfvarjTe ^ovXsvawai (SovXtvaritov (SovXsvaaifiL ^ovXsvaccig, ^ovXevaeiag ^ovXsvaai, ^ovXsvans ^ovXsvaaiixEv ^ovXsvaanz ^ovXsvaauv, ^ovXsvasiav . ^ovXbvaanov I (SovXsvaaiTTjv ^ovXsvaov §ovXBva(XT(a fiovXsvouTS povXsvaccTMactv, ^ovXtvauvxGiV ^ovXevaoaov ^ovXsvaocTmv ^ovXsvaai jSe^ovXsvxivai ^ ^ovXfmSg 13 ^e^ovXsvxwg ""l^'W^- 'f ..i!m&MA. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW. AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO Sl.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY ^ S87. Labial. 2. AsLjta), to leave. Active Voice. Present. Imperfect . Future. 2 Perfect. 2 Pluperfect. Ind. iBlnta t'AetTiot Ae/^O) XiXoiTia iXdoiTisiv Subj. 7.dn(a \ Opt. Xslnotfiv Xslipoifi I Imp. Xelns ,_- Inf. XsItibiv XsllpHV XsXomivai, Part. Xslnav Xslipav XsXomug AORIST II. Ind. Subj. Opt. Imp. Inf. S. 1 i7.inov A/ttw XI no I fit Xmslv 2 Uimg At7r//j Xinoig XItis 3 Uins AtTT); Xlnou Xinhm Part.^ P. 1 iXlno^sv Xl7lO)(lSV Xi7lOl(l£V XiTtfav 2 iXlnns XlnrjTS XlnoiTS XlnsTS XiTiovaa 3 I'Xinov Xlnmav Xlnoifv XiTisTiaaav, XinovTMv Xmov \ ' D. 2 iXlnsTOV Xinr)Tov XItioltov XlnsTOV XtnovTog \ 3 iXmhriv Xmohriv XineTcav Xmovarig \ Middle . \ND Pass iVE Voices. ^ Present. Future Mid. Perfect. Aorist Pass. Ind. XsiTiofiav As/y/o/mt XiXsifJ^ai iXtl(pd^i]v Subj. XuTiMfiai Xsicp&a Opt. XsmolfiTjv Xsupoifirjv Xeia XiTiofisvog % 2 fA/7r«a^£ Xlntja&s Xlnoia& E Xlnfo&s 3 iXircovio XlnavTut, XlnoivTO Xinia&wouv , Xmia&tav D. 2 eXlma&ov XlJiTjadoi > Xlnoiad 31' Xlnta&ov 3 iXmia&ijv Xi7toia&r]v Xinea&tav r v