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A FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
BY
THOMAS H. BRIGGS
INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH IN TEACHERS COLLEGE
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
AND
ISABEL McKINNEY
TEACHER OF ENGLISH IN THE EASTERN ILLINOIS
STATE NORMAL SCHOOL
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GINN AND COMPANY
BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON
( OPYRIGHT, 1913, BY THOMAS H. 15RIGGS
AND ISABEL Mi KINNEY
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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Hit gthctuctun Prcga
GINN AND COMPANY • PRO-
PRIETORS BOSTON T.S.A.
PREFACE
This first book in formal English composition is designed
to furnish material for a two-year course ; it may be followed
by a rhetoric of the conventional type, or, better still, by ad-
ditional work on the collection and organization of material
for expression in long themes and by a study of the more
essential rhetorical principles. The chief difference between
this book and others is its emphasis on the qualities of good
composition rather than on the four conventional types, and
its treatment of these qualities in a natural and teachable
order. By the continuous emphasis on sincerity, definiteness,
and the other essential qualities — since these, while sepa-
rable in thought, are not mutually exclusive - - there is sought
a cumulative effect, which cannot fail to modify the habits of
pupils. Since these prime qualities are treated in this book
after a plan carefully arranged and graded in difficulty, the
chapters, except, possibly, that on good form, should be taught
in their order. The material in the chapter on good form may
be distributed among other matters as the teacher sees fit.
The assignments are meant to be definite enough to guide
the bewildered but not to confine the adventurous. They
will be found especially to emphasize practical writing ; for
example, letters, which are treated with unusual fullness.
The highly ingenious teacher who can successfully carry on
work in the production of artistic literature, such as original
stories, poems, and plays, needs no prescribed exercises, but he
will find a sound basis for such composition in the chapters of
iii
iv FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
this book, particularly in those on definiteness and variety.
Suggestive material for models is chosen from the themes of
pupils and from literature that is within the range of the
pupils' best reading. Generally some definite study of these
models is outlined, so that the point of the illustration may
be felt. The class discussion of this illustrative material
thus furnishes additional opportunity for valuable work in
oral composition.
Grateful acknowledgment is made for helpful suggestions
from Mr. Allan Abbott, of the Horace Mann High School ;
Professor Franklin T. Baker, of Teachers College, Columbia
University ; Mrs. Fausta F. Barr, of the Mattoon, Illinois,
High School ; Mr. Samuel M. North, of the Baltimore Poly-
technic Institute ; Mr. Edgar D. Randolph, of the Colorado
State Teachers College ; Mr. Benjamin A. Heydrick, High
School of Commerce,. New York ; and Professor James F.
Royster, of the University of North Carolina.
Acknowledgment is also due to the following publishers,
who have very kindly permitted the use of copyright matter :
D. Appleton and Company, the Thomas Y. Crowell Company,
the George H. Doran Company, Uoubleday, Page and Com-
pany, D. C. Heath and Company, Henry Holt and Company,
the John Lane Company, Little, Brown and Company, L. C.
Page and Company, the Macmillan Company, and Thomas B.
Mosher. The selections from Burroughs, Emerson, Fiske,
Higginson, Holmes, Palmer, Robinson, and Whittier are
used by permission of, and by special arrangement with, the
Houghton Mifflin Company.
T. H. B.
I. McK.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAG]
I. SINCERITY i
II. GOOD FORM 10
A. Preparation of Papers 1 1
B. Rules of Punctuation and Capitalization .... 13
C. Correct Usage 25
D. Business Letters 27
III. DEFINITEXKSS 41
A. Definite Subject 43
B. Definite Details 47
C. Definite Point of View 4S
D. Definite Words 55
Rules and Exercises in Good Form 76
IV. INTEREST 83
A. Letters 83
I. Friendly Letters 84
a. General Rules of Form 85
b. Parts of a Friendly Letter 86
II. Formal Letters 95
III. Pseudo-Letters 97
B. Choice of Details 99
C. Order of Details 107
D. Proportion ' 112
E. Beginnings 115
F. Endings 117
G. Climax 118
v
vi FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
I VGE
//. Devices for Interest 123
[.Conversation
II. Comparison
III. SUGGESl ION
IV. Contrast
V. Variety
VI. Brevity
Rui.ks ami Exercises in Good Form
Y. UNITY
./. Unity of Paragraphs
A'. Unity of Notes
I. Invitations and Their Answers
II. Notes Accompanying Gifts
III. Nuiis mi Introduction
IV. MlSCELl VNEOUS NOTES
C. Unity ok Sentences
I. Unity in Thought
II. Unity or Form
u. The Comma lilunder
b. Disjoined Expressions
c. Lack of Co-ordination
J. Shifts in Construction
Rules and Exercises in Good Form
VI. VARIETY
A. Variety in Words
A'. Variety through Direct and Indirect Discoi rsi .
( '. Y vriety in Sentences
I. Declarative, Interrogative, and Imperative
MMIMh
II. Active \ni> Passive Your.
I I I. < >rder "i si n 1 ence Elemen rs
I\'. Differeni Forms ok Modifiers 203
a. Adjective Modifiers 203
/>. Adverb Modifiers
v. Posi 1 ion of Modifiers
VI. Loosi vnd I'i riodic Sentences
VII. Simple, Compound, vnd Complex Sentences
CONTENTS vii
PAGE
D. Variety in Paragraphs 216
I. Development by Details 218
II. Development by Illustration 219
III. Development Chiefly by Explanation . . . 220
IV. Development by a Combination ok Means . 222
V. Development by Proof 224
VI. Development by Cause and Result .... 224
E. Variety in Tropes 227
Rules and Exercises in Good Form 23c
VII. COHERENCE 240
A. Coherence in Paragraphs and Sentences .... 241
I. Order 241
a. Of Sentences 241
b. Of Modifiers 242
II. Connectives and Words of Reference . . . 245
a. Guiding Words 246
b. Pronouns '. 24S
c. Conjunctions 252
III. Loose and Periodic Sentences 262
IV. Parallel Construction 263
V. Ellipses 265
B. Coherence in the Whole Composition 268
C. Writing a Connected Composition Based on
Reading 270
I. Finding Material 270
II. Taking Notes 272
III. Writing from Notes 274
APPENDIX 279
A. Symbols Used in Criticizing Themes 279
B. Words often Confused 280
I. Synonyms and Other Words 280
II. Homonyms 282
C. Principal Parts of Verbs Often Misused .... 284
D. One Thousand Words Often Misspelled .... 286
INDEX ^97
A FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
CHAPTER I
SINCERITY
All that you have to learn about good speaking and good
writing might be summed up in two sayings : "' Mean what
you say," and " Say what you mean." Like most important
commands, these are easier to remember than to obey ; in-
deed, complete obedience to the second — "Say what you
mean" — involves the mastery of the art of composition.
Most of the chapters of this book are concerned with this
difficult art.
It is of the first, however, - ' Mean what you say," — that
we must first think. If we are in the habit of telling the
truth, obedience to this command should not be difficult. If
we do not mean what we say, why should we speak or write
at all ? The first motive of speech, oral or written, is sincerity.
This motive does not, of course, demand absolute literalness
to bare facts. Truth and fact are synonymous only when we
are dealing with fact ; a novel like " Romola " or a bit of non-
sense like " Alice in Wonderland " is quite as sincere, as true
in a sense, as a psychology or a treatise on the white rabbit.
Sincerity is being true to ourselves. We must report as we
ourselves see or feel or think ; and in order to do this we must
choose a subject that we have real thoughts or feelings about,
and we must use words that are our own.
2 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 1 - Oral
SINCERl WD INSINCERE COMPOSITION
Read aloud and compare these two compositions, both writ-
ten by pupils in school. Which is sincere ? Which uses bor-
rowed thoughts and words not clearly understood? Which
pupil chose a subject upon which he could write sincerely ?
Which subject is definite ? What details give an impression
of truth ?
UNIVERSAL PE \< 1
Universal Peace should reign throughout the world. Everything
should harmonize and every day it should be carried out. All of the
dumb animals are always happy and peaceful, while some people are
always quarrelsome and unhappy. Cod made this world for the
people to live happy and contented in. Universal Peace of any com-
munity, organization, district, school, or home is that state of affairs
that shows that all parties concerned are not engaged in warfare.
To preserve such an admirable condition strict control must be ex-
ercised over certain unruly persons who can usually be distinguished
by their sinister expression and malicious tendency.
Tin- once warlike nation of the United States is now resting
peacefully. Peace is doing its part in the removing of grievances,
when not long ago our fair land was in a turmoil of battles in which
thousands of men were killed. If the people from all over the
United .States, Europe, and other foreign nations should come to-
gether at a certain place and declare there should be no more war
or trouble between them, then would begin the reign of Universal
Pi ace, and it would save the different nations many lives, and many
large debts to pav. which could be used for the uses of their country.
\ BUSY STREE I' SCENE
1 am standing at the corner of the Board of Trade building.
elevated street cars are running at a rapid speed. They make
a clanging, rumbling noise that deafens my ears. Then there are
the other street cars that come whizzing by every minute. The
SINCERITY 3
policeman on the corner is blowing his whistle for the wagons,
automobiles, and people to stop or cross. He looks as if he would
be run over, but everything passes without touching him. Now a
wagon is completely on the track, and a car four yards behind it.
The motorman slows down and waits for the driver to get off the
track. He removes himself at his ease, and does n't seem the least
bit excited. It makes me feel as if I am hardly anything on these
crowded streets.
I n the building I can hear the grain dealers screaming and shout-
ing at the top of their voices. It sounds as if there are wild animals
or a stampede of some sort inside. There are so many newsboys
that I get tired of hearing " Papers, Chicago Tribune, Herald" or
,{ Latest reports of the markets. A rise in hogs." I see one little
boy with his coat worn through at the elbows, his stockings all
torn, and his feet peeping through his shoes, who seems to be
shunned by everyone, but still he hurries along with the crowd.
A coachman is driving by now. He wears a silk hat, a black
sleek suit, and high boots. It seems as if the "best of care is taken
of the horse and coach, for they are black and glossy. The lady in
the carriage is dressed in a beautiful gown, and I imagine her,
pretty wealthy, going to some reception or party.
I cannot see all of the sights ,at once, nor imagine where all of
this throng of people are going.
EXERCISE 2 — Oral
CHOOSING A SUBJECT
If you had to talk or write on five of the following subjects,
which should you choose ? On how many of them should
you have something to say ? About which do you know too
little to speak or write sensibly ?
1. Patience. 5. An Upset.
2. A Landslide. 6. Canoeing in England.
3. My Trip to the City. 7. Ascending Pikes Peak.
4. The Canals on Mars. 8. The Supernatural in " Macbeth."
4 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
9. Loading an Ocean Steamer. 17. Keeping House.
10. Making Maple Syrup. 18. A Fire.
11. Why I Like "Treasure Island." 19. A Parade.
12. Justice and Mercy. 20. A Shopping Trip.
13. A Day in the Field. 21. Swimming.
14. Caught in a Shower. 22. My Favorite Tree.
15. My First Party. 23. Behind the Bars.
16. A Visit. 24. Liberty and Equality.
EXERCISE 3 - Oral or Written
SPEAKING AXI) WRITING ON A FAMILIAR SIT.JKCT
Speak or write on one or more of the preceding subjects,
as your teacher may direct. Tell the things that make your
experience different from that of any one else. Write as if
you were talking-. Put your work into good form, according
to your teacher's directions.
EXERCISE 4 - Oral
SUBJECTS OF CONVERSATION
Read the following paragraphs suggested by a passage in
a well-known story and then notice before your next lesson
what people talk about, what you yourself talk about. Bring
to class several topics that arc interesting to you, no matter
how "common " they may be.
Nancy was struggling with the difficulties of composition writing.
Miss Lawrence gave her all the time-honored subjects of her own
youthful essays— Peace on Earth, The I lorrors of War, Napoleon,
Justice, True Riches, Anger; but somehow with one of these titles
before her, all Nancy's efforts could produce only a few musty sen-
tences. After she had inscribed " Anger " in neat handwriting at
the top of a page, all her vivacious little personality seemed to
congeal somewhere above her finger-tips.
SINCERITY 5
" Write as you talk," Miss Lawrence feebly quoted.
" But, dear me, Miss Lawrence, I could n't talk about Peace on
Earth and Napoleon — not more than a sentence, anyway ; because
I never do, you know ; not even about anger, though goodness
knows I ought to know something about that."
" I suppose you don't need practice in things you do talk about,"
hesitated Miss Lawrence. " And, anyway," she added more confi-
dently, " those things are too common for compositions."
EXERCISE 5 — Oral
TWO KINDS OF INSINCERITY
Compare the following piece of a composition written by a
real "Nancy" with the newspaper account of an evening
entertainment. Why could not Nancy be sincere in writing
about " Human Barriers " ? Why is the newspaper article
so glaringly insincere ? That is, which shows insincerity of
ignorance, and which insincerity of purpose ? Point out
specific defects in sincerity.
Human Barriers
Nearly every existing life is blighted more or less by some kind
of opposition. In some lives promoting development, while in
others it is degrading.
Barriers develop from every source. If they are not overcome
but left to take their course they will in turn become masters of
their subjects. They make themselves shown in all lines of occu-
pation and in all shades of life ; yet even this is needed for some
to make a partial success. No one can escape the trials and tempta-
tions of life but should accept them with a determination for the
right. The birds of the air become the prey of larger birds or the
victim of the hunter's careful aim ; just so we have our obstacles
to overcome.
6 I [RST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Newsy Notes from Widi -Awake Wilson
Wilsi >N, .March 301 Special). — The at home given last evening in
the superb and palatial home of our eminent and highly distinguished
to iwnsman. the I Ion. Fred A. Woodcock, in honor of the cultured and
eloquent Mrs. Gross, wife of that able jurist Judge Gross, and her
brilliant and beautiful daughter, the fascinating Miss Lois Gross, was
one of the most brilliant and magnificent entertainments ever given
in Wilson. As is well known, this charming and beautiful home is the
genuine shrine of the most exquisite and princeliest hospitality, but
on this resplendent occasion the glittering acme of the finest social
function was reached, for refined tact and exquisite taste and excel-
lent judgment and ample means contributed their richest and rarest
gifts to make that lovely scene a rhythmic poem of beauty and
enchantment. There were gleams of humor as cheering as the
dripping of moonbeams upon the quiet bosom of a sleeping lake,
not rippling but ensilvering the dreaming water ; there were flashes
of sparkling wit as brilliant as the dazzling lightnings when writing
in glittering pencilings upon the darkest clouds the grandeur and
omnipotence of Jehovah ; there were peals of laughter as musical
as the wordless songs of rippling brooks journeying to their home
in the sea ; there were faces as sweet and luscious and as tempting
as strawberries floating in stainless saucers of richest cream ; there
were eyes as radiant and as sparkling as those glittering gems that
adorn the bosom of the sky, and rob the night of its gloom by
brightening the shadows with the silveriest timings of richest lustre.
Yea, these are a few of the many seductive witcheries which wreathed ,
with garlands of rapture the countenances of the guests.
The two specimens given in Exercise 5 illustrate another
important aspect of insincerity, besides showing that it may
proceed either from ignorance of the subject or from intent
to flatter or deceive. This other important aspect, is the part
that zvords play in the effect of sincerity. Even if the reporter
had meant all his praise honestly, we should find it hard to
accept it as sincere when it is written in such a style. The
high-school student who wrote on "Human Barriers" was
struggling not only with a subject about which she knew little.
SINCERITY 7
but also with the false notion that she must use words rather
impressive and only half understood. If she had stopped to
think she would have known that blighting can never pro-
mote the development of anything ; that barriers do not
develop ; that source, overcome, take their course, become
masters, all suggest different and incongruous pictures. She
should have asked what a shade of life is ; and how the
devouring of one bird by another, or the hunter's careful
aim, could be called an obstacle. If we are to make any true
impression on our readers, what we write must not only be
our own but seem so ; and therefore we must make not only
our subject but also our words our own.
Following are two examples of sincere and great writing.
Each writer means what he says, and says it, never stopping to
think whether the word he uses is large or small, if it fits his
thought. If he wanted to speak of supper, he would not call
it evening meal; nor would he pick up worn-out phrases
like the common walks of life or festive throng any more
than he would wear clothes from a secondhand shop. His
words, like his thoughts, are his own.
The first example is the closing paragraph of Webster's
reply to Hayne, a powerful speech delivered before the United
States Senate at a time of high excitement when many people
thought the Union was in danger. Webster loved the Union
and the flag which stands for the Union --that gorgeous
ensign of the republic. Twenty-two years later as he lay
dying, he watched the flag floating on the flagstaff outside
his window. It was still undishonored, for he died before
the Civil War drenched the land in fraternal blood. These
are his words :
When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time the
sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dis-
honored fragments of a once glorious Union : on States dissevered,
8 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
discordant, belligerent ; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drenched,
it may be, in fraternal blood! Let their last feeble and lingering
glance rather behold the gorgeous ensign of the republic, now-
known and honored throughout the earth, still full high advanced,
its arms and trophies streaming in their original lustre, not a stripe
erased or polluted, nor a single star obscured, bearing for its motto
no such miserable interrogatory as " What is all this worth?" nor
those other words of delusion and folly, " Liberty first and Union
afterwards": but everywhere, spread all over in characters of living
light, blazing on all its ample folds, as they float over the sea and
over the land, and in every wind under the whole heavens, that
other sentiment, dear to every true American heart, - " Liberty
and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable ! "
Webster, " Reply to Hayne"
The second example is Thackeray's account of the death
of Colonel Newcome, Clive's knightly father :
She went into the room, where Clive was. at the bed's foot. The
old man within it talked on rapidly for a while ; then again he
would sigh and be still. Once more I heard him say hurriedly,
" Take care of him when I 'm in India " ; and then, with a heart-
rending voice, he called out, ,; Lconore, Le*onore ! " She was kneel-
ing by his side now. The patient's voice sank into faint murmurs ;
only a moan now and then announced that he was not asleep.
At the usual evening hour the chapel bell began to toll, and
Thomas Newcomc's hands outside the bed feebly beat time. And
just as the last bell struck, a peculiar sweet smile shone over his
face, and he lifted up his head a little and quickly said " Adsum ! "
and fell back. It was the word we used at school when names are
called ; and lo, he, whose heart was as that of a little child, had
answered to his name, and stood in the presence of the Master.
Thackeray, "The Newcomes"
SINCERITY 9
EXERCISE 6 - Oral
SINCERE WORDS FOR SINCERE THOUGHTS
What words of Webster's do you never use ? Which
have you never heard spoken ? Which have you never seen
before ? Answer the same questions as to the paragraphs
from Thackeray. Show by lists how Webster, rising to the
importance of the occasion and of his message, uses large
and somewhat unusual words ; yet Thackeray, writing of the
most solemn and truly awful of subjects, uses the simplest
and most familiar words.
EXERCISE 7 — Oral
USING NEW WORDS SINCERELY
From the two selections just studied, choose five words
seldom or never used by you, yet well understood. Use each
in a sensible sentence to show its meaning. Find five words
that you could hardly at present use sincerely. How much
can you learn of these five words by carefully noting the sense
that they have in context ?
This chapter has been concerned chiefly with meaning
what we say, and with not saying what we do not mean —
that is, with sincerity of thought and of words. Insincerity
of thought comes chiefly from ignorance of the subject ;
insincerity of words, from a purpose to flatter or deceive, or
from laziness. All the rest of this book is chiefly concerned
with saying what we do mean ; for the ability to do this is
not merely a matter of wishing to tell the truth, nor can it
be gained in a minute or without perseverance.
CHAPTER II
GOOD FORM
Long ago you learned something of the form in which
oral and written speech should be presented. From one
point of view the whole expression of your thought in words
may be considered as form ; from another point of view, only
the more mechanical part of this expression , is included,
namely the articulation of letters, the upward and downward
inflections in speech, the correct grammatical relations of
words, the handwriting, spelling, punctuation, placing of
material on the page - - all the outward means of making
your thought quickly and easily understood. Some of these
points especially applying to written work will be considered
in this chapter, and further exercises in good form will fol-
low in other chapters. Only the simplest and most important
rules are mentioned ; you cannot afford to neglect one of
them.
The mechanical part of expression of thought is decided
by custom, the custom of our times and of our language.
There is not much need for reasoning about it. We must
simply find out what the best custom is, and then form
habits of following it without giving it much thought or
attention. But to form these habits takes constant atten-
tion in the beginning. Your aim should be to do correctly
ivithout thinking at the end of this year many of these me-
chanical things which now use up some of your thought and
energy. Take pains now, to save pains later.
IO
GOOD FORM ii
In this chapter the very simplest rules of form for written
work are gathered, rules that you have learned, or should
have learned, before. The mere memorizing of these rules
and the application of them in a few exercises will, however,
prove useless in fixing habits. You must apply the rules in
every bit of writing that you have an opportunity to do.
EXERCISE 8 — Oral
Compare the two versions of the composition on page 12.
What matters of form have been corrected in the second ?
Notice general appearance, handwriting, placing, spelling,
punctuation, paragraphing. Which is easier to understand ?
A. PREPARATION OF PAPERS
I. Form in General
1. Place the title, correctly capitalized, on the first line
near the middle.
2. Leave a margin of at least an inch at the left-hand side
of the page.
3. Leave no meaningless spaces at the right-hand side
of the page.
4. Indent the first line of every paragraph, or group of
sentences on one topic, at least half an inch beyond the
margin of writing.
5. Never indicate a new paragraph unless there is a real
division of the thought.
6. Write legibly and neatly ; use ink, unless otherwise
directed.
I2 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
PLATE I. A THEME ORIGINAL IN MATTER, MISERABLE IN FORM
tit ^t^/ous AXxX -*A/'\£l^ (U/U£^s-i- CLt-td -
Vtvil JaA£(X;cJaA_ (U^oA ^a/s^JJ^ C^dLcdff cAsrvpu*.
^pU. tstrtcl it^v^y. ,/^^m,- ~fc cr - ^p-£c*sti ~Ee^is\s^uvA a^to' "
PLATE II. THE SAME THEME, WITH THE FORM IMPR0V1 D
JLriruL ocrvvx^T~(> JLotv-u^. -j^utrvw cn^e-w cu X\aJLL- Tii_t/ ^asJL
3- A^OUULT AATO^ CO JLjtXJU. C^JUU^J C&Jpu , OJV\J~ X^Au X^O-A^>
ajvtTu^ A^msu co JLo~njcfr-Xx>^J-Jud- }^s<jlojlXw^ oo-aJt, , /la^UU^ a.
., a_/weL Xi^-t. Xcuti/aX /iXMXt>-
GOOD FORM 13
II. Endorsement
1 . Fold the paper evenly once lengthwise and write the en-
dorsement on whichever side your teacher directs — always
on the same side.
2. Place your name on the first line, the title on the second,
and the date of handing-in on the third.
3. Place a comma after the name, another after the title,
and a period after the date.
4. Punctuate the date correctly.
B. RULES OF PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION
Rule 1. Begin the first word in every sentence with a
capital letter.
Rule 2. End every sentence with a period, unless the sen-
tence is a question or an exclamation.
EXERCISE 9 — Written
The two rules given above sound very simple, but they are
not easy to follow. Nearly all beginners in composition fre-
quently write two sentences rather closely connected in thought
as if they were one sentence, sometimes placing a comma be-
tween them. This is called " the comma blunder " and is an
unfailing sign of carelessness or lack of training. If you
habitually make this mistake, root it out of your work. Copy
the following sentences correctly, placing periods and capitals
where they should be. Notice that when punctuated properly
these sentences often prove to be very short and disjointed.
1. He had only one leg, the other was cut off at the knee.
2. Squire Trelawney was a large strong and tall man, being over
six feet tall, he was dark, with a broad face, roughened and reddened
in his travels.
14 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
3. She was not in any hurry, she just played along.
4. The captain is standing in the doorway, he looks very neat and
clean beside the others.
5. First the map is what puts them up to this, if it had not been
for the map they would not have known anything about the treasure.
6. Silver, when they landed at a port in Spanish America, had got
some of the money and gone, he was never seen after this.
7. The trees by the pond were mostly maples and willows, they
were all bare now, standing out against the sky.
8. We saw the long, solemn procession winding up the dusty road,
it was passing the cemetery.
9. The train started, we were not more than two rods from the
station, but we missed it.
10. Along the meadow path beside the brook the two children ram-
bled happily, they chased butterflies and pulled the heads off daisies,
no one saw them slip under the fence.
11. Whoever came to the door was kindly received, mother was the
most truly hospitable person I ever knew.
12. The cactus bloomed on Christmas Day. it was a delicate pink
thing, as frail-looking as a bubble.
13. My lamp must be broken, I cannot turn the wick up or down.
14. We followed our guide through a low stone gateway, the court-
yard inside was a scene of confusion.
15. The windmill was clacking furiously, a strong breeze had sprung
up from the south.
16. No one ever caught a fairy, that is no proof that fairies do not
exist, however.
17. Tommy reached out to seize the cake, his little thin hand trem-
bled so that he could hardly clasp the shiny, white, sweet morsel.
18. Our horse used to be a famous racer, she will give us a sample
of her former powers now and then.
19. 1 like hickory nuts better than any other kind, they are good for
cake or candy or in any way you choose to eat them.
20. A sea serpent is usually supposed to be as impossible as a mer-
maid, there is some truth in the tales about them.
21. The workmen in the fields were "turning out " for the night,
they all had a word of chaff with McTurg.
GOOD FORM 15
EXERCISE 10 — Written and Oral
Look over all the themes you have written and collect any
examples of the comma blunder that you find. Bring them
to class for your classmates to correct. The best way to find
these blunders is to read your work aloud.
Rule 3. Use a question mark to close a question, an excla-
mation mark to elose an exclamatory expression.
EXERCISE 11 — Written
These first three rules cover the punctuation and capital-
ization of the sentence as a whole. Punctuate correctly the
sentences in the following paragraph :
What a cozy little room this is the moment I opened the door I fell
in love with the place do you see the great open fireplace at the end of
the room it will hold a four-foot log on the stone above it you see the
motto of good cheer on each side is a many-paned window through
which comes a glimpse of the garden the windows are framed in bril-
liant red leaves of woodbine is there anything so homelike as books and
a fire here are all kinds of books ranged in cases on each side of the
room what treasures for a rainy day who knows what delightful com-
rades are shut between those covers where shall I begin here is the
easiest of easy-chairs I will pull it before the fire and snuggle down in
luxury with the " Arabian Nights " from the top shelf in the corner my
letter to you must wait.
Rule 4. Begin with a capital letter every proper name of
a person or a place, every word derived from one of these,
and initials or abbreviations of them.
Examples: John, England, India, Indian, English, American,
French, R. M. Kelly, D.D. Exceptions: Names of places are not
capitalized when joined to the name of some article of commerce so
commonly associated with the place that the two names are taken as
one ; as chinaware (or china), india ink, persian ribbon,
16 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Rule 5. Begin with a capital letter the first and every im-
portant word in a title. For examples, sec the lists of theme
titles in various chapters of this book.
Rule 6. Begin with a capital letter the first word in every
line of poetry.
Note. When quoting poetry always drop the verse to a new
line on the page ; never run it in as if it were prose.
Example : As Browning says in " Herve Riel,"
" Praise is deeper than the lips."
Rule 7. Begin with a capital letter a title of honor used
with a proper name or instead of the name.
Examples: Colonel Roosevelt: the President; Woodrow Wilson,
President of the United States.
Rule 8. Begin with a capital letter all special names
applied to deity.
Example : " Ye are the children of the Great King."
Rule 9. Begin with a capital letter names of months,
holidays, and days of the zveek.
Example: This year Christmas came on Saturday and January
will begin on Saturday, too.
Rule 10. Begin with a capital letter names of things
personified.
EXAMPLE: The Little Red Hen said, " I will, then."
Rule 11. Begin with a capital letter the first word of a
direct quotation.
EXAMPLE : Arthur cried out to Bedivere, " What sawest thou ? "
Rule 12. Capitalize the pronoun I ami the interjection 0.
GOOD FORM 17
Rule 13. Never use capital letters meaninglessly.
Example : My Brother saw the Elephant ; but as I had the Measles,
I could not go out to see the Parade.
EXERCISE 12 — Oral
Give the rule governing the use of each capital letter in
the following sentences :
1. I know nothing in English or any other literature more admirable
than that sentiment of Sir Thomas Browne, " Every man truly lives, so
long as he acts his nature, or some way makes good the faculties of
himself."
2. The old gentleman opposite all at once asked me if I ever read
anything better than Pope's " Essay on Man." He was fond of poetry
when he was a boy, — his mother taught him to say many little pieces,
— he remembered one beautiful hymn ; and the old gentleman began,
in a clear, loud voice for his years,
" The spacious firmament on high,
With all the blue ethereal sky,
And spangled heavens."
He stopped, as if startled by our silence, and a faint flush ran up be-
neath the thin white hairs that fell upon his cheek. As I looked round,
I was reminded of a show I once saw at the Museum, — the Sleeping
Beauty, I think they called it. . . . Our Celtic Bridget, or Biddy, is not a
foolish fat scullion to burst out crying for sentiment. . . . She could n't
set the plate down while the old gentleman was speaking.
3. Beware of rash criticisms ; the rough and astringent fruit you
condemn may be an autumn or a winter pear, and that which you picked
up beneath the same bough in August may have been only its worm-
eaten windfalls.
4. Do I think that the particular form of lying often seen in news-
papers, under the title, " From our Foreign Correspondent," does any
harm ? — Why, no ; I don't think it does. I suppose it does n't
really deceive people any more than the " Arabian Nights " or " Gulliver's
Travels " do.
18 FIRST I!()()K OF COMPOSITION
5. The Puritan Sabbath, as everybody knows, began at sundown
on Saturday evening.
6. Our brains are seventy-year clocks. The Angel of Life winds
them up once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the
hand of the Angel of the Resurrection.
7. The True Knight of Learning, — the world holds him dear, —
Love bless him, Joy crown him, God speed his career !
8. I think myself fortunate in having the Poet and the Professor
for my intimates.
9. The second of the ravishing voices I have heard was, as I have
said, that of another German woman. I suppose I shall ruin myself
by saying that such a voice could not come from any Americanized
human being.
10. What can be more trivial than that old story of opening the folio
Shakespeare that used to lie in some ancient English hall and finding
the flakes of Christmas pastry between its leaves, shut up in them per-
haps a hundred years ago ? And, lo ! as one looks on these poor relics
of a bygone generation, the universe changes in the twinkling of an eye;
old George the Second is bark again, and the elder Pitt is coming into
power, and General Wolfe is a fine promising young man, and over the
Channel they are pulling the Sieur Damiens to pieces with wild horses,
and across the Atlantic the Indians arc tomahawking Ilirams and Jona-
thans and Jonases at Fort William Henry.
1 1' ilmes, " The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table "
EXERCISE 13 — Written
Supply capital letters, periods, question marks, and excla-
mation marks :
1. but what are these grave thoughts to thee
out, out into the open air
thy only dream is liberty,
thou carcst little how or where
2. o holy night from thee i learn to bear
what man has borne before
thou layest thy finger on the lips of care
ond they complain no more
GOOD FORM 19
3. when descends on the atlantic the gigantic
storm-wind of the equinox,
landward in his wrath he scourges the toiling surges,
laden with seaweed from the rocks :
from bermuda's reefs ; from edges of sunken ledges
in some far-off, bright azore ;
from bahama, and the dashing silver-flashing
surges of san salvadore
4. Monk, is this the road to Segovia
Shepherd, it is, your reverence
Monk, what is that yonder in the valley
Shepherd, san ildefonso
Monk, a long way to breakfast
Shepherd, ay, marry
Monk, are there any robbers in these mountains
Shepherd, yes, and worse than that
Monk, what
Shepherd, wolves
Monk, santa maria
Rule 14. Enclose in quotation marks every direct quotation.
Note i . Be sure to place quotation marks at the end as well as
at the beginning of a quotation.
Note 2. If unquoted explanatory words interrupt the quota-
tion, be sure to enclose the quotation on each side of them with
quotation marks.
Examples : " There are others in the party," said he. " Can't you
get their consent? " " I am afraid," he replied, " that I cannot."
Rule 15. J 17/ on the explanatory words follow the quotation,
close the quotation with a comma unless it is a question or
an exclamation,-- that is, when the words quoted would
end with a period if unquoted ; if they icon Id end with an
exclamation mark or an interrogation point, do not change
these marks in quoting.
20 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
l.\ wiii i s: "I am here.*' replied a voice.
" Who are you? " I asked.
I lush ! " was the only answer.
Rule 16. When the explanatory words precede the quota-
tion, set them off from it by a comma. Sometimes a long
quotation is introduced by a colon.
Examples : 1 summoned up courage to shout, " Do you need help? "
At the punch-bo\vl*s brink,
Let the thirsty think
What they say in Japan :
" First the man takes a drink,
Then the drink takes a drink,
Then the drink takes the man."
Edward Rowland Sill
Rule 17. When the explanatory ivords interrupt the quota-
tion, set them off from it on both sides by commas, if they
break into a sentence.
Example : " Is there a single boy," queried the master, solemnly,
" who will dare to tell the truth? "
Note. If the explanatory words come at the end of a quoted
sentence. Rule 15 applies, whether another quoted sentence follows
or not. These words are, of course, then followed by a period,
and the next quoted sentence, like every other sentence, begins
with a capital letter. If the unquoted words break into the midst
of a sentence, the second part does not, of course, begin with a
capital letter.
EXAMPLES: "I'm Jason."' he replied defiantly, "and this is the
0."
"I can't help it." he replied. " It's the best sort of Argo I can
manage, and it 's all right if you only pretend enough."
GOOD FORM 21
PUNCTUATION OF QUOTATIONS
Sentences containing quoted words in direct discourse are
of three types according as the explanatory words " He said,"
or their equivalent, precede, follow, or interrupt the quoted
words. The first three groups represent these types ; the
fourth group is equivalent to group II with other sentences
added. This last addition might, of course, be a whole para-
graph, and end punctuation might vary.
1. He said, " C_
2. He said, " C _?"
3. He said, " C ! "
II
4. " C ," he said.
5. " C ? " he said.
6. " C ! " he said.
Ill
7. " C ," he said, " I.e..
8. " C __," he said, " l.c ? "
9. " C ," he said, " l.c ! "
IV
10. "C ," he said. "C ?"
11. "C ?" he said. "C "
12. " C ! " he said. " C ! "
Note. C = capital ; l.c. = small letter.
FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 14 - Written
Punctuate and capitalize correctly the following quotations :
fire fire i screamed frantically
where cried hal, leaping up the stairs
i ran before him into the nursery, seizing a rug as i ran, and
half sobbed oh be quick
eleanor and robert were standing just where i had left them,
watching the leaping flames run along the curtains, mother shouted
rob in an almost delighted tone i fink we 've got a fire
eleanor, run to the telephone i said as calmly as possible and ask
central to call the fire engine take bob with you
no cried hal hastily it 's all over don't get any engine to deluge
us stop, eleanor
i discovered a heap of blackened curtains smoking under a rug
and hal examining a singed hand
Rule 18. Use the apostrophe to indicate the possessive
form of every name.
Examples: John's, Bess's, cat's, men's, girl's, Burns's. Burns' is
also correct, though Burns's is to be preferred. Carefully avoid placing
the apostrophe before the.*- which ends such words as Dickens, Holmes,
and Keats.
N< i ik i . Use the apostrophe and s after all names except plurals
ending in s (as girls) ; after these use the apostrophe only.
Nun; 2. Wver use the apostrophe to show possession with its,
hers, yours, ours, theirs, his. whose. It's means it is.
EXERCISE 15 - Written
Use in sentences possessive tonus of the following names,
both singular and plural, if a plural be possible. Use also the
plural, not possessive.
Washington
fortune
general
Mary
lord
colonel
lady
mayor
lieutenant
GOOD FORM
23
boy
farmer
servant
girl
doctor »
comrade
Bess
lawyer
playmate
bird
citizen
friend
cat
policeman
Arthur
dog
aunt
Boston
horse
uncle
Chicago
Jack
cousin
England
man
mother
Mr. Jones
American
father
Shakespeare
president
sister
Lincoln
pope
brother
city
husband
government
wife
parliament
captain
Shays
Rule 19. Use the apostrophe in place of omitted letters in
contractions.
Examples: I'm, can't, it's (= it is), we're, doesn't, don't, isn't,
have n't, let 's, etc.
EXERCISE 16 - Written
Supply apostrophes where needed in the following, and
give the rule governing the use of each :
1. Its a pity its wing is broken.
2. Lets play soldiers and 111 be captain.
3. Hers is as happy a face as youll see in a days journey.
4. The girls books were in worse condition than the boys.
5. " Twas the night before Christmas."
6. " Howeer it be, it seems to me
Tis only noble to be good."
7. " And he who follows Loves behest
Far excelleth all the rest! "
8. Whose book is this with its cover torn ?
9. Havent we had a happy day?
10. " Ive said my seven times over and over."
11. " O bumblebee, youre a dusty fellow."'
24 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
12. The childrcns voices sounded tired.
13. We filled the horses mangers with hay.
14. The conductors tone was impatient.
15. Babys eyes blinked sleepily.
16. The childrcns slippers havent come yet.
17. " Leave em alone
And theyll come home,
Wagging their tails behind them."
18. " If shes not gone, she lives there still."
19. Hows your mother? Youre taking her some oranges, arent you?
So I suppose shes better.
20. Heres wishing you a Happy New Year!
Rule 20. Use a comma to separate the words yes and no
from the rest of the sentence.
Examples : Yes, he bought them an hour ago. No, he would n't
wait.
EXERCISE 17 — Oral
What rules for the use of the comma have been given in
this chapter ? State them. What other rules have you learned
before ? Illustrate all the uses of the comma that you know,
and find examples in this chapter.
EXERCISE 18 — Written
Supply capital letters and marks of punctuation omitted
in the following :
lets pretend, suggested harold, that were cavaliers and round-
heads ; and you be a roundhead
well then he began afresh lets pretend were knights of the round
table ; and (with a rush) ill be lancelot
what is it inquired Charlotte, sitting up and shaking out her
curls
i stood spell-bound for a moment longer, and then with a cry of
"soldiers" i was off to the hedge, charlotte picking herself up
and scurrying after
GOOD FORM
25
is there going to be a battle panted harold, hardly able to keep
up for excitement
of course there is i replied were just in time come on
will they be indians inquired my brother (meaning the enemy) or
roundheads or what
i reflected, harold always required direct straightforward answers
— not faltering supposition they wont be indians, i replied at last ;
nor yet roundheads, there have nt been any roundheads seen
about here for a long time theyll be frenchmen
Adapted from Kenneth Grahame, " The Golden Age "
C. CORRECT USAGE
EXERCISE 19 — Written or Oral
Use in a sensible sentence each correct form given below.
Be careful not to make the mistakes indicated in the second
column. These expressions are all frequently used, but are
childish or vulgar.
Say
1. is n't, aren't
2. have n't, has n't
3. must have, could have, would
have, etc.
4. had
5. have to
6. have somebody do something
7. teach somebody something
fdid
f saw
8 - any0ne ihr s done| anything
9. any one<!
[.has seen
he ")
10. she I does n't
it J
anything
11. ought
r«o
Never say
ain't
ain't got, hain't got
must of, could of, would of, etc.
had of, had have
haf to
have somebody to do something
learn somebody something
fdone 1 . .
any one-^ , ,. , }- anything
I has did J
[.to have
seen
any one< ,
(Jias saw
he
she \~ don't
it
had ought
anything
26
FIRST HOOK OF COMPOSITION
Say
j not to
12. ought-,
[.not to have
fmany, a few, two
13. there are-^ J
{_ or more
14. you were
15. COuld \ hardly
can J
no, none, nothing
none
16. hardly
had
17. have
has
._ is, are "1
18. ^no,
was, were J
19. the man
the woman
20. this, that, these, those
21. himself, themselves
22. those boys, those books, etc.
_„ the person who or thatl
the thing which or that J
me
24. between you and-
him
her
them
fto go out, in, etc.
25. want^ &
^ to get up, down, etc.
f studied
26. as far as N went
[read
27. very good, pretty, etc.
28. off
Never say
had n't ought
there is many, a few, two or more
you was
™uld ntj
can't J
don't "1 , ,,
d,dn't| hardly
hadn't "1
haven't [-got no, none, nothing
has n't J
is n't, are n't
was n't, were n't
the man, he
the woman, she, etc.
this here, that there, etc.
hisself, theirselves
them boys, them books, etc.
no, none
the person which
between you and
n
he
she
[they
want in, out, up, down, etc.
all the farther I got
real good, pretty, etc.
off of, off from, off 'n
GOOD FORM 27
D. BUSINESS LETTERS
The form of composition most frequently used outside of
school is letter-writing. Nearly every one writes friendly let-
ters or letters of business, letters inquiring prices, ordering
goods, directing workmen, and the like. Consequently letter-
writing is the form of composition that we most quickly
recognize as of practical value.
But in spite of all this, the fact remains that only a small
proportion of people write a good business letter. Much of
the criticism that business men pass on the work of the
schools is caused by the poor letters that come to them day
after clay. A great deal of time is wasted and money lost be-
cause customers express themselves poorly or incompletely
in their letters. Why ? Is it that they do not think what
such letters demand ?
What does a good business letter demand ? First, a form
that is practically unvarying, a form from which the reader
can in a moment tell where the writer lives, when he wrote,
to whom, and, finally, who he is. A good business man wants
to give all the time necessary to a piece of work, but no more.
With him time is money. Consequently the writer who follows
the commonest form of letter-writing will get himself under-
stood best and most quickly. Some parts of that form may
seem unnecessary, a useless relic of olden times ; but until
custom changes these parts, we can save time for ourselves
and our correspondents by doing as others do.
No one has a good excuse for making any error in the
form of his letter. First, one must memorize the form, and
then he must use it again and again until he has gained the
habit of writing it correctly. Following are model forms,
showing also the way letters are placed on different sizes
of paper.
28 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
PLATE III
<7
-ma/ico/I -utt'/st, G/ -iAe^t^ti^; oo^u-e-i <££& ore-
'sOafld. ^-i-U^lt
'■■W &@. ^g-tzdd&vi.
GOOD FORM 29
PLATE IV
<3€. < -f@. CM&c3@'CU--i t / \ - ft/Aa^y,,
■awe
^Ae ^■ad-i -efi %£■€■ ■u-aa-fi -ci-nd -t-n-e- -cJia-t-^ed fii-t
^■a^u^d ■£4-wC'W /
jXaA'-si. C/£. ^js^c^id.
30 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
The six formal parts of a business letter, which are num-
bered in the models, are: (i) the heading, (2) the address,
(3) the salutation, (4) the body of the letter, (5) the leave-
taking, or complimentary close, (6) the signature.
The heading (1) should be placejd one or two inches from
the top of the page and so spaced as to leave a small margin
at the right. The heading may fall into one, two, three, or
even four lines, depending on how much it must contain.
Very large or very obscure towns demand more detail than
others. Give in the heading all the information that the
mail service needs in finding your home.
The heading also includes the date. This should never be
omitted, as it is often important when reference is made to
the letter. The order given in the model (January 5, 1900)
is that generally used, and though a strong argument may
be made for a more logical order (5 January, 1900), custom
both in America and in England, the home of propriety
in letter-writing, has certainly approved the former order.
Many business houses, but not those most careful of their
custom, write 1/5/00. This should be avoided for two
reasons : First, it shows unseemly haste ; second, it may
easily be confused with the order used by Quakers and other
sects, 5/1/00, in which the day is indicated first, then the
month, and finally the year. In matters of business one
cannot be too exact.
The address (2) of the person or firm to whom the letter is
written is placed one or two spaces below the date and begin-
ning at the margin on the left. This is, of course, partly a
convention, but not infrequently letters go astray and may
by this address be identified ; and in large correspondence,
where letters are placed in envelopes by clerks, this address
preceding the body of the letter is an absolute necessity.
GOOD FORM 31
The salutation (3) is largely mere form, which we follow
because it is the custom. In business letters one should use
Sir or Sirs or Gentlemen or My dear Sir, Madam or My
dear Madam. In addressing an institution, as, for example,
The American Pathological Institute, it is permissible to use
these forms of salutation, though it is better to address some
officer, as the president or the secretary or the manager. All
words in such salutations should begin with capital letters
except the word dear. Regarding that, custom varies ; most
people write My dear Sir, others My Dear Sir. After the
salutation use the colon or the colon and a dash.
The body (4) of the letter requires thought. If a writer
desires prompt and accurate service, he has no right to be
careless or rambling or unclear in his letter. He must first
decide what he wishes to say ; then he must try to say it as
briefly and as clearly as possible. He must, at the same time,
be sure to include all necessary information. It is far better,
of course, to tell too much than not enough.
If the writer wishes information, he should make his ques-
tions real questions. For example, he should write, " What
is the price of your No. 273 skates, listed in your catalogue
No. 32, page 6 J ? " not, "lam not certain what the price of
these skates is." In either case he may get an answer ; but
if he really wishes to know, he should ask.
In like manner, if there are several questions or several
items in the order or several topics in the letter, list each one
in a separate paragraph. It is easy to do, and it saves unneces-
sary labor, which somebody - - the customer, of course, in the
end — must pay for.
In replying to a letter one should refer to each question
separately, preferably repeating the substance of it, so that
the recipient of the letter may understand exactly what the
32 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
writer means. Write, " The skates No. 273, listed in our
catalogue No. 32, page 6j, we sell for two dollars a pair."
Then there is no possibility of confusion.
As a rule, avoid contractions, lit., inst., prox, (meaning
last month, this month, the next month) are commonly used,
however, in business letters. Some people have a habit of
writing in letters sentences without a subject, — for instance,
" Have considered your questions," instead of " I have con-
sidered your questions." This may save a moment of time,
but it seems hurried and indifferent. As Emerson has said,
life is not so short but there is always time enough for courtesy.
Moreover, there is sure to be occasional confusion or misun-
derstanding on account of this slovenliness, and more time
will be spent in setting matters straight than can be saved
through vears of such omissions.
The leave-taking (5) is to-day only formal, a relic and
reminder of days when men took their hats gracefully and
departed with grandeur. Styles have changed in this matter
quite as much as in clothes. Once it was proper for George
Washington, even though ex-president, to write in a letter to
an inferior, ' I am, sir, your most obedient sen-ant, etc."
To-day such a leave-taking would seem as affected and out
of place as a colonial costume. In business letters we write
almost without exception, " Yours truly," ' Yours very truly,"
' Yours respectfully." It should be noted that only the first
w< >rd of the leave-taking begins.with a capital letter and that
Yours," like all other pronouns, does notlorm its possessive
by the use of an apostrophe. Here, as elsewhere, of course,
abbreviations are unnecessary. ' Yrs etc." is inexcusable.
The signature (6) ordinarily concludes the business letter.
This should in all cases be legible, neither careless nor ornate.
Some people form a bad habit of signing their names with a
GOOD FORM 33
flourish that is intended to be impressive, but is often illegi-
ble and absurd. If the letter is signed by another person
than the writer, he should add under the signature the word
by or the Latin word per, which means " by," and his own name
or initials. By or per, when so used, is not begun with a
capital letter.
When a woman signs her name to a business letter it is
not clear to a stranger whether she is married or single, and
so he does not know how to address her in reply. Conse-
quently a woman should prefix to her signature Miss or
Mrs. in parentheses, — as,
Yours very truly,
(Mrs.) Mary Jones.
Or she may sign her name
Yours very truly,
Mary Jones.
and then write below, beginning at the left-hand margin :
Please address
Mrs. George T. Jones.
The words Please address may be omitted. A married woman
should give her husband's name preceded by Mrs. ; a widow,
usually her own name, as Mrs. Mary Jones. In other words,
a woman should indicate how she wishes letters to her
addressed. Conversely, in answering a letter, address' the
writer by the name signed.
Sometimes, for convenience, the address of the writer is
repeated below the signature. This is not necessary, how-
ever, as it has already been given in the heading.
If a letter consists of more than one sheet, the sheets
should be carefully arranged in order, preferably being num-
bered at the top. If letter paper, usually 8 by 10 inches
34
FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
in size, has been used, it should be folded once from the
bottom, the crease being not quite halfway up the paper, then
folded from the right, and finally from the left to fit the
envelope. If note paper, approximately 5 by 8 inches in size,
has been used, the first fold should be up from the bottom,
the second down from the top. This may seem a trivial matter,
but it saxes the time and the patience of the recipient.
PLATES V
When enclosing a stamp, never, as many people do, attach
it to the paper by a part of its mucilage. It too frequently
tears and is ruined when one tries to detach it. With a sharp
knife cut two parallel slits in the paper, and through these
slip the stamp ; or, better still, wrap it in oiled paper and en-
close it in the folded letter. Always enclose a stamp when
GOOD FORM 35
requesting a reply from some one who would not be expected,
through friendship or business interest, to reply without it.
When making an enclosure of any kind, mention the fact,
either in the body of the letter or by adding " Enclosure "
near the left-hand margin and below the signature.
The envelope should be addressed so that the post-office
department can with the least possible effort deliver the
letter. To this end the stamp must be affixed in the proper
place, the upper right-hand corner, the writing must be legi-
ble, and the necessary items of the superscription arranged in
their proper order, — first the name, then the street and
number or post-office box, then the county, if it is neces-
sary to give that, and finally the state. If the letter is sent
in care of some one, that fact may be indicated in a line im-
mediately following the name or in the lower left-hand corner.
In all of the models notice the position and spacing of the
items. The arrangement of details on an envelope often
varies ; it should, however, be neat and easily read.
PLATE VI
•<> r>.
5^
FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
PLATE VII
^ [&1. <<=&<mszt&f J$. <td@t>4lfo#nd >
1-CZAe- -diL S' ■'■■■ < J&14.W&M.J
The omission on envelopes of all punctuation except that
absolutely necessary is often practised. In that case the super-
scription would read as follows, periods being used only to
indicate abbreviations.
PLATE VIII
James T. Lewis & Co
216 Water Street
Winchester
Indiana
GOOD FORM 37
It is wise to write out in full the name of the city and the
state. Likewise many titles, when used before a name or
on the envelope, should be written out. Write " Professor
George J. Benton," " Colonel Benjamin R. Bacon," " Judge
Lewis C. Jenkins," 'Reverend John C. Overstreet." How-
ever, Doctor and a few other titles are commonly abbrevi-
ated. Titles are usually prefixed to the name if they would
be used in addressing the man in speech ; otherwise, if the
title is to be written at all, it should be placed in a line
immediately following the name. Never write " Hon. Brown "
or " Rev. Smith " or " Rev. Dr. George U. Smith " or " Prof.
J. F. Royster, Ph.D."
PLATE IX
Punctilious writers use Esq. or Esquire after the name of
those men for whom they wish to show marked respect or
honor ; but when this title is appended, no other one should be
prefixed to the name. One should never write " Mr. Lewis Y.
Jackson, Esquire." But this use of " Esquire is a nicety
observed by but few, even in friendly letters, where one is
much more personal than in business.
^7235
38 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
During one year the Chicago post office handled more than
two and one-half billion pieces of mail matter, weighing over
175,000 tons. Of this enormous bulk 99.9964 per cent was
handled without error, the records indicating only one mis-
take in 27,130 pieces. But the public made more than ten
million mistakes in addressing mail - - one wrong out of every
146 pieces mailed, or 0.7 per cent. The necessity for using
care in writing addresses is obvious.
PLATE X
CM&t. J$cbcdU<wi CMi^J^cCei^y^^ St.,
EXERCISE 20 — Written
Be sure in every case that the form is right. Until you
write the form correctly as a matter of habit, look over your
work to see that you have included all six of the essential
parts of a business letter, that they are in the proper order,
that the formal punctuation is used, and that capital letters
are in the right places.
a. Write forms for the following letters, neglecting the
body. Also address an envelope for each letter.
GOOD FORM 39
i . A letter to Aimer Coe, 74 State Street, Chicago.
2. A letter to Alexander Steinmetz and Company, who
have a store at 327 North Hastings Street, in the capital
city of California.
3. One letter from John L. Macklin's wife, whose name
is Mary, to her dressmaker ; another from her to a firm with
which she has never before dealt.
4. A letter to John Matthews Manly, head of the depart-
ment of English in The University of Chicago.
5. One letter from the widow of the late William H.
Sawyer to her attorney ; another from her to the Pure Food
Company, 87 Battle Avenue, Cincinnati.
/;. Write the following letters in full.
1 . Order a bill of groceries from a merchant in your own
town.
2. Send $1.50 to the publishers, Houghton Mifflin Com-
pany, Boston, and ask to have a copy of William Vaughan
Moody's " Poems " mailed to a friend of yours.
3. As applicant for some position, you need to refer to a
former teacher. Write asking for permission.
4. Apply for the position. State everything that your
prospective employer is likely to wish to know.
5. You are staying at the Auditorium Hotel, Chicago, for
a fortnight. Write to your postmaster at home, asking him
to forward your mail to your new address. Second-class mail
matter cannot be forwarded without extra postage. What shall
he do about it ?
6. Write to The Perry Mason Co., 201 Columbus Ave-
nue, Boston, Massachusetts, and ask them to send your copy
of the Youth 's Companion to your summer home during the
hot season. Be sure that you give them all the information
they need.
4 o FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
7. Imagine yourself in a very small town on Easter
Monday. Write to John Alexander, 395 Wall Street, New
York, asking him to send you a copy of a book. Have you
a charge account with him ?
8. As manager of your baseball team, order a bill of three
or four items from A. G. Spaulding & Brothers, 147 Wabash
Avenue, Chicago. How shall the goods be sent ?
9. A young woman wrote to A. C. Jenkins & Co.,
247 Seventh Street, Chicago, for twenty copies of "An-
drew Lang's Fairy Books." The company replied that as
there are a Green Fairy Book, a Red Fairy Book, a Purple
Fairy Book, etc., all edited by Mr. Lang, they did not know
which to send. They also stated that the price of each book
is Si. 50 and asked how the books should be sent. To this
the young woman replied. Write the three letters.
10. Miss Pauline Ship of Elizabeth City, North Carolina,
wrote to Curtis & Cameron, Pierce Building, Boston, asking
the price of a Copley print of Burne-Jones's picture " Hope,"
and requesting a catalogue of their publications. The pub-
lishers courteously replied that their catalogues are sent only
on receipt of twenty-five cents and that the Burne-Jones
picture is published in several sizes, on each of which they
quote a price. Owing to a mistake of Miss Ship herself, the
letter for her is delivered to her cousin, Peter Ship. (What
was her error ?) Upon receiving the letter finally, she sent
twenty-five cents and requested a copy of the catalogue. This
the publishers sent, with a letter hoping to be favored with
an order. Miss Ship ordered a picture, and the publishers
acknowledged the order. Write these six letters and an
envelope for each.
CHAPTER III
DEFINITENESS
EXERCISE 21 — Oral
READING AND STUDYING A DEFINITE DESCRIPTION
Read carefully Jim Hawkins's description of Treasure
Island as the ship approached it. Prepare for oral reading
and be ready to answer the questions that follow the selection.
a. A belt of fog had lifted almost simultaneously with the appear-
ance of the moon. Away to the southwest of us we saw two low
hills, about a couple of miles apart, and rising behind one of them
a third and higher hill, whose peak was still buried in fog. All
three seemed sharp and conical in figure.
b. The appearance of the island when I came on deck next
morning was altogether changed. We were now lying becalmed
about half a mile to the southeast of the low eastern coast. Grey-
coloured woods covered a large part of the surface. This even tint
was indeed broken up by streaks of yellow sandbreak in the lower
lands, and by many tall trees of the pine family, out-topping the
others — some singly, some in clumps : but the general colouring
was uniform and sad. The hills ran up clear above the vegetation
in spires of naked rock. All were strangely shaped, and the Spy-
glass, which was by three or four hundred feet the tallest on the
island, was likewise the strangest in configuration, running up
sheer from almost every side, and then suddenly cut off at the top
like a pedestal to put a. statue on.
c. We brought up just where the anchor was on the chart, about
a third of a mile from either shore, the mainland on one side and
Skeleton Island on the other. The bottom was clean sand. The
plunge of our anchor sent up clouds of birds wheeling and crying
4i
42 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
over the woods ; but in less than a minute they were down again,
and all was once more silent.
The place was entirely land-locked, buried in woods, the trees
coming right down to high-water mark, the shores mostly flat, and
the hills standing round at a distance in a sort of amphitheatre, one
here, one there. . . . The foliage around that part of the shore
had a kind of poisonous brightness.
There was not a breath of air moving, nor a sound but that of
the surf booming half a mile away along the beaches and against
the rocks outside. A peculiar stagnant smell hung over the anchor-
age — a smell of sodden leaves and rotting tree trunks. I observed
the doctor sniffing and sniffing, like some one tasting a bad egg. •
" I don't know about treasure," he said, " but I '11 stake my wig
there 's fever here." — Stevenson, " Treasure Island *'
a. How far away do you imagine the ship here ? What
time of day is it ? What did Jim notice ?
b. How had the appearance of the island " altogether
changed " ? Why ? What details given here could not have
been seen before ? Describe the island as you see it from
this point of view.
c. What further changes are here described ? What could
not have been seen before ? What details make this seem a
disagreeable place ?
In general. What words make the scene most real to you ?
Define conical, spires, pedestal, amphitheatre, stagnant.
This description makes us see the scene vividly because it
is definite. It is important for the understanding of the story
that all readers shall see pretty nearly the same thing here
— so important, indeed, that, besides this careful word-picture,
the author has given a map of the island. You have noticed
that the description is definite in four ways : first, in subject ;
second, in details ; third, in point of view ; and fourth, in
words. Each of these kinds of definiteness is important, and
each will be considered in turn.
DEFINITENESS 43
A. DEFINITE SUBJECT
EXERCISE 22 — Written
NARROWING A SUBJECT
From a composition already written see whether you can
choose a smaller part of your subject to write on more defi-
nitely. For example, from "A Picnic," you might select
"My First Boat Ride," or "Games in the Park," or "An
Upset." Write on this definite subject.
EXERCISE 23 — Written
WRITING ON A CLEARLY DEFINED SUBJECT
Picture a scene that you might call " in Autumn,"
describing some particular spot at some particular hour, in-
cluding no people, no motion, no sound, except such sound
and motion as might be indicated in a painting. Make only
one paragraph.
EXERCISE 24 — Oral
FINDING DEFINITE SUBJECTS
In the following brief composition .find at least five good
subjects for more interesting narratives. Which would you
choose, and why ?
A TRIP TO THE CITY
Last fall I took a trip to Chicago, and had a very good time.
We left home on the early car, and after a good deal of trouble
arrived at the station. The through train had gone, and we had to
take the slow one. On the way we ran into the end of a freight
car and smashed some of our windows, but nobody was hurt. In
Chicago we visited Lincoln Park and the animals there. We also
went to Marshall Field's and I bought some Christmas presents.
44 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
One day we saw a. play. I enjoyed the street sights as much as
anything, for I had never been in a big city before. We came
home after a week's visit and were sorry to leave. Our house
seemed very quiet that night.
You have already noticed that the choice of a subject on
which you can write sincerely is very important ; the choice
of a subject fitted to your purpose is hardly less so. If you
were to write a whole book or even a magazine story, the
life of a poor newsboy might be appropriate ; but if you are
to write only a one-page theme, a picture of the little fellow
shivering on some particular street-corner at some particular
time will probably give your readers a better notion of him
than so condensed an account of his life. It is well to remem-
ber, too, that a page of your writing is not nearly equal to a
page of print ; compare, for instance, your copy of the dictation
exercise from Chapter II with the original in the book.
EXERCISE 25 - Written
MAKING DEFINITE TITLES TO SHOW DEFINITE SUBJECTS
Make ten titles suitable for one-page themes suggested by
the following large topics. Make definite titles which would
suggest exactly the subject-matter of the theme.
1. Electricity.
2. Living Out-of-doors.
3. Baseball in America.
4. New York City.
5. The History of the United States.
6. The Civil War.
7. The Story of My Life.
8. Arithmetic.
9. Games.
10. Work and Play.
DEFINITENESS 45
In an argument it is necessary in the very beginning for
the disputants to agree as to what they are arguing about, —
in other words, to select a definite subject for the more or
less informal composition. Not infrequently two persons,
although really in perfect agreement, will dispute acrimoni-
ously, simply because neither one takes pains to make his
terms absolutely definite. In such a case it is clear that sin-
cerity and good form, unsupported by definiteness, will be
far from effective. In any event, no one can well be convinced
unless he knows exactly what the dispute is about.
If some one hears, "His conduct is indefensible," it is
perfectly obvious that he must know what the conduct was
and the circumstances before he can agree or disagree with
the statement ; but it is not always so obvious that there must
be perfect definiteness in the terms where they are not so
baldly stated. Often, without waiting for explanation, some
one will interpret, or misinterpret, for himself and thus create
an unnecessary issue. And even in formal debate it some-
times happens that, because of an inexactly stated topic, each
side will find itself in essential agreement with the other.
EXERCISE 26 - Oral
MAKING A DEFINITE TITLE FOR ARGUMENT
a. Restate the following topics so that they may be defi-
nitely discussed.
1. Girls should not participate in athletics.
2. Idle men should not be tolerated in town.
3. Examinations are useless.
4. Pupils should be permitted to study together.
5. Unionism should be supported by everybody.
6. Everybody should attend church every Sunday.
46 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
b. From the following subjects make good, definite topics
for argument.
1. Manual training in the schools. 5. Shylock's character.
2. Elective studies. 6. School fraternities.
3. Interscholastic contests. 7. Free textbooks.
4. Student self-government. 8. Weekly holidays.
EXERCISE 27 -Oral
STICKING TO A DEFINITE SUBJECT
Of course there is no virtue in having a definite title if the
writer does not stick to it. This matter of sticking to the
point will be studied more carefully later (Chapter V). For
the present, remember that the subject must be very carefully
defined or limited, not only in your title but in your own
thought and in your expression of it.
a. What is wrong with the following composition ?
Picture of a Building
I am standing in front of a large castle. This castle is built of
stone blocks, making it look old and gray. The sky is blue and the
birds are singing. The grass is very green, and the sun is just
coming up toward the east. Down near the door I see an old man,
half lying and half sitting. He is very poor and seems to be in
great agony. I can hear him groan as if crying for help. His hair
is long and gray.
b. Speak briefly on one of the following subjects, being
careful to stick to it.
1. Why the days grow short in winter.
2. How to attract the birds.
3. Why I did (not) like our hotel.
4. How the garbage is collected.
5. How asphalt (or macadamized) roads are laid.
6. How cotton is ginned and baled.
DEFINITENESS 47
7. How a typewriter works.
8. What happens at the fire-engine house when an alarm is rung in.
9. How to drag an earth road.
10. How broom corn is cut.
11. How to put in a sleeve.
12. How to plane a board.
B. DEFINITE DETAILS
One reason why a small, very definite topic is better than
a large, vague one, is because on such a topic we can write
briefly and yet give the definite little details that prove our
sincerity and interest our reader. All of us like to read
stories in which the writer gives specific, definite little acts
and looks of the characters, and tells exactly how to picture
the scene. All of us like to receive letters that definitely
tell the little things instead of merely, 'I am having a
good time," or " School is very much changed this year."
Since the choice of details is very important if we wish to
make a letter interesting, it will be studied more at length
in the next chapter.
EXERCISE 28 — Written and Oral
CHOOSING DEFINITE DETAILS
Make lists of details that you might mention in writing on
each of the five topics suggested by Exercise 24. Discuss
these in class, choosing the most definite and appropriate.
EXERCISE 29 — Written or Oral
WRITING OR SPEAKING SINCERELY AND DEFINITELY
Write or speak on one of the five topics discussed in
Exercise 28. Choose the one nearest to your own experience.
Give a sincere and definite picture.
48 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 30 — Written
DESCRIBING WITH DEI [NITE DETAILS
Go out and look for a little scene worth describing ; note
on the spot details that yoin need in order to make others
see it vividly. Write the description.
EXERCISE 31 — Oral or Written
EXPLAINING WITH DEFINITE DETAILS
Speak or write on one of these topics, choosing your details
with care to make every point clear.
1. How a gasoline engine works.
2. How wireless messages are sent.
3. How a sewing machine ties a thread.
4. How a cluck is adapted for swimming.
C. DEFINITE POINT OF VIEW
From what point of view i.s Treasure Island (pages 4 1-42)
first pictured ? How has the point of view changed in the
second description ? in the third ? The term point of view
includes more than mere position. In this case, not only does
the ship approach the island, but the day comes tp reveal
details. Stevenson never loses his point of view ; that is, he
always pictures things as they would appear to a given person
in a given position under given circumstances.
In the composition on the boy returning home over the
hill (page 12) the writer keeps the point of view well until
he comes to the clots in the necktie and the buttons on the
coat sleeve. He could scarcely have seen these from his sup-
posed position. When could he have seen them ? A break
in the point of view, such as this, shows insincerity. If you
are sincere, you will not make such mistakes.
DEFINITENESS 49
EXERCISE 32 — Oral
SEEING THE DEFINITE POINT OF VIEW
In these two descriptions note every detail and every word
that indicates the physical point of view of the writer, as near
or far, looking up, down, or across. Note also the attitude,
or mental point of view, of the writer.
NEAR AND FAR, LOOKING UP
[We] explored Pompeii's weird and haggard ruins. I am afraid
we were not very keen on the archaeology, but the scenic effects
and the intimate human suggestiveness were most interesting.
There lay the little city, scarred and deserted, the ashes of the
homes of men, with la Vesuve, stern and secret, rising up behind
it, overlooking the havoc it had wrought without relenting. The
sky was purest blue, the ruins gray, with here and there the relief
of pinks and yellows in the ancient frescoes ; just beyond rose a
file of stone pine-trees, like sentinels overlooking the desolation of
a fought-out field of battle. The silence was profound and yet to
me it was strangely soulless, and the impression left deepest upon
my mind was of a piercing and sinister mockery. I was glad at last
to get away from those gaudy futilities of domestic decoration flung
like a dead beggar's rags against the pitiless majesty of Vesuvius.
NEAR AND FAR, LOOKING DOWN
The situation is beautiful beyond description, a combination of
sternness in the ensemble with luxuriant softness in the detail,
which surpasses even Capri and Sorrento. Our casement windows
on the east open upon a great paved terrace overhanging the Gulf
of Salerno and full-fronting the austere and jagged peak of Monte
Fenestra. The terrace rail is embowered in a wealth of Banksia
roses and the white stone seat lining the parapet conjures an Alma
Tadema picture instantly before the eyes.
Below us in their narrow valleys cluster the small hamlets of
Minori and Maiori with their tiny strip of beach, the high road of
Salerno passing around the cliff's edge like a thread. The bold
50 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
headland of Capo d'Orso bounds the near view, where the tur-
quoise blue water of the gulf laps its feet, but beyond the cliffs and
beyond the sea lies the far plain of Pai'stum, and, rising beyond
the still snowy peaks of the Apennines, faintly outlined like a vision
of some jewelled city celestial through the sun-steeped haze. . . .
Straight before me, down the steep cliff side, rise the spires of
cypress-trees; two umbrella pines stand up stark against the sky;
sheer below me is the intensely blue Salernian water ; these white,
ivy-grown pillars at my right hand and at my left-frame in the panel.
Caroline Atwater Mason, "The Spell of Italy" 1
EXERCISE 33 - Written
PICTURING WITH A DEFINITE POINT OF VIEW IX PLACE
Picture a scene "Looking Down" or 'Looking Up."
Keep your point of view so well that the class can readily
guess your position without hearing the title. Be sure not
to change the time ; keep it past or present throughout.
Here are two good specimens of this kind of writing.
a. I see a long wide strip of yellowish, brownish, green some-
thing which must be grass. Stretching across this in all directions
are tiny black lines that look like hairs from a black cat's back. At
the farther end of this strip, between two twin-sister hills, lies
something which looks like either a piece of sky dropped down or
a mirror turned right side up. From this a narrow silver ribbon
winds down into a brilliantly colored bit of wood. At the left of
this I see a bit of woodland which looks like the rainbow wound
into a ball and dropped.
b. I see the sun shining through the leaves of the tree, and in
places the blue sky with dreamy white clouds floating across it.
The leaves of the tree are green, hut up the trunk and along the
boughs some woodbine runs, the leaves of which are beautiful with
their red and yellow showing brightly against the brown bark and
the more sombre green leaves of the tree. Far up in the fork of a
branch I see a brown bird's-nest built snugly there.
1 Copyright, 1909, by L. C. Page & Company, Inc.
UEFINITENESS 51
EXERCISE 34 — Oral
STUDYING WAYS OF SHOWING DEFINITE POINT OF VIEW
The point of view differs not only with position but with
circumstances, as you have already seen. Study carefully the
following paragraphs from Stevenson's " Travels with a Don-
key." How are you kept reminded of the fact that it is night ?
Why does Stevenson say at first that he tied Modestine to a
branch, and later saw her tied to a beech ? How do you know
that the clouds have cleared and a fair day is coming ? How
do you know, from the paragraph beginning "Twice in the
course of the dark hours," that the writer is lying down ?
Define and use in good sentences the following words :
density, discriminate, unmitigated, haggard, desponding,
livid, abating, inimitable. Find every word or expression
that helps to show definite point of view of place, of time,
and of person, noting especially how the point of view may
be suggested by a single word.
Suddenly, at a single swoop, the night fell. I have been abroad
in many a black night, but never in a blacker. A glimmer of rocks,
a glimmer of the track where it was well beaten, a certain fleecy
density, or night within night, for a tree, — this was all that I could
discriminate. The sky was simply darkness overhead ; even the fly-
ing clouds pursued their way invisibly to human eyesight. I could
not distinguish my hand at arm's length from the track, nor my
goad, at the same distance, from the meadows or the sky.
At last black trees began to show upon my left, and, suddenly
crossing the road, made a cave of unmitigated blackness right in
front. I call it a cave without exaggeration ; to pass below that arch
of leaves was like entering a dungeon. I felt about until my hand
encountered a stout branch, and to this I tied Modestine, a haggard,
drenched, desponding donkey. . . .
I touched the spirit lamp. . . . The wind roared unwearyingly
among the trees ; I could hear the boughs tossing and the leaves
5 2 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
churning through half a mile of forest ; yet the scene of my encamp-
ment was not only as black as the pit, but admirably sheltered. At
the second match the wick caught flame. The light was both livid
and shifting ; but it cut me off from the universe, and doubled the
darkness of the surrounding night. . . .
The wind among the trees was my lullaby. Sometimes it sounded
for minutes together with a steady even rush, not rising nor abating ;
and again it would swell and burst like a great crashing breaker,
and the trees would patter me all over with big drops from the rain
of the afternoon. . . .
Twice in the course of the dark hours ... 1 was recalled for a
brief while to consciousness, and saw a star or two overhead and
the lace-like edge of the foliage against the sky. When I awoke for
the third time (Wednesday, September 25th!. the world was flooded
with a blue light, the mother of the dawn. I saw the leaves labor-
ing in the wind, and the ribbon of the road ; and, on turning my
head, there was Modestine tied to a beech, and standing half across
the path in an attitude of inimitable patience.
Stevenson, "Travels with a Donkey"
EXERCISE 35 — Oral
POINT OF VIEW IN TIME
What is wrong with the point of view in the following
composition ? What shows insincerity here ?
The night was pitchy black. As we groped our way along, a tall
dark man passed us. At that moment he took out his watch, and
under his coat we caught the gleam of a revolver.
EXERCISE 36 — Written
PICTURING WITH A DEFINITE POINT OK VIEW AS TO
PLACE AND TIME
Write on one of the following topics :
1. Down Cellar in the Dark.
2. Going up to Bed.
3. In tin- ( harden at Night.
DEFINITENESS 53
4. When the Street Lamps Went Out.
5. Coming Home at Midnight.
6. Down the Wet Street at Night.
7. How Day Comes in Our Street.
8. The City from the Roof at Night.
9. My Room at 3 A.M.
10. From a Train at Night.
Do not tell a story, but give a picture, though it may be a
moving picture. By the way in which you describe everything
keep your reader constantly reminded of the darkness. The
following theme may prove suggestive. Can you improve on it ?
Just as the town clock struck midnight I reached the gate in
front of our house. The moon was almost hidden behind a dark
cloud. A mysterious stillness filled the air and was broken only by
the stamp of the horses' hoofs in a barn near by, and the bark of
some dog. Across the street and at my feet were little pools of
shiny, black-looking water. A neighbor's house directly in front
of me cast dark, queer shadows across the road. Farther down the
street was a high square something, and near it a large black oblong
with a cupola at one end. Many things looking like great black
singing-tops turned upside down were scattered about. Away in
the distance was a long black wall with a glimmer of light in one
end of it. Slowly coming toward me was something white and
ghostly. By the sudden turning of a corner I saw it was a white
horse drawing a spring-wagon behind it. Moving around farther
away was a tall object looking like a fence post, and it was carrying
a lantern which gave out a pale gleam of light.
EXERCISE 37 — Oral or Written
PICTURING THE SAME SCENE FROM TWO POINTS
OF VIEW
Describe a room in daylight, and the same room as dark-
ness gathers or as day breaks. Choose a room of some dis-
tinct character, and do not merely catalogue the contents, but
give a picture. Be since?? ; tell what you see. Try to name
54 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
the various shapes that you sec in the dusk, and thus avoid
repetition of the words something or object. The following
theme is faulty in this respect. What good descriptive
phrases has it ?
From the cellar door where I am, things look very mvsterious
and ghostly. To my right, and back a little bit, is something square
and of an indistinct gray color. I can see only one corner of it. for
it joins the wall on one side and extends back a long way. In front
of it is something about half as tall, rather narrow and round. It
glimmers in the darkness. At the left of me is something tall,
slim, and white. On this are hanging great, mysterious dark and
light things that look like people standing in a long silent row.
At the farther end of the room is something that shines some-
times, and in some places is black. It has arms that extend upward
and outward, and at its feet I can see something red and fiery
that looks like the eyes of a monster. In front of me is the most
awful object of all. It is long and black and is raised up off the
floor. It looks just like a coffin.
EXERCISE 38 — Oral
THE NARRATOR'S POINT OF VIEW
How is the dog's point of view given here ?
The Master was walking most unsteady, his legs tripping each
other. But even when the Master's legs twist and bend a bit, you
mustn't think he can't reach you. Indeed, that is the time he
kicks most frequent. So I kept behind him in the shadow, or ran in
the middle of the street. He stopped at many public houses with
swinging doors, those doors that are cut so high from the sidewalk
that you can look in under them, and see if the Master is inside.
At night, when I peep beneath them, the man at the counter will
see me first and say, " Here 's the Kid, Jerry, come to take you
home. Get a move on you " ; and the Master will stumble out and
follow me. It 's lucky for us I 'm so white, for, no matter how dark
the night, he can always see me ahead, just out of reach of his foot.
Richard Harding Davis, " The Bar Sinister''
DEFINITENESS 55
EXERCISE 39 - Written
WRITING FROM ANOTHER'S POINT OF VIEW
If you can imagine the feelings of a horse, write the account
of his first meeting with an automobile as told by himself ;
or write an account of a fire as given by one of the engine
horses. If you prefer, you may give the canary's description
of the house cat, or your dog's report of an adventure with a
tramp, or some similar narrative. Be sure to keep the point
of view of the animal, though of course you will make him
more or less human in many ways.
D. DEFINITE WORDS
Not only must we have a definite subject, definite details,
and a definite point of view ; but in order to express these
we must command definite words, and use them exactly.
Here again sincerity enters ; for if we really care to tell the
truth about what we hear or see or imagine or think, we shall
not be satisfied with any but precisely the right word to fit
our need. Then if we are caring about these definite words,
we shall be likely to keep a sharper lookout, and to think
more clearly too. So definite words give us more definite
thoughts, and definite thoughts give us more definite words
— or at least set us to seeking for them.
EXERCISE 40 — Oral and Written
THE VALUE OF A DEFINITE WORD
A part of growing-up ought to be growing in ability to see
differences and distinctions, and to find words that express
these. Some people seem to stop- growing in this respect
as soon as they have enough words to make themselves
understood about everyday matters ; they use third or fourth
56 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
grade vocabularies all the rest of their lives. (What is a
vocabulary ?) What definite terms have you learned since
the third grade in arithmetic ? in algebra ? in geography ? in
grammar? in literature ? in other subjects ? Write out a defi-
nition for glacier, multiplicand, predicate. If you did not know
these terms but had the ideas for which they stand, how many
words would you have to use instead of each name ? Show that
the use of a definite word like transitive in a sentence ought to
carry with it the whole definition. Look up the meaning of
definition. How is it related to definite ?
EXERCISE 41 — Written
USING NEW WORDS DEFINITELY
From the selections given in this chapter choose ten words
not in your own speaking vocabulary which you would like
to adopt. Use each in a sentence to show its meaning.
EXERCISE 42 — Written
PICTURING WITH DEFINITE WORDS
Picture a scene, using correctly and effectively as many
words as you can from one of the following groups :
I II
leaden serene
tempestuous placid
murky glowing
dim breathless
horrible magical
awfiil harmonious
lashing film >'
stinging drowsy
quivering floated
inevitable pervaded
DEFINITENESS 57
EXERCISE 43 — Oral
DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN MOST AND ALMOST
Almost means "nearly"; most means "in the highest
degree." Use these words correctly in the following sentences,
and be careful of their use as you speak and write.
1. We are home.
2. He was successful in his attempt.
3. I am tired out.
4. I am happy to have the opportunity.
5. When we are discouraged we can always gain strength
by thinking of others.
6. He always waits for his little brother.
7. Remember this particularly.
8. Are n't we there?
9. I 've forgotten.
10. I was as frightened as he.
EXERCISE 44 — Oral
USING PRONOUNS DEFINITELY
Pronouns, especially it, which, and they, are very trouble-
some words because in themselves so indefinite. Since a
pronoun represents a subject of thought without naming it,
we must be careful to use it always in connection with some
other word or words that do name the same subject of thought.
You will learn more about the use of pronouns later ; for the
present, take special pains to be sure that it, which, and they
always refer to something definite and unmistakable. See if
you can find any indefinite use of it in your last five written
compositions ; if so, bring your sentence to class as a specimen,
and correct it.
58 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 45 - Oral
DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN CAN AND MAY
Fill the blanks with can or <w/A/ to denote ability ; with
may or might to denote permission.
1. You go as far as the corner.
2. That is as far as I go.
3. Mother said we play in the guest-room.
4. He looks strong, as if he do a man's work.
5. The horse pull us along at ten miles an hour.
6. We not go now, although mother said we , because
John has taken the wagon and we not walk so far.
7. If we only have seen ourselves in the glass, we should have
laughed heartily.
8. No man serve two masters.
9. They - — — study their algebra lesson now, for they have learned
what the assignment is.
10. we go to the park on our way home ?
One of the reasons why it is difficult to use definite words
is that it is not easy to use our senses well enough to have
definite ideas to express. We do not see half or a quarter or
a tenth of what we might see. The desire to tell some one else
of our discoveries will help us to be on the alert ; and the more
we have seen, the more we can see. A trained observer will
see twenty varieties of birds on a walk where another, looking
with untrained eyes, will notice only a robin and a blue-jay. A
trained observer of people and things — a detective, for instance
— will take account of a hundred details that escape others.
" I see ten things where other people-see only one," says Richard
Harding Davis's " amateur " detective ; " just as some men run ten
times as fast as other men. We have all tried it out often at the
office : put all sorts of junk under a newspaper, lifted the newspaper
for five seconds, and then each man wrote down what he had seen.
Out < >f twenty things I would remember seventeen. The next best
DEFINITENESS 59
guess would be about nine. Once I saw a man lift his coat collar
to hide his face. It was in the Grand Central Station. I stopped
him and told him he was wanted. Turned out he was wanted. It
was Goldberg, making his getaway to Canada."
Richard Harding Davis, " The Amateur Detective "
Of course, as the doctor remarked to the detective, such
power is " a gift " ; but we might all have more of it. Here
again sincerity is necessary. Let us make our senses report
accurately to us, and then we can report accurately to others.
A bit of untruth blurs everything in our own minds.
EXERCISE 46 — Dictation
A GOOD OBSERVER
Study the following paragraph, and be able to write it from
dictation . Notice particularly the ends of sentences, the commas
to mark sentence divisions, the apostrophe to show possession,
and the spelling of unfamiliar words.
I knew a man blind from his youth who not only went about his
own neighborhood without a guide, turning up to his neighbor's
gate or door as unerringly as if he had the best of eyes, but who
would go many miles on an errand to a new part of the country.
He seemed to carry a map of the township in the bottom of his
feet, a most minute and accurate survey. He never took the wrong
road and he knew the right house when he had reached it. He was a
miller and fuller, and ran his mill at night while his sons ran it by
day. He never made a mistake with his customers' bags or wool,
knowing each man's by the sense of touch. . . . Such facts show
one how delicate and sensitive a man's relation to outward nature
through his bodily senses may become. Heighten it a little more,
and he could forecast the weather and the seasons and detect hidden
springs and minerals. A good observer has something of this delicacy
and quickness of perception.
John Burroughs, A Sharp Lookout, in
" Signs and Seasons "
60 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 47 -Oral
DEFINITE WORDS FOR DEFINITE OBSERVATION
Here are some bits of careful observation by John Bur-
roughs himself. They are certainly definite and unmistak-
ably sincere. Prepare to read them aloud in class. If you
have carefully observed anything in nature that some of your
classmates may not have noticed, you may tell them about it.
[Nature] is all things to all men; she has whole truths, half-
truths, and quarter truths, if not still smaller fractions. The care-
ful observer finds this out sooner or later. Old fox-hunters will tell
you, on the evidence of their own eyes, that there is a black fox
and a silver-gray fox, two species, but there are not ; the black fox
is black when coming toward you or running from you, and silver-
gray at point blank view, when the eye penetrates the fur; each
separate hair is gray the first half and black the last. This is a
sample of Nature's half-truths.
A Sharp Lookout, in " Signs and Seasons "
The yellowbirds [goldfinches] are just getting on their yellow
coats. I saw some yesterday that had a smutty, unwashed look,
because of the new yellow shining through the old drab-colored
webs of the feathers. These birds do not shed their feathers in the
spring, as careless observers are apt to think they do, but merely
shed the outer webs of their feathers and quills, which peel off like
a glove from the hand. — Spring Jottings, in " Riverby "
EXERCISE 48 — Oral and Written
WRITING DEFINITELY ABOUT ACCURATE OBSERVATIONS
Examine a large leaf bud, preferably horse-chestnut, hickory,
or buckeye, folded up for the winter. Describe accurately
what you see — forms, sizes, colors, textures, number of lay-
ers, numbers of parts. Where are the leaves ? Why are they
so wrapped up ? Is there any plan followed in the arrange-
ment in buds from the same kind of tree ? Pull the buds
DEFINITENESS 6l
apart, and cut them in cross sections and lengthwise, that you
may see. Use the most definite words possible in describing
every part, and follow some plan in telling about them —
either from the outside in or from the inside out.
EXERCISE 49 — Dictation
DEFINITE OBSERVATION OF COLOR
Study the following paragraph and be able to write it
from dictation. Notice the semicolons separating what might
be written as distinct sentences. Notice the descriptions
of color.
There is one redness in the east in the morning that means
storm, another that means wind. The former is broad, deep, and
angry ; the clouds look like a huge bed of burning coals just raked
open ; the latter is softer, more vapory, and more widely extended.
Just at the point where the sun is going to rise, and some minutes
in advance of his coming, there sometimes rises straight upward a
rosy column ; it is like a shaft of deeply dyed vapor, blending with
and yet partly separated from the clouds, and the base of which
presently comes to glow like the sun itself. The day that follows
is pretty certain to be very windy. At other times the under sides
of the eastern clouds are all turned to pink or rose-colored wool ;
the transformation extends until nearly the. whole sky flushes, even
the west glowing slightly ; the sign is always to be interpreted as
meaning fair weather.
John Burroughs, A Sharp Lookout,
in " Signs and Seasons "
EXERCISE 50 — Oral
DEFINITE COLOR-WORDS
You have probably noticed that John Burroughs has a keen
eye for color and definite words for it too. Find all the words
or expressions showing color in the selections from his
62 I IRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
writings ; also in those from Stevenson given in this chapter.
Notice also the color words in the following :
It was late August. All the tall grass and wild oats and barley,
over lift, level, and hollow, were ripe yellow or warm brown, — a
golden mantle over the golden soil. There were but two colors in
the simple broad picture, — clear, deep, scintillating blue in the sky,
melting blue in the mountains, and all the earth a golden surging
sea. — Theodork Winthrop, "John Brent"
The dew was spread over the grass like a veil of silver gossamer,
spangled with crystals.
A vine, heavy with great clusters of yellow grapes, was festooned
upon the northern wall.
On Thursday, as he approached the castle, the last fires of sum
set were burning in the sky behind it — the long, irregular mass of
buildings stood out in varying shades of blue against varying, dying
shades of red : the grey stone, dark, velvety indigo ; the pink stucco,
pink still, but with a transparent blue penumbra over it ; the white
marble, palely, scintillantly amethystine.
Henry Harland, "The Cardinal's Snuff-Box"
EXERCISE 51 - Oral or Written
DESCRIBING A SCENE FULL OK COLOR
Try again a description of an outdoor scene, giving special
attention to color. Do not think that the only colors worth
mentioning are the brilliant reds and yellows of early fall.
Before you write, try to see some actual scene that is worth
describing ; either city or country has many a one. Do not
exaggerate, but name all the colors you can, even if the result
is a rather stiff composition. Of course, however, you should
make your sentences as easy and natural as possible. The
following theme uses many color words, though in a some-
what awkward way.
DEFINITENESS 63
A THANKSGIVING LANDSCAPE
At my left is a field of corn. Next to me it is in shocks, and
farther away it is standing. Where it is close, it is a golden yellow,
and scattered over the ground are large, orange-colored pumpkins.
Farther back the corn is a misty, warm-looking brown.
At my right is a long meadow of tall coarse grass, which has a
very odd color with the sun shining on it. Beyond this is a dark
leafless wood. It is black at first, but behind the first few trees
there is a misty raven-blue color. Above this is a sky of light
lavender that grows into a dark gray. The gray stops abruptly,
and there is a light blue, which, where it mingles with the red,
looks a light green.
In front of me is a long wide strip of grass that is cut short.
Some distance from the ground I see the sun, a great fiery ball,
half-hidden by a dark cloud. Only the lower half is visible, and it
sends its golden rays downward. This dark cloud grows quickly
lighter above, fading from gray to white, from white into blue, and
from that into green. The green ends suddenly, and there is a rosy
red that grows into fainter color, and at last into a dainty, shell pink.
EXERCISE 52 - Written
COLOR-WORDS IN DESCRIPTION OF PEOPLE
After studying the following descriptions, write a similar
one of some child whose coloring of person and dress is
especially pleasing. Do not say merely that she has golden
hair and blue eyes, for instance, but give a definite picture of
that hair and eyes. Notice how the brown hair in these two
pictures of Henry Harland's is individualized.
She was a" young woman, tall, slender, in a white frock, with a
white cloak, an indescribable complexity of soft lace and airy ruffles,
around her shoulders. She wore no hat. Her hair, brown and
warm in shadow, sparkled, where it caught the light, in a kind of
crinkly iridescence, like threads of glass.
64 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
She was dressed in white as always — a frock of I know not
what supple fabric, that looked as if you might have passed it
through your ring, and fell in multitudes of small soft creases.
Two big red roses dropped from her bodice. She wore a garden
hat of white straw, with a big daring, rose-red bow, under which
the dense meshes of her hair, warmly dark, dimly bright, shimmered
in a blur of brownish gold. — " The Cardinal's Snuff-Box "
EXERCISE 53 — Oral
DEFINITE SOUND-WORDS
Not only our eyes but our ears also must be alert. Study
this description of an approaching hurricane in the West
Indies, noting the sound-words. Read with your imagina-
tions awake and report all the words that help you to imagine
sounds.
The din was terrific. Cannon balls might have been rattling
against the stones of every house, and to this was added a roar from
the reef as were all the sounds of the Caribbean Sea gathered there.
. . . The horse fled along the magnificent avenue of royal palms
which connected the east and west ends of the Island. They were
bending and creaking horribly, the masses of foliage on the summits
cowering away from the storm, wrapping themselves about in a
curiously pitiful manner ; the long blade-like leaves seemed striving
each to protect the other.
Through the ever increasing roar of the storm, above the creaking
of the trees, the pounding of the rain on the earth and on the young
cane, Alexander heard a continuous piercing note, pitched upon one
monotonous key like the rattle of the girl's castanets he had heard
on St. Thomas. His brain, indifferent now to the din, was as active
as ever, and he soon made out this particular noise to be the rattle
of millions of seeds in the dry pods of the " shaggy-shaggy." or
" giant." a common Island tree, which had not a leaf at this season,
nothing but countless pods as dry as parchment and filled with seeds
as large as peas. Not for a second did this castanct accompaniment
DEFINITENESS 65
to the stupendous bass of the storm cease, and Alexander, whose
imagination, like every other sense of him, was quickening preter-
naturallv, could fancy himself surrounded by the orchestra of hell,
the colossal instruments of the infernal regions performed upon by
infuriate Titans. — Gertrude Atherton, " The Conqueror "
Re-read Stevenson's account of his night out-of-doors and
name the words used to describe the noises of the wind.
EXERCISE 54 — Written
FINDING DEFINITE SOUND-WORDS
Read the following" Spring Jottings," by John Burroughs,
about the notes of birds and frogs. Make a list of the sound-
words. Add to these all the different words or expressions
for sounds that you have found in this chapter.
A song-sparrow's call was " a silver loop of sound."
The long-drawn call of the high-hole comes up from the fields,
then the tender, rapid trill of the bush or russet sparrow, then the
piercing note of the meadow-lark, a flying shaft of sound.
In the trees the crow blackbirds cackled and jangled.
The sun is down, the robins pipe and call, and as the dusk
comes on they indulge in their loud chiding note or scream,
whether in anger or in fun I never can tell. Up the road in the
distance the multitudinous voice of the little peepers — a thicket or
screen of sound.
These days the song of the toad — tr-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r
— is heard in the land. ... It is a kind of gossamer of sound
drifting in the air.
*&
EXERCISE 55 — Written
USING DEFINITE SOUND-WORDS
Write on the topic "Awake in the Night." Your scene
may be city or country, out-doors or in. Describe especially
the noises you hear. Or, if you choose, you may describe any
66 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
noisy scene. The following themes contain some good sound-
words and some good details. What are they? Underline
all the words in your theme that express sound.
a. As I crawl into my bed, I hear the wind whistling and scurry-
ing around the corner of the house. Now I hear the long-drawn-out
bawl of a cow. Everything is quieter at this moment and I think
I can go to sleep; but I cannot, for the shrill whistle of the inter-
urban car is blowing. The wind gradually ceases to howl and
whistle, but still keeps up a rising and sinking noise. Now I hear
the pitter-patter of rain drops. Then the pitter-patter turns into
piercing noises, and from the street-light I see that the whole win-
dow pane is covered with drops. I watch one little drop run along
till it falls in line with another and they roll down most of the pane
together. When they are nearly to the bottom, they run into each
other, and then I hear a drip, drip, drip : for several of the bubbles
have reached the bottom of the pane. The wind has begun howl-
ing and shrieking and I guess it keeps on this way the rest of the
night after I finally go to sleep.
b. While I look out on a noisy city a general rumble and roaring
sound pervades the air, through which may be heard several more
distinct noises. The large wagons and trucks rattle along as they
bump over the rough pavement. Automobiles, slowing down at the
crossing, make a chug-chug-chug gradually growing faster. The
policeman whistles shrilly once or twice every now and then, and
the street cars ring an echoing ding, ding, ding-ding. Overhead the
elevated trains rumble and roar. A continual buzz and the clashing
of dishes come from the dining-room across the hall.
EXERCISE 56 - Oral
DEFINITE WORDS FOR ODORS
Describe the appetizing odors in the kitchen before
Thanksgiving dinner, the disagreeable odors in a crowded
street car on a rainv day; or describe, from the point of
view of a very hungry street urchin, the odors outside a
baker's shop.
DEFINITENESS 67
EXERCISE 57 — Written and Oral
DEFINITE WORDS FOR TEXTURE
Make a list of all the words or phrases that occur to
you, describing the texture or feeling of different materials.
Notice the description of a dress fabric in Exercise 52. To
what substances would you apply each of the following terms :
supple, brittle, fuzzy, adhesive, flimsy, filmy, gelatinous,
mushy, due tile, plastie, slimy, corrugated t
EXERCISE 58 — Written
WRITING A DEFINITE DESCRIPTION
Write the best composition possible to you, on the topic
"Out-of-doors at Night"; but choose some more definite
point of view and time and place and make a title to fit. Use
all your senses and the most definite words that you possess.
Be sincere.
EXERCISE 59
ACCURATE USE OF GET
The verb get is overworked. Avoid using it, with or with-
out have or had, to express mere possession, as " I 've got an
apple." It has a notion of activity or effort, always ; and is
properly used in many idiomatic expressions, 1 — that is, ex-
pressions that have grown up in our language, — such as get
ready, get aboard, get in, get behind, get on with, get out of,
etc. It should never be used in the sense of "be allowed"
or " have a chance," as " I didn't get to go." Equally in-
correct is the omission of get {come, go, etc.) in such expres-
sions as "I want in," instead of " I want to get in," etc.
1 See list in Century Dictionary under Get, II
68 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
The following specimen of the uses of get y transitive and
intransitive, is given in the Century Dictionary. Substitute
other words for get or got wherever you can do so without
changing the sense.
I got on horseback within ten minutes after I got your letter.
When I got to Canterbury, I got a chaise for town : but I got wet
through before I got to Canterbury ; and I have got such a cold as
I shall not be able to get rid of in a hurry. I got to the Treasury
about noon, but first of all I got shaved and dressed. I soon got
into the secret of getting a memorial before the board, but I could
not get an answer then ; however, I got intelligence from the mes-
senger that I should \ikc\y get one the next morning. As soon as
1 got back to my inn, I got supper and got to bed. It was not long
before I got to sleep. When I got up in the morning I got my
breakfast, and then I got myself dressed that I might get out in
time to get an answer to my memorial. As soon as I got it, I got
into the chaise, and got to Canterbury by three, and about tea-time
I got home. I have got nothing for you, and so adieu.
P. Withers, " Aristarchus "
EXERCISE 60 — Oral
DEFINITE WORDS OF MOTION
Study this selection for the words calling up pictures of
motion. Notice that lively motions and sounds frequently
belong together. Find the words of motion in Exercise 53.
Suddenly his horse, in spite of the wall of wind at his back, stood
on his hind legs, then swerved so fiercely that his rider was all but
unseated. A palm had literally leaped from the earth, sprawled
across the road not a foot in front of the horse. The terrified brute
tore across the cane-field, and Alexander made no attempt to stop
him, for, although the rain was now falling as though the sea had
come in on the back of the high wind, he believed himself to be
on the Stevens plantation. The negro village was not yet deserted,
and he rode to the west side of the mill and shouted his warning
to the blacks crouching there. . . .
DEFINITENESS 69
At last he was in the cane-fields of his destination, and the horse,
as if in communication with that ardent brain so close to his own,
suddenly accelerated his already mercurial pace, until it seemed to
Alexander that he gathered up his legs and darted like an inflated
swallow straight through crashing avenues and flying huts to the
stable door. — Gertrude Athertox, " The Conqueror "
EXERCISE 61 - Written
USING DEFINITE WORDS OF MOTION
Write on the topic " The Liveliest Scene I Ever Saw."
Let this be a picture rather than a story, though full of sound
and motion. Choose a definite point of view. The scene
may be a busy street corner, the playground at recess, a
fire, the circus-grounds, or anything you choose. Read the
following theme :
About noon the men began coming from the field. The old
horses, with their harness swinging and jingling, came trotting and
running down the beaten path. They crowded against each other
and after fighting awhile, ducked their heads in the water tank
while the men hurried to open the gates and unrein them. From
the pastures other horses came galloping to get their feed, thunder-
ing over the platform of the scales with a roaring noise. All the
men were in a hurry, because they were eager to get to the table.
Some put hay in the mangers, while others rushed around with
baskets, throwing in the corn. The horses pawed and snorted and
made a great fuss over the feed. When all was done, one man
hollowed, " I '11 beat you all to the house."
Then the race began, all shoving, running, and shouting, with
the dogs scrambling and leaping in front of the whole crowd.
Some of the men jumped over the low gate while others pushed
through, ran to the tub, and dashed their heads in and out, leaving
most of the dirt on their faces. One man who seemed to be some-
what absent-minded grabbed a little boy and half drowned him in
the dirty soap-suds. " Lay hold o' him ! " cried the crowd. Soon
an angry mob rushed to him and marched him off out of my sight.
7 o FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
I thought they would be silent for a moment, but a sudden ding-
dong of the bell brought them dashing toward the door, pushing
against it so hard that I thought it would come off the hinges.
They slid over the benches and finally found suitable places. They
began eating very greedily, and their loud jabbering broke the
stillness of the house. " Silence ! " roared the man at the end of
the table. " There is entirely too much noise." The loud talk
dropped to a low murmur.
If you have been really thinking as you have done the
tasks assigned, you have discovered that people who write
good descriptions are not content with vague, general, or
worn-out words, like pretty, come, go. Vague, indefinite
words are like the Indian's blanket, fitting everything be-
cause they really fit nothing. The words of the masters, on
the contrary, fit so perfectly that they seem more like the
body of the thought than even perfect-tailor-made clothes.
When Bryant says of the waterfowl that its "wings have
fanned at that far height the cold, thin atmosphere," and
Van Dyke speaks of the kinglet "fluttering lightly on the
wind," what do we know of the size of the two birds ?
EXERCISE 62 — Written
DEFINITE WORDS INSTEAD OF GENERAL TERMS
For each of the following general terms make a list of
definite words : come or go, pretty, good, person, workman.
EXERCISE 63 - Written
DEFINITE MEANINGS OF COMMON WORDS
The chief danger of slang is its convenience. Slang words
are blanket words, very easily put on. We use them instead
of taking the trouble to be definite ; and so a clever bit of
slang steals our vocabularies.
DEFINITENESS
71
Some words not slang are almost as disreputable. Look
up the meanings of the following words and use each cor-
rectly in one sentence for each of its meanings. Make
good sentences that will bring out the meaning of the
words : awful, nice, horrid, grand, szveet, fix, mean, fine,
splendid. Substitute more definite or more appropriate
words for these in the following sentences, which you are
likely to use or to hear :
1. He had an awful cold.
2. I had a horrid time at the party.
3. Your new hat is sweet.
4. She is a nice girl.
5. Let me fix your hair-ribbon.
6. Is n't he just grand ?
7. We 've had a fine time.
8. Her singing was splendid.
9. That is just grand.
10. The candy is just grand; you 're ^fine cook.
11. That examination was fierce.
12. The umpire's decision was rotten.
13. This speech was simply ripping.
14. Is n't this a blooming nuisance !
15. What beastly weather !
EXERCISE 64 - Oral and Written
SYNONYMS
If two words meant exactly the same thing, we should not
need both. The meanings of synonyms overlap, but they
always differ in some way. Distinctions in thought are more
difficult to grasp than those in seeing, hearing, touching,
moving, and the like. Look up the following pairs of words
and use each word in a sentence to bring out its most indi-
vidual meaning — the meaning most different from that of the
72
FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
other one of the given pair. The Standard Dictionary is es-
pecially helpful in a study of synonyms. Learn to spell these
words.
courage
fortitude
height
statute
courage
bravery
abandon
leave
courage
daring
politeness
courtesy
bravery
heroism
lady
woman
awful
terrible
gentleman
man
terrible
horrible
enough
sufficient
EXERCISE 65 — Oral
A STUDY IN ALL FORMS OF DEFINITENESS
As a review of all that you have learned in this chapter,
study this description. Of course this is merely an excerpt from
a long story, but notice that each paragraph has its definite
subject. What is the subject of each ? What is the point of
view for each ? Make lists of the sound words, of the motion
words, of other phrases particularly suggestive of definite
images. What details especially give the impression of
sincerity ?
Legal Row, the little street of lawyers' offices back of the square,
might have been a byroad in old Pompeii for all the life that showed
along its short and simmering length. No idlers lay under the water
maples and the red oaks in the square. The jail baked in the sun-
light, silent as a brick tomb, which indeed it somewhat resembled ;
and on the wide portico of the courthouse a loafer dog of remote
hound antecedents alternately napped and roused to snap at the
buzzing flies. The door of the clerk's office stood agape and through
the opening came musty, snuffy smells of old leather and dry-rotted
deeds. The wide hallway that ran from end to end of the old build-
ing was empty and echoed like a cave to the frequent thump of the
loafer dog's leg joints upon the planking.
Indeed, the whole place had but a single occupant. In his office
back of the circuit-court room Judge Priest was tilted back in a
DEFINITENESS 73
swivel chair, with his short, plump legs propped on a table and his
pudgy hands locked across his stomach, which gently rose and fell
with his breathing. His straw hat was on the table, and in a corner
leaned his inevitable traveling companion in summer weather — a
vast and cavernous umbrella of a pattern that is probably obsolete
now, an unkempt old drab slattern of an umbrella with a cracked
wooden handle and a crippled rib that dangled away from its fellows
as though shamed by its afflicted state. The campaigning had been
hard on the old judge. The Monday before, at a rally at Temple's
Mills, he had fainted, and this day he had n't felt equal to going to
Shady Grove. Instead he had come to his office after dinner to
write some letters and had fallen asleep. He slept on for an hour,
a picture of pink and cherubic old age, with little headings of sweat
popping out thickly on his high bald head and a gentle little snoring
sound, of first a drone and then a whistle, pouring steadily from his
pursed lips.
Outside a dry-fly rasped the brooding silence up and down with
its fret-saw refrain. In the open spaces the little heat waves danced
like so many stress marks, accenting the warmth and giving empha-
sis to it ; and far down the street, which ran past the courthouse
and the jail and melted into a country road so imperceptibly that
none knew exactly where the street left off and the road began,
there appeared a straggling, irregular company of men marching, their
shapes more than half hid in a dust column of their own raising.
The Massac men were coming.
I believe there is a popular conception to the effect that an on-
coming mob invariably utters a certain indescribable, sinister, mut-
tering sound that is peculiar to mobs. For all I know, that may be
true of some mobs, but certain it was that this mob gave vent to
no such sounds. The mob came on steadily, making no more noise
than any similar group of seventy-five or eighty men tramping over
a dusty road might be expected to make. . . .
Their number was obscured by the dust their feet lifted. It was
as if each man at every step crushed with his toes a puffball that
discharged its powdering particles upward into his face. Some of
them carried arms openly — shotguns and rifles. The others
showed no weapons, but had them. . . . Not one was masked
or carried his face averted. Nearly all were grown men and not
74 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
one was under twenty. ... A certain definite purpose showed in
their gait. It showed also in the way they closed up and became
a more compact formation as they came within sight of the trees
fringing the square.
Down through the drowsing town edge they stepped, giving
alarm only to the chickens that scratched languidly where scrub-
oaks cast a skimpy shade across the road, but as they reached the
town line they passed a clutter of negro cabins clustering about a
little doggery. A negro woman stepped to a door and saw them.
Distractedly, fluttering like a hen, she ran into the bare, grassless
yard, setting up a hysterical outcry. A negro man came quickly
from the cabin, clapped his hand over her mouth and dragged her
back inside, slamming the door to behind him with a kick of his
bare foot. Unseen hands shut the other cabin doors and the woman's
half-smothered cries came dimly through the clapboarded wall ; but
a slim black darky darted southward from the doggery, worming
his way under a broken, snaggled fence and keeping the straggling
line of houses and stables between him and the marchers. This
fleeing figure was Jeff, Judge Priest's negro body-servant, who
had a most amazing faculty for always being wherever things
happened.
Jeff was lithe and slim and he could run fast. He ran fast now,
snatching off his hat and carrying it in his hand — the surest of all
signs that a negro is traveling at his top gait. A good eighth of a
mile in advance of the mob, he shot in at the back door of the
courthouse and flung himself into his employer's room.
: ' Jedge ! Jedge ! " he panted tensely, "Jedge Priest, please,
suh, wake up — the mobbers is comin ' ! "
IRVIN S. Com;, " Back Home"
EXERCISE 66 — Written
TEST THEME
Try again Exercise 58 or Exercise 61. You may use the
same scene or a different one. Put into this composition all
that you have learned about definiteness and sincerity.
DEFINITENESS 75
EXERCISE 67 — Oral
REVIEW OF DEFINITENESS
Bring to class three good questions on the points discussed
in this chapter. Ask and be prepared to answer these
questions in class.
As you go on with other work, do not forget to be definite
in subject, in details, in point of view, and in words. Gather
in new words as you would put money in the bank, capital
for the future. Do not think that you have mastered a new
word until you really own it and use it. Try keeping a list
of your newly-acquired property in a convenient note-book ;
enter any word that comes to you in your study of any lesson,
your reading, or your listening. Look over the list from time
to time, and use the words from it in speaking and in writing.
EXERCISE 68 — Dictation
ACQUIRING DEFINITE WORDS
Study the following paragraph and prepare to write it from
dictation. Notice the commas used in a series of like words.
Why then do we hesitate to swell our words to meet our needs ?
It is a nonsense question. There is no reason. We are simply
lazy, too lazy to be comfortable. . . . Like the bad cook, we seize
the frying-pan to fry, broil, roast, or stew, and then we wonder why
all our dishes taste alike while in the next house the food is appe-
tizing. It is all unnecessary. Enlarge the vocabulary. Let any one
who wants to see himself grow resolve to adopt two new words
each week. It will not be long before the endless and enchanting
variety of the world will begin to reflect itself in his speech, and in
his mind as well.
George Herbert Palmer, in
" Self-Cultivation in English "
y6 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
RULES AND EXERCISES IN GOOD FORM 1
I. Punctuation
Rule 21. Use the comma to separate the words and expres-
sions of a series.
Exercise A
Memorize for writing :
Our children shall behold his fame,
The kindly-earnest, brave, foreseeing man,
Sagacious, patient, dreading praise, not blame,
New birth of our new soil, the first American.
Lowell, " Commemoration Ode "
Note i . A series — more than two — of short sentences, very
closely connected in thought, may be separated by commas only.
Exercise B
Study the following selection, explain the use of the commas,
and be ready to write from dictation. Note that in the second half
of the stanza, to mark a somewhat greater pause in the thought,
the semicolon is used instead of the comma.
She left the web, she left the loom,
She made three paces thro' the room,
She saw the water-lily bloom,
She saw the helmet and the plume,
She look'd down to Camelot.
Out flew the web, and floated wide ;
The mirror crack'd from side to side ;
" The curse is come upon me," cried
The Lady of Shalott.
Tennyson, " The Lady of Shalott"
Note 2. When each member of a series is joined to the rest by
and or or, no comma is used unless the writer wishes to emphasize
each item of the series separately.
l Continued from page 24.
DEFINITENESS 77
Examples : Truth and honor and character were sacrificed to his selfish
ambition.
Lest he should swoon and tumble and be found,
[Enoch] Crept to the gate, and opened it, and closed,
As lightly as a sick man's chamber-door.
Tennyson, " Enoch Arden"
Note 3. When only the last member of a series is joined to the
rest by and, but, or or, a comma is used before the and, etc., unless
the last two members are more closely connected than the others.
Examples : He darted away over the fence, across the meadow, through
the orchard gate, and into the woods.
We had for dinner turkey, cranberry sauce, mashed potatoes, celery,
tea, bread and butter.
Rule 22. Use the hyphen (a) to denote the division of a
word, especially at the end of a line, and (b) to join the parts
of many compound words.
Note i. In dividing a word at the end of a line, never divide a
syllable, and always place the hyphen at the end, not at the beginning
of a line.
Note 2. Usage regarding the hyphen in compound words is not
at all consistent. We write greenhouse, text-book, and class room. In
general, use the hyphen when the compound is unusual, like
clean-winged.
Exercise C
Notice besides the use of the hyphen in this selection the apos-
trophe, the question marks, and the commas. Why is not its
written with an apostrophe ?
The old rude-furnished room
Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom ;
While radiant with a mimic flame
Outside the sparkling drift became, .
And through the bare-boughed lilac-tree
Our own warm hearth seemed blazing free.
78 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Shut in from all the world without,
We sat the clean-winged hearth about,
Content to let the north-wind roar
In baffled rage at pane and door,
While the red logs before us beat
The frost-line back with tropic heat.
What matter how the night behaved ?
What matter how the north-wind raved?
Blow high, blow low, not all its snow
Could quench our hearth-fire's ruddy glow.
Whittier, " Snow-Bound "
Exercise D
Memorize for writing :
There, too, our elder sister plied
Her evening task the stand beside;
A full rich nature, free to trust,
Truthful and almost sternly just,
Impulsive, earnest, prompt to act,
And make her generous thought a fact,
Keeping with many a light disguise
The secret of self-sacrifice.
Whittier, " Snow-l'.ound"
II. Correct Usage
Exercise E
( se is and was only with a singular noun as subject, or with the
pronoun ln\ she, or it. Fill the blanks with is or are, was or were.
Read aloud.
1. you there ?
2. What you doing?
3. If they here I should be happy.
4. Thoughts of a picnic in June interrupting my work to-day.
5. They coming, but the trains late to-day.
6. Where you last night ?
7. The words of every child clearly audible.
8. Who you ? Where you ? What you ?
DEFINITENESS 79
9. What those cities ?
10. In what part of the United States those rivers ?
11. There twenty of us.
12. Some happy, some sad.
13. We waiting, you late, and the weather cold.
14. The writing of all the children in all the grades improving.
Exercise F
Fill the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate sub-
jects. Notice that, although there throws the subject after the
verb, the verb must be plural if the subject is plural. Read the
sentences aloud, emphasizing the verbs. Read each sentence also
as a question, in two ways ; for example, " Are there any
here to-day ? " and " Are there no here to-day ? " Sometimes
you will have to use not instead of no.
1. There are here to-day.
2. There were there.
3. There are no in town.
4. There are a few on the trees.
5. There are in Australia.
6. There were near Jamestown.
7. There were in the colonies.
8. There are at the pole.
9. There seem to be to-night.
10. There appear to be in the sky.
11. There were — — listening.
12. There are in America.
Exercise G
Fill the blanks with is or are, was or were:
1. No one looking, and the doors open.
2. How many of you there ?
3. the books on the shelf ?
4. there many people present ?
5. there any one present who absent yesterday ?
6. The compositions of each pupil returned at the end of the term.
7. they for us ?
8o FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
8. Where the children when I called them ?
9. There several kinds of sugar-beets ; and they all grown
in this region.
10. there two or three blades on your knife ?
11. there any people in the elevator?
12. there anybody in the elevator?
13. there five more weeks of school ?
14. How many there in the jar?
15. there deer in this park ?
16. The proficiency of the pupils remarkable.
Exercise H
Read aloud, completing the sentences. Emphasize the words
in italics.
1. Polly and / are .
2. lie and she .
3. Between you and me, I will admit that .
4. Mary and she hare often .
5. They having forgotten, I am discouraged.
6. Have you heard from her and Lucy since they
7. Won't you let Jim and me ?
8. Mother never allows Harry and me to
9. Have you ever known him or her to forget
10. Did they bring mother and me ?
11. Why did you not remind him and us to
12. Whom did you ?
13. The child whom you admire is .
14. The man whom you see has .
Exercise I
Some pronouns have different forms for subject and object. Of
these pronouns the subject forms axe he, she, they, I. we, and who.
These forms should be used also after is, are, and all forms of the
verb to be, and after seems to be, etc. ; that is, as predicate attributes,
<>r subject complements, representing the same thing as the sub-
ject ; for example, " It is he." They should also be used absolutely ;
as, " //,- being ill. we postponed the party " ; " They having refused
DEFINITENESS 8 1
to vote, we were defeated " ; or in apposition with any of these — a
rare use. The chief difficulty is after is, are, etc.
Fill the blanks with suitable forms from the list above :
1. Who are ? May and .
2. and had quarreled.
3. being tired, went home.
4. , having become tired, lay down while went on to the top.
5. and have been friends from childhood.
6. and visited where used to live.
7. Are Helen and coming ?
8. Will and consent ?
Exercise J
Use him, her, them, me, us, and whom in all constructions except
those indicating possession and except those mentioned in the last
exercise. What are those uses ? These forms given above should
always be used as objects of verbs and prepositions, even when
joined with a noun. Say " We girls are coming," but " Will you
let us girls go ? " Say " Mary and / are here," but " He brought
a puppy to Mary and me." If in doubt about the correct form,
omit the noun or analyze the sentence.
Fill the blanks with the forms above :
1. Listen to shouting for the president !
2. Hear P^ a y that new tune.
3. Lend your brains, please ; between you and , I am com-
pletely puzzled.
4. Uncle brought presents to and .
5. I found Lucy and crying in the street.
6. The man I saw was not the thief.
7. Did you find the boy of I spoke ?
8. do you mean ?
9. have you appointed captain ?
10. With are you going ?
11. The children he befriended have never forgotten .
12. That monkey caught Jack and by the hair.
13. The knights of you read were very brave.
14. There were only ten they did not invite.
15. What will you do for Helen and ?
82
FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
SICGESTED THEME TOPICS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Waiting for the Train.
C.randmother's Garden.
The Nursery at Bedtime.
When Father Comes Home.
Indoors on a Rainy Day.
Outdoors in the Rain.
From My Window at Night.
A City Street on a Rainy
Night.
A ( 'anal Boat.
Buying a New Hat.
In the Greenhouse.
Holly for Christmas.
When the Train. Boat, or
Stage Comes In.
A Cozy Corner.
A Roomful of Books.
After the hirst Snow.
The Last Leaf.
A Candy Store (outside or
inside).
After School.
When the Train Pulled In.
(lie came or he did not
come. |
The Longest Day of the
Year.
A Dandelion.
Through the Telescope.
Through the Microscope.
25. An Indian Chief.
26. A Fish from Our Pond.
27. How a Horse Lies Down.
28. How a Baby Learns to Walk.
29. How a Telephone is Con-
nected.
30. Why Cornstalks Fall.
31. A Cornstalk; an Ear of
Wheat for similar sub-
ject).
32. A Petrified Shell.
33. A Relic of the Past.
34. A Walnut Tree.
35. The Leaf of a Walnut Tree.
36. A Walnut.
37. Why Shavings Curl.
38. The Fur of Our Cat.
39. A Cat's Paw.
40. A Horse's Far.
41. How an Elephant Walks.
42. How a Robin (or other bird)
Moves.
43. A Wave.
44. A Snowflake.
45. Wind in the Wheat.
46. One Kind of Sumac.
47. An Airship.
48. A Walking Cultivator.
49. Curing Tobacco.
50. " Sugaring Off."
CHAPTER IV
INTEREST
From the point of view of ourselves, sincerity is the chief
quality of our composition ; from the point of view of the
subject, definiteness is probably the chief quality ; from the
point of view of the hearer or reader, interest is probably
most important. To be sure, sincerity itself is necessary to
interest, yet sincerity alone will not give it. Two other quali-
ties helpful to interest have already been considered — good
form and definiteness ; but these are not enough. In this
chapter some other ways of being interesting are to be
studied. You should write every theme with some possible
reader clearly before your mind, and a good many sug-
gestions you should put into practice with the distinct pur-
pose of securing and holding that reader's interest, of mak-
ing your thought clear to him, and of producing the desired
effect in his mind.
A. LETTERS
Of all written words, those in letters seem most directly
addressed to a reader. Nowadays there is scarcely a person
who does not at some time write a letter or wish to write
one ; yet it is said that the art of letter-writing is dead. This
is certainly too strong a statement,- but it points out an un-
doubted fact — that what all are doing somehow, few are
doing well.
83
84 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
I. Friendly Letters
In business letters one tries to be as brief and concise as
possible ; his aim is merely to have himself understood. In
social letters, on the other hand, one wishes not only to make
himself understood, but also to make the reader feel as
though there had been a personal talk between two friends.
( )ne friend will write to another news in which they are both
interested, will write it in such a way as to show his feeling
about it, his opinion concerning it all. Remember that he
must be definite, especially in details, point of view, and words.
EXERCISE 69 - Written
A LETTER TO A FRIEND
Your best friend at school has been away for three weeks
on a visit. Write and tell him what is going on at school.
Try to imagine what he would like to know. Write pretty
much as you would talk.
EXERCISE 70 — Written
A LETTER FOR POINT OF VIEW
Write to an uncle or to your grandfather or to some grown
person who has visited in your home and tell what is going
on at school. Write what would interest the person to whom
\ ■( »u address the letter ; your relations toward him definitely
determine your point of view.
A social letter is, in a way, like a talk with a friend. But
in conversation one has to speak quickly, often without suf-
ficient thought; in letter-writing, on the contrary, one has
time to plan what he wishes to say and to choose just the right
INTEREST 85
words to express his meaning. So in this respect a social
letter is like one's most carefully chosen conversation.
Here is a task, then, for a writer : to send his greeting,
his best self through a letter, to be jolly, thoughtful, sympa-
thetic, as the case may require, and yet to write nothing that
he will afterward be ashamed of or regret having written.
EXERCISE 71 — Written and Oral
SELECTING AND ARRANGING MATERIAL FOR A LETTER
If one of your fellow pupils is ill or has moved away or is
off on a visit, choose him to write to. Jot down all the things
that he would like to hear about. After making this list,
imagine yourself in his place and choose only those items that
would interest you most. Try to arrange these so that you
can pass naturally from one to the next. In class compare
vour notes and select the best ones.
EXERCISE 72 - Written
PUTTING PERSONALITY INTO A LETTER
Write the letter planned in Exercise 7 1 . Write it with so
much of yourself in the expression that your friend without
looking at the signature can guess who the writer is.
a. General rules of form. All that is said in Chapter II
about paper and pen and ink is even more important here
than there. It is possible that a merchant may understand
and correctly fill an order if it be written in pencil on the
cheapest of paper. It is possible, too, that friendship may
endure, even though one correspondent or both may neglect
social decencies in writing. But courtesies and conventions
are as exacting in letter-writing as in any other phase of
social life.
86 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Let your stationery be good, usually plain white, of medium
weight, and unruled. Use black ink. Beware what is unusual
in any way. Paper for social letters is always folded, the
page measuring, in one common form, about 5^ inches by 7 ;
in another, about 5^- by 8|-. Considerable freedom is per-
mitted in the order in which the pages are written ; but by
far the most people use, and all should use, the natural order,
beginning with the fold to the left and filling the four pages
in succession from top to bottom.
/>. Parts of a friendly letter. The requirements of form
are not so strict in friendly correspondence as in business let-
ters. The formal parts, which are explained on pages 30-33,
may be changed in many ways, but only for good reasons.
In ordinary cases the heading should be of the same form
as in business letters ; but when written to a person to whom
the facts are perfectly well known (to a sister who is away at
school, for instance) the heading is occasionally changed so
that fun or sentiment may creep in. One might write, for
example,
Home Sweet Home,
Saturday, being the
fourth day since
you left us.
But the ordinary heading is always correct and in good taste.
The address, unless one is writing the social letter to a
stranger, is omitted. If used, it is ordinarily placed at the
end of the letter, below the signature, beginning at the left-
hand margin. For an illustration see the end of the first
letter on page 96.
The salutation may be merely formal, but it also affords
an opportunity for endlessly varied expression of personal
feeling, whether of sincere affection or of sentimental gush.
INTEREST 87
It is well to be at least as reserved in the salutation as in
speech. My dear Mr. Coffman and its slightly more inti-
mate form Dear Mr. Coffman are always in good taste.
From these forms the salutation may be more and more
cordial as far as warranted by genuine sentiment. Beyond
this there comes at once a feeling of insincerity. It is sin-
cerity," wrote James Runciman, " that attracts, and it is only
by sincerity that any letter-writer can please other human
creatures."
The tone of the whole letter, a kind of point of view,
may be set in the salutation, — a key struck, as it were, with
which all that follows must be in harmony. The salutation
in a letter written to one's chum would certainly be different
from that in a letter to one's grandfather. Almost any ex-
pression of self is permissible here, but note that it is not
good form to write Friend John. Write My dear Friend or,
much better still, Dear JoJin.
Every word in the salutation except the first and the last
is begun with a small letter ; as, My very precious Mother.
The salutation is usually followed by a comma, sometimes by
a comma and dash, a colon, or a colon and dash. Occa-
sionally, in very informal letters, the salutation is made a part
of the body of the letter ; as,
Deland, Florida,
March 6, 1900.
Only yesterday, my dear Jim, I was wishing that you were here, so
that we might talk over our plans for next summer.
And the salutation on page 91 is so evidently a matter of
form, the real salutation being incorporated in the first line
of the body of the letter, that it might be omitted not only
without loss but with a real gain in sincerity.
88 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 73 — Written
APPROPRIATE FORMS
Write the heading and salutation for the following letters :
1. To mother at home.
2. To a sister.
3. To one's chum.
4. To the superintendent of schools.
5. A first letter to a friend whom you met last summer on your vaca-
tion trip.
6. The seventh letter to the same friend.
It is in the body of the friendly letter, however, that one
finds the real heart and soul, for which all the preliminary
form has prepared us. Let the beginning of the body show
that you are really welcoming the chance of saving to your
friend just what you feel. This would, of course, preclude
tedious (and usually unconvincing) apologies and, likewise,
those formal introductions so often ridiculed and still so
frequently used by inexperienced writers : " Having nothing
else to do after dinner, I thought I would write you a letter."
With such an introduction, which certainly does not flatter
the recipient, the writer sticks fast. However sincere he may
be in the body of his letter, a writer spoils the effect — in
fact, never really achieves it — if his introduction or con-
clusion is stilted or long.
If one has an apology for not having written earlier, he
might usually just as well omit it. Let him make up for his
negligence by writing a good letter. If it must be expressed,
let it be slipped somewhere into the body of the letter, not
made a prominent feature of the beginning. The busiest
people usually reply to letters most promptly.
INTEREST 89
EXERCISE 74 — Written
INTERESTING BEGINNINGS
Write the heading, salutation, and several sentences of
five letters. By these fragments try to show your feelings
toward the people addressed, and in each case try to begin
interestingly.
EXERCISE 75 — Oral
APOLOGIES
Tell in class several apologies that you have received or
expressed in letters for delay in writing a friendly letter.
Which seem sincere ? Which seem so important that you
would be glad to find them in the beginning of a letter to
you ? Can you suggest a better way of giving this necessary
information than through an introductory apology ?
In the actual writing one must remember always that al-
though a friendly letter may recount news, its real purpose
is to say through its whole length that you are thinking of
your friend and wish to show it. Consequently, express your-
self ; tell what you think of the news you relate, what you
believe, what you hope, and, indirectly, what you are. Read
the letters of interesting people — Stevenson, Lamb, Lowell,
Lanier, Louisa M. Alcott, among the famous ones — and see
how they have written themselves into the lines. Following
are letters that may prove suggestive.
a. A letter from Alice Langdon in Boston, to her sister,
who is away from home traveling.
9 HkST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
1495 Beacon Street,
Boston, .Massachusetts,
May 5, 191 2.
Dearest " Gummidge,"
We are having real June weather to-day
— the first even mildly warm day we have had this spring ; and it
has made the thought of our quiet little place in Vermont a little
more possible. I should n't wonder if Mr. Evans is spading up the
garden to-day !
Dorothy and I went to Franklin Park yesterday in an open car
and lay on the ground under a tree, whence we could overlook a
sweeping green valley dotted with babies and an occasional search-
ing nursemaid. The air was perfect — a tiny, friendly breeze; the
buds of the trees are just beginning to look hazy, and the sun made
us most " comfy " and dreamy.
We got home about five to find Mrs. Martin and Betty, who had
dropped in to tea. I was delighted to find that they had brought
" Rags," who eventually added greatly to our party. We fed him
on the sad relics of my birthday cake, over which he became quite
hysterical and did all his tricks as if quite conscious of our admira-
tion. We folks had marmalade sandwiches — mother's own mar-
malade, — nut-bread, and tea. Mrs. Martin especially sent love to
you. They have heard nothing more of the burglar, though it
proved he did take some of their things.
This evening Dorothy has gone out to see Mary Gordon, and
mother is reading. She has well earned her recreation, for she has
to her credit this day the finishing of my pink plaid, her black silk
waist, and her morning sacque ! My plaid I feel is a gift from the
skies, for it was a remnant of three yards and a half, which had
been given up as useless. One day I found about a yard of plain
pink and planned the dress, which mother and Dorothy executed.
It is so successful that Jane plans one just like it! But enough of
clothes.
Last Thursday, though it was a nasty, rainy day, we went to the
museum to see an exhibition of John La Paige's paintings. He
did decorating and stained-glass windows mainly, but also tried
his hand at everything else. I didn't care for the other things so
much — some way they did n't appeal to me, — but the stained-glass
INTEREST
91
windows and some Samoan water-colors did. There were other
pictures on exhibition, too: Alexander's "Pot of Basil" — you
know it — which was wonderfully more beautiful than the repro-
ductions; some Whistler's — "The Little Rose of Lyme Regis,"
which was very sweet ; and lots of others I can't enumerate.
Then we went to the Japanese Garden, an adorable place, laid
out in walks and pools, with real acacias in bloom, and bamboos
and coontie palms in the corner. We sat down impudently on
some stone steps leading up to a most gruesome-looking god with
six arms and three eyes ! (And who is the god who sits enthroned
on a lotus blossom?) There were Japanese screens and wonderful
carved panels lining the sides of the garden, and little goldfish
swimming about in the pools. It seemed queer to come out from
there into a raw, misty, muddy street, where people were all bob-
bing about under unpicturesque umbrellas.
It's time I stopped, or poor mother won't have a thing left to
write you. I reserve the right, though, to tell you that you still
have the devoted love of Your
Little Sister.
b. A letter from Albert Ball to Joe Bellamy, who is in a hos-
pital recovering from an injury received in a football game. 1
Clinton, Iowa,
~ T November 27, 1012.
Dear Joe, — " 7
Well, old scout, how are you doing this week ? Better,
I hope ; and the whole school is hoping you '11 beat the doctors by
getting home for Christmas. Even the girls are talking about you ;
it 's almost worth a crack on the head to have everybody so inter-
ested in a fellow. So cheer up, my son ; if the tap on your nut and
the chloroform could n't finish you, you 're good to be hanged yet.
But you really ought to know about the doings in the High
School ; and if I did n't believe that Molly Farnham was writing
regularly to you (through your sister) I might hope you 'd read what
my genius can concoct in the way of clear, concise, correct, canned
composition. Nevertheless, there 's just one event in this little old
1 For this letter the authors are indebted to Mr. Samuel M. North, of Baltimore.
92 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
town that has got past Molly dear ; so I am going to throw it right
at you. Brace up now ; send the pretty nurse-lady away, for I want
the whole remainder of what was once your mind.
Well, this story begins with a parrot — to wit, my parrot, which
bird you have never seen, since Uncle Jim brought him up from
Santa Lucia only two weeks ago. We knew he could say a few
things, for the dealer Uncle Jim bought him of said the bird had
been owned by an English merchant who had taught him to
speak, but he never would talk for us. So we just supposed he
was listening — and learning.
Well, you know about the Thanksgiving play. This year the
folks worked up that hoary old " Spanish Bride," but it sure did
come near not being given in full after all. In one of the scenes
they had a lot of canaries in cages, singing ; and somebody sug-
gested that my parrot would add some class to the tropical tout
ensemble. I told them he was a dummy — wouldn't or couldn't
talk ; but they said he 'd look good, anyhow ; so I brought him
along to the last three rehearsals. Well, he did n't say anything ;
he just sat, and cocked his head, and bit his cage, and squawked
now and then, when he was on the stage. But I put him over on
the women's side of the stage when he was not " on," because the
boys were always teasing him. That 's where he saw old Jordan
and Marjory Mcekins a-sparkin' ; and you know old Jordan 's been
sparking Marge for ten years. Well, one night I forgot him until
I was in bed; but Marjory had carried him with her, old Jordan,
of course, seeing her home.
Well, Bub, there is a scene where Marjory, as the unwilling
betrothed of a villainous old Spaniard (old Jordan), is gloomily
sitting in her boudoir with the canaries and my parrot, when in
comes old Jordan. He was not made up to any extent. He walks
over to Marge and begins to make love ; she listlessly or hopelessly
offers no objection, and presently the old boy prints a chaste kiss
on her left ear. That 's where the play broke up ; for that parrot
began to beat his wings against the cage and to scream at the top
of his voice, " Now not another one, Mr. Jordan ! Now not another
one, Mr. Jordan ! " and so following, until the audience was scream-
ing, the actors whooping, old Jordan cussing the parrot, and Mar-
jory bursting into tears — proper hysterics, I guess, — and the
INTEREST 93
parrot still at it. And he kept it up, too, until they got the curtain
down and somebody put a shawl over the cage.
But, sonny, that brought old Jordan to the end of a ten-years'
courtship. Hark ! they 're going to be married to-morrow night,
and the old boy has bought my bird for one of the bridal presents.
But everybody laughs when the thing is mentioned ; honest, I
screamed until I got down on the floor, and then I lost my breath
until Bat Martin, who was in the same shape, inadvertently planted
a convulsive kick right between my shoulders. Gee ! can't you
see old Jordan, his cross eyes glaring, his false teeth all but falling
out as he danced in his rage, and the Spanish sash he had on all
between his feet and about to trip him ! — Move up, Joe, and get
home ; you 're missing a heap !
There 's a lot doing, anyhow. Gene Higgins has got a new red
necktie, and I've got a new sweater, and John Babb 's got the
chicken-pox, and my father 's got the same old grouch, and your
cousin Amelia 's got a new hat.
So hurry home, son, before everything happens, and especially
before it comes my turn to write to you again.
'Yours sincerely,
Bert.
EXERCISE 76 — Written
SECURING INTEREST IN LETTERS
Outline a letter to a friend, or use the letter written in
Exercise 72. Then try by revision and rewriting to make it
alive and interesting as the writers did in the illustrations
above. Don't try to imitate. Your letter will be more inter-
esting if it is full of you.
Few things dampen one's interest like a perfunctory series
of comments in a reply to what he has written. Every one
of us has broken the seal of a letter with interest, only to
have it deadened entirely by such comments as : " I am glad
that you and all the family are well. You must have been dis-
appointed at not going on the picnic. However, as you say,
you had some compensation in the visit from Cousin Tony."
94 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Be careful in writing to answer any questions that may
have been asked you. It is annoying to ask in a letter a
direct question and then in the reply to find it overlooked.
Common courtesy, if nothing else, demands an answer.
When through with what you have to say, end your letter.
The best way to do this is to stop writing. How often one
mars the pleasant impression of a letter by adding silly or
stilted remarks, lingering like an awkward boy after a call,
with nothing else to say, yet unable to get out of the room !
If one thinks of a graceful ending, it is all right, of course, to
use it ; but an abrupt close is far better than an insincere one.
Sam Weller in his famous valentine does not conclude
gracefully ; but he does illustrate one important principle in
effective letter-writing:.
*&■
" Except this, Mary, very dear, as your valentine, and think over
what I 've said. My dear Mary, I will now conclude. That 's all,"
said Sam.
" That 's rather a sudden pull up, ain't it, Sammy ? " inquired
Mr. Weller.
" Not a bit on it," said Sam ; " she '11 wish there wos more, and
that's the great art o' letter-writin'."
EXERCISE 77 — Oral
THE ENDINGS OF LETTERS
Criticize the endings of the letters you have written in
previous exercises. Try to improve them.
In friendly letters there are many acceptable forms of
leave-taking. Contrary to the custom in business letters,
where the leave-taking is merely a form, in social letters
it may be made to convey actual feeling. / r ery respectfully
INTEREST 95
yours, Sincerely yours, and Your true friend always, can by
no means be used interchangeably. The leave-taking should,
of course, be in harmony with the body of the letter. Not
infrequently in friendly letters the leave-taking is made a
part of the body ; for instance,
Even though you have moved away to live, I hope that
you will never forget Tuscola and
Your true friend,
David Lewis.
It is not considered good form to write for the leave-taking
merely Yours.
The signature to a friend of any kind is, preferably, the
writer's name, so that, if the letter go astray in the mails, it
may be returned. But as that mishap is a rare possibility, in
letters to intimate friends one often signs merely his Christian
name, initials, or nickname, provided he is absolutely sure
the recipient will be in no doubt as to the writer's identity.
EXERCISE 78 — Written
LEAVE-TAKING AND SIGNATURE
Write the leave-taking and signature of the letters enu-
merated in Exercise 73.
Before laying your letter aside finally, read it over aloud
to yourself. How should you like to receive this letter if you
were the person to whom it is addressed ?
II. Formal Letters
Similar to the "friendly letter" is a type used when one
writes to a person little known or to a stranger, particularly
to a representative of some organization or institution. Such
a type is always necessary when one does not know (or need
96 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
to know) the name of the person addressed, unless the con-
tents of the letter are of commercial nature and therefore
demand the " business letter."
This type, which may be called the " formal letter," differs
from the "friendly letter" in tone, of course. Moreover it
usually will have for its salutation My dear Sir, the address
will be followed by a colon or a colon and dash, and the name
of the person to whom it is written, sometimes with his ad-
dress, will be placed at the end of the letter, beginnng at the
left-hand margin. 533 Wegt i ^ ^^ '
New York, New York, 1
October 25, 191 2.
My dear Sir :
Yours very truly,
F. S. Lunt, Esquire,
Freeport, Illinois.
My dear Sir:
16 Eighteenth Street, NAY.
Washington
District of Columbia
October 25, 191 1
Very truly yours
The Librarian of Yale University
1 When a letter is written from the city of New York, the name of the state is
frequently omitted. Extension of the practice should certainly be discouraged, how-
ever, as leading to inevitable confusion.
INTEREST 97
III. Pseudo-Letters
Post-cards are said by some to be destroying the letter-
writing habit in America. Surely this is charging too much ;
but just as surely it has some basis in fact. The souvenir
post-card, when not gaudy and vulgar, affords a means of
pleasant greeting to a friend ; but it should not be permitted
to take the place of a real letter. One should never, of course,
write on a post-card anything of a private nature.
EXERCISE 79 — Written
TEST LETTERS
1. If there are any improvements needed at your school,
write to the superintendent and courteously explain what they
are and why they should be made.
2. Graduates often wonder what is going on in the school
that they attended. Choose some one who was a pupil in your
school and write him of what you think will be interesting.
3. You have no doubt read recently a story or a poem that
you liked verv much. Write to the author and tell him what
you liked particularly in his work. You might encourage him
to write something even more interesting along the same lines.
4. It may be that you are tired of the way that you and
your friends are spending recess. Schools differ in so many
respects that what you do at recess might be very interesting
to the pupils in another town. Write to a class similar to yours
and tell about your recess. Make it seem interesting, but at
the same time show your feeling about it. Ask for suggestions.
5. After teachers leave a school they are usually inter-
ested in what their former pupils are doing. Write and tell
a former teacher of your class what he probably would like
to know. Remember, in doing this, that you have no right
9 8 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
to wound the feelings of your fellow pupils, even to make
your letter amusing.
6. You have organized a literary or social club in the
school. Write to the principal, asking certain favors (the use
of a room, to be excused from certain work, etc.), and, that
you may convince him, state clearly and pleasantly the ad-
vantages that the school will derive from the society.
7. You have just finished a book which you enjoyed so
thoroughly that you wish some friend to have the pleasure of
reading it, too. Write to him, recommending the book, speci-
fying what in it you particularly enjoyed, and telling why you
think that he should read it.
8. You have entered the school for the first time. Write
to a friend in your old home, telling him of the good and of
the bad in the new school. You must be careful to look at
everything through new eyes, a hard thing to do. Be very
definite in making your points : remember that criticism does
not mean merely fault-finding. When criticizing adversely,
suggest possible remedies.
9. Answer the preceding letter, assuming that you have
visited or been a member of the school previously. Agree
with the critic regarding some matters ; courteously point out
his errors in others. You can convince him best by citing
definite facts and instances to support your statements.
10. You are in doubt what occupation to follow after
leaving school. Write to some man whose opinion you re-
spect and ask his advice. Be sure that you tell him all the
facts about yourself that he needs to know.
1 1 . The manager of your ball team wrote to the manager
of a rival team and proposed a game. After the exchange
of several letters the challenge was accepted and all the
details arranged. Reproduce the correspondence.
INTEREST 99
B. CHOICE OF DETAILS
Not only in letter- writing but in all kinds of composition
we face the problem of what to include and what to leave
out. In attempting to interest a hearer or reader we find
the choice of details a very important consideration. It is
impossible to tell everything. Which details shall we choose ?
EXERCISE 80 — Oral
SEEING THE INTEREST OF DETAILS
You have already discovered the fact that details help to
give interest, and you have been taught in some cases to nar-
row your subject so that in the same space you could for the
sake of interest give more details. Compare the two themes
following. What details are given in the second ? Of what
sentences in the first composition is the second an expansion ?
What definite words are especially appropriate ?
A TRIP TO THE RIVER
On a hot day in July another boy and I rode to the river on our
wheels. We got a rowboat and started up the river. The first
thing we did was to run into a brush pile at the water's edge.
Then we ran into the bank. As we were rounding the bend we
saw another boat loaded with boys who looked too much like
pirates to suit me. They were armed to the teeth with empty cans
which they promptly filled. They tried to board, but failed ; and
then we were doused, but were none the worse for it. We went on
and stuck on a sand bar and had to get out and push for dear life
for about ten minutes in water knee-deep. That was enough for
one afternoon, and we hurried home, stopping only for a bottle of
pop at a country store.
IOO FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
AN ADVENTURE WITH A PIRATE CRAFT
On a hot afternoon while rowing on the river we espied a boat-
load of boys ahead. It took us about one minute to see that they
were pirates. The weapons of the pirates consisted of empty tin
cans and three squirt guns. As they drew alongside they gave a
cheer and made a brave attempt to board, but failed. A squirt gun
was then aimed at me, and its fire took me unexpectedly in the
face. The battle now began in earnest. In five minutes we were
both wet and getting wetter every minute. With an oar we nearly
succeeded in overturning the pirate craft in the shallow water, and
would have done so had not our boat given a lurch and sent me
sprawling. Then began a chase, the enemy still near enough to
continue the fight with " long-range " squirt guns. We soon left
them far behind, however, though the fierce yells of the pirates
pursued us far up the river.
The choice of details is generally determined by our pur-
pose. Sometimes we need to make a description as accurate
as possible, not choosing details so much as including every
one that will distinguish a particular person or thing from
another of its kind. Such a description is given by the police
authorities when they desire a man to be captured and brought
to court. This is a very different kind of description, as the
following exercises will show, from the one intended to pro-
duce a certain effect or to make a certain picture.
EXERCISE 81 — Written
CHOOSING DETAILS ACCORDING TO A PURPOSE
a. Write two short descriptions of the same subject :
(i) Describe a man who is wanted for trial. Remember that
any peculiarities which he cannot easily disguise are most
important to mention. Do not make an overdrawn portrait,
INTEREST IOI
but make an accurate one, including weight and measure-
ments. (2) Describe the same person in a few sentences as
you would introduce him in a story ; try to make the reader
interested in him.
b. Describe a place with scientific accuracy, and the same
place by picturing details only. Try the sitting-room at home,
the pond, or the attic. Criticize these themes for sincerity as
well as for good choice of details, and for definite words.
The description for accuracy does not leave us much room
for choice, and is not especially concerned with interest. But
oftener our purpose is to give some particular effect, and
hence our details must all contribute to this one end. The
last two exercises must have shown that this end is not easy
to achieve. 'The difficulty of literature," says Stevenson,
" is not to write, but to write what you mean ; not to affect
your reader, but to affect him precisely as you wish." You
have been unconsciously choosing your details for one effect
in many of the exercises already tried — " Autumn," for in-
stance, or " The Liveliest Scene I Ever Saw." When the
effect is presented for you, as in several of these exercises,
part of your task is already done ; later you must decide for
yourselves what is the characteristic atmosphere of the person
or place pictured.
EXERCISE 82 — Oral
STUDYING DETAILS TO PRODUCE AN EFFECT
a. In the theme on a lively scene given in the last chapter
(p. 69), what details are chosen to give the desired effect ?
Are any unnecessary ? Make a list of the details that impress
you with liveliness of action or with noise and Confusion.
102 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
/>. In the following description what details are chosen to
give the effect of heat and drought ? Explain : nurtured,
sterile, languid, listlessly, whimper, petulant, precincts,
progeny, indolent.
The September sun shone with summer-like fervor in the little
valley of Danvis ; not an afternoon of August had been hotter, or
breathed a droughtier breath upon wilting forests and seared fields.
Ik-re and there among the dusky green of the woods, a tree nur-
tured by more sterile rootage than its neighbors was burning out
its untimely ripeness in a blaze of red or yellow, from which the
puffs of warm wind scattered sparks of color so intense that it
seemed as if they might kindle the dry earth.
All nature was languid in the unseasonable heat and drought.
The unrefreshing breeze blew in lazy puffs without even energy of
direction, but listlessly trying this quarter and that, now bearing,
now dropping the light burden of a tree's complaining, the rustle
of the rolled corn leaves, the faint whimper of tired brooks, the
petulant clamor of the crows, and the high, far-away scream of a
hawk that, level with the breezy mountain peaks, wheeled in slow
circles, a hot brown speck against the bronze sky.
The same wearied air pervaded the precincts of Joseph Hill's
home and the house itself. The hens lay panting with drooped
wings under the scant shade of the currant bushes, whose shriveled
remnant of fruit gave no promise of refreshing coolness ; their
half-grown progeny stalked aimlessly about the yard in indolent
quest of nothing, while they grated out the discordant yelp which
is neither peep nor cluck, and expresses nothing if not continual
discontent; and the ducks waddled home, thirsty and unhappy,
from the dried-up puddle.
The hollyhock stalks stood naked and forlorn among the droop-
ing leaves, with only here and there a blossom too stunted to tempt
a bumble-bee showing among the browning buttons of seed-vessels.
The morning-glory leaves hung limp upon their twisted vines, that
had evidently blown their last purple trumpet to call the bees,
clutching their supporting cords only with a dying grasp.
Rowland K. ROBINSON, " Danvis Folks"'
INTEREST 103
c. Here is a composition written by a pupil Make a list
of the details used to give the effect of the heat. Are the
details definite ? Do they seem sincere ?
A HOT DAY
The sky is blue, not a cloud is to be seen, and the sun is beat-
ing down pitilessly on the already withering grass and dusty road.
Sitting beneath the hickory tree at the left is a small boy in blue
overalls, fanning his hot face with his large straw hat. His hair is
wet and the sweat runs down his face in large drops as he gazes
dolefully at the lawn-mower and the uncut grass before him. Not
far behind the tree is a house with a wide verandah in front. There
are rugs thrown over the railing, and two little girls, barefooted,
with their hair done up in knots on the tops of their heads, and
wearing aprons with low necks and no sleeves, are sitting on top
of the rugs, swinging their legs. All the chairs are out on the
grass except one, in which a woman is resting. She wears an apron
over a blue dress, and a broom is leaning against the railing. A
little boy about two years old is enjoying himself playing in a
bucket of water on the steps. The woman is evidently going to
scrub the porch in an attempt to cool the air. The leaves of the
trees are dusty and motionless, and there is no sound but the low
hum of a summer's day and the talking of the little girls.
EXERCISE 83 — Written
CHOOSING DETAILS TO PRODUCE AN EFFECT
Write a description to give the effect of heat or of cold.
Choose details and words carefully ; write sincerely, without
exaggeration. Your title may be " The Hottest Day of Sum-
mer " or " The Coldest Day (or Night) of the Year."
A description in which only the most suggestive details
are given, for the sake of producing on the reader a certain
effect, is called a literary description ; one in which all the
104 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
details that will aid clearness are given, for the sake of re-
producing accurately the object, place, or person described, is
tailed a scientific description. The difference between these
two methods of description is very much the difference
between an artist's portrait and an untouched photograph.
The artist, if he sees into the character of his subject, will
suppress many details that the camera would show, suppress
them for the sake of truly expressing that character behind
them. This careful choice of details is one way of distin-
guishing between fact and truth.
EXERCISE 84 -Oral
SEEING THE EFFECT OF SUPPRESSING DETAILS
Find and bring to class reproductions of paintings and of
photographs showing somewhat similar scenes or people
treated in the artist's and in the photographer's manner. Be
ready to tell what details the artist has suppressed and what
effect he gains. Good examples would be Turner's " Venice "
and a photograph of the Grand Canal ; or his " Rain, Steam,
and Speed " and a photograph of a moving express train ; or
a portrait of Walt Whitman and his photograph at about the
same age. Nowadays photographers often get the effect of
an artist's portrait by suppressing many details. Find some
examples of children's pictures illustrative of this.
EXERCISE 85 — Oral or Written
WRITING SCIFNTIFIC AND LITERARY DESCRIPTION
Give, as in Exercise 81 above, a scientific and a literary
description of the same room, of the same field, of the same
building (exterior), or of the same person. In the scientific
description be clear and accurate ; in the literary description
INTEREST 105
be interesting and truthful to the impression you wish to
give. In the literary description choose only the details which
suggest the character of the scene or person described, and
do not try to give more than one effect.
EXERCISE 86 — Written
CHOOSING DETAILS FOR CONTRASTED EFFECTS
Let half the class write on the title " A Deserted House,"
the other half on " A Comfortable Home." Each pupil should
choose with care a few definite details.
In telling a story no less than in writing a description,
constant choice is necessary. If you were to set down every
least thing that you did and saw and heard and thought and
said on even the most ordinary day, your record would fill a
volume and would be very uninteresting. Generally we choose
events that have some bearing on a certain thread of interest
— things that are, as we say, important to the story. Why,
at the end of Part One in " Silas Marner," does George Eliot
skip sixteen years ? Why, in almost any story, does the author
dwell at length on certain days, or hours, or minutes, and
leave out dozens of others ?
EXERCISE 87— Written
CHOOSING DETAILS IN STORY-TELLING
Write the story of a day, choosing either a particularly
happy, or a particularly disagreeable, or a particularly unfortu-
nate day, and selecting the details to make the effect that you
wish. Do not say that once you were happy or worn-out or
sad, but show by what you tell, and the way in which you tell
io6 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
it, how you must have felt. Be sure to choose your words no
less carefully than you choose your details.
Comment on the details and the definite (or indefinite)
words in this theme :
A DAY OF MY LIFE
It began early in the morning, when I woke up with a yawn and
saw my own breath rising in a cloud. I frowned and turned with a
dreamy crossness to the window. All I saw here was a forest of
Jack Frost's own making so very dense with ferns and underbrush
that I couldn't scratch my way to the outer world. Just then I
heard papa's voice calling that if I wanted any breakfast I 'd better
hurry up. I muttered under my breath that I did n't want any ;
but answered with an audible but ungracious, " Well."
Finally with an effort I crawled out of bed and ran across the
room for my slippers. Slipping my foot into a stocking, I was go-
ing to put on my slippers when I saw in my stocking a little hole.
Pulling it off, I ran to the sewing room for a needle and thread, and
then proceeded to prick my finger. When I had finished this and
dressed, I went downstairs. To mamma's cheerful, "Good-morning,"
I answered shortly; and then, to turn her attention from me, I asked
what was the matter with the furnace. Papa answered that it was
like me, all wrong, and he ended this explanation by asking if I
had n't got out on the wrong side of bed. This did n't help my
temper and I turned away to find a cold breakfast awaiting me.
This made me angry, and my feelings were a great deal relieved by
breaking a glass pitcher of value. After trying to eat, with lots of
grumbling to wash the food down, I went in to get ready for school.
At last, after troubles too numerous to mention, I got started ;
only to realize, as I stepped outside the door, that 1 had my house-
slippers on. I ran back and after a few minutes' search I found
my shoes and started again. After a quick run I got to school just
in time to see my class passing. I hurriedly followed, and when the
teacher called on me for the three terms of percentage, I arose and
breathlessly answered, " Subject, copula, and predicate attribute."
Of course a scolding ensued, and I, feeling pretty uncomfortable,
went down to chapel.
INTEREST 107
Everything went wrong until in the afternoon we went to manual
training. Here I proceeded to slice the end off my finger. After
this, school ended, and I started to the lake to skate. I was with a
group of girls and as they chattered I heard some one say, " I "m
so glad I took my music lesson yesterday.'' Then with a great
pang of disappointment and anger I thought of my music lesson,
which had to be this afternoon. Slowly I went to the music room,
where I was in vain reminded that I was leaving out my flats.
When I went home that evening, I was glad I had a headache
so that I could go to bed at once. A little later as I lay on the bed,
I heard some one in the street singing,
"If you 're cross and angry,
Don't get mad !
If you 're cross and angry,
Then please get glad ! "
Then I thought that it was easy to say things, but not so easy to
do them.
C. ORDER OF DETAILS
In telling a story the order of events in time takes care of
some of the order of our details, but in picturing we find that
multitudes of impressions strike our eyes and ears at the same
time. Which shall we speak of first ? The order of the details
is hardly less important than the selection of them.
EXERCISE 88 — Oral
STUDYING THE ORDER OF DETAILS
Look again at the selections from Stevenson and Mason
in the third chapter. Notice that the order follows the eye
from the foreground out and out to the farthest things that
can be seen. Why ? What is the order of details in the
account (page 68) of Alexander ' Hamilton's ride through
the storm ? Show how the time-order comes in to help out
the place-order.
108 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 89 — Written
IMPROVING THE ORDER OF DETAILS
If the order of details in your last description of a house can
be improved, rewrite the theme. Do not skip from the outside
to the inside and back again, but follow some definite plan.
EXERCISE 90 — Oral
CHOOSING AND ARRANGING DETAILS FOR CLEAR
EXPLANATION
Explain every move you make in tying some kind of knot.
Test the clearness of your explanation by letting your class-
mates actually tie the knots, following your directions exactly.
EXERCISE 91 — Oral
CRITICIZING THE ORDER OF DETAILS
Criticize the order of details in the following description :
The sexton has on a large woolen cap with the flaps pulled down
over his ears. His face is very wrinkled and he looks about forty-
five years old. He has on a black coat that is very small for him,
and has become green from age. He has on a large pair of gloves
made of some kind of leather lined with fur. His coat comes down
to his knees and is very ragged at the bottom. In one hand he
carries a large bunch of keys all belonging to different parts of the
church. His stockings are heavy woolen ones, and his shoes are
black with two very large buckles on them. In the other hand he
carries a large lantern. The globe is so badly smoked that the light
can hardly be seen.
In describing almost anything, but especially a person or a
place, it is often well to give first a sentence that tells the
general effect. Sometimes the details are given first and the
general impression last.
INTEREST 109
EXERCISE 92 — Oral
STUDYING THE CHOICE AND THE ARRANGEMENT
OF DETAILS
Study the following description of a place and of a person
and note the choice and the arrangement of details. What is
the general effect ? Is this given first or last ? What are the
most effective details ?
a. It was such a scene of confusion as you can hardly fancy.
All the lockfast places had been broken open in quest of the chart.
The floor was thick with mud, where the ruffians had sat down to
drink or consult after wading in the marshes round their camp.
The bulkheads, all painted in clear white, and beaded round with
gilt, bore a pattern of dirty hands. Dozens of empty bottles clinked
together in corners to the rolling of the ship. One of the doctor's
medical books lay open on the table, half of the leaves gutted out,
I suppose, for pipe lights. In the midst of all this the lamp still
cast a smoky glow, obscure and brown as umber.
Stevenson, " Treasure Island "
b. Lizzy [is] the plaything and queen of the village, a child three
years old according to the register, but six in size and strength and
intellect, in power and in self-will. She manages everybody in the
place, her schoolmistress included ; turns the wheeler's children
out of their own little cart and makes them draw her ; seduces cake
and lollypops from the very shop windows ; makes the lazy carry
her, the silent talk to her, the grave romp with her ; does every-
thing she pleases ; is absolutely irresistible. Her chief attraction
lies in her exceeding power of loving, and her firm reliance on the
love and indulgence of others. How impossible it would be to dis-
appoint the dear little girl when she runs to meet you, slides her
pretty hand into yours, looks up gladly in your face, and says
" Come ! " You must go : you cannot help it. Another part of her
charm is her singular beauty. Together with a good deal of the
character of Napoleon, she has something of his square, sturdy,
upright form, with the finest limbs in the world, and complexion
purely English, a round laughing face, sunburnt and rosy, large
HO FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
merry blue eyes, curling brown hair, and a wonderful play of coun-
tenance. She has the imperial attitudes too, and loves to stand with
her hands behind her, or folded over her bosom ; and sometimes,
when she has a touch of shyness, she clasps them together on the
top of her head, pressing down her shining curls, and looking so
exquisitely pretty ! Yes, Lizzy is queen of the village.
Miss Mitford, " Our Village "
EXERCISE 93 - Written or Oral
CHOOSING AND ARRANGING DETAILS TO PRODUCE AN
EFFECT IN DESCRIPTION
Write a description of some person, giving attention to
choice and arrangement of details that produce a general
effect, to definite words, to sincerity, and to point of view.
You will find it best to choose a subject with a very definite
personality, either queer, or dainty, or awkward, for example.
If you catch your portrait as the subject is doing some char-
acteristic thing, so much the better. Read the following
themes by way of suggestion.
THE WASHERWOMAN'S BOY
He is a tall, pale-faced boy. His brown eyes look too large for
his slender puny face. His head is pointed, and covered with long
black hair, stringing into his eyes. He wears a man's hat much too
large for him, and a shaggy brown coat many years old, with sleeves
so short that his bony hands stand out from them, very conspicuous.
His trousers are meant to be long ones, but he has outgrown them
until they reach his shoe tops. He wears a pair of his mother's old
shoes which are long and narrow and have very high heels. Every
day, counting Sundays, you can see him going along playing train
with the baby buggy, which he is pushing full of clothes.
INTEREST 1 1 1
BILL JOHNSON, A POLITICAL BOSS
Bill Johnson bought more votes than any other political boss in
town. He wore a silk hat which covered a mass of black curly hair.
His head was of average size. He had bleary blue eyes, a long
hooked nose, and a firm-set mouth, in one corner of which was
cocked a cigar. He had on a gray suit, and a stiff shirt in which
was a diamond stud. Johnson was handing to a lean, hawk-eyed
old man a two-dollar bill.
EXERCISE 94 — Written
CHOOSING AND ARRANGING DETAILS FOR CLEAR
EXPLANATION
In as clear a way as possible explain one of these things,
being especially careful about the order of details :
1. Why the moon has phases.
2. How to serve in tennis.
3. How to pitch a curve in baseball.
4. How to approach or putt in golf.
5. How to train a dog.
6. How to make a house-book for a child.
7. How to broil a steak.
8. Why yeast raises dough.
9. How to cut out dress goods by a pattern.
10. How to use wild flowers in the house.
11. How to passe-partout pictures.
12. How to make silhouettes.
Effective argument, as has already been shown (page 45),
demands that there be a clear statement of the topic. This
topic alone will not suffice, however ; it must be supported
by facts, facts so selected and so ordered as to constitute proof.
The first point for one to note is that mere assertion is not
proof. The assertion may be true ; but it .must be fortified
with facts, referred to some axiom, or justified by authority.
112 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Unless the argument is to be exhaustive, only the strongest
facts at command will be used. These should be arranged so
as to support each other and the main proposition, and pre-
sented with sincerity and interest. Success is likely to follow
if the writer possesses the facts, thoroughly believes in them,
and sincerely tries to establish his proposition.
EXERCISE 95 — Oral
CHOOSING AND ARRANGING DETAILS IN ARGUMENT
a. Jot down all the arguments that occur to you for or
against one of the following propositions. Select the strongest
and arrange them so that, when called on, you can present
your side convincingly.
1 . The cost and style of commencement dresses should be
regulated by the school authorities.
2. Contests between schools should be in branches of study
as well as in athletics.
3 . Public debates between high schools should be encouraged.
4. An unpopular teacher, however good, should be removed.
5. Arctic explorations should be discouraged.
6. The honor system in examinations should be adopted
in our school.
b. Make notes of the points made by each one reciting.
Select one set that seems to lead to an untenable conclusion.
After finding where the faults are, prepare to present a reply
in a sincere, courteous, orderly way.
D. PROPORTION
Even when we have chosen the details and arranged them
in some natural order, we may make the mistake of dwelling
too long on one part and condensing another part too much.
INTEREST 1 1 3
Especially in telling a story we draw out the beginning, and
then, perhaps for lack of time, hurry through the end, which
is, or ought to be, the most interesting part. If we saw a
building with a stately and immense entrance hall leading
into nothing but a cramped little kitchen, we should say that
it was all out of proportion. Compositions are sometimes
out of proportion in a similar way.
EXERCISE 96 — Written
IMPROVING PROPORTION
Read over your theme on "A Day of My Life" (Exer-
cise 87), and see whether you have told things in the right
proportion, giving the largest number of details about the
most interesting events. If not, rewrite the theme.
EXERCISE 97 — Written
TEST THEME FOR CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT OF
DETAILS AND FOR PROPORTION
Tell in the most interesting way possible the story of " The
First Christmas I Remember," paying attention to choice and
arrangement of details, and to proportion. Do not be satisfied
with any words but those that express your meaning exactly.
Be careful about paragraphing. If you prefer, you may use
one of the following topics instead :
1. Grandma's Christmas. 7. Lost.
2. Helping Santa Claus. 8. An Accident.
3. A Christmas Shopping Trip. 9. A New Year's Resolution.
4. A Night Ride. 10. Getting a Photograph of — — .
5. Caught in a Storm. 11. A Spoiled Holiday.
6. My First Adventure. 12. Getting around an Objection.
ii 4 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Read the following theme by way of suggestion :
MY IDEAL CHRISTMAS
It was the afternoon before Christmas and everybody was in a
hurry. Papa was hitching up the black team to the sleigh, I was
putting on my overcoat, mamma was wrapping up the baby, while
Fred was tugging at his overshoes.
" Here's the sleigh-bell,' 1 said Fred as he pulled on his second
overshoe.
"And there's papa calling for us,"' said I as I ran out, jumped
into the sleigh, and took the reins.
Papa helped mamma and the baby in, and Fred climbed in and
got under the laprobe, and you may be sure I did the same when
papa took the reins, — because it was cold. It was four miles to
grandma's, but we had a fast pair of horses and an easy-running
sleigh, and maybe we didn't fly! It seemed as if we had just
started when papa said " Whoa ! " and jumped out. He helped
mamma and the baby out, while Fred and I jumped out and tied
the horses.
Grandma came running out and told us to come into the house
quick or we should freeze. Aunt Maggie was getting supper, and
while we were warming ourselves, Uncle Ned ran out and put up
the horses and fed them.
Fred and I went upstairs and played horse and train till supper
time. While we were upstairs I thought I heard some one hammer-
ing downstairs, and told Fred we had better go down and see what
they were about ; but Fred said that they were only cracking hickory-
nuts for a cake or something, and if we went down we should only
get the job, which he did n't like. The hammering stopped and we
went on playing. In about half an hour Aunt Maggie called us
down to supper.
After supper some one said, "All ready for the Christmas tree ! "
Fred and 1 looked at each other for about a second and then made
a run for the parlor. I beat. When I opened the door, there stood
a large Christmas tree, about nine feet high. The room was all
lighted up with candles which were on the tree. Around the tree
were wagons, rocking-horses, heavy trains of cars, and large, heavy
sets of books, which were too heavy for the branches. On the tree
were light toys, air-guns, a shot-gun, some light hooks, a knife or
INTEREST 115
two, and about a number-four sack full of candy and nuts for each
one. All of this I saw in a moment. Then Fred and the others
came in, but Uncle Ned was not with them. I asked where Uncle
Ned was, and papa said he thought he was feeding the horses, but
I knew he was not and thought that he was playing Santa Claus ;
but I kept my thoughts to myself.
All at once Santa Claus slipped out from a little nook behind
the tree and began giving out the presents. When he was through
giving out the presents he took hold of my hand and danced
around the tree. While we were dancing his beard fell off, and
then everybody shouted " Uncle Ned ! " " Uncle Ned ! " He ran
out and pulled off his coat and came back in again.
The next day we got up early to look in our stockings, but they
were empty. We went down to breakfast with sad hearts, but when
we turned over our plates to eat, there under each of our plates was
a round silver dollar. After breakfast Aunt Maggie telephoned
over to Aunt Mary's and Aunt Helen's and told them to come over
for dinner, and not to forget their children, because Fred and I
were there. About nine o'clock they came. We — Fred and I and
our cousins — made snow men, had snow fights, and we tried to
make snow houses, but could n*t.
At one o'clock we had dinner, and it was such a dinner ! — turkey,
dressing, puddings, not to count the cakes, pies, cookies, and all the
rest of the good things. After dinner some of the children went
out and played in the snow, but I was too full to do that. I finished
eating about ten minutes after the rest of the children. When I
had finished I went into the parlor and lay down under the Christ-
mas tree on a large white bear's skin and went to sleep. I don't
know how long I slept, but when I woke up I heard the knives
and forks clattering as the grown-ups tried to cut a leg off the turkey,
and I knew it must be almost supper time.
E. BEGINNINGS
It is important to secure your reader's attention by a good
beginning. What kind of beginning do you like best ? As
you have already noticed in letter-writing, it is generally best
to begin without apology or explanation or the needless infor-
mation that you are going to begin. This is especially true of
u6 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
a short composition, in which an introduction of any kind is
likely to be out of proportion. If you had a whole book to write,
you might spare a few pages or paragraphs for explanation,
especially if the times or scene of the story were unfamiliar,
as in Scott's novels. But even a book is likely to attract us as
more interesting if it introduces us at once to the characters
and the situation of affairs, and hints at events to come.
EXERCISE 98 — Oral
NOTICING A GOOD BEGINNING
From the following beginning what do we learn of each
character ? of the kind of story coming ?
" Christmas won't be Christmas without any presents," grumbled
Jo, lying on the rug.
" It 's so dreadful to be poor ! " sighed Meg, looking down at her
old dress.
" I don't think it 's fair for some girls to have plenty of pretty
things, and other girls nothing at all," added little Amy with an
injured sniff.
" We 've got father and mother and each other," said Beth
contentedly, from her corner.
Louisa M. Alcott, !t Little Women " 1
EXERCISE 99 — Oral
CRITICIZING SOME GOOD BEGINNINGS
Why are the following first paragraphs good ones ?
1. It was sheep-shearing time in Southern California ; but sheep-
shearing was late at the Sefior Moreno's. The Fates had seemed
to combine to put it off. — Helen Hunt Jackson, " Ramona "
2. Every morning after breakfast, when the Imp trotted down
the steps of the broad hotel piazza, with his brown legs bare, and
l Copyright, 1S96, by John S. I'. Alcott.
INTEREST 117
his big iron shovel — none of your ten-cent tin scoops for him —
he was filled anew with pity for Algernon Marmaduke Schuyler.
Josephine Daskam Bacon, "The Imp and the Angel"
3. The weather door of the smoking-room had been left open to
the North Atlantic fog, as the big liner rolled and lifted, whistling
to warn the fishing-fleet.
" That Cheyne boy 's the biggest nuisance aboard," said a man
in a frieze overcoat, shutting the door with a bang. " He is n't
wanted here. He 's too fresh."
Rudyard Kipling, " Captains Courageous "
4. It was much too fine a night to think of going to bed at once,
and so, although the witching hour of nine p.m. had struck, Edward
and I were still leaning out of the open window in our night shirts,
watching the play of the cedar-branch shadows on the moonlit
lawn, and planning schemes of fresh deviltry for the sunshiny
morrow.
Kenneth Grahame, The Burglars, in " The Golden Age "
EXERCISE 100 — Oral
CRITICIZING BEGINNINGS OF THEMES
Discuss in class the beginnings of themes handed in for
Exercise 94. Which seems to you the best ?
EXERCISE 101 — Written
WRITING DIFFERENT BEGINNINGS
Write the introductory sentences of two stories, one to be an
exciting adventure, the other a jolly incident of school life.
F. ENDINGS
For the conclusion or ending the most important advice is,
" Stop when you have finished." Do not leave anything
tacked on or dangling. If you are writing a story, round out
nS FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
the adventure ; if you are writing a description, leave the most
important detail or the general impression in the reader's
mind ; if you are explaining something, perhaps you will
need to sum up your points.
EXERCISE 102 — Oral and Written
CRITICIZING ENDINGS OF THEMES
Look over the endings of your last three themes and try
to improve them - — unless they need no improvement.
G. CLIMAX
A few considerations are of special importance in telling
stories. If you wish to hold your hearer's attention, you know
that you must not spoil the point by telling it too soon. Have
you ever listened to a story-teller who turned the joke back-
wards, or left out some important fact and had to go back to
supply it, or after telling the story pretty well added some
unnecessary information or repeated the best part until you
were tired of it ? In writing, where we have time to plan,
there is no excuse for spoiling the point or climax in any
of these ways.
By the climax of a story we mean the point at which we
see pretty clearly how everything will end — the height of the
story. Sometimes the climax or height of interest comes
before the climax of the story, so that although we do not
know how "it turns out," we do not care. Have you ever
read a book of this kind ? In such short stories as you must
write, it is especially important to have the climax at the very
end, or almost there, and make everything lead up to this.
Of course, not all accounts of events can be called stories
in the sense that they have a real climax ; your account of
INTEREST 119
"A Day of My Life " may have been merely a string of inci-
dents meant to give a general impression. In this respect it
was, then, more like a description than a story. If you took
any one of the incidents, however, and told it in detail, you
would find that it had, or should have, a climax. You must
make the most of your climax by preparing for it carefully,
telling it well, and not spoiling it afterwards ; in this way
you are likely to be interesting.
EXERCISE 103 — Oral
STUDYING A CLIMAX AND THE APPROACH TO IT
Study this poem of Whittier's. Where is the climax ?
What details are given to lead to this ? Why so many ? Are
they well arranged ?
TELLING THE BEES
[According to an old custom, the bees were told of the death of a member of the
family and their hives were draped in mourning, in order to prevent them from
seeking a new home.]
Here is the place ; right over the hill
Runs the path I took ;
You can see the gap in the old wall still,
And the stepping stones in the shallow brook.
There is the house, with the gate red-barred,
And the poplars tall ;
And the barn's brown length, and the cattle-yard,
And the white horns tossing above the wall.
There are the beehives ranged in the sun ;
And down by the brink
Of the brook are her poor flowers, weed-o'erruh,
Pansy and daffodil, rose and pink.
120 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
A year has gone, as the tortoise goes,
Heavy and slow :
And the same rose blows, and the same sun glows,
And the same brook sings of a year ago.
There 's the same sweet clover-smell in the breeze ;
And the June sun warm
Tangles his wings of fire in the trees,
Setting, as then, over Fernside farm.
I mind me how with a lover's care
From my Sunday coat
I brushed off the burrs, and smoothed my hair
And cooled at the brookside my brow and throat.
Since we parted a month had passed,
To love, a year ;
Down through the beeches I looked at last
On the little red gate and the well-sweep near.
I can see it all now, — the slantwise rain
Of light through the leaves.
The sundown's blaze on her window-pane,
The bloom of her roses under the eaves.
Just the same as a month before, —
The house and the trees,
The barn's brown gable, the vine by the door, —
Nothing changed but the hive of bees.
Before them, under the garden wall,
Forward and back,
Went drearily singing the chore-girl small,
Draping each hive with a shred of black.
Trembling, I listened : the summer sun
I lad the chill of snow :
For I knew she was telling the bees of one
Gone on the journey we all must go.
INTEREST 121
Then I said to myself, " My Mary weeps
For the dead to-day :
Haply her blind old grandsire sleeps
The fret and the pain of his age away."
But her dog whined low ; on the doorway sill,
With his cane to his chin,
The old man sat ; and the chore-girl still
Sang to the bees stealing out and in.
And the song she was singing ever since
I n my ear sounds on : —
" Stay at home, pretty bees, fly not hence ;
Mistress Mary is dead and gone."
EXERCISE 104 - Oral
CRITICIZING THEMES FOR ALL POINTS CONNECTED
WITH INTEREST
What is the climax of the following theme ? Is the com-
position well planned as to introduction, climax, ending, pro-
portion, choice and arrangement of details ? Comment on
the choice of words.
WAVES
I was about half way home from the Snow Islands. The day was
very windy and rather too warm. From the hot deck of a small,
side-wheel steamer I could see the white-caps dancing for miles
around us. One by one the people crowded on the deck became
sea-sick and hastily departed, until only a few were left, sitting
together near the stern. Finally they too went away. I was now
the only one left on deck. As the wind had become stronger, I
was in constant danger of being soaked.
In the prow of the boat the sides, were high, of course, and made
a little corner. Here I snuggled down on the floor. The waves
dashed over the prow of the boat, but all I got was a little spray.
Presently three gay young girls and one young man came to the
122 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
prow end of the deck. While they were standing near the side, an
immense wave sprang over the deck and almost swallowed them.
Two caps escaped over the side of the boat and had a bumpety ride
on the waves. The young people were all dripping wet, and as they
had been on only a day's trip, they had no stateroom ; so there
they stayed.
I laughed till I almost cried; but the laugh was soon to turn. I
thought I was safe, but before I was through laughing a huge wave
rolled me over and over down the deck, and I was fully as wet as
the others. When they had finished laughing at me, we made
friends, and had a jolly time together. We even tried to get rolled
over by the waves.
EXERCISE 105 — Oral
STUDYING CLIMAXES
The following are climaxes of stories. What questions do
the}' suggest as to the events that led to them ? What will
need to be finished in the conclusion ?
1. He was raising his arm and his voice, and plainly meant to
lead a charge. But just then — crack ! crack ! crack ! — three mus-
ket shots flashed out of the thicket. Merry tumbled head-foremost
into the excavation ; the man with the bandage spun round like a
teetotum, and fell all his length upon his side, where he lay dead,
but still twitching ; and the other three turned and ran for it with
all their might. — Stevenson, "Treasure Island"
2. And now he feels the bottom :
Now on dry earth he stands :
Now round him throng the Fathers,
To press his gory hands ;
And now with shouts and clapping
And noise of weeping loud,
He enters through the River-Gate
Borne by the joyous crowd.
Macaulay, " Horatius at the Bridge "
INTEREST 123
3. The peddler had never pretended to more courage than befits a
man of peaceable occupation, nor could he account for his valour
in this awful emergency. Certain it is, however, that he rushed
forward, prostrated a sturdy Irishman with the butt-end of his whip,
and found — not indeed hanging on the St. Michael's pear-tree, but
trembling beneath it, with a halter round his neck — the old, iden-
tical Mr. Higginbotham.
Hawthorne, " Mr. Higginbotham's Catastrophe "
EXERCISE 106 — Written and Oral
WRITING CLIMAXES AND DEFENDING THEM
Bring to class a paragraph or sentence giving the climax
of a story. Be ready to answer the questions which it
suggests to your classmates.
EXERCISE 107 — Written
WRITING A STORY AROUND A CLIMAX
Write a story including the climax written by yourself or
any one of your classmates. Be sure to prepare for the
climax carefully. Think out the whole story definitely be-
fore beginning to write, and sincerely try to interest the
other members of the class.
H. DEVICES FOR INTEREST
I. Conversation
You have undoubtedly already discovered that much inter-
est is often added to a story by telling part of it in the form
of conversation. This conversation may either tell some
things that happened, or reveal character, or do both. For
which purpose have you generally used it ?
124 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 108 — Oral and Written
WRITING CONVERSATION FOR INTEREST
Read the following fragment, tell what the conversation
does for it, and then finish the theme in the same spirit.
WHEN WILLIAM WENT TO THE CIRCUS
" Hello, goin' to the circus? "
A short, freckle-faced boy of ten stood beside a rather lean, lanky
youth who had reached the advanced age of twelve. The speaker
was the short boy, who somehow bore up under the delightful
name Jonathan Nathaniel Wentworth. His nickname was, as his
size might suggest, " Shorty." The other youth was Will Jones,
more commonly known as Bill.
" Perhaps," was the response.
They were standing in front of a large poster, which let passers-
by know that
" Barlow's Great Aggregation and Congregation of World-
renowned Acrobats and Performers in general will appear in Smith-
ville July the 25th. Two performances, rain or shine. Big Free
Parade. Greatest Collection of Animals ever seen in any Zoo or
Circus"; and all this was to be seen for "the paltry sum of fifty
cents ; children, half-price."
Now, sad to relate, Will had to go and spend a week with an
aunt living in a little town about ten miles from Smithville. This
visit had been planned so he should not be allowed to witness the
demoralizing circus. He did not want any of the boys to know this
fact, because they would tease him about not being able to go ; so
he only said " Perhaps."
EXERCISE 109 — Written
TELLING A STORY IN. CONVERSATION
Write a natural conversation between two boys or two girls,
which shall reveal some incident that has happened on the
playground or in school. Only one of them knows about it.
INTEREST 125
EXERCISE 110 — Written
REVEALING CHARACTER IN CONVERSATION
Write a conversation between the same two people about
the same incident as in Exercise 109, but assuming that they
both know what has happened. This conversation suggests
what the incident was, and shows the character of each boy
or girl in the way in which he talks about it. Perhaps one boy
is a sneak or one girl a scold. Imagine them very distinctly.
EXERCISE 111 — Written
FINDING DEFINITE WORDS FOR INTRODUCING
CONVERSATION
Make a list of all the words possible to use in place of said.
Which give you the clearest picture of the manner of saying ?
Which mean to say loudly ? to say softly ?
EXERCISE 112 — Written
REVEALING CHARACTER IN CONVERSATION
Write one of the following conversations to show character,
varying the explanatory words, as suggested in Exercise 1 1 1 :
1. A hard-working but cheery washerwoman with her grocer, while
she makes a small purchase.
2. A good-natured but provokingly careless small boy with his older
sister, whose pet has just been injured through his carelessness.
3. An inquisitive small boy on the train with his mother, who is a
lady and understands him pretty well.
4. The same small boy with his mother, who is a good-natured, over-
indulgent proud parent.
5. A conceited bully on the playground with a new boy who is brave
and quick-witted.
126 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
6. A very stupid and flighty, wealthy woman with a patient and
polite ticket-agent.
7. A shy country girl with her talkative and enthusiastic city cousin,
who has come to spend a month and is unpacking her trunk.
8. An older brother with Bobbie, a rather stupid fifth-grade boy,
who is puzzled over a problem in arithmetic.
9. Miss Prisms with her athletic brother at an art exhibit.
10. A snob with a quick-witted young gentleman whom he has mis-
taken for a chauffeur.
EXERCISE 113 — Written
SHOWING CHARACTER AND EVENTS THROUGH
CONVERSATION
Give one side of a telephone conversation, showing some-
thing that has happened, and also the character of the speaker.
If possible, indicate also the character of the person at the
other end of the line. Or write a monologue, that is, a one-
sided conversation showing events and character. What is
suggested of the character and circumstances by the remarks
of the person quoted below ? Finish his remarks after dinner.
" Oh, mamma, please may I lick that cake pan ? No, I won't
spoil my dinner. Um-m-m, this stuff 's good. Oh, do let me have
some of that dressing. Yes, I will, too, eat some at dinner; you
just wait and see if I don't. My, I wish Thanksgiving Day would
come every day. Want some wood ? Well, give me a piece of cake
to eat on the way, and I '11 get you some. No, I won't either get
dust on it. 1 '11 cram it in my mouth like this. See? Why, my
mouth is big ; it will hold twice that much. . . . Here 's your wood !
My, those baked apples look good. Guess I '11 eat one. Ha ! Ha !
You think there isn't room left for dinner, do you? If you think
I 've eaten lots now, wait till you see what I '11 eat for dinner. I 'm
going to tell papa to carve me a great big piece of turkey ! "
INTEREST 127
EXERCISE 1 14 — Written
EXPLAINING THROUGH CONVERSATION
Conversation may be used to make an explanation inter-
esting. In the form of a conversation tell how to make or
do or play something. Be sure that in trying to gain in-
terest you do not introduce so much outside matter that you
blur the clearness of the explanation. Read the following
composition :
HOW TO MAKE A HANDKERCHIEF CASE
" Oh, Ruth, I 'm having the most trouble ! I can't find anything
to give Mabel Channing for Christmas. I 've given her everything
I can think of, it seems to me, and I 've almost worn myself out
trying to think of something else."
" If you have given her everything, I don't see how I can help
you. But did you ever give her a handkerchief case ? I gave one
to one of mamma's friends last year, and she was delighted
with it."
" Oh, why did n't I think of that ! That 's the very thing I wanted.
How is it made? Is it hard, and does it take long? "
" No, it is very simple, and very quickly made ; and another good
thing about it — it is very inexpensive."
" Hurry up, for I can't wait another minute ! "
" Well, first cut two squares of stiff cardboard, about five inches
square, and be sure to have them exactly the same size. Cover these
with cotton batting. This should be drawn tightly over the card-
board and sewed so that there will be no wrinkles in it. Cover one
side of each of these with silk, overlapping it on the other side and
sewing it fast. To finish these pieces, cover the remaining side with
wide ribbon, and button-hole stitch the whole around the edges
with silk floss."
" But I don't see where the handkerchief is to go."
" Don't be impatient and you '11 soon know. You 've plenty of
time to make a dozen cases before Christmas. Next get some
elastic about one inch wide and eight inches long, cover this with
128 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
ribbon and fasten the ends together, and tie a bow of the ribbon
over the fastening. Put the two pieces of the case, ribbon sides
out, together, and slip the elastic bands over them, and then it is
ready for the folded handkerchief. Is there anything you don't
understand about it?"
"No, I don't think there is — only, is the bow on the elastic
made so that it can be untied when the case is to be opened, or is
it sewed on tight ? And what color is the case ? "
" It is sewed on tight, and the band is to be slipped off. The
batting of the one I made was pink, the silk white, and the ribbon
was white with pink flowers in it. It was very pretty, but I think
light blue would be just as dainty — or lavender, or pale green. Do
you think you can make one now? "
:t Yes, and I 'm going to hurry home and begin it. Thank you
very much, Ruth, for helping me out of my trouble."
EXERCISE 115— Written
DRAMATIZING AN INCIDENT
Tell some incident or adventure entirely by means of con-
versation. You may arrange' this as plays are printed. 1 If
necessary, write a brief introduction giving the time and place
and persons.
II. Comparison
As conversation is a device for securing interest, princi-
pally in story-telling, so comparisons are a device for securing
interest — along with some other things -- principally in de-
scription. YYe all use comparisons to make our meaning
clear : " It is as dark as pitch," " She is as pretty as a picture,"
' His cheeks were like apples." Silvery hair ; dog-like devo-
tion, putting the cart before the horse, a cold glance, a warm
heart, — many, many expressions in everyday use are com-
parisons, sometimes clearly stated, sometimes only hinted.
ditions of modern plays will illustrate the use of helpful stage-directions.
INTEREST 129
A sincere, definite comparison of our own, made not for its
own sake but to illustrate the point, helps even more than
these rather worn-out phrases to interest and enlighten
our readers.
EXERCISE 116 — Oral and Written
NOTICING COMPARISON THAT HELPS INTEREST
a. Find all the comparisons, both directly expressed and
implied, in Cobb's account of the approach of the mob
(pages 72-74). Note also the following comparisons taken
from pupils' compositions. Are they appropriate ? sincere ?
The trees are full of grackles, who are singing a squeaky
song like the sound made by a rusty pair of scissors being
opened and shut.
Over my head in the attic I heard the pitter-patter of little mice's
feet, running as if the mice were playing blackman.
The sharp whizzing wind whirling and whistling around the
corner of the house sounded like a saw mill, which gives a stinging
deep sound and then dies away again only for a second.
b. Write five or more comparisons applicable to people
you know.
III. Suggestion
Too many details hinder rather than help interest. The
long-drawn-out descriptions by Scott, for example, are some-
times rather tedious ; a few suggestive words are often all that
are needed to call up a vivid picture. Suggestion, then, no
less than comparison, is a valuable device for those who
would write interesting descriptions. It consists in choosing
one or two of the most significant, details that will carry with
them an image of many more.
130 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 117 — Oral
STUDYING SUGGESTIVE DESCRIPTIONS
What details are here given, and what do they suggest ?
Tommy appeared in a high state of clean collar, and escorted
Nat down to breakfast.
Ned Barker was like a thousand other boys of fourteen, all legs,
blunder, and bluster.
Rob was an energetic morsel of a boy, who seemed to have
discovered the secret of perpetual motion, for he was never still.
EXERCISE 118— Written
WRITING SUGGESTIVE DESCRIPTIONS
Describe ten different people by suggestion, giving one
sentence to each.
IV. Contrast
One of the surest ways to make a thing clear and interest-
ing-enough to hold attention is by contrasting it sharply with
something else. The word is written in white chalk on the
black-board ; a bush of white flowers is planted against a
background of dark green ; a compound sentence is set op-
posite a simple one ; a wrong use of a word against a right
use — that it may be seen distinctly with the physical or with
the mental eye. In pictures this principle of contrast is often
US ed — in the well-known picture of 'Dignity and Impu-
dence," for example, where the quality of each dog is made
clearer because the other dog is strikingly different.
In literature the intensity of a feeling or an impression is
often given by contrast. This is one of the surest ways of
holding interest, and a way that any one by a little thought
may use in a composition. Indeed, in a sense, a contrast is
INTEREST 131
implied whenever you describe anything; for example, "a
gentlemanly, courteous, truthful little fellow ' : is by these
very words set opposite to a selfish, boorish little sneak,
only the contrast is not made plain. In a long story too
we might find two kinds of people introduced as " foils " for
one another, that is, each to show the other's character by
contrast. Sometimes, too, the contrast is made plain by actual
statement of differences ; sometimes the things or people or
feelings or scenes are merely placed side by side, and the
reader is left to feel the contrast for himself.
EXERCISE 119 — Oral
SEEING ELEMENTS OF CONTRAST
Point out elements of contrast that might be used in de-
scribing some of the following :
1. A palace, a home, a hovel, a hotel parlor, a summer camp.
2. A garden, a forest nook.
3. A city street, a country lane, a mountain road.
4. A summer noon, a winter night.
5. The church on Sunday morning, the church at midnight.
6. The lake in summer and in winter.
7. A pine and an oak.
8. A blue-jay and a wren.
9. A New England farm and a Dakota wheat farm.
10. " Crabbed age and youth " (picture, not explanation).
11. Before and after dinner.
12. A house building, and a completed home.
13. A coward a hundred miles from the firing line, and within sound
of the cannon.
14. A loafer on the street corner, and a great physician or lawyer.
15. Conversation of a cheerful person and a discontented one about
some event or condition of affairs.
16. Johnny's remarks when Bill had the mumps, and his remarks
when he had them himself.
132 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
17. Thoughts of the person in the automobile, and of the person
who was nearly run over.
18. A fireplace and a radiator.
19. Indoors and out on a stormy night.
20. A friend's and an enemy's description of a political candidate.
EXERCISE 120 -Written
WRITING TO SHOW CONTRA SIS
Write on one or more of the topics suggested above, as
your teacher may direct. Be sure to picture the details which
most clearly mark differences. Use very definite words.
V. Variety
A succession of sentences beginning in the same way
{He was, or He had, or There were, for example), or a
series of short choppy sentences, or the repetition of a word
again and again {very, or said, or pretty, or the name of
something, for instance), — any and all of these monotonies
make compositions less interesting. Variety in anything is
more interesting than monotony. The securing of variety is
so important that a whole chapter of this book is devoted to
it ; for the present, watch your work to avoid monotony as
much as you can, especially in the form of your sentences
and in the unnecessary repetition of words.
VI. Brevity
If you would be interesting, avoid unnecessary words.
Never sacrifice clearness for the sake of brevity, but, on the
other hand, never use six words where one would do ; and be
sure to give your reader credit for knowing a few facts. The
boy who wrote, " The jeweler's window was full of bracelets to
INTEREST 133
be worn on the arm and rings to be worn on the fingers" must
have believed his readers very ignorant. Only those that know
little attempt to say all that they know, as Mr. Chadband in
Dickens's "Bleak House" illustrates. 1
EXERCISE 121— Written
REVISING THEMES FOR BREVITY
Look over your last two themes, and strike out all unneces-
sary words and phrases, or condense whole clauses and
phrases into single words wherever you can do so without
sacrificing the meaning.
EXERCISE 122 — Oral
REVIEWING THE CHAPTER
Look over this chapter and tell in what ways you have
learned to give interest to a composition. Which two ways
do you consider most important ?
EXERCISE 123 — Written
TEST THEME APPLYING ALL PRINCIPLES STUDIED
Write a theme, either narrative or descriptive, on any sub-
ject you choose, embodying as many as possible of all the
things you have learned about the qualities of good compo-
sition. When these themes are read in class, point out in each
other's work all the good qualities illustrated.
1 Read " Bleak House," Chapter XXV.
134 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
RULES AND EXERCISES IN GOOD FORM 1
I. Punctuation
Exercise A
Explain the use of capitals and commas in this stanza and be
prepared to write it from dictation :
Long as thine Art shall love true love,
Long as thy Science truth shall know,
Long as thine Eagle harms no Dove,
Long as thy Law by law shall grow,
Long as thy God is God above,
Thy brother every man below,
So long, dear Land of all my love,
Thy name shall shine, thy fame shall glow !
Sidney Lamer
Rule 23. Use a comma to separate the name of a person
addressed from what is said to him.
Note i. If the name breaks into a sentence, it must be setoff
on both sides by commas.
Examples : I wish, John, that you acted on your beliefs.
Oliver, your father just called for you.
You know how to carry a message to Garcia, young man.
Exercise B
Write ten sensible sentences, introducing into each a name used
in direct address. Illustrate the three positions of this name.
Note 2. The name of a person or thing addressed is sometimes
followed by an exclamation mark instead of by a comma.
Exercise C
Explain the punctuation of the following, and write it from
dictation :
Our fathers' God ! from out whose hand
The centuries fall like grains of sand,
1 Continued from page Si.
INTEREST 135
We meet to-day, united, free,
And loyal to our land and Thee,
To thank Thee for the era done,
And trust Thee for the opening one.
Whittier, "Centennial Hymn"
Rule 24. Use commas to set off words in apposition, unless
these are very closely united in idea with the words to which
they are added.
Examples: Longfellow, the author of many familiar poems, wrote also
some pleasant prose.
The poet Longfellow was much interested in legends and myths of many
lands.
Exercise D
Write from dictation these sentences, and be ready to give the
rule for the use of each comma :
1. Fairest of all the maids was Evangeline, Benedict's daughter !
Noblest of all the youths was Gabriel, son of the blacksmith !
2. Borne aloft on his comrades' arms, came Michael the fiddler.
3. All these were mere terrors of the night, phantoms of the mind that
walk in darkness.
4. There were old farmers, a spare leathern-faced race, in homespun
clothes, blue stockings, huge shoes and magnificent pewter buckles.
5. You would have thought that St. Vitus himself, that blessed patron of
the dance, was figuring before you in person.
Exercise E
Explain the capitalization and punctuation of these stanzas from
Whittier's poems " The Eternal Goodness " and " Our Master."
The semicolon is used to connect two sentences which might have
been written separately. Memorize these lines for writing.
1. I know not where His islands lift
Their fronded palms in air;
I only know I cannot drift
Beyond His love and care.
2. O Lord and Master of us all !
Whate'er our name or sign,
We own Thy sway, we hear Thy call,
We test our lives by Thine.
136 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
II. Correct Usage
Exercise F
Each, every, either (of two), and neither (of two) make us think
of more than one person or thing, but of only one at a time. If we
say each chair in the room, we think of the chairs singly ; each chair,
then, is singular, and should be so used. It is wrong to say, " Each
chair were in- their places." Why? Correct this sentence. If we
speak of several people as each child in the class, every person in
town, we think of them singly. Here the difficulty is that we refer
to either men or women, boys or girls ; shall we say his, her, or
their 1 We must not use their, because each child is singular ; the
correct form is his, even though girls are included. Say " Each
child takes his place," " Every person in town sees that this plan is
to his advantage." But say, of course, " Each girl has her lunch
basket."
If either and neither are added to plural nouns (for example,
" Neither the girls nor the boys see the joke on themselves ") the
nouns are, of course, still plural ; if added to singular nouns, the
nouns are still singular (for example, " Neither the boy nor the girl
sees the joke "). To say on himself here would sound awkward, and
should be avoided ; but it would be allowable. Fill the blanks cor-
rectly, and be careful of these expressions in speech and writing.
1. Each happy in work.
2. Either you or he bound to lose.
3. Neither one of us very prompt in keeping appointments.
4. either of you going to town ?
5. each of the children invited ?
6. either of you seen my scissors?
7. each ready to recite lesson ?
8. Every man done part.
9. Each hour more swiftly than fellow just past.
10. Everybody that ignorant on some subjects.
11. Each of us seen some of plans come to nothing.
12. Every gentleman learned that own feelings are not the
most important objects of interest.
INTEREST 137
13. each of you pen and ink ?
14. Neither the river nor the lake clear.
15. Neither the baby nor the mother hurt ; and each life
to a brave fireman.
16. neither of them come ?
17. Each apple as nearly perfect as neighbor ; every one of
them delicious.
Exercise G
Two negatives applied to the same statement logically cancel
each other. No, none, nothing, etc., mean not any, or no-thing. If
you say that you have not no thing, you must have some thing ; but
no one ever uses such a form to mean this. Fill the blanks with
as many pronoun subjects as possible, reading aloud distinctly,
first as statements, and then as questions :
1. have no book.
2. has no cover.
3. have no chalk.
4. had none yesterday.
5. brought no wraps.
6. saw no guests.
7. find no time for that.
8. can go no farther.
9. said nothing about it.
10. ate no dinner.
11. took none with him.
12. had taken no umbrella.
13. have done no work.
14. had discovered no path.
Exercise H
Fill the blanks with saw or seen. Saw always asserts ; it is a
verb. Seen never asserts ; it is a verbal, and may be used in
forming verb phrases with has, have, had, is, are, was, were, or
for modifying.
1. I it ; you have me ; we her ; we were ; she
you ; they the procession ; he had the fire ; the children
the circus.
138 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
2. Have you ever " The Merchant of Venice " played ?
3. Were they as they entered the building ?
4. No one them there ; but five witnesses them come out.
5. We the comet through the telescope ; and since then I have
it twice at sunset.
6. I you hide in the cellar-way.
7. We the ships unloading.
8. Have you my brother ? He you pass the house once.
Exercise I
Fill the blanks with did or done. Notice that done is never a
verb — always a verbal. Did is always a verb — never a verbal.
1. lie it ; she it ; you it ; we it ; they it ; I
it ; none it ; the cat it.
2. Have you — — the work assigned ? Has she it, too ?
3. We the task almost as quickly as he.
4. They have not this so often as I.
5. I had my work as if I expected to have the whole day for it.
6. The dog the shepherd's work.
7. If you have not the cooking for a large family, you cannot
imagine what Mary with her morning.
8. I it with my little hatchet ; but I would not have it if my
father had been looking.
Exercise J
Make ten sensible sentences, using saw and did ; also ten, using
seen and done with has, have, or had. Read them aloud.
SUGGESTED THEME TOPICS
1. Planting Corn (a Garden, a Flower Bed).
2. A I >ay in the Hay Field.
3. A Trip on the River.
4. My First Ride in an Automobile.
5. Forty Miles an Hour.
6. An Unhappy New Year.
7. A Visit to a Mine (or Factory).
8. Going for the Doctor.
INTEREST 1 39
9. How a Ship is Loaded.
10. A Glimpse of New York Harbor.
11. Views from the Tower.
12. Along the Lake Front.
13. Waiting for the Dentist.
14. A (Florida) Picnic.
15. From Snow to Roses.
16. A Trip in a Balloon (or on a Kite).
17. Flying across the Channel.
18. My Neighbor's Dog (Cat, etc.).
19. A Horse That Balked.
20. Distributing Papers.
21. The Right Kind of Chum.
22. " The Dogs All Bark at Me."
23. Waiting for the Second Table.
24. A Trip to the Museum.
25. Getting Ready for the Fair (or a Trip).
26. A Contract.
27. Dry.
28. Wet.
29. Lonesome.
30. Awkward.
31. Happy.
32-. A Night in a Sleeping Car.
33. The Kind of Home I Should Like.
34. At the Ticket Window.
35. The Street Beggar.
CHAPTER V
UNITY
A. UNITY OF PARAGRAPHS
It is queer how the birds come back to their old homes in the
spring. The love of " home, sweet home " is strong in every one.
They sometimes fly more than a thousand miles from their winter
homes in foreign countries. More than anything else I hope to
travel when I am grown. Then, like the birds, I can see how other
people live. These foreigners often kill the birds for their feathers.
I think it is wrong for women to wear feathers in their hats, for it
makes the men kill so many birds. And yet the birds keep on
going back.
What was the writer trying to tell in the preceding para-
graph ? Is he definite in the whole paragraph ? Is he definite
in each sentence ? What should be done with the paragraph
to make it seem that the writer was sincere in trying to say
something to his readers ?
It not infrequently happens that a person says so much
about so many different things that when he is through we
do not have any clear impression of what he has been talking
about. It is all a jumble of details which center about noth-
ing. We say that the talk lacks unity. If the talk has unity,
it is all about one thing and is expressed in such a way as to
give one impression. In the paragraph quoted above the
speaker is talking about too many things ; and even if the
sentences that are directly about the migration of birds be
preserved, they do not give a single impression.
140
UNITY 141
The writer might have said something interesting in a few
sentences about the mystery of migration, about the apparent
stupidity of the birds in returning to dangerous places, or
about man's inhumanity toward migrating birds. But in none
of these topics is there room for remarks about man's love
for home or the writer's hope to travel.
EXERCISE 124 — Oral
STUDYING PARAGRAPH UNITY
What was the writer trying to tell in each of the following
paragraphs ? Is each paragraph about one thing ? Are the
thoughts so expressed that we get one impression from each ?
If so, what ? Did the writer tell enough, — in other words,
did he stay by a single idea until he made you thoroughly
understand it ?
1. Going with a box of honey to a field some distance from
domesticated hives, the hunter gathers up from flowers several bees
and imprisons them, and after they have been sufficiently gorged lets
them out to return home. Waiting patiently, he scarcely ever fails
to see the bees return accompanied by fellow workers, which are
imprisoned till they in turn are filled. Then one at a time the bees
are let out at places distant from one another, and the direction in
which each one flies is noted. Thus, by a kind of triangulation, the
position of the bee-tree is approximately ascertained. — Adapted
2. The boys of Kansas used to rob the bumblebees' nest more
from excitement caused by the danger of being stung than to secure
the honey. They would take a one- or two-gallon jug, such as is
commonly used to carry water to haymakers, fill it partly with
water, and place it, with the cork removed, within two or three
feet of the nest. The bees were then thoroughly aroused by the
breaking of their nest, immediately after which the venturesome
boys removed themselves hurriedly to a safe distance. The en-
raged bees, swarming out and flying in widening circles to discover
the enemy, would be attracted by the jug, and numbers of them
1 42 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
would naturally fly over its open mouth, which, by reason of the
air set in motion by their wings, would give an answering roar to
their angry humming. Excited beyond measure by this noise, the
bees would fly at the mouth of the jug and one after another would
pop into it, the noise produced by those within still further attract-
ing those without until all had entered. A second disturbance of
the nest would serve to draw out or dispose of any of the remain-
ing worker-bees ; and then the robbing of the nest was easy. After
robbing the nest, the boys emptied the jug on the ground, and the
bees, although apparently drowned, would soon recover.
Adapted from Howard, "The Insect Book"
EXERCISE 125 — Oral
FINDING TOPICS THAT BELONG TOGETHER
Select a subject about which you can talk for one or two
minutes. Place on the board a number of topics that fall
under your subject, and discuss which should be used to make
an interesting paragraph. In this discussion it may be found
wise, as you learned in Chapter I, to make the subject smaller.
It is easier to talk well for two minutes on " My Experience
with a Snake," for instance, than on " Snakes." Place the
topics in a natural order.
Here is an outline of the last paragraph in Exercise 124 :
Robbing bumblebees' nests in Kansas.
1. Purpose of robbing the nests.
2. The means used.
3. Arousing the bees.
4. Response of the bees.
5. Drawing out the remaining bees.
6. Robbing the nest.
7. Disposal of the bees.
Keep in your notebooks for future use several of these
completed outlines.
UNITY 143
EXERCISE 126 - Oral
RECITING IN A WELL-UNIFIED PARAGRAPH
Be prepared to talk on the subject discussed in Exercise 125,
first placing your outline on the board. Remember that you
are to make one paragraph only.
EXERCISE 127— Written and Oral
OUTLINING A WELL-UNIFIED PARAGRAPH AND
TESTING IT
Select a new subject, as in Exercise 125, and arrange an
outline for it. Place this on the board and talk from it. This
oral development may be of one paragraph or of several. In
making the outline be sure that all the points which you
number or letter in the same way are of equal importance.
PLATE XI
1
B.
L
II.
a.
b.
1.
2
or
If you remember this, you will force yourself to see exactly
the interrelations of what you are saying. Also remember
that it is better form to word similar headings in a similar
way, using sentences throughout, or clauses, or nouns, or
verbals, as you find most convenient. In reciting on these
outlines take time to prepare yourself and time to say just
i 4 4 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
what you mean. Beware of crs and of too many aud's. Let
each member of the class give a title to your oral composition.
Your success in giving a unified impression will be tested
largely by the agreement of the titles that the class suggest
for your recitation.
EXERCISE 128 — Oral
TESTING A RECITATION FOR UNITY BY OUTLINING
Prepare as in Exercise 127, but place nothing on the board.
Talk from the outline. Try to make your recitation interest-
ing, both in the selection and in the arrangement of the
material. It is likely to be so if you are sincere and definite
in your work. Remember that your success in expression is
tested not by what you mean but by what the class think
you mean. The rest of the class will take notes and place
on the board an outline of what you presented. Contrast
these outlines with each other and with the one that you
originally made.
EXERCISE 129 — Written
USING THE TOPIC SENTENCE
a. Using one of the outlines made for oral composition in
the preceding exercises, write out what you have to say about
it. If you have followed your outline closely, you will find it
possible to sum up in one good sentence all that you have
written. This is called the topic sentence.
b. Write the expansion of another of the outlines used in
oral composition. Before beginning the paragraph, set down
in a good topic sentence what you intend to say. Using this
for your first sentence, develop the paragraph. By devices
that you have studied try to secure interest.
UNITY 145
c. Still using the outlines made for oral work, announce
good topic sentences, and then decide what sort of develop-
ment each seems to require. Write out the development of
one paragraph.
EXERCISE 130 — Written
DEVELOPING A TOPIC FOR DIFFERENT HEARERS
Take several of the outlines already made and have them
developed for two very different hearers. For example, if the
paragraph tells of the last inning of a baseball game, have
the outline developed for a boy and also for his sister, who,
presumably, is not versed in the game.
EXERCISE 131 — Oral
MAKING A TOPICAL RECITATION
Organize a recitation that you are to make, or have made,
in history or some other school subject, and present it for
the criticism of the class.
It is a good plan, when you have a proposition to support
or attack, to call up all the ideas that you have on the subject,
whether or not they at first seem important. Careful consid-
eration often shows importance and relations that you did not
at first suspect.
Consider also what may be asserted against your position
and see if you can meet the objections. If not, frankly admit
them. After all, in any argument one should have as his aim
not mere personal success, but truth. Temporary victory is of
trifling importance in comparison with the permanent desire
to secure the truth, whatever it may be.
146 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Then, after considering your own points and the objections
that may be made against them, discard what is not immedi-
ately relative, to secure unity, and what is not effective, to
secure results. The remaining essential points you should
then arrange in such logical order that they will lead to proof.
EXERCISE 132 — Oral and Written
SELECTING AND ARRANGING MATERIAL FOR ARGUMENT
Prepare points in support of or against each of the follow-
ing propositions. Then decide which of them you can discard
as admitted by both sides, as inconsequential, or as not imme-
diately relevant. The remaining ones will be in direct clash
with each other, or there will be no argument possible.
a. Municipal elections should be divorced from national politics.
b. Sunday schools should be organized and conducted like public
day schools.
c. A boy or girl ought to be sent away from home for secondary-
school education.
d. The lady came out of the door. (See Stockton, " The
Lady or the Tiger ")
EXERCISE 133 — Written
SELECTING AND ARRANGING MATERIAL FOR ARGUMENT
a. On Friday of next week one of your friends plans a
picnic, an excursion which you are very anxious to attend.
You feel pretty sure, however, that your father, who is away
from home, will object to your missing school that day.
Write to him, stating the situation and advancing whatever
reasons you can why he should grant you permission. Antici-
pate his obvious objections.
b. Write your father's reply, arguing that it would not be
wise for you to absent yourself from school.
UNITY 147
B. UNITY OF NOTES
A social letter that is short and all about one thing is called
a note. By its very definition a note must have unity in its
subject-matter ; more than that, it must have unity and sin-
cerity in its tone. This means, for instance, that a note to
a dear friend will be frankly intimate, a note to an acquaint-
ance no less frank but more reserved. The mutual feeling
of friends should be evident in notes between them. And,
finally, in all notes there should be a fine spirit of old-
fashioned courtesy.
There is a stilted, conventional third-person form of note
that is occasionally used by grown-ups for announcements and
for very formal invitations to dignified entertainments ; but
this concerns us little. However, an illustration of such an
announcement, together with a correct answer, is given :
PLATE XII
•V. id 4-e^-t^u-ed.^J. -f/i-e
a- cam=
tie-
148 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
PLATE XIII
C/zizwed <^fjM-<i4z ■ezot>efo£j. 4&4/&A.
J$cwi4i'<z4 y u sCn-e -i^-^-zSC
The note that we shall ordinarily use is, in form, just a short,
friendly letter, with a few changes. The heading of the letter,
usually in a modified form, is frequently written below the
note, beginning at the left-hand margin. And, as in friendly
letters, the other parts may be variously changed to express
individuality or cordiality. Whatever variations may be prac-
ticed, however, a note should include everything necessary
to make its purpose clear.
I. Invitations and Their Answers
A note of invitation must state definitely what the invita-
tion is for, the day and the hour, the place, and, usually, what
guests are to be present.
UNITY 149
PLATE XIV
J^Wz-2 t&id.dwdd-ed,
\-a<£Si-ed -ik drLeddd-e.dd.-a dd^tyt (Qra.-Zu.i~
■J. ' . r ' ' , , <'
'■■<■. >
■ecu-Use. (ty^e^L d^-a-M- y ^yh- ddd-ezdZc -/Lcw^- dMdd-e-n.
if
■ezdt -A^id^-4'i^idZ duted-u^; <i-?d€Z -tdt d/i-e ■a-j^vedd^a^Pt
dstdfe.
t-i-u-w-t
^g&d-cc-t-cuCdsw. 'ty-od'td oA-u
dd<7 Gfnd^A. S%fia>t<udadd. &dd&edt
Cy!/{&ciy. dt/i-e.-i<t
150 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 134 -Oral
STUDYING A NOTE OF INVITATION
How does Lester's note differ from a letter ? Why were
some parts of the letter heading unnecessary here ? Did
Lester include all the parts that were necessary ? Why would
it be better for a writer of a note to give too many than not
enough ?
How well acquainted are the boys ? Does Lester secure
and maintain an appropriate atmosphere in his note? Justify
your answer.
Test the unity of the note both as to what it says and as
to what it implies.
The answer to a note of invitation should be similar to it
in form and in tone ; and, that there may be no possible
misunderstanding, it should repeat the important details of
occasion and time. The informality and the cordial tone of
the note on page 151, for instance, would be entirely im-
proper in a reply to such a formal invitation as the one given
on page 147. Illustrative of both merit and defect are the
following clever notes : l
Mr. Rogers to Lady Dufferin :
Will you dine with me on Wednesday?
Lady Dufferin to Mr. Rogers :
Won't I?
EXERCISE 135 - Written
WRITING AN ANSWER TO AN INVITATION
Write Sumner's answer to Lester McCord's invitation on
page 149.
1 Quoted from the delightful anthology of letters and notes, " The Gentlest Art,"
edited by E. V. Lucas.
UNITY i 5 1
EXERCISE 136 — Written
WRITING AN INVITATION
Write the note to which the following is a reply :
PLATE xv
privet Cy -t&o&efai 'Ui^i-A fat&cuHaU
^ 'yyi^cM' s ■/. a-a-c -ccZadd- tts&lij. wi'U-cA. -tzwit,, , r>
fitz>i ' /' <■ ;i€t <its-e -ci^ie di&t-e ^tn^z^l
f ,
dA.-€M>c St-a-tie -ci -tzo<i€C 'i-t-wt^. 'ue&i'ri. -tdd. 'mewi^L&ld
f . .
v/}fed/ JS^^ &A&&1,
152 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 137— Written
WRITING INVITATIONS
Be prepared to write in class the following short notes :
an invitation to lunch ; to dinner ; to spend the day ; to
attend the theater, a house-party, the circus, a ball game, a
thimble bee, a picnic, a chafing-dish party, an evening party ;
to a hay ride, an automobile drive, a horseback ride, a walk
after school, a Saturday tramp. Think of your friend, keep
in mind what he will need to know, and express yourself so
as to make the invitation seem really cordial.
Address at least one of the above invitations to each of the
following people : your best friend at school, a good frierid
not in school, a friend in a neighboring town, your teacher,
a former teacher, a visiting boy or girl, your pastor, a man
who has been friendly to you and to whom you wish to show
some courtesy, a boy or girl who has recently moved into
your neighborhood.
EXERCISE 138 — Written
ANSWERING INVITATIONS
Taking the part of the person addressed, be prepared to
accept or decline each of the invitations in Exercise 137. Be
careful to show your appreciation and to mention any detail
that should be mentioned. In declining an invitation it is
not necessary, but customary, to give a reason.
II. Notes Accompanying Gifts
A note accompanying a gift adds personality to it and
makes it doubly welcome. Such a note should have, of
course, the unity and sincerity demanded of all notes, and it
should, in addition, be in harmony, as it were, with the gift.
UNITY 153
PLATE XVI
'4/-&C14. ^? ■auisJ.-e /
St*
Cy feci4'£MJ. ■t&oo.'vt.&i&cz jfyi-a-m- £n.e dA.<2,&rz -o-jl
fesCe<eid.'U4.-e / Cy -^e-a-ei-Pi /fa 't&yaJz. 'd^Mm^i rf^a^-
C/ ■£?l-0yC4.-tZ>&t &f ■U.-041. Cy&J. -M,04<1 -OCl^t <£
■o.'ii-eA; Cy-citn. d<e&teZ'i-zt-ez. 'M&tt -€M.edse 4^ad^ed / ■^u^.-t.-c^.
Cy -Ao-fe-e 'UX4.<i>c -c-ez^.'i^. -^2 ■^awi d-t€-^=4.-a-o^m
M&U4 d'l'W-c&i.-e ^t'C€^vci /
154 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 139 — Written
WRITING NOTES TO ACCOMPANY GIFTS
Write notes to various friends to accompany a gift of a
book, candy, flowers, an Easter lily, a potted plant, a souvenir
brought home from a trip, some autumn leaves or wild flowers
gathered on a walk, a sketch that you have made, some verses
that you have written, a magazine containing a story that you
like, a portrait of yourself or of some one whom you both ad-
mire. Feel sincere, and try to make your note interesting.
EXERCISE 140 — Written
NOTES OK GRATITUDE
Be prepared to answer in class any of the notes just
written. Be appreciative, but do not gush.
III. Notes of Introduction"
A note of introduction is often written for some one who
is about to visit in a town where a friend of the writer lives.
It should tell who the bearer of the note is, whether a friend
or an acquaintance, why he is in the city where your friend
resides, and what, if anything especial, you should like your
friend to do for him. The envelope should be left unsealed
and at the lower left-hand corner should be written " Intro-
ducing Mr. ." Why ?
EXERCISE 141 — Written
WRITING A NOTE OF INTRODUCTION
Be prepared to write a note of introduction to your cousin,
who is of your own age, for a close friend who is to spend
two weeks of his vacation in the home city of your cousin ; to
UNITY i 5 5
your uncle, a business man, for a schoolfellow who is looking
for work ; to a teacher in a large school which the bearer of
the note plans to enter ; to a student in the same school ; to
a librarian for a friend who is bookish ; to the curator of a
museum or art gallery for a friend who is interested in the
exhibits ; to a football or baseball coach for an athlete who
is going to see a college game and who thinks of entering
college the next year.
IV. Miscellaneous Notes
EXERCISE 142 — Written
WRITING VARIOUS NOTES
i . You are contemplating making some change at school
(in your debating club, literary society, management of ath-
letics, noon-hour recess, etc.). Write to an acquaintance at
another school and inquire how the matter is managed there.
2. A friend has moved away or is traveling. Write to a
relative of his for his address.
3. Some one has an old schoolbook that was used by your
mother when a girl. Write a note to see if you can get it.
4. Some one has written a book, a story, or a poem that
pleased you very much. Write a note of appreciation, telling
what you particularly liked.
5. An acquaintance has taken exception to something that
you have done or said. Write a note of explanation. Be
frank, but avoid further wounding his feelings.
6. There is reason why you wish to be relieved of some
requirement at school. Write a note, asking the favor.
7. You wish to secure work of some kind during the sum-
mer. Write to some man who knows you, asking if you may
use him as a reference.
156 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
C. UNITY OF SENTENCES
EXERCISE 143 — Oral
SENTENCES WELL OR ILL UNIFIED
Which of the following sentences are all about one thing ?
Which seems not only to be all about one thing but also to
give one impression ? In what ways can you change the other
sentences so as to make them give one impression ?
1. Herbert Lansing is captain of our baseball team and the north
pole has been discovered.
2. In Washington we saw a portrait of the first President, who after
his retirement from office went back to his plantation in Virginia.
3. Colonel Jarvis's gun weighed fifteen pounds and he killed the
lion with it.
4. After several hours of hard work, Colonel Jarvis and his helpers
had taken from the dead lions their skins and had prepared them for
shipment to New York.
Here we have illustrations of three common ways of mak-
ing badly unified sentences : first, by combining ideas that
are not at all related ; second, by adding an idea that is re-
lated only to some one part of what precedes ; third, by com-
bining related ideas in a way that does not show their relation.
The fourth sentence, though longer than the others, is well
unified because it combines related ideas in a way that shows
their relation : it tells the result of the hunter's work.
I. Unity in Thought
EXERCISE 144 — Oral
MAKING SENTENCES UNIFIED IN THOUGHT
Decide which of the ideas in the following groups are about
one thing. Which can you combine so as to give one impres-
sion --that is, so as to secure unity ? In the first group, for
example, the second sentence tells who the woman is. The
UNITY 157
third statement may be connected with the thought of a
butcher, but not at all with the idea asserted in the second.
In seeking unity, then, we must omit the third sentence and
combine the other two in some such way as this : ' ' The
mother of the butcher is ill," or "The woman who is ill is
the butcher's mother."
1. The woman is ill. She is the mother of the butcher. Meat has
advanced in price.
2. The clock fell from the tower. It had been in place for twenty
years. The cables that held it were weakened by rust.
3. The airship sailed over New York. New York is more than ten
miles long. The city was founded by the Dutch.
4. Washington and Jefferson were both natives of Virginia. This
state was named for Queen Elizabeth. She died in 1603.
5. Silas Marner had lost his faith in God and in man. Eppie brought
Silas an interest in life. She afterward married Aaron Winthrop.
6. Godfrey Cass was Dunstan's older brother and he did not know
of the accident at the Stone Pits until years after his marriage. He mar-
ried Nancy.
7. Stevenson wrote " Treasure Island." I like the story very much.
I read it last winter.
8. The captain planned the play. He did this with great care. The
opponents were very clever in breaking through the line. They often
spoiled a new play before it was started.
9. Bud Means decided to whip the master. Bud thought that the
master was in love with Martha. Bud loved Martha himself. The mas-
ter was in love with Hannah.
10. Buck and White Fang were two fine dogs. One was raised in
civilization and finally went to live with the wolves in Alaska. It is very
cold there. The other dog was half wolf. He was tamed. Both dogs
were fine fighters.
'6'
II. Unity of Form
a. The comma blunder. One fault that often prevents
unity of impression is the so-called comma blunder, the placing
of a comma where a period ordinarily should come. Whether
this be due to ignorance or to carelessness, it destroys unity,
158 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
causing the reader to think that the statement following the
comma should be read with the one preceding. For in-
stance, in the following sentence the writer, though evi-
dently trying to tell two things, joins them as though they
are one : " I drove in a buggy until we were within a mile of
the river, at that point one of the front wheels broke." This
fault, which is common in the writing of beginners, is due
for the most part to hazy thinking or to carelessness. You
have doubtless had your attention called to this fault so fre-
quently that only a short exercise on it is given here. If you
need further work on it, review Exercise 9.
EXERCISE 145 — Written
CORRECTING THE COMMA BLUNDER
Rewrite the following so as to secure unified sentences :
1. After it is cool, beat it till it is creamy, then pour on a buttered platter.
2. Put in a small pan two and one-half cups of pulverized sugar and
one-half cup of cold water and place on a hot stove, let this boil hard
four minutes, then take it from the stove.
3. The result was funny, as is seen, the answers are very different.
4. Go out about ten o'clock at night with a lantern on a newly mown
lawn, if you step lightly you may pick up a good many crawling about.
5. Then put a small hem in the neck, look at it carefully, you have
a very pretty effect, have n't you ?
6. After this hold the plate before the red light, if it shows a good
picture, put it in the hypo solution, then dip in a pan of clean water and
set it up to dry.
7. By reading over a theme one can often find errors that he has
overlooked, this is especially true of the comma fault.
b. Disjoined expressions. Sometimes in trying to avoid the
comma blunder young writers swing to the other extreme and
set off by a period a group of words that does not in itself
UNITY 1 59
make a complete statement. A phrase or a clause, espe-
cially when it contains several modifiers, will thus masquer-
ade as a sentence. It is not hard to correct the following
exercise, where you are expecting this fault ; but it requires
continuous care to avoid the fault in your own writing.
EXERCISE 146 — Written
ATTACHING DISJOINED EXPRESSIONS
Rewrite the following so as to secure unified sentences :
1. Her dress was made of golden-brown rajah silk. With a panel
down the front and back trimmed with braid of the same color.
2. There was tied by the door a large dog. Who jumped toward
us fiercely.
3. The bent figure of Silas Marner, wet with the rain, was among
them. His lean white hands clutching his grey beard in his nervousness.
4. The cuffs and sleeves are trimmed with black satin buttons. The
cuffs being braided with braid like that on the front panel.
5. Now put in two cups of sugar. Then water enough to make it thin.
6. Nearly every farmer feeds some cattle, either dairy cattle or fat
cattle. Fat cattle being the more important of the two kinds for high
prices and profits.
7. A large proportion of the working force is composed of foreigners.
Many of whom are unmarried and have only themselves to provide for.
8. Deep into the woods we went. John carrying the bag in which
he expected to catch snipe.
9. But the boys, who, seeing that John was badly frightened, had to
let him know where they were.
10. Then all of us, except our victim, after we had run for a quarter
of a mile, which seemed in the night even farther, and finally came to
an old house, with the doors and windows all tightly shut.
11. Here being utterly worn out, John, who now began to catch on
to the joke, for he no longer seemed anxious to keep his bag, and lying
down on the barn floor, he declared that he would not budge another step.
12. Football, baseball, and all other sports have an especial season,
after which we take up something else. While an interesting book is
in season at any time of the year.
i6o FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
c. Lack of co-ordination. Sometimes two statements to-
gether go to make one impression, as two horses draw one
load ; but in that case the two propositions should be joined by
a co-ordinate conjunction or separated by a semicolon, which
indicates the omission of such a conjunction. If the propo-
sitions are long, each should be a sentence in itself. We
may write : ' ' This explorer twice risked his life to save his
companions and he made discoveries that will prove of great
worth to scientists. Therefore we honor him." Here the
longer sentence gives two reasons for a conclusion and thus
makes one impression. This statement we may also write :
" This explorer twice risked his life to save his companions ;
he made discoveries that will prove of great worth to scientists.
Therefore we honor him." But when two statements do not
make for one effect, we should not, of course, link them in
one sentence, however short they may be.
And and but are two very common and very useful words ;
but not infrequently they are confused or overworked. Both
are co-ordinate conjunctions, --that is, they are used to con-
nect elements of equal rank. In the first sentence of this
paragraph, for instance, the words and and but, the adjectives
common and useful, and the two propositions are joined by
these conjunctions.
EXERCISE HI -Oral
STUDYING THE USE OF CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
In the following passage decide what elements are joined
by tf/^/and but. Are the elements in each case of equal rank ?
The bear was fond of the child and as careful of her as a woman
might have been. In the wood but not in the clearing he was her
constant companion. Besides following quietly the little girl's foot-
steps and keeping her from harm, the awkward but sagacious beast
UNITY 161
taught her many secrets of the wood — which berries were good to
eat and which were poisonous, where she could find the larvae of
ants, which he liked so well, and where the hare had her nest. ( The
big friend also frightened away those animals whom they met and
who might have planned mischief; but as Miranda would not go
far from the clearing, they never met the bees, who are not to be
intimidated by anybody.
When properly used and and but make for unity ; other-
wise they surely destroy it. And indicates that the speaker
or writer wishes to join two or more elements —words, phrases,
clauses, or sentences — of equal rank. A driver might very
properly harness together two horses to draw one load, but if
he attempted to yoke together for the same purpose a horse
and a goat, the result would be ludicrously disastrous.
EXERCISE 148 — Oral or Written
USING THE CONJUNCTION AND
Give sentences in which the following parts of a sentence
are effectively compounded by and: subject, predicate ; adjec-
tive, adjective phrase, and adjective clause modifiers ; adverb,
adverb phrase, and adverb clause modifiers ; and propositions.
If unity is secured, then, by joining elements of equal
rank, it is obvious that unity is destroyed by joining elements
of unequal rank. A participle or a clause is used as a modi-
fier ; therefore of course neither may be joined to a proposi-
tion by and. Yet that is precisely what careless young writers
do over and over again. Moreover, it tends to destroy unity
of impression if and joins elements unlike in form, even
though similar in use, — for instance, a phrase and a clause,
or a verbal noun in -ing and an infinitive.
162 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 149 — Oral or Written
CORRECTING WRONG CO-ORDINATION
Change the following sentences so as to secure unity :
1. This is a troublesome error and which requires care to avoid.
2. Harold wriggled through a hole in the fence and finding himself
in a beautiful garden.
3. " Treasure Island *' is as interesting as a dime novel but which
teachers do not object to your reading.
4. By the side of the road sat a small boy crying but who was soon
comforted by a stick of candy.
5. The biggest fish that I saw took my bait but flopping off into
the water before I landed him.
6. Her best doll, but which she would give up to go to the picnic,
had come from her uncle in China.
7. The lake in the valley and which extends two miles or more is a
splendid place for fishing.
8. There are two things that are very hard — to know what is right
and doing it.
9. Bassanio glanced at the knife in Shylock's belt and with which
the pound of flesh was to be cut.
10. The boys saw a policeman running rapidly and who seemed to
be greatly excited.
11. The chickens in the yard and eating their breakfasts were
startled by a hawk.
12. The little visitor astonished but who was not at all satisfied re-
newed his questions.
13. To visit in the country, to have no chores, and eating what you
want three times a day Fred thought an ideal vacation.
14. The average farmer puts these cattle in a lot where there is
plenty of water and handy to corn.
15. He tried the work on a railroad section, to drive a delivery
wagon for a grocer, and hauling sand from the river ; but he was not
strong enough for these jobs.
16. A man seeking work and who really wishes to find it cannot
always be successful.
17. " Kidnapped " is an exciting story by Stevenson and which I
enjoyed almost as much as I did " Treasure Island."'
UNITY 163
18. By reading in my odd minutes and when I finish my lessons at
night, I have finished five books in the past month.
19. There was an attraction about his whole appearance not easily
escaping attention, and which was derived from the combination of
fearless frankness and good-humor.
20. The host opened a door and showed his' guest the interior of a
chamber, small, indeed, but which, being clean and in good order,
seemed a little palace.
21. The problems that he invented and which, in the course of time,
we solved, were always difficult.
EXERCISE 150 — Written
REVISING THEMES FOR CO-ORDINATION
Take two early themes and underscore in red ink each
and. See if it is correctly used.
If one listens to the conversation about him or to any
extended recitation in class, or if he reads what inexperienced
people write, he will find and recurring a surprising number
of times. Sometimes, of course, it is necessary and useful ;
sometimes it is used in place of a connective that would in-
dicate a different relation of the elements ; and sometimes it
is simply the sign of a bad habit, being used to join a new
statement to what precedes, regardless of whether a connective
is needed or not.
EXERCISE 151 — Oral
AVOIDING UNNECESSARY REPETITION OF AND
In the following passage decide whether each and is
necessary. Can you guess why the writer used it ? Revise
the passage.
Yesterday morning at school we had a lecture by a visitor and he
told us of the difference between schools now and in his boyhood.
1 64 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Now, he said, we have comfortable desks and fifty years ago the
children had only teachers. And so we ought to be well contented
in school to-day. And after he went out of the room our teacher
asked us how we liked the lecture and we told her that we enjoyed
it very much.
EXERCISE 152 — Written
REPORTING AN INTERVIEW
Talk to some man — a postman, a fireman, a blacksmith,
a dairyman, for instance — about his duties ; and then write
a summary of what you' learn. Be definite ; see that each
paragraph is all about one thing ; and revise your theme
thoroughly for sentence unity.
EXERCISE 153 — Oral
USING BUT CORRECTLY
Give sentences in which the following elements are effec-
tively compounded by /;/// : the whole sentence, the predicate,
adjective modifier, adverb modifier.
EXERCISE 154 — Oral
CHOOSING AND OR BUT
Sometimes a writer will overwork but ; usually, however, he
fails to use it when he should. In the following passage
decide carefully the relation of the elements on each side of
the blanks : if there is a contrast, insert but ; if the two ele-
ments are worked together to secure one effect, insert and.
Mowgli, the son of a poor woodchopper, the foster-child of the
wolves, is the central figure in both the "Jungle Book" and the
" Second Jungle Book." The wolves who found him as a little
baby who saved his life were called the gray brothers. Other
UNITY 165
animals that he knew in the jungle were: Baloo, the bear, who
taught him the law of the jungle ; Shere Khan, the tiger, whom
men feared who, on the other hand, feared men ; Kaa, the
wily powerful snake ; many others. The life in the cave
of the wolves out in the jungle was all that Mowgli knew ;
when he grew up he felt a longing to return to his own kind.
He would go to the edge of the jungle watch the men at
work, when he finally got into a house he felt suffocated
afraid. The story called " The Spring Running " is to me
pathetic, some of the others are very exciting.
d. Shifts in construction. Any change in form of expres-
sion is likely to cause a corresponding change in the impres-
sions on the reader, and consequently tends, unless skilfully
managed, to violate unity. When the shift is accidental, the
effect is almost surely bad. For instance — and in this case
no writer, however skilful, may violate the rule — if we write
Each of the boys, the subject of thought is singular, and we
must use the singular number in any future reference. The
sentence will be completed thus : '" Each of the boys took
his book."
1 . Unity in gender and number. One of the commonest
changes of construction that violate the unity of impression
is this shift of the number of the subject. Closely allied to
it is the shift of gender. We must learn and keep in mind
that each, every, everybody, one, either, and neither when
used as pronouns are singular, and when used as adjectives
they indicate that their substantives are singular. None, how-
ever, is used in either a singular or a plural sense. When two
singular substantives are connected by or ox nor the predicate
is singular, because each substantive is thought of separately.
All the pronouns mentioned above take their gender from
the antecedent noun, whether it is expressed or implied.
1 66 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Whenever a pronoun refers to one of these words, then, it
must be singular and of the same gender as the antecedent.
As there is in English no common gender personal pronoun
for the third person singular, the masculine form is used.
Any predicate of these words will, of course, be in the
singular number.
EXERCISE 155 — Oral
SECURING UNITY IX NUMBER AFTER EACH, ETC.
Supply the blanks in the following sentences with proper
pronouns or verbs :
1. Every pupil doing own work.
2. I have two tennis rackets, either of which at your service.
3. Each of the stars in the heavens following own orbit.
4. Everybody satisfied with what the committee did for .
5. One should be careful to see that own work is free from
careless errors.
6. None of the boats ready to sail.
7. There none in the harbor this morning; they have all
sailed away.
8. Neither of the boys willing to have fortune told by
the gipsy.
9. The teacher told each of the pupils what topic should study.
10. If any boy or girl lost pencil, I will return it to
when calls at the desk.
11. Every girl should keep in mind duties as well as rights.
12. Any one can learn to write correctly if will only take pains.
13. Every pupil in the class decided to use the same subject for
theme.
14. Let all the boys select partners and then each will be told
what shall do.
15. This is one of the most interesting books that ever been
published.
16. I heard at the concert one of the finest singers that ever
come to America.
UNITY 167
Writers both young and old are not infrequently troubled
by the number of a collective noun. This, you may recall, is
a noun singular in form but denoting a number of individuals,
as committee, herd, flock, bevy. When the emphasis is on
the individuals the noun is, of course, plural ; when on the
collective unit, singular. For instance, " The committee as a
body makes its report"; but "The committee individually
sign their names to the paper." If the number of a collective
noun shifts in a sentence, unity is endangered.
EXERCISE 156 — Oral
SECURING UNITY OF NUMBER WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS
In the following sentences, decide first whether the col-
lective noun emphasizes the individuals or the group, and
then supply verbs or pronouns of the proper number.
1. The jury handed in verdict at noon and discharged by
the judge.
2. The jury left town in the afternoon, being eager to reach
homes before Christmas Day.
3. The faculty wrote names on my programme, which I am
keeping as a souvenir.
4. The class became eager to tell opinions.
5. The crowd pressed way close up to the jail.
6. The school of fish had circled about our boat and I could see
spotted backs very plainly.
7. Every pupil tried to make reading so good that he could com-
pel the class to lay aside books and listen entirely to him.
8. The local committee failed to agree.
9. This team of horses won every prize offered at the county fair.
10. The class chosen colors.
11. That gang of workmen over on the hillside (work, works) as if
were some great machine.
12. The tribe would at that time lay down lives for Father
Hennepin.
1 68 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
2. Unity in subject, voice, and mood. As there should be
no change in the number of a collective noun in a unit of ex-
pression, neither should there be an unnecessary change of
subject. We may write "a man . . . he," or "any one . . . he,"
or " either . . . she " ; but not " one . . . you " or a " per-
son . . . you." Similarly it is confusing to find, "After the
book had been read through, John noticed on the table the
letter which had been given him to mail." It is just as easy,
and far more effective to write, " After having read the book
through, John noticed on the table the letter which he had
been given to mail."
Connected with the change of subject is often the unneces-
sary shift of voice in the predicate. ' We went to the party
and had a good time " gives one impression, whereas " We
went to the party and a pleasant time was had " fails of unity
because it scatters the reader's attention, besides being in-
definite. Similarly if a writer uses one mood and then, with-
out apparent reason, shifts to another, the reader's attention
is distracted and he does not get one impression. For instance,
' Pour one cup of granulated sugar into the Water, and then
you should add a few drops of vanilla " is bad ; while " Pour
one cup of granulated sugar into the water and add a few
drops of vanilla " has unity and consequent effectiveness.
EXERCISE 157 — Oral
UNIFYING SUBJECT AND VERB FORMS
Decide where unity is violated in the following sentences
by unnecessary shift of subject or verb form, and then revise :
1. A traveller in F.urope receives many courtesies from the railway
employees, but you must obey all their regulations.
2. Reverend Julius Parker married them at high noon and imme-
diately afterward they started on their wedding tour to Canada.
UNITY 169
3. Take pains to dampen the cloth with a sponge and then the
iron must be hot.
4. If any one will read Poe's Tales, especially " The Gold Bug,*'
" The Mystery of Marie Roget," " The Murders of the Rue Morgue,"
and " The Black Cat," you will wonder how you could ever have liked
dime novels.
5. Poe writes of mysteries in a clever way and we are held from the
beginning of his stories to the end.
6. When I began to think over the qualities a hero should have, one
was found in the very town in which I live.
7. Cooper takes a long time to start his stories, but they are written
so that we boys like them.
8. First, you should select a good background in a mild light ; then
focus the camera before withdrawing the slide over the plate.
9. The air in the dungeon was damp, and we read in the poem that
the prisoner was kept here many years.
10. We boys got up early and went to the station, where it was found
that the train was an hour late.
11. One had better be ahead of time, however, than too late, for you
never know what may happen to delay you.
12. The girls sank into chairs, for the long walk in the fields had
exhausted them.
13. Mrs. Lawrence gave a party to the senior class and delicious
refreshments were served.
14. After the garden had been spaded, Sam sat down to rest before
the wood was cut, for his mother required him to do that work too.
15. The boys turned over a new leaf, and hard study was done after
that.
3. Unity in tense. Many problems of unity in tense are
rather difficult, but the most common violations of unity in
this respect can be easily avoided. The simple rule is " Keep
to past or present time throughout." If you have difficulty
in obeying this rule, study the lists of past and present verb
forms and test your work.
ijo FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 158 — Oral
RECOGNIZING VIOLATION'S OF UNITY IN TENSE
Name the tense of each verb in this composition ; then
revise, unifying the time as past or as present.
A STORM ON THE SEA
The deck is crowded with people. In the distance I see the port.
The sky is murky and the wind is blowing very hard. The furious
lightning tears the sky and the thunder roars. The masts of the
ship were down. The tempestuous waves dash up on the side of
the ship. Everybody was horror-stricken. The storm rages on
furiously for about an hour. The storm was so bad that it is in-
describable. When it quiets down a little the sailors look to see
if the ship is damaged very badly. They find out that the prow
of the ship is damaged.
EXERCISE 159 — Oral and Written
REVIEW
In these sentences make whatever changes are necessary
to secure unity, and be ready to explain why these changes
were necessary.
1. The girl went to the board and she had her problem correctly solved.
2. Bob Son of Battle had one rival, a dog called Red Wull, which
was owned by McAdam.
3. We boys used to play all the morning in our back yard, which
was big enough for us and our neighbors played there, too.
4. We may prove our loyalty to truth in other places than a battle-
field ; to stand for truth in everyday life is one of the things an ideal
man must do.
6. Some of the Europeans can come to America and make more
money than in their native countries, and a great many laboring people
in the United States are foreigners.
6. This stirring story, which Scott is said to have written in six weeks
because he needed the money, interested me greatly.
UNITY 171
7. I untied the silk string and pulled it up, drawing into the cell first
the cord and then the twine and finally the rope, which I tied to the window
sill, and then I slid down the rope and made a very fortunate escape.
8. The girls in the closet giggled so that the others had no trouble
in finding them, after which they all had a romp over the old house.
9. Mrs. Turk claims that her ancestors were in America before 1675
and she is one of the neatest housekeepers you ever saw.
10. The lecturer showed how Franklin first proved the identity of
electricity and lightning, and was that not a great feat?
11. " Master Skylark " is an interesting story, being written to show
life in the time of Queen Elizabeth.
12. We could not sow the kind of radishes that we had planned, as
the grocer had sold all of the seed, another school having made a
garden, too.
13. Colonel Carter is a lovable man, being a prominent character in
several of Hopkinson Smith's stories.
14. We are glad to hear of John's recovery from typhoid fever, which
is a dangerous disease.
15. The exercise was hard and no one of the class finished it in time.
16. Laura grew quite fond of the hen, and if you nurse a sick animal
for a week you will do the same thing yourself.
17. Harold was well-trained in obedience, his brothers all being older
than he.
18. Having finished the book, I suggested to the other girls that we
act out the story ; so we did.
19. We played that the couch was the porch, that the chairs were
passing automobiles, and we thought it good fun.
20. As her share of the picnic dinner, Alice brought a cake, which
we ate.
EXERCISE 160 - Written
TEST THEME
Write on one of the topics outlined in Exercises 125-128,
and apply all that you have learned about unity. If you have
material enough to expand this topic to two or three para-
graphs, you may do so ; but be sure that each paragraph has
unity, and that all belong under your title.
172 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
RULES AND EXERCISES IN GOOD FORM 1
I. Punctuation
Rule 25. Use a comma before "and" "but" and "or"
when they stand between the parts of a compound sentence,
tniless these parts arc very short or very closely connected
in thought, or unless a heavier mark is needed.
Exercise A
Write from dictation or from memory :
Buy the truth, and sell it not.
Cast out the scorner, and contention shall go out.
A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches, and loving favour
rather than silver and gold.
Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth, and let not thine heart be glad
when he stumbleth. — Proverbs
Integrity may not be all of character, but no character is noble without
it. — Emerson
Rule 26. Use commas to set off words, phrases, and clauses
thrown in, or placed out of their natural order, or somezohat
separated in thought from the rest of the sentence.
Note i. A prepositional phrase is never set off by commas
unless for some special reason of clearness or emphasis.
Exercise B
Write from dictation :
The brimming brook, as it wound towards me through the meads,
seemed to tremble on the verge of overflowing, as the crown of wine
in a glass rises yet does not spill. Level with the green grass, the water
gleamed as though polished where it flowed smoothly, crossed with
the dark shadows of willows which leaned over it. By the bridge, where
the breeze rushed through the arches, a ripple flashed back the golden
rays. The surface by the shore slipped towards a side hatch and passed
over in a liquid curve, clear and unvarying, as if of solid crystal, till
shattered on the stones, where the air caught up and played with the
sound of the bubbles as they broke.
Richard Jefferies, "The Brook"
1 Continued from page 13S.
UNITY 173
Note 2. A subject or an object is almost never separated by a
comma from the verb.
Note 3. A limiting, or restrictive, adjective clause is never set
off by commas ; a purely descriptive, or non-restrictive, clause is
always set off by commas.
Examples : A man who wishes to tell the truth must learn first to see
the truth.
Cyrano, whose nose was absurdly long, is heroic throughout the play.
Exercise C
Insert commas where they are needed, and give your reasons.
If two interpretations of a sentence are possible, give both.
1. Hardly a man is now alive
Who remembers that famous day and year.
2. He described to me his experience which was very unusual.
3. Thackeray who is my favorite author wrote " Vanity Fair."
4. In North America the layers of the lithosphere which contain the
oldest Cambrian fossils exist only near the eastern and western borders of
the continent.
5. There arose in the Hellenic cities a rich and many-sided culture
which became the precious legacy of Greece to the world at large.
6. The officers who are engaged in this work are to administer the
entire government.
7. The old lady who has lived in the house for half a century has moved.
8. In the beginning this surprised even his mother who knew him so well.
9. During the long hours of their confinement he told his friend the
story of his life which was very romantic.
10. Thoreau declares that it takes two to speak truth — one to speak
and another to hear. •
11. Those who purchase goods from abroad pay for them by buying
drafts, or postoffice, express, or cable money orders.
12. On the twenty-second of June the new school building which had
never yet been used was struck by lightning.
13. Yellowstone Park which is noted for its geysers is national property.
14. Once as they sat by their evening fire, there silently entered
Into the little camp an Indian woman whose features
Bore deep traces of sorrow.
15. In the studio the materials which are used are of less consequence
than is the workmanship.
174 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
16. Those things which are most familiar to us are apt to be regarded
with least wonder and to occasion the least thought.
17. Stevenson says that it is lawful to pray God that we be not led into
temptations, but not lawful to skulk from those that come to us.
Exercise D
Memorize and write :
If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small.
As in water face answereth to face, so the heart of man to man.
Whoso stoppeth his ears at the cry of the poor, he also shall cry himself
but shall not be heard.
I le that loveth pureness of heart, for the grace of his lips the king shall
be his friend.
Even a child is known by his doings, whether his work be pure, and
whether it be right.
Pride goeth before destruction, and an haughty spirit before a fall.
There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing.
As vinegar to the teeth, and as smoke to the eyes, so is the sluggard to
them that send him.
Remove not the ancient landmark, which thy fathers have set.
lie that answereth a matter before he heareth it, it is folly and shame
unto him.
If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do, chapels had
been churches, and poor men's cottages princes' palaces.
Exercise E
What special rules for the comma are really included under
Rule 26 ? Review and recite them, illustrating each.
II. Correct Usage
Exercise F
The forms of the verb lay are : lay, lays, present ; hiving, present
participle; laid, past; laid, past participle. It is always transitive,
meaning to " put " or " place " or " make lie." Read aloud, filling
the blanks with suitable objects.
1. He was laying the in front of the church.
2. We laid the on the rug.
3. They always lay the in the parlor first.
UNITY 175
4. We have laid the on the bed.
5. Where did you lay the ?
6. Nobody has disturbed the that I laid there yesterday.
7. We will lay the here.
8. Have you been laying the in this dress ?
9. They laid out the in the garden.
10. The children laid their on the desks.
Exercise G
Read aloud, filling the blanks with forms of the verb lay :
1. Have you out the tennis court ?
2. We our books on the bench.
3. The hens have well for us all through the cold weather.
4. The old man his hand on the child's head.
5. He has much goods up for many years.
6. They have up treasures for the future.
7. He the paper on the table.
8. The monkeys hold of him.
9. He himself down in the shade of a poplar.
10. She her finger on her lips.
Exercise H
The verb lie — parts, lie, lies, lying, lay, lain — means " to rest in
a horizontal position." It is intransitive. The past form lay is like
the present form of another verb, and this resemblance causes
many mistakes. Remember that lie has no such form as lays, and
that lay, meaning " to rest," is in the past tense. Notice that no
form of this verb contains the letter it. Fill the blanks with lie, lies,
lay (past), or lain.
1. The books have there all night.
2. We laid ourselves down in the long grass, and there we for
an hour.
3. The meadow to the eastward.
4. His cap always on the floor'; this morning his coat also
under the table.
5. The city on the left bank of the river.
6. There they stunned and helpless.
176 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
7. On a summer day have you ever in a hollow and looked up at
the sky ?
8. Yesterday I in my hollow and mused.
9. The snow ten inches deep over the garden.
10. I had there motionless for five minutes when a hand was laid
upon my arm.
11. We like the garden to on a southern slope where the sun
on it all day long.
12. The dog at the foot of the baby's bed all night.
13. He so still that I was frightened.
14. The bird on its back, its little claws stiff and cold.
15. We have in those very pine woods where he at this
moment.
16. This land to the northward.
17. The tree has where it fell.
18. The tree where it fell.
Exercise I
Fill the blanks with the proper forms of He or lay.
1. I have been watching that star drop down along the tree
trunk.
2. If you will where I have you will see it, too.
3. The country that south of this town is all out in a park.
4. They no stress on the matters that nearest their hearts.
5. Feeling that on the surface easily breaks into froth.
6. I that kindness to you.
7. We have the fire in the grate.
8. The apples on the ground for a month.
9. We them by for the winter.
10. No linen was in the cedar chest.
11. The rose-leaves have among the pillow slips for years.
12. The great brute his muzzle in my hand.
13. They are the corner-stone.
14. We were by the stone wall watching a cricket.
15. The lost ball was at my feet.
16. The leaves were in drifts against the steps.
17. He had been the new walk.
18. They our floors all uneven.
19. lie was in the hammock.
20. Do you like to in bed in the morning?
UNITY 177
21. I had never hold of such a slippery thing before.
22. Have you still for fifteen minutes as the doctor said you
must ?
23. down, Rover.
24. the table for six.
25. my dress in the drawer, and let the cloak where it is.
26. Now I me down to sleep.
27. the child in my arms.
28. He is in an uncomfortable position.
29. Let him still as long as he wishes.
30. Let them the carpet soon.
Exercise J
Use set in the sense of " put," " place," " make," " sit," and raise
in the sense of " make rise," — almost always with objects. Supply
the proper forms to fill the blanks in the following sentences :
1. We the bread at six o'clock.
2. He always his hat to his mother's friends.
3. They unusually fine tomatoes.
4. We have asparagus successfully.
5. They the table for ten.
6. They had the lamp too near the curtain.
7. Can you us right?
8. He himself up as the leader.
Exercise K
Use sit in the sense of " rest," rise in the sense of " stand up,"
" get up," " move upward," — always without objects. Fill the
blanks with the proper forms of sit, set, rise, raise.
1. The bread well last night.
2. We at six in summer.
3. The sun at seven.
4. The bread slowly.
5. No one any good tomatoes in our neighborhood.
6. down and rest.
7. Won't you with us longer?
8. We used to about the fire and tell stories.
178 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
8. I was on the porch reading while John was out plants.
9. Come into the room.
10. That child never still.
11. The post does not firmly in place: it was not properly ,
for I can it out of the hole several inches.
12. the bundle on the step, and here in the shade.
13. Have you been in the orchard ?
14. They on the fence like blackbirds.
15. No one had in that chair since grandfather died.
16. ^Ve never on the floor to play jack-stones.
17. Have you early every morning this week ?
18. The bread has almost to the top of the pan ; shall I it in
a cooler place ?
19. The yeast the bread; the bread .
20. People corn, oats, pigs, and other things ; but they rear children.
Exercise L
Try to make four sensible sentences, each containing all five
forms of one of the following verbs : lie, lay, sit, set. To accustom
yourself to the correct forms, read the sentences aloud.
Exercise M
Learn the following rules :
i. Use shall with I and we, will with all other subjects to
express future time.
2. Use will with / and we, shall with all other subjects to
express purpose, promise, determination, or command.
3. In questions use shall or will according to the answer
desired.
4. In quoting indirectly use the form employed by the person
quoted.
5. Never use will with /or we, not even in questions or quota-
tions, unless you wish to assert some exercise of will power, as in
purpose, promise, or intention.
UNITY 179
Exercise N
Read this paragraph on shall and will and be ready to explain,
with illustrations of your own, the use of these two words :
In the earliest form of our language shall denoted obligation,
will denoted intention or wish. We now use these words to denote
merely future time — shall with I or we, will with other subjects.
We also use them, in the opposite order, with somewhat their origi-
nal meanings — I or we will, other people shall. The reasons for
these distinctions seem to be as follows : If we assert obligation
of ourselves, as I shall go, we expect to fulfill the obligation, so
that the verb has come to express mere futurity ; but, if we assert
obligation of another, we imply that some force will, if necessary,
be exercised to compel him to fulfill the obligation, as he shall go.
This notion is so strong that it has not been softened by time, and
the verb shall is here the principal verb. If we assert intention of
ourselves, as I will go, we assert our own will ; but if we say that
another will go, we do not ordinarily assert his will in the matter ;
we merely assume that the going is his intention, and assert that
as a future fact. The verb shall, then, with subjects other than /
and we, denotes obligation, or a promise, or determination. The
verb will occasionally has this strong meaning even with other
subjects, as in " None are so deaf as those who will not hear." In
usage the commonest mistake is the substitution of will for shall
to show merely future time with / or we.
Exercise
Read aloud the following, being careful not to emphasize the
words shall and will. Supply in place of go any ten other verbs
that will make sense in all sentences. Read each aloud, thinking
of the future time.
I shall go to-morrow. We shall go to-morrow.
You will go to-morrow. You will go to-morrow.
He will go to-morrow. They will go to-morrow.
180 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Exercise P
Read aloud the following, emphasizing shall and will. Supply
also ten other verbals in place of go and read aloud.
I will go. We will go.
You shall go. You shall go.
He shall go. They shall go.
Exercise Q
Write twenty-five sentences, using shall, with I ox me as subject,
combined with twenty-five different verbs. Make sentences such
as you would be likely to use often. Read aloud to train the ear
to the correct form ; do not emphasize the shall. Be sure that shall
expresses merely future time.
Exercise R
Exchange shall and will in the following sentences, and tell
how the meaning is changed :
1. I shall drown : nobody will help me.
2. You will have a dozen valentines.
3. You will fall if you are so heedless.
4. We shall be glad to see you.
5. We shall forget it all before morning.
6. lie will stay after school.
Exercise S
Tell what shall and will in the following sentences express :
1. Thou shalt not steal.
2. It has been " I will " and " I won't " with me all my life.
3. He will come when you are ready for us.
4. He shall be suitably rewarded.
5. They that seek me early shall find me.
6. Knock and it shall be opened unto you.
7. We will be happy.
8. I will never forsake thee.
9. All the trees of the field shall clap their hands.
UNITY 181
10. I try to send the puppy home, but he u<ill follow us.
11. You will be honored as you deserve.
12. We shall return at six.
13. We will return before six if necessary.
14. I shall stay a week longer.
15. He will stay a week longer.
16. In spite of the cold they will drive to the station.
17. You will find them in the garden.
18. We shall always be under obligations to you.
19. We will do all we can to repay him.
20. They shall not disturb you.
Exercise T
Form answers to the following questions and tell whether shall
and will show mere futurity, or express purpose, promise, or de-
termination :
1. Shall you be at home to-night ?
2. Will you take this package to the post-office for me ?
3. Will the train be more than an hour late ?
4. Shall he come in ?
5. Shall I go with you ?
6. Will you look up my brother in the city ?
7. Shall we make ten sentences ?
8. Shall I open the window ?
9. Shall he shut the door ?
10. Will he shut the door?
Exercise U
Tell what is said by each speaker who is quoted indirectly here
1. He says that you shall not go.
2. He says that you will not fail.
3. The doctor says that you shall not come downstairs until Saturday.
4. The doctor says that he will come.
5. The doctor says that he shall be gone an hour.
6. Our friends asked if we should be at home on Sunday evening.
7. He promised that he would wait for us.
[82
I I RSI HOOK OI COMPOSITION
SUGGESTED THEME TOPICS
1.
Two Birds' Nests.
27.
Types of Street Cars:
2.
The Church Choir.
Advantages and Dis-
3.
Unloading the Circus.
advantages.
4.
When the Train t 'omes in.
28.
Why I Prefer the
5.
Kinds of Cowardice.
Automobile.
6.
Tired.
29.
Tipping in America.
7.
Hot.
30.
How to Prune Apple
8.
Cold.
Trees.
9.
Scared.
31.
The Open-Air School.
10.
Quiet.
32.
First Aid to the Injured.
11.
" Flunked."
33.
The Free Dispensary.
12.
Sour.
34.
The Uses of the News-
13.
Hard.
paper Headline.
14.
Slippery.
35.
How we Raised Money
15.
Misty.
for the Association.
16.
Wet.
36.
Changes Needed in our
17.
Windy.
Lunch Room.
18.
Muddy.
37.
" To Barter or Ex-
19.
1 [omesick.
change."
20.
"Dr. 1 'ell "(see "Mother
38.
Ideal Characteristics of
Goose").
Dairy (or Beef) Cattle.
21.
Mrs. Malaprop.
39.
The Silo and its Value.
22.
On the Merry-go-round.
40.
A Lunar Eclipse.
23.
In a New Hat.
41.
A young woman must
24.
Tennis : Serving ; Plac-
make all arrangements
ing ; Playing the Net ;
and take a railroad trip
Strokes, etc.
alone. Give her de-
25.
Baseball: Pitching: Play-
tailed instructions re-
ing a Position ; Base-
garding the selection
running ; Coaching.
of her train, purchase
26.
Golf: Medal and Match
of ticket and sleeping-
Play ; Driving ; Ap-
car reservation, trans-
proaching ; Putting.
fer of baggage, etc.
CHAPTER VI
VARIETY
There is nothing so uninteresting" as monotony — sameness
in people, in music, in scenery bores us, and our attention
wanders. In writing or in speaking, the person who says the
unexpected thing, or the usual thing in an unexpected way,
the person who affords variety, arouses and compels attention
and interest. We say that such a one is " original " ; this
means, at least in part, that he thinks for himself, sees sin-
cerely, and relates what he sees to his own experience ; and
also that he has at command definite and varied ways of say-
ing things. If we think we are not endowed with great'
"originality," all the more carefully must we study variety
in expression that we may be interesting.
Mere variety is, of course, in itself uninteresting and use-
less, like a great junk heap. Each expression must fit the
thought so perfectly that it seems the only right clothing for
it. The best style is that which makes the reader conscious
only of the thought. But before we can attain to this high
skill in fitting word to idea and sentence form to thought, we
must increase the possibility of choice among our resources ;
we must get a large stock of words and sentence forms and
ways of developing ideas so that we may have them ready to
fit any thought that we wish to express. Notice what variety
Mrs. Mason and Stevenson use in the passages quoted on
pages 49 and 5 1 . This chapter is intended to help in furnish-
ing materials and tools, with some practice in the art of fitting.
183
1 84 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
./. VARIETY IN WORDS
EXERCISE 161 -Oral
DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN SYNONYMS
Some time ago you tried an exercise in distinguishing the
meaning of words. Review this (page 72). Look up the
meanings of the following words ; be ready to state the dis-
tinction between them and to illustrate each in a sentence. 1
1. Reveal, disclose, uncover, discover.
2. Annoy, exasperate, irritate, displease, disgust, madden.
3. Increase, aggravate.
4. Delightful, enchanting, pleasing.
5. Seize, grasp, take, apprehend.
6. Residence, house, home, dwelling.
The English language consists of more than 400,000
words. A large proportion of these, however, are technical
or out-of-date, and hence not ordinarily of interest. But even
1 Every one should learn how the unabridged dictionaries, particularly the Stand-
ard, present synonyms and antonyms. Following is a bibliography of the subject :
Crabbe, George : English Synonyms Explained in Alphabetical Order. New ed.,
Harper, 1892. Si. 25. [Contains quotations illustrating the use of the words listed.]
Falloivs, Samuel: Complete Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms. Revell,
18S6. $1.00. [Contains in an appendix : Briticisms and Americanisms, preposi-
tions discriminated, foreign phrases, list of abbreviations, colloquial phrases, and
homonyms.]
Femald, J, C. : English Synonyms and Antonyms ; with notes on the correct use
of prepositions. Funk & Wngnalls, 1896. Si. 50.
March. /•'. . /..- A Thesaurus Dictionary of the English Language. Historical
Publishing Co., 1902. $12.00. [This is a dictionary of synonyms, antonyms, idioms,
foreign phrases, and pronunciations.]
Rogct, P. M. : Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases. New ed., Crowell,
iS79 ; Si-5°- [Contains extended lists of homonyms and antonyms.]
Smith, C. /.: Synonyms Discriminated. New ed., Holt, 189ft. S2.00. [Dis-
criminates more closely than others as to the use of words. Quotations from standard
writers.]
Soulc. Richard: Dictionary of English Synonyms and Synonymous Parallel Ex-
pressions. New ed., Lippincott, 1892. $2.00.
VARIETY 185
so, there yet remains a vast store hardly touched by most of
us. The various estimates of the vocabularies of men are
frequently misleading in that they do not distinguish the three
vocabularies that every one has. These are a vocabulary of
words that every one understands ; another, within the first,
of words used in speaking ; and a third, largely overlapping
the second, of words used in writing. What are five words that
you use freely in talking but never write ? What are five words
that you might use in writing but never speak ?
To increase our own power, then, we must do three things :
(1) increase the number of words in our vocabularies, (2) use
the words of one vocabulary freely in the others, and
(3) understand exactly what the words mean and suggest. In
a sense, the first statement alone includes the other two, for
we may increase two of our vocabularies by borrowing from
the largest and from each other, as well as by including words
unknown before, and, of course, we are not really masters
over words until we know exactly what they mean and
suggest.
Words usually suggest more than they mean. Originally
two words may have meant the same thing ; but for some
reason or other, custom associates one with formal, dignified,
or technical language, the other with homely talk. After a
while, as their suggestions become so different, it is impossible
to interchange the synonyms. Examples are : paternal and
fatherly ; domicile and home ; Sabbath, Lord's Day, and
Sunday ; corpus and body. What a different suggestion, even
though the meaning be unchanged, comes from substituting
in a sentence one of these words for its synonym ! Note, too,
the gain or loss of suggestion resulting from a change of
"The Ancient Mariner" and " To a Waterfowl" to "The
Old Sailor " and " To a Wild Goose."
1 86 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
It is good taste that must guide one in the selection of a
word with the right suggestion, and good taste results largely
from taking notice of the words used by good writers and
speakers. The greatest danger of violating good taste in this
matter lies in the inclination of some writers to use words
that are too formal for common things. This you may see in
the sentence " After an elegant repast had been served by
our hostess and disposed of, we dispersed to our residences
and retired to our slumbers," where the writer means simply
" After we had enjoyed the supper served by our hostess, we
went home to bed."
Each one of us is more likely to use too few different words
than to use too many ; we all get into ruts of speech, from
which only he who cares and cares constantly will get out.
To increase our power of expression we must increase the
number of our servants, and, what is here of as much impor-
tance, we must use them so freely that they are constantly
ready for our commands.
That you may increase your store of words, you must ac-
quire an interest in them. When you find in your reading
a passage that seems particularly effective, stop occasionally
and consider exactly what every unusual or significant word
means and why the author used precisely that word in that
place. Also, you must learn to use the unabridged dictionary.
In it you will find not only definitions of a word, but its
derivation and illustrations of its uses. These illustrative pas-
sages should give not only the applied meaning but also the
peculiar suggestion of the word. The mastery of this, the
hardest thing in diction to learn, is called good taste. It
results from much reading in the works of men who them-
selves have good taste, and from some critical observation
as suggested in these paragraphs.
VARIETY 187
To increase your vocabularies of expression, however, you
must do more than observe words and learn their definitions.
You must use the new or unusual word at every opportunity,
— even more, you must make opportunities for using the
word and then use it. Drag it into your talk, even though at
first this causes you some embarrassment. Do it again and
again. The embarrassment will very rapidly disappear, and,
stranger still, the word will begin to occur in your speech
almost without your knowing it. This possession of words
will not result, however, unless you consciously try to use them
repeatedly. The addition of only one new word a day or even
one a week would in a year make a marked difference in your
vocabulary.
Besides speaking the new words, write them. You need
them in both vocabularies. Using the list from your note-book,
write sentences that demand the various words. Do this over
and over, partly trying to express ideas of your own that are
worth while, but chiefly seeking a mastery over new tools.
And whenever one of these new words tries to slip into a
sentence that you are making, write it down, even though you
discard it in the revision. New words are timid and need
encouragement. Give them work, and they will develop into
ready and useful helpers.
If you are studying a foreign language, use the opportuni-
ties which translation affords for careful discrimination in
words. The student who has only one English equivalent
for every foreign word will not only produce wooden and
absurd translations but will gain no added insight into his
own language. Such a mechanical student was the boy who
translated insano incensus amove " burned by a crazy love."
On the other hand, a student who has gained a sense or feel-
ing for words and meaning finds that a word in the foreign
1 88 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
language may mean any one of a great variety of things,
according to the context. The discovery of this fact and the
struggle to fit the right English word into the sentence
illumine both the foreign and the native vocabulary.
A few illustrations may be suggestive to pupils studying
Latin, German, or French. Some of the commonest words
have been chosen. Acer may mean any of the following :
"sharp," "pointed," "piercing," "dazzling," "stinging,"
"pungent," "shrill," "acid," "severe," "violent," "gnaw-
ing," "vehement," "passionate," "consuming," "subtle,"
"penetrating," "sagacious," "shrewd," " keen," " eager,"
" active," " ardent," "spirited," " brave," "zealous," " hasty,"
"enraged," "angry"; arm may be translated "poor,"
" needy," " scanty," " barren," " indigent "; beau is not fully
understood unless we are ready to translate it "beautiful,"
"fine," "lovely," "fair," "handsome," "smart," "spruce,"
"glorious," "lofty," "noble," "seemly," "becoming." In
learning any one of these words, get the underlying idea —
of sharpness, for example — in mind, and study the con-
text for the shade of meaning : a sharp sound would be, per-
haps, shrill; a sharp blow, stinging. Translation involves the
seizing of another's thought and the expression of it anew in
a different tongue, not a mere fitting together of words as in
a picture puzzle.
EXERCISE 162 — Oral
AVOIDING REPETITION
Sometimes we need synonymous expressions not so much
for definiteness as for variety. In improving the following sen-
tences use freely pronouns, synonyms, "the former," and
" the latter."
VARIETY 189
1. After I had read the book, I laid the book on the table in the hall.
And on the table mother found the book.
2. Birds and fish both interested John from his childhood. Birds
John came to know much about, but fish John never studied.
3. The coach suggested to the captain a plan for confusing the op-
ponents. But the captain thought the plan dishonorable. The captain
would not use such a plan.
4. Marie thought the work of her cousin on the farm hard. Marie
had little to do at home, while her cousin had work for all the spare
hours.
5. While the girls were talking, the maid came up to say that the
talking annoyed Mr. Andrews. After talking it over, the girls decided
to talk no more that night. It was a great hardship, however, for them
not to talk after they were in bed.
EXERCISE 163 — Oral
VARYING WORN-OUT WORDS
#
Review Exercise 63, page 70. What would you substitute
for the following expressions in italics ? Is there any differ-
ence in meaning or in suggestion ? If so, tell when you
would use each.
1. I don't care a snap.
2. He was very angry.
3. He is n't worth shucks.
4. We had z.fine time.
5. This is a beautiful day.
6. He is a nice boy.
7. She is a hn>ely girl.
8. The hostess served a dainty luncheon.
9. We had a hearty dinner.
10. The lesson was hard.
11. The man's scheme worked like a charm.
12. The concert was awful.
13. This is a fascinating novel.
14. The night was ideal.
iqo FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 164 -Oral
VARIETY IN S\ NONYMS
For the underscored words substitute as many words as you
can that mean exactly the same thing ; as many that mean
nearly the same thing. Make a mental image for each sen-
tence and see if the idea changes at all with the insertion
of a new word.
1. The man went down the street.
2. We saw the man in the crowd.
3. At the party the ,£7/7 had a delightful time.
4. The boys sat about on the piazza.
5. Finally we all went to bed.
6. After father called we got out of bed.
7. He broke out into shouts of laughter.
8. " O bother," I replied drowsily.
9. Liberty was the dominant note in all the speeches.
10. He rode by on his horse.
11. I could n't get my lesson.
12. Henry did his chores.
13. Lena has a pensive look.
14. The wagon is usually on time.
15. The lecture was dull.
16. The audience were attentive.
17. The whistle blew.
18. The perfume was sweet.
19. Jim lay on the couch.
20. Dunstan Cass was a prodigal.
EXERCISE 165 — Oral
SHADES OF MEANING
Arrange in order all the steps that you can between the
following extremes :
1. Blackest midnight, noonday's glare.
2. ( lentleman, rough.
3. Sweet, sour.
VARIETY 191
4. Giant, dwarf.
5. Freezing cold, sizzling hot.
6. Intensely interesting, deadly dull.
7. Miser, spendthrift.
8. Lavish generosity, niggardly penuriousness.
9. Soaking wet, dry.
10. Starved, surfeited.
11. Smile, guffaw.
12. Hideously ugly, ravishingly beautiful.
EXERCISE 166 — Written
USING NEW WORDS APPROPRIATELY
Make sentences using the following words appropriately.
Do not be content with " He had faith," but write such a sen-
tence as will show that you really have some mastery of the
word ; for instance, ' Even though the mother could find
no trace of her son, she had faith that he would return."
Consult the illustrative sentences in an unabridged dictionary.
1. Magnanimous. 5. Piteous. 9. Vicious.
2. Equivalent. 6. Decent. 10. Repentant.
3. Reticent. 7. Despicable. 11. Candid,
4. Conscious. 8. Affable. 12. Trite.
EXERCISE 167 — Oral
CHOOSING FIT WORDS
Supply in the blanks words that not only make sense but
also are in keeping with the spirit of the passage. Compare
the tone, secured largely by the choice of words, in the para-
graphs quoted on pages 62, 72-74, 102, and 116.
We had awakened early that winter morning, puzzled at first by
the light that the room. Then, when at last the truth
fully on us and we that snow-balling was no longer a
dream, but a certainty waiting for us outside, it was a
19 j FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
mere fight for the necessary clothes, and the lacing of boots
seemed a , and the buttoning of coats a tedious form
of fastening, with all that snow going to waste at our very door.
When dinner-time we had to be in by the of our
necks. The short over, the combat was ; but presently
Charlotte and I, a little of contests and of that ran
down inside one's clothes, forsook the battle-field of the lawn
and went exploring the blank spaces of the world that
lay beyond. — Kenneth Grahame
EXERCISE 168 — Written and Oral
A STUDY IN SYNONYMS
Be sure that you grasp the meaning o"f each sentence and
word as it stands in the following paragraph. Then sub-
stitute synonymous words or phrases for those in italics, and
discuss in class the changes in suggestion or meaning.
Among sayings that have a currency in spite of being wholly
false upon the face of them for the sake of a half-truth upon another
subject which is accidentally combined with the error, one of the
grossest and broadest conveys the monstrous proposition that it is
easy to tell the truth and hard to tell a lie. I wish heartily it were.
But the truth is one; it has first to be discovered, then justly and
exactly uttered. Even with instruments specially contrived for
such a purpose — with a foot rule, a level, or a theodolite — it is
not easy to be exact ; it is easier, alas! to be inexact. From those
who mark the divisions on a scale to those who measure the
boundaries of empires or the distance of the heavenly stars, it is
by careful method and minute, unwearying attention that men rise
even to material exactness or to sure knowledge even of extern, il
and constant things. But it is easier to draw the outline of a moun-
tain than tin- changing appearance of a face; and truth in human
relations is of this more intangible and dubious order : hard to seize,
harder to communicate. Veracity to facts in a loose, colloquial
sense — not to say that I have been in Malabar when as a matter
of fact I was never out of England, not to say that I have read
VARIETY 193
Cervantes in the original when as a matter of fact I know not one
syllable of Spanish — this, indeed, is easy and to the same degree
unimportant in itself. Lies of this sort, according to circumstances,
may or may not be important ; in a certain sense even they may or
may not be false. The habitual liar may be a very honest fellow, and
live truly with his wife and friends ; while another man who never
told a formal falsehood in his life may yet be himself one lie —
heart and face, from top to bottom. This is the kind of lie which
poisons intimacy. And vice versa, veracity to sentiment, truth in
a relation, truth to your own heart and your friends, never to feign
or falsify emotion — that is the truth which makes love possible
and mankind happy.
Stevexsox, " The Truth of Intercourse"
EXERCISE 169 — Written
USING WORDS EFFECTIVELY
From the theme topics suggested on page 237 f. select one
and develop it in one or two paragraphs. From all possible
synonyms that occur to you for any particular idea, choose
each time the one most sure to stimulate the sense image
of your readers.
B. VARIETY THROUGH DIRECT AND INDIRECT
DISCOURSE
Another means of securing variety is the use of direct and in-
direct discourse. Direct discourse, which gives the exact words
of a speaker, usually makes the statement more vivid and adds
importance to it. Indirect discourse, on the other hand, which
gives the thought of the speaker in a slightly modified expres-
sion, is used when the emphasis is on some other part of the
sentence or when rapidity in the passage is desirable. For
example, in " writing up " a speech, a reporter may wish to
194 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
give his readers a general idea and then to emphasize a
particular passage. He might write :
After apologizing for his late arrival, the speaker declared that
he was glad to greet his old friends. He denied that he nad voted
for any bill that was against the interests of the county. Continu-
ing, he said : "In regard to the Lawrence Bill, I am still opposed
to it. My reasons are . . ."
The direct statement is in the form of a noun clause used
as the object of some verb or verbal of saying, thinking, ask-
ing, and the like. If this leading verb is present or future,
the verb forms in the clause are unchanged in tense ; if it is
past, the verb forms in the indirect discourse must be past.
For instance, the direct statement, "If there be any truth in
the old man's prophecy, I see and you soon will sec the end
of the matter" becomes "He declares (will declare) that if
there be any truth in the old man's prophecy, he jYY\rand you
soon will see the end of the matter," or " He declared (has
declared) that if there were any truth in the old man's prophecy,
he saw and you soon would sec the end of the matter."
EXERCISE 170 -Oral
CHANGING DIRECT TO INDIRECT DISCOURSE
Change the following examples of direct discourse to
indirect discourse :
1. " I am free," he shouted.
2. He says in the interview. " I am not able to pay my debts."'
3. He told me, " You should study engineerinj
4. " I want a live dragon," he announced.
5. "Oh, but rabbits do talk." declared Harold. 'They put their
heads together and their noses go up and down just like Salina's and
the Vicarage girls'. 1 '
6. " You have n't been to Rome, have you ? " I inquired.
VARIETY 195
7. He stated to the officer, " I am a pupil in the Lawrence School."
8. He swears in his affidavit, " I am of legal age and of sound mind."
9. " This," we shall exclaim, " is what you have led us to ! "
10. " The field belongs to Farmer Larkin," I explained politely,
" who lives just below us."
11. " There are some things," he had read somewhere, " that no one
can understand."
12. By that time he will have demanded, " Who are you, anyway? "
EXERCISE 171 — Oral
CHANGING INDIRECT TO DIRECT DISCOURSE
Change the following indirect statements to direct. Secure
variety by placing the leading verb (1) before the quotation,
(2) after it, and (3) at some suitable point in the quotation.
1. He rapped out that I was a young ignoramus and that I could not
read even English.
2. He asked solicitously if I was running away.
3. Mother was getting ready to demand in her characteristic way
who was going.
4. He inquired what we had been playing.
5. Every morning the teacher wants to know what we have done
over night.
6. She persists that she can make a cake as well as her mother.
In direct discourse various effects are secured by the use of
different leading verbs, as may have been noticed in the pre-
ceding exercises. These leading verbs with the accompanying
explanations of action and the like are called the "author's
comment." Passages from several different novelists should
be examined with a view to seeing how much variety and defi-
niteness they secure through a selection of different leading
verbs and how much through effective placing of the author's
comment.
196 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 172 - Written
VARYING THE INTRODUCTORY WORDS OF QUOTATIONS
a. Make as long a list of synonyms as you can for he said;
he asked.
b. Add explanatory comment to each and then write, appro-
priate direct discourse. For instance, starting with the verb
gasp, we might add f aiming Jicrsclf vigorously, and finally
write: 'Well," she gasped, fanning herself vigorously, "I
never felt such a hot day before since I was born."
EXERCISE 173 — Written
WRITING CONVERSATION WITH VARIED COMMENTS
Write one of the conversations indicated below. Make the
author's comment varied and suggestive.
1. An angry farmer and a boy caught in the melon patch.
2. An asthmatic beggar and a sensible charity worker.
3. A benevolent gentleman and a newsboy who has just returned his
hat from the mud of a crowded street.
4. The captain of the ball team planning with one of his men for
a game.
5. Two girls exchanging confidences.
6. A clerk in a dry goods store and a very exacting customer, or a
woman who does n't know her mind, or a woman who is easily offended.
7. Mrs. Putonairs and her new cook, just from the country.
8. A woman and a book-agent at the door.
9. John and his little sister at the circus.
EXERCISE 174 -Oral or Written
VARYING DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURSE
Prepare to tell in class one of the following incidents.
Secure vividness or emphasis by direct quotation, rapidity
or subordination by indirect.
VARIETY 197
1. Albert, already late, is stopped on his way to school by an immi-
grant woman who speaks little English. After finding out her wants, he
gives her the help she needs.
2. A stuttering boy inquires his way of an impatient and unsympa-
thetic man. A kindly stranger sets all to rights.
3. A forgetful boy is sent to the store for some pepper.
EXERCISE 175 — Written
VARYING A CHARACTER SKETCH WITH CONVERSATION
Write a character sketch of an old man or an old woman,
taking your portrait as he or she is chatting with you. Reveal
as much of his or her personality and life as you can. Intro-
duce characteristic remarks in direct quotations. Look well
to your choice of words.
C. VARIETY IN SENTENCES 1
The form of sentences is not to be varied merely for the
sake of variety ; it should be determined always by the thought
to be expressed. It will be so determined if the writer has such
an acquaintance with the different sentence forms that he can
at need call up any one for use. One duty, then, of the young
writer is to learn what these forms are and to practice chang-
ing the expression of a thought from one to the others until
they are familiar to him and easy to use.
I. Declarative, Interrogative, and Imperative Sentences
In grammar you have learned the three sentence forms —
declarative, interrogative, and imperative — whereby we may
make a statement, ask a question, or utter a command or
1 In all of the work on sentence forms and modifiers it would be well to examine
for variety the passages quoted in the earlier chapters.
i.,X FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
entreaty. The first is the usual form of our sentences, because
we arc ordinarily trying merely to tell our thoughts.
The second form has two uses, one of which is common
to all who wish to find out something. Its other use is inter-
rogative in form but declarative in meaning. This is called
the rhetorical question. We use it in an idiomatic sense when
we call out, " What do you take me for? " Shylock uses it
when he says: 'He hath disgraced me. And what's his
reason ? I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes ? Hath not a
Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions ? "
Neither we nor Shylock are seeking information ; but we
use the interrogative form to tell our thoughts because, tend-
ing to surprise the hearer and make him think for himself,
it gives variety and strength to the expression.
The imperative form of sentence we use when we wish
to beg for something or to utter a command. In your ex-
perience, so far, imperative sentences have largely been
short: "Stop!" " Let me alone ! " " Come here ! " As we
try to express in our writing a great variety of thoughts, the
imperative form will perhaps find a more frequent use. Some-
times this, too, is used for a forcible statement. Instead of
declaring, " I prefer death to slavery," Patrick Henry used
the imperative form and shouted, " Give me liberty or give
me death ! "
First we shall practice merely varying the expression of
the same thought in these three forms, so that we may have
some mastery over them. Then in our future writing they
may of their own accord, as it were, slip into a fitting place.
More probably, however, we shall introduce the interrogative
and imperative forms in revision. Looking over what we
have written, we feel the need of more strength ; perhaps
we can gain it by substituting a rhetorical question or an
VARIETY 199
imperative form. Use these freely in writing. Your natural
good taste will, in all probability, prevent your overdoing the
matter ; that failing, your teacher will point out the excess.
EXERCISE 176 — Oral
MAKING INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
Change the forms of the following expressions to inter-
rogative or imperative. Consider in each case the change
of impression.
1. The judge of all the world should do right.
2. You had better stop and look and listen at the crossing.
3. I am no simpleton for you to fool like that.
4. I think America is the best place for me.
5. I am so excited that I don't know what to do.
6. I hope every dear friend will throw himself into the breach and
stop the attack.
7. You members of the football team must hold your opponents.
8. Alas ! I hardly know what I have done.
II. Active and Passive Voice
In English we have another means of variety — the power
of expressing the same thought in the active or in the passive
voice. When a predicate is in the active voice, it usually ex-
presses an action performed by the subject ; when in the pas-
sive, it usually expresses an action affecting the subject. Thus
we may say, " The boys broke the window last night," or
: ' Last night the window was broken by the boys."
Use the active voice unless there is some good reason for
using the passive. We use the passive (1) when we wish to
avoid a change of subject, (2) when we wish to emphasize
the person or thing affected by the act, or (3) when we do
not know or do not wish to name the actor.
200 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 111 — Oral
USING THE PASSIVE CORRECTLY
In the following sentences criticize the use of the passive.
If good, justify it ; if bad, revise the sentence.
1. A pleasant time was had at the party.
2. The first reflecting telescope was made by Sir Isaac Newton.
3. The equable temperature of the tropics minimizes man's needs
and leads to uniformity ; but the necessaries of life are multiplied in
the temperate realm and variety is secured.
4. Last night the flowers were covered with dew.
5. Hydrogen is made by pouring hydrochloric acid over zinc filings.
6. We are all hero worshipers. America was discovered by Colum-
bus, and we enshrine him among our heroes.
7. Electricity is used to-day to lighten work in almost every field.
The tons of metal, for instance, which compose the moving parts of a
great telescope are moved in any direction by it.
8. A good watch must be treated well if it is expected to keep
good time.
9. Peter was the favorite son, and on his sixteenth birthday he was
given a horse by his mother.
10. Needless to say, the lesson was mastered before I left school.
11. After the address had been delivered, Lincoln sat down, fearing
that it was not liked by the people.
12. When the pigs had been fed, Jack still had a half-dozen chores
to do.
13. A delightful evening was passed at the home of Mrs. Smith by
her Sunday School class and a few friends.
14. Your request has been listened to by me with great interest.
15. He was awarded a prize by the committee for his garden.
III. Order of Sentence Elements
As you have learned in grammar, there is as a base in
every simple sentence one proposition, consisting of a sub-
ject, which represents that about which we are making an
VARIETY 20 1
assertion ; a predicate attribute (variously called subjective
complement, predicate adjective or noun, and predicate), which
represents what we are asserting of the subject of thought ;
and the copula (verb), which asserts the relation of the pred-
icate attribute to the subject ; as, " Boys are restless." Fre-
quently the copula and predicate attribute are combined, as,
" Boys run." In many sentences there is also, as a part of
the base, a direct object, as, " Cows eat grass " ; and, occa-
sionally, there is an objective complement (variously called
factitive adjective, noun, or object ; predicate attribute of the
object, etc.), as, "John cuts the grass s/tort."
Any or all of these elements may be modified (" The
young men are now cutting the long grass very short.") and
any or all may be compounded (" Even the youngest boys and
the oldest men were yesterday and are still to-day making the
weak levee much wider and stronger."), and yet we still have
a simple sentence.
If another complete proposition is added, however, we
have a compound sentence ; as, " After being shut up for
some time boys are very restless, but at the end of a day of
hard work they are ready for bed by nightfall."
If any modifier consists of a subject and predicate, - - in
other words, is a clause, — we have a complex sentence ; as,
" Boys who have been shut in for some time are restless if
they do not have plenty of exercise." Moreover, propositions
in compound sentences are frequently complex ; as, " He who
is wise prepares ; but he who is foolish repents."
In English the order of the elements in a simple sen-
tence is pretty well fixed, for it is by order rather than by the
form of the words that we tell their uses. We say, " Boys
are restless," and in this particular sentence no other order
will give us the same meaning. In some cases, however, we-
202 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
may secure variety and great vigor by the unusual order of
predicate attribute, copula, and subject ; for instance, " Won-
derful are the works of God." And in still other cases it is pos-
sible to begin the sentence with the word there, which has no
other effect than that it permits us to change the form of the
sentence. Hence it is usually called a form word. "Ice is
in the river" and "There is ice in the river" mean prac-
tically the same thing. When a direct object is contained
in the sentence, it usually comes after the predicate verb ; but
in rare cases it may stand at the beginning of the sentence.
' He made mistakes of course, but he was honest " may be
written " Mistakes he made, of course, but he was honest."
EXERCISE 178 — Oral
VARYING THE ORDER OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
Which of the following sentences may be changed to any
other of the forms given ? Consider the difference in mean-
ing or in effect, if there be any. Note the value of a knowl-
edge of these forms in securing variety.
1. Before him the spectral figure of his partner stood.
2. .Many things are in this world that we do not dream of.
3. We had fine luck. We killed ten rabbits and six bobwhites
during the morning.
4. There is in the world a vast number of honest men.
5. A wonderful help to man is this discovery.
6. Her eyes are blue.
7. By the door stood a tall poplar.
8. The place was wonderful. Lollipops grew on trees and sugar
plums were everywhere.
9. A neat, pretty cottage it was, with clipped yew hedges all around
the j
10. And there sat by the empty fireplace, which was filled with a pot
"of sweet herbs, the nicest old woman that ever was seen.
VARIETY 203
IV. Different Forms of Modifiers
In addition to the basal elements of the sentence, there
are many modifiers, — elements added to the bare sentence
to make the meaning more complete and exact.
a. Adjective modifiers. The subject of a sentence, if a
noun or pronoun, may be modified by one or more (1) ad-
jectives, (2) adjective phrases, (3) adjective clauses, (4) apposi-
tives, (5) participles or participial phrases, or by combinations
of these elements. Any noun or pronoun in the sentence
may be similarly modified. These types of adjective adjuncts,
or modifiers, mav all be illustrated in one sentence : " The
old (1) man on the porch (2) reading his paper (5) is the
father of Isaac Matthews, sheriff of the county (4), who last
year protected his prisoner from the mob (3)."
If a person used only one of these kinds of modifiers, his
writing or talk would not only fail to express exactly what he
meant, but also would seem so unvaried as to become tire-
some. Consequently one who wishes to secure variety and in-
terest should have all these forms at his tongue's end. Nearly
every adjective adjunct can be expressed in more than one
form, and occasionally an adjunct will lend itself to all of the
forms ; as : (1) The crazy man ; (2) The man with a crazed
brain; (3) The man zvho is crazy; (4) The man, a lunatic, or
The man, crazed by drink ; and (5) The man being crazy, etc.
EXERCISE 179 — Oral
VARYING ADJECTIVE ADJUNCTS
Vary the adjective adjuncts in the following sentences in
as many ways as possible :
1. These barbarous people lived long ago.
2. The hunters soon killed an old moose.
204 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
3. At the end of the first day Mary was a tired girl.
4. In a dreadfully big and lonely room sat the prince.
5. That terrible night finally came to an end.
6. The cunning monster killed several of the deer.
7. He was attacked by a drove of these little wild hogs.
8. A few shiftless men watched the performance.
9. General Wood, the commander, was until 1898 a physician.
10. Having killed the rabbit, Nelson began to look about for other
game.
11. The new teacher, who was Canadian by birth, was an interesting
man.
12. The man coming over the hill is the doctor.
13. Buck, being released from the box, sprang at the man in the red
sweater.
14. A man who fights and inns away may live to fight another day.
15. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
16. Men of honor do not sell their honor.
17. American men, will you see your land invaded?
18. A bird that is in the hand is worth two that are in the bush.
b. Adverb modifiers. The modifier of any part of the sen-
tence except the nouns and pronouns is called adverbial. Ad-
verbial modifiers are in form: (i) an adverb, (2) an adverb
phrase, this including the infinitive, (3) an adverb clause, and,
in effect, (4) an absolute phrase. This last is not grammati-
cally joined to any part of the sentence, but in effect it is
usually an adverbial modifier of the predicate. These modifiers
may be illustrated as follows: (1) He walked hesitatingly;
(2) He walked with hesitating steps ; (3) He walked as if he
hesitated; and (4) His feet hesitating at every step, the man
walked down the street.
With adverbial modifiers as with adjectival, one should
have command of the several forms in order that he may se-
cure variety and also that he may express himself exactly.
In actual composition sometimes one form will be the best,
VARIETY 205
sometimes another. These exercises are framed for the pur-
pose of making all the forms familiar. When writing, use
for the most part the form that comes to you naturally ; in
revision search carefully for the best form.
EXERCISE 180 — Oral
VARYING ADVERB ADJUNCTS
Vary the following adverb adjuncts in as many ways as
possible :
1. Macaulay read rapidly.
2. He also read accurately.
3. The umpire made his decisions impartially.
4. The game having been finished early, the boys had time to rest
before eating.
5. Don't hurry on my account.
6. That the players might understand clearly, the umpire explained
the new rules.
7. We were eager to begin.
8. Because he had been frightened as a colt, Boniface was never
safe for women to drive.
9. He would come at night every day for his food and petting.
10. The lecturer having denounced the book, we were all eager to
read it.
11. You will find him at home.
12. Come to see us often.
EXERCISE 181 — Oral
SYNONYMOUS ADVERB ADJUNCTS
What variations in form may the following adverb adjuncts
have ? Compose sentences beginning with these modifiers
and also with their variants : doubtless, necessarily, cer-
tainly, surely, at all events, obviously, likely, possibly,
indeed, anyway.
2o6 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Make a list of similar words and use them in like manner.
Adverbial ideas, especially of time and cause, are frequently
given (i) by participial phrases, adjectival in form, and (2) by
absolute phrases. For example, the causal idea in the follow-
ing adverb clause, " As the horse was tired," maybe expressed
by a participial phrase, " Being tired, the horse stopped to
rest," or by an absolute phrase, " The horse being tired, we
stopped for an hour by the roadside."
EXERCISE 182 — Oral
VARIOUS EQUIVALENTS FOR ADVERB ADJUNCTS
Express the ideas in the adverb clauses by participial
phrases, either adjective or absolute.
1. When the clock had struck, the men quit work.
2. As the boys had eaten their lunches hurriedly, they did not notice
the queer taste.
3. We threw the fish back into the water because they were too
small to dress.
4. Ted fell exhausted when he had crossed the line.
5. As Mary had never before spoken in public, she was reluctant to
appear.
6. Wlu-n the last girl had arrived, I served tea in the sitting room.
7. Be we had planned to keep the whole thing a secret, we did
not wear the pins to school.
8. As the rule had been broken, the principal suspended each boy for
two weeks.
9. After I had read the book I felt as though I could run an auto-
mobile myself.
The ideas most commonly expressed by adverb adjuncts
of the predicate are (I) place, (2) time, (3) manner, (4) cause,
. purpose, (6) condition, (7) concession.
1. He died there, in his bed, where he fell.
2. He died yesterday, in the fall, when he was old.
VARIETY 207
3. He died peacefully, in peace, as a saint should die.
4. He died of pneumonia, because he had pneumonia.
5. He died to save his friend, that he might save his friend.
6. He will die if that is poison that he drank.
7. He died, although the doctors made valiant efforts to save him.
Try placing each of the above adjuncts first in its sentence.
EXERCISE 183 -Oral
VARIOUS EQUIVALENTS FOR ADVERB ADJUNCTS OF
VARIED MEANINGS
Add to each of the following statements adverb adjuncts
in various forms expressing if possible all the ideas mentioned
above. Which form of the adjunct seems best in each case ?
1. The soldier grew worse.
2. The one who first finishes the paragraph should raise his hand.
3. The picnic must be postponed.
4. The work will be done.
5. Walter Scott was not a brilliant pupil.
6. Lincoln spoke.
7. The Hill School won.
8. Mother was tired.
9. It had been a happy day.
V. Position of Modifiers
As a rule, modifiers should be placed as near as possible
to the element to be modified. Sometimes when this is not
done, ambiguity or absurdity results. This is certainly the
case in " When trotting, we notice that now and then a horse
has all his feet off the ground." Not infrequently the change
of position of a modifier without question changes the mean-
ing of a sentence. What, for instance, does the next sentence
mean with only inserted at each point indicated by a caret ?
2o8 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
" A The old miser A lent A the Methodists A fifty dollars for A six
months A ." But when no ambiguity is possible, as in the fol-
lowing illustrations, we should use in different sentences a
variety of positions for modifiers in order to avoid monotony
of sentence form. The following, which mean the same thing,
may be used interchangeably, — each form being best, per-
haps, in certain connections : ' Washington lived here for
many years " ; " Here for many years Washington lived " ;
' Here Washington lived for many years " ; " For many years
Washington lived here."
EXERCISE 184 — Oral
VARYING THE POSITION OF ADVERB ADJUNCTS
What changes in meaning result from the insertion of the
modifier at each caret ?
1. Just. A After\vard Arthur learned A enough to understand the sailors'
stories.
2. Sometimes. A Gulliver, A fearing that he A would be crushed A by the
terrible people around him, A tried A to hide himself.
3. Often. .While driving along the country roads Arthur A resolved
that he \vould A see the theatre A when he visited the city A .
4. Probably. The stories, though A false, A stirred him so that he A would
A have A caused trouble A had he not been restrained.
5. Surely. A Goodness and mercy A shall A follow me A all the days of my
life, and A I A \vill A dwell in the house of the Lord forever.
EXERCISE 185 -Oral
CHOOSING TIIK BEST POSITION FOR AN ADVERB
ADJUNCT
What is the best position for the detached adjuncts in the
following sentences ? Test the arrangements by reading them
aloud and comparing their meanings.
VARIETY 209
1. In a moment. The dog was at the tramp's throat.
2. Frequently. Rip Van Winkle would take his gun and go off into
the woods, where he would enjoy a day of hunting.
3. Finally. The boys were rewarded by seeing a dim white figure
rise from behind a pile of stones.
4. On the steps. John and Ray sat crying for their mother.
5. Lazily. The clerk took the box from the shelf.
6. For supper. We had fresh fish and hardtack.
7. For these reasons. The boys decided to stay in camp another day.
8. At this point. Towser, who had been barking out in the woods,
came tearing into camp like mad.
9. With a sigh. Madge laid aside the magazine and got her books.
10. /// spite of protests. The committee decided that the boys
should secure vehicles and that the girls should provide the lunch,
VI. Loose and Periodic Sentences
In developing the preceding exercises you have doubtless
been struck by the effect produced by placing the modifiers
at or near the beginning of the sentence. This arrangement
suspends the meaning until all the details are taken care of,
and makes the sentence end with snap and vigor ; for exam-
ple, '•' There on the bridge, holding back the enemy, stood
Horatius." This form of sentence we call periodic, as con-
trasted with the loose, or straggling, form that appends detail
after detail to the principal statement; as, "Horatius stood
there on the bridge, holding back the enemy."
Each form has its use and does not exclude the other. Both
together afford variety. If a writer makes his sentences too
periodic (and this is easy to do), he seems stilted and unnatural.
On the other hand, if he is too loose in his expression, he
fails to hold his reader to the end of his statement. He
should aim, then, at natural ease, which at the same time
will have enough reserve to hold the reader's attention and
interest to the very end. An inexperienced writer is likely
2io I [RST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
to be loose rather than periodic. Therefore in practice he
should frequently and consciously use the periodic form.
There are various degrees of periodicity and looseness.
' If any one had rushed suddenly upon us, brave though we
seemed to be, like timid sheep we should have scattered " is
strictly periodic, and because it holds back the main thought
too long, clearly trying to crowd in all the minor details, it is
stilted. By transferring " like timid sheep " to the very end
of the sentence you gain in effectiveness. Even though you
sacrifice the strict periodic form, you keep a form that is
periodic in effect. Writing "If any one had rushed suddenly
upon us, we should have fled like timid sheep, though we
seemed to be brave," you have a sentence partly periodic, it
is true, but in effect loose. Transferring the conditional
clause to the very end, you get a sentence wholly loose. For
that reason it seems ineffective, rambling on after the mind
has grasped the main statement. Few long sentences are
wholly periodic or wholly loose ; their structure is judged, as
a rule, by the general effect.
EXERCISE 186 - Oral
MAKING SENTENCES LOOSE OR PERIODIC
Decide whether each of the following sentences is in effect
loose or periodic. Change to the other form and comment
on the result.
1. Once more, dear friends, to celebrate the day we come.
2. lie died early this morning, just as the bugles were sounding the
reveille for the troops.
3. When the golden summer has rounded languidly to its close,
when autumn has been carried forth in russet winding sheet, then all
good fellows who look upon holidays as a chief end of life return from
moor and stream and begin to take stock of gains and losses.
VARIETY 2 1
4. What did our forefathers do in cases of illness, living as they did
in rural districts, even before the country variety store carried its supply
of remedies ?
5. Down he fell, brushing against the yielding leaves, dashing through
the crackling twigs, and landing finally on the forest mold.
6. Here was the pitiful case of a man twenty-odd years of age, with
no capacity to do anything worth a man's wages because he had left
school and had been at work since his fifteenth birthday.
7. One of the best things about school life is that then one makes
his closest friends.
8. One and inseparable must this nation remain!
EXERCISE 187 — Written
USING PERIODIC SENTENCES
Select some old short theme and rewrite it, using only-
periodic sentences. What is the effect ? Rewrite it in loose
sentences. What is the effect ? Finally, write the paragraph
in the most effective sentence forms.
VII. Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences
Reference was made earlier in this chapter to the three forms
of sentences — simple, compound, and complex. These forms,
we have seen, are dependent not upon the length of the sen-
tences but upon their grammatical composition. If the sentence
contains one statement, it is simple ; if it is composed of two
or more of equal rank, it is compound ; and if it contains a
clause modifier, it is complex. Writing that consists wholly,
or -even largely, of any one of these forms seems to us monoto-
nous ; all three forms, properly distributed, help to effect the
variety that adds charm to writing.
It must not be thought, however, that the three forms are
interchangeable ; on the contrary, each fits a particular need
of thought. Just as we have found that there are " blanket "
212 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
words, \vc find that writers, young and old, tend to a blanket
form of expression, instead of taking the trouble to mold the
sentence exactly to the idea. Variety in thought form, then,
must precede variety in sentence form ; but in order that it
may be developed and increased, it must be expressed. Thus
exact expression will encourage careful thought ; and varied
thought, on the other hand, will demand and exercise the
several sentence forms.
a. Simple sentences. Enough practice has already been
given, perhaps, in the simple sentence. In the chapter on
Unity you have had exercises showing that what was meant
for a simple sentence is often no real sentence because it
contains too little or too much (see Exercises 145, 146), and
in this chapter are several exercises showing how modifiers
may be variously added to the single statement.
In early talking and writing young people incline to use
the simple sentence exclusively. Later on they tend to
neglect it for the other forms, even though the thought is
single and simple. One should never forget that the simple
sentence is always a safe expression, and in the midst of
longer and more pretentious forms it is sometimes marvel-
lously effective. It is effective, too, in expressing the ideas
of rapidity, bluntness, strength, and simplicity. It is frequently
the best form for a conclusion. An excellent illustration is the
last sentence of the following passage from " Silas Marner."
Hardly more than five minutes had passed since he entered the
cottage, but it seemed to Dunstan like a long while : and. though
he was without any distinct recognition of the possibility that Marner
might be alive and might reenter the cottage at any moment, he felt
an undefinable dread laying hold on him as he rose to his feet with
the bags in his hand. He would hasten out into the darkness, and
then consider what he should do with the bags. He closed the door
behind him immediately that he might shut in the stream of light ;
VARIETY 213
a few steps would be enough to carry him beyond betrayal by the
gleams from the shutter chinks and the latch hole. The rain and
darkness had got thicker, and he was glad of it ; though it was awk-
ward walking with both hands filled, so that it was as much as he
could do to grasp his whip along with one of the bags. But when
he had gone a yard or two he might take his time. So he stepped
forward into the darkness. — George Eliot, " Silas Marner "
EXERCISE 188 — Oral
STUDYING THE USE OF SIMPLE SENTENCES
Examine a page from each of several books. What is the
proportion of simple sentences ? When a simple sentence is
used well, what is the particular effect it conveys ? Read in
class and comment on the best examples.
/;. Compound sentences. The compound form of sentence
yokes together two or more statements of equal value, equal
not only grammatically but also in helping to produce some
larger effect. ' The game was interesting " and " The crowd
yelled " are statements of equal grammatical rank, but they
can hardly be combined into an effective compound sentence.
' In the excitement boys yelled and girls shrieked " is a good
compound sentence, however, for the two elements together
give one impression of the actions of the crowd. In other
words, a compound sentence, like all others, must have unity.
The elements of a compound sentence may be yoked
together in four ways :
1. When one proposition is merely added to another,
usually by and, the relation is copulative.
2. When one proposition is contrasted with another,
usually by but, the relation is adversative.
214 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
3. When a choice is given between two propositions, they
being joined by or or nor, the relation is alternative.
4. When the second proposition shows the consequence
of the former, being joined to it by such words as therefore
and hence, the relation is illative. Note that illative conjunc-
tions are always preceded by a semicolon or some heavier
mark of punctuation.
When no connective is expressed, especially in series, and
is usually understood.
EXERCISE 189 — Oral
VARYING CONNECTIVES OF COMPOUND SENTENCES
Decide whether the relation of the following pairs of state-
ments should be copulative, adversative, alternative, or illative.
Then join them so as to show this relation.
1. The old soldier was very poor. Having a pension, he was never
in actual want.
2. The switchman was utterly incompetent. The freight train was
derailed before it left the yards.
3. Germany has been building huge warships. England, to retain
her supremacy on the sea, has been building more dreadnoughts.
4. The Democratic leader in the House of Representatives did not
approve of Mr. Hobson's naval plan. He began to ridicule it.
5. Mr. Williams proposed that we build a ship twice as large as
England's " Dreadnought." With droll humor he proposed that we call
it " Scared 0' Nothing."
6. Under the new plan the retired employee could receive a pension.
He could retire to the home provided by the company.
7. After watching the flights of the aviators. Ben was satisfied to
travel on trains. Sam had a wild desire to fly.
8. Shakespeare is good reading for the scholar, (live me Stevenson
and Scott.
9. The boys cleaned the hall for the parry. The girls decorated it
with autumn leaves.
VARIETY 215
10. Being worn out by standing so long at the stores, I sank exhausted
upon the couch. As the vision of my algebra problems rose before me,
I got up and tried to work.
11. As he opened the door he saw on the steps a covered basket.
He heard a faint wail from its depths.
12. Should he call the police, he wondered. Should he take the
basket into the house?
13. In some cases, he felt, an hour of mistake was worth an age of
truth. He was not sure of this case.
14. To make his part effective an actor must not rant in his stage
business. He must make his speeches seem to the audience natural.
15. These things the actors last night did not do. We were all
disappointed with the presentation of the play.
c. Complex sentences. Hardly ever does any one express
a sentence so simple that it needs no modifier whatever. It
has already been shown that a sentence simple in grammatical
form may contain a number of modifiers. If any one of these
modifiers, however, rises to the dignity of a clause, we call
the sentence complex. Hence the difference between a simple
sentence and a complex sentence is often merely a difference
of the form of the modifier. A clause more than other modi-
fiers emphasizes the detail which it expresses and shows
exactly its relationship to the rest of the thought.
Inasmuch as the modifiers in a complex sentence are thus
emphasized and definitely related, this form of sentence is
more likely, perhaps, than either of the other two forms, to
express exact thought and to be well unified. The effective
use of many kinds of complex sentences manifests a good
mind, well developed. In this chapter you have already seen
the value of complex sentences to variety, and have had some
practice in making them by using adjective and adverb clauses.
In the next chapter you will have other exercises emphasizing
the expression of exact relations of ideas in complex sentences.
216 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
In passing it may be noted that there is still another form
of sentence, a compound sentence of which one or more
propositions are complex. Being merely a combination of
compound and complex sentences, however, this form pre-
sents no new difficult}-.
EXERCISE 190 -Written
PRACTICIXC. THE USE OF SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND
COMPOUND SENTENCES
Select some old short theme and rewrite it, making each
sentence simple. What is the effect ? Rewrite it, using as
many complex sentences as possible. What is the effect ?
How many good compound sentences can you make in the
paragraph ? Finally, after deciding which ideas are simple,
which co-ordinate with some other, and which dependent,
write the theme, using such a variety of sentence forms as
will secure the best effect.
D. VARIETY IN PARAGRAPHS
So far in this book no formal explanation has been made
of paragraphs. In all of your reading, however, you have
taken them more or less as a matter of course, as they help
you to see the steps the author takes in progress toward a
larger effect. Perhaps without realizing the cause, many readers
shrink from pages of print unbroken by paragraphs. Such
reading makes demands for close attention and constructive
thought ; failing these, it will mean little. On the other hand,
pages broken into paragraphs of one hundred fifty words, or
thereabouts, give the attention occasional resting places and
help the reader considerably in his effort to see the larger
meaning of the author. You have used paragraphs, too, in
VARIETY 217
your own composition, making a new division wherever you
felt a distinct change in the thought.
A paragraph, if we give it a formal definition, is a group
of sentences developing in logical sequence one dominant
idea. In other words, each paragraph presents one idea which,
if it be a part of a longer composition, is a step in the develop-
ment of the idea of the whole. Often the thought can be de-
veloped in one paragraph ; and occasionally, particularly in
dialogue, one sentence alone is set off as a paragraph.
The paragraph differs from the sentence, then, in that it is
not the mere statement of an idea but the development of it.
And this development, according to the definition, must have
a logical sequence, — that is, it must build up the central,
governing idea by means of sentences arranged in such a
reasonable way that the reader will get one impression from
the whole.
EXERCISE 191 — Oral
TESTING THEMES FOR UNITY OF PARAGRAPHS
Read several of your old themes and test the paragraphs.
What, in a few words, does each one try to say ?
If you find among your old themes well-unified paragraphs
and sum up the content of each in a few words, you give
what is usually called the topic, or topic sentence. This will
express, then, in a brief form what the whole paragraph is
meant to develop. The topic is not always formulated by the
writer ; but if the paragraph is well unified, its content may
easily be condensed into one good sentence. If the topic be
expressed, it is usually written at or near the beginning of the
paragraph, though occasionally it is reserved until the end.
2i8 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 192 — Oral
FINDING TOPICS OF PARAGRAPHS
What is the topic in each of the paragraphs on pages 72 f. ?
As you find the topic sentences of well-unified paragraphs,
you will notice that each one demands its own kind of devel-
opment. One is a terse, striking sentence, needing explana-
tion ; another, an assertion, requiring for its development
proof ; a third, an abstraction that will not be clear without
illustration. And so others demand details, contrast, and the
like. Usually the development is not by one of these means,
but by a combination of two, or even more, of them.
I. Development by Details
Notice that in the following paragraph the topic is expressed
by a phrase, which is developed by a number of details.
I said I would n't write anything more concerning the Ameri-
can people for two months ; but I may as well speak out to you.
They are friendly, earnest, hospitable, kind, frank, very often ac-
complished, far less prejudiced than you would suppose, warm-
hearted, fervent, and enthusiastic. They are chivalrous in their uni-
versal politeness to women, courteous, obliging, disinterested ; and,
when they conceive a perfect affection for a man, entirely devoted
to him. I have met thousands of people of all ranks and grades,
and have never once been asked an offensive or impolite question.
The State is a parent to its people ; has a parental watch over all
poor people, sick persons, and captives. The common men render
you assistance in the streets, and would revolt from the offer of a
piece of money. The desire to oblige is universal ; and I have
never once travelled in a public conveyance without making some
generous acquaintance whom I have been sorry to part from, and
who has in many cases come on miles to see us again.
Dickens, ' r Letters from America"
VARIETY 219
EXERCISE 193 — Written
DEVELOPING TOPICS BY DETAILS
Develop the following topic sentences by giving a number
of details for each one, then try to arrange the details so that
they seem to come naturally. See that they all in one way or
another support the topic sentence. Revise your themes to
see if you can secure greater variety in the form and position
of your modifiers.
1. A boy on the farm has many chores to do.
2. When one tries to study in school he finds many distractions.
3. My grandfather is an ideal gentleman.
4. The mail carrier has a hard job.
5. I like to watch the small children at play.
6. It is interesting to listen to the primary class recite.
7. Ned Serviss has all the qualities of a popular fellow at school.
8. Her trials at school were, in her opinion, unendurable.
9. The drive was an interesting one.
10. The pawnshop window is always interesting.
' II. Development by Illustration
What sentence expresses the central thought of the follow-
ing paragraph ? What is the illustration of the topic ? What
application is given of this ? Do the topic, the illustration,
and the application so combine as to effect perfect unity and
clearness ?
The cutting power of a stream of water depends very much on
the amount of sand or pebbles it has in it. If we drive a stream of
pure water against a pane of glass, it will not affect it, even if we
keep it moving at a high speed for days ; but, if we have a little
sand in it, the water will drive the sand against the glass, and in a
few minutes it will appear like ground glass, from the cutting action
of the sand. In the same way, the river-water gets a power of
wearing stones. — Shaler, " First Book in Geology "
220 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 194 — Written
DEVELOPING TOPICS BY ILLUSTRATIONS
Develop the following topic sentences by one or more illus-
trations for each, making the whole paragraph give one effect.
Revise your themes for the purpose of securing greater variety
in sentence forms.
1. All is not gold that glistens.
2. Better is a little with righteousness than great revenues without
right.
3. There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing; there is that
maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches.
4. A good policeman must have kindliness and judgment as well as
physical bravery.
5. Laboratory experiments are like babies : they won't always behave
well before company.
6. The laziest boy in school always thinks he has the most to do.
7. A rolling stone does sometimes gather moss.
8. Proverbs are sometimes misunderstood.
9. It is marvellous how perfectly animals are adapted to the condi-
tions under which they live.
II L Development chiefly by Explanation
Find the topic sentence of each of the following para-
graphs. Does every other sentence in the paragraph help
develop the central idea? How? In general, what is the
means of development ?
The fact is too often lost sight of, or not known at all, that the
tops of the trees absolutely govern the roots. The leaves are the
lungs and the stomach of the tree. The food is digested, so to
speak, in the leaves and there made accessible for the tree as a
whole. If a tree be fine of foliage it will be powerful in all its parts,
because it has the capacity to take so much nourishment from the
air, — four-fifths of it being nitrogen, which is the chief source of
VARIETY - 221
supply for plant-food. The sun, too, plays its important part, —
condensed sunshine and condensed air are the chief articles of the
tree's diet.
Burbank, quoted by Harwood, " New Creations
in Plant Life "
In butter-making bacteria are direct allies of the dairyman. Cream
as it is obtained from milk, will always contain bacteria in large
quantity, and these bacteria will grow as readily in cream as in milk.
The buttermaker seldom churns his cream when it is freshly ob-
tained from milk, but rather subjects it to a process known as
" ripening " or " souring " before putting it into the churn. In
" ripening," the cream simply stands in a vat from twelve hours to
three days. During this period certain changes take place. The
original bacteria, having a chance to grow, become extremely
numerous and thus cause the cream to become somewhat sour, to
become slightly curdled, and to acquire a peculiarly pleasant taste
and an aroma that was not present in the fresh cream. After this,
the cream is ready for the churn.
Adapted from Conn, " The Story of Germ Life "
EXERCISE 195 — Written
DEVELOPING TOPICS BY EXPLANATION
Develop the following proverbs and maxims by explana-
tion. If the point can be made clearer by the use of an illus-
tration, add one. Revise your theme carefully to secure variety
of all kinds.
1. " Buy, buy " is a pretty song, but " pay, pay " is an ugly tune.
2. A carpenter is known by his chips.
3. Better the feet slip than the tongue.
4. You must lose a fly to catch a trout.
5. The mouse that hath one hole is quickly taken.
6. The exception proves the rule.
7. The bird in the bush is worth two in the hat.
8. A bad beginning makes a good ending.
222 • FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
IV. Development by a Combination of Means
In the following paragraph the topic is suggested in the
first sentence ; then follow a contrast and an explanation ;
and, finally, the topic is definitely stated at the end.
If we look at the crop of a pigeon, before its young leave the
nest, we shall discover a function of this organ which would other-
wise never be suspected. We know that herons and some other
birds feed their young on fish half digested by themselves. This
process is known as regurgitation. If we have ever seen a pigeon
with the beak of its young half down its throat, pumping something
into the offspring's mouth, we have probably thought that a similar
habit was being shown, — half-digested grain taking the place of the
heron's fish. But such is not the case. At the time of the breed-
ing season, the folds of membrane in the crops of both parent
pigeons thicken and secrete or peel off in curdy cheesy masses —
"pigeon's milk" some call it — and this forms the food of the
young birds. So in pigeons the crop not only receives food, but at
times provides it. — Beebe, " The Bird."
The following long paragraph is developed by still another
combination. First comes the topic sentence, then a contrast,
then an explanation, and then, finally, a summary.
Against hydrophobia Pasteur has devised a method of inocula-
tion which can be applied after the individual has been bitten by a
rabid animal. Apparently, however, this preventive inoculation is
dependent upon a different principle from vaccination against an-
thrax. It does not give rise to a mild form of the disease, thus pro-
tecting the individual, but rather to an acquired tolerance of the
chemical poisons produced by the disease. It is a well-known physio-
logical fact that the body can become accustomed to tolerate poisons
if inured to them by successively larger and larger doses. It is by this
power, apparently, that the inoculation against hydrophobia produces
its effect. Material containing the hydrophobia poison (taken from
the spinal cord of a rabbit dead with disease) is injected into the
individual after he has been bitten by a rabid animal. The poison-
ous material in the first injection is very weak, but in the following
VARIETY 223
it gradually grows more powerful. The result is that after a short
time the individual has acquired the power of resisting the hydro-
phobia poisons. Before the incubation period of the original in-
fectious matter from the bite of the rabid animal has passed, the
inoculated individual has so thoroughly acquired a tolerance of the
poison that he successfully resists the attack of the infection. This
method of inoculation thus neutralizes the effects of the disease by
anticipating them.
Adapted from Coxx, " The Story of Germ Life"
Sometimes, as in the following paragraph, the conclusion
comes from concrete experience, which is used as evidence.
The distracted oven-bird, feigning a broken wing as she crosses
your path in the woods, invites pity or perhaps destruction, if only
you will spare those speckled treasures which she thinks you know
must be somewhere near, although, but for her frantic performance,
you might not have discovered the well-concealed nest. Sir Chris-
topher Wren, by the very exuberance of his bubbling, continuous
song, betrays the precious secret that Jenny, by her excited scold-
ings, no better conceals. But the bobolink, swaying on the stalk of
timothy in the meadow, and singing with rollicking abandon, is
quite as clever as the ventriloquial yellow-throat in luring you from
his nest hidden in the grassy jungle. How cleverly the birds have
learned to guard nest secrets.
Adapted from Blanchan, " How to Attract the Birds "
EXERCISE 196 — Written
DEVELOPING TOPICS BY VARIOUS MEANS
Develop the following topic sentences by a short explana-
tion followed by a contrast and illustration, or by any similar
combination :
1. To-day a farmer may live like a king.
2. Though capable of great idleness, he never failed to be ready for
all sorts of adventures and excursions.
3. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
224 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
4. Delays have dangerous ends.
5. A dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees the farther of the two.
6. His bark is worse than his bite.
V. Development by Proof
The topic of the paragraph, as has been noted, is usually-
stated near the beginning ; but not infrequently, especially if
the writer is trying to convince an opponent known to be preju-
diced against the proposition, it is reserved until the end. '' Y~< >u
asrree with this ; you cannot doubt that ; therefore you must
admit the proposition," is the way the argument runs.
EXERCISE 197 — Written
DEVELOPING TOPICS BY PROOF
Develop the following topic sentences by giving proof.
Place the topic in the more effective place, either at the
beginning or at the end of the paragraph.
1. The umpire, however honest, should not be a partisan of either side.
2. Regular term examinations are necessary in high schools.
3. It would be better to have the weekly holiday on Monday than
on Saturday.
4. Truth is more important than physical bravery.
5. college is the one I should attend.
VI. Development by Cause and Result
The three following paragraphs are elaborated by state-
ments of cause and result. In each, select the topic sentence
and show how it is developed. Does each writer make out
his case ?
The Western Wood Frog is very awkward, because of the
massive build and great length of its hind legs. When walking, it
is ludicrous in appearance, and it is still more ridiculous when it
VARIETY 225
captures a fish from under the surface of the water and swallows
it. The frog tries to brace himself on the long hind legs so as to
use the hands, both at the same time to keep the fish away from
the angles of the jaws and to push it into the mouth. To brace
himself against slippery mud is not easy, and, besides, the frog loses
his balance because both hands are lifted at once, so he makes a great
kicking and splashing before he finally swallows the fish.
Adapted from Dickersox, in
"The Frog Book"
Dimmock convinced himself that a poisonous saliva is intro-
duced by the bite of a mosquito. He noticed that if a mosquito
punctures the skin without entering a blood-vessel, although it may
insert its proboscis for nearly its full length, no poisonous effect is
produced upon the skin ; but when the proboscis strikes blood and
the insect draws its fill, the subsequent swelling and poisonous
effect are obvious. He argued that these effects indicate a constant
outpouring of some sort of poisonous fluid during the blood-sucking
process. — Adapted from Howard, " Mosquitoes "
Sometimes the day of the toads' final transformation from tad-
poles coincides with the day of a gentle rain. They cover the
sidewalks and the roadways. The same apparent deluge of toads
may come if a warmer rain occurs shortly after the time of their
change to land animals. They are so delicate at first, so used to life
in water, that they travel only when the air is moist.
Dickersox, " The Frog Book "
EXERCISE 198 — Written
DEVELOPING TOPICS BY CAUSES OR RESULTS
Develop the following topic sentences by giving either the
causes or the results :
1. A student often has his hardest time just after he has turned over
a new leaf.
2. An unexpected holiday is good (bad) for the school.
3. Mr. A has better crops (cows, business, chickens) than anybody
else in the neighborhood.
226 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
4. Grandmother has better things to eat than any other housekeeper
I know.
5. I know a man who believes in the old adage " Early to bed, early
to rise."'
6. Our school some time ago decided to .
EXERCISE 199 — Oral
DEVELOPING TOPICS BY VARIOUS MEANS
Think over these topic sentences and decide what method
of development would be best for each. Don't confine your-
self, necessarily, to the combinations herein illustrated. Be
prepared to develop orally in class any topic sentence.
1. For the first time the grandmother spent Thanksgiving Day all
alone.
•2. He was the most striking man I ever saw.
• 3. It is great fun to get up early and go down to see the circus unload.
4. The phrase ,r upwards of a hundred " is often misunderstood.
5. Saturdays and Mondays are for me very different days.
6. It would (not) be wise to have school six days in the week.
7. Occasionally the old miser would do something very generous.
8. Sunday newspapers should be prohibited.
9. Sunday newspapers are a necessity.
10. In the spring come the freshets.
11. I tried for fifteen minutes to get a look at the squirrel.
12. To make a child sit in church through a long, dry sermon is a
common form of cruelty.
13. Lessie put her hair up for the first time and wore her long- dress.
14. Last summer I tried to make some money by getting subscriptions
to Magazine.
15. Only once have I been "scared stiff."
16. The new cook came yesterday.
17. Did you ever ride on a merry-go-round? I did once.
18. A bird in the bush is worth two in a hat.
19. is a picture that I like very much.
20. Dickens entertains me more than Scott does.
VARIETY 227
21. I went through the pockets in my small brother's coat.
22. At times I thought my father very severe, but usually he was
lenient with my faults.
23. Our pastor argues that it is unwise to feed tramps.
24. The beggar looked through the window at the cheery glow of
the fire.
25. I always get up mornings the same way.
26. I should like once in my life to hear a parrot really talk.
27. The long drought will be bad for the gardens.
28. Constant dripping will wear the hardest stone.
29. " Needles and pins, needles and pins " — what becomes of
them all?
30. I found an old diary of mine the other day.
31. There is a marked difference between bravery and daring.
32. There are several kinds of slang.
E. VARIETY IN TROPES
Clever writers often give variety to their compositions, and
thus gain interest, by using tropes, or figures of speech ; that
is to say, for the sake of beauty or of emphasis, they use
words with unusual suggestion. When Holmes wrote, for
instance, " Good feeling helps society to make liars of most
of us, — not absolute liars, but such careless handlers of truth
that its sharp corners get terribly rounded," he used words
with their usual suggestion until he came to " handlers of
truth," etc. There his words begin to take on unusual sug-
gestion. We do not really handle truth, nor has its sharp
corners to be rounded off ; but the expression does actually
make the thought clearer and stronger for us than an un-
adorned statement could do. The gain in interest that comes
from the use of these comparisons or tropes has already been
suggested (see Exercise 116).
Tropes are pleasing if they really add something of beauty
or strength or clearness to the bare idea. This will follow
228 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
only if the comparison seems new and natural, and if it
recalls an experience more beautiful or strong or clear than
the bare idea. But worn-out tropes or unnatural ones must
be ineffective.
EXERCISE 200 — Oral
STUDYING SOME FIGURES OF SPEECH
Is Dickens effective in the following figures of speech ? Why ?
And a breezy, goose-skinned, blue-nosed, red-eyed, stony-toed,
tooth-chattering place it was to wait in in the winter time, as Toby
Yeck well knew.
A lost slang is based on the pleasure that we get from see-
ing and suggesting likenesses. At first a piece of slang may
be very amusing and forcible. It is not hard to imagine the
occasion that first called forth the expression "Rubber!"
and, further, to join in the smile that ran around as the
hearers associated in their minds the elasticity of caoutchouc
and of the boy's neck. After a while, however, the expres-
sion became stale and flat, and now it has lost practically all
the force it ever had.
Common meanings of a large part of our reputable words
have come about in just the same manner. Rubber itself is
so called because the gummy substance was used for rubbing
out pencil marks. We can readily see what picturesqueness
has been lost in words by looking up the derivation of daisy,
nasturtium, conspire, and attention, and by considering the
derived meanings of head, arm, and wing.
Having perceived, then, one point of likeness in two appar-
ently dissimilar things, a writer may express this likeness or
he may merely suggest it. By an expression of the likeness
he creates a simile ; by the suggestion of it, a metaphor. He
VARIETY 229
may write, " Laura is like a butterfly " (a simile), or " Laura
is a butterfly " (a metaphor).
A mere comparison of two things clearly similar does not,
however, constitute a trope ; for example, " This book is like
that one." There are too many points of likeness, in the first
place, and, in the second, the comparison adds nothing to the
bare statement of fact. It does not draw upon the reader's or
hearer's experience or in any way stimulate his imagination.
EXERCISE 201 - Oral
STUDYING SIMILES AND METAPHORS
The following passage from " The Autocrat of the Break-
fast-Table " is crowded with comparisons, some implied, some
clearly stated, and some including others. Select the similes
and metaphors. Tell what each adds to the bare idea.
Did you ever happen to see that soft-spoken and velvet-handed
steam engine at the Mint? The smooth piston slides backward and
forward as a lady might slip her delicate finger in and out of a ring.
The engine lays one of its fingers calmly, but firmly, upon a bit of
metal ; it is a coin now, and will remember that touch, and tell a
new race about it, when the date upon it is crusted over with twenty
centuries. So it is that a great silent-moving misery puts a new
stamp on us in an hour or in a moment, as sharp an impression
as if it had taken a lifetime to engrave it.
Oliver Wendell Holmes
EXERCISE 202 — Oral or Written
MAKING VARIOUS TROPES
Make original similes and metaphors to show :
1. How hard the ice is when you fall.
2. How soft your bed is at night.
3. How crooked a road is.
4. How dry a piece of old bread is.
230 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
5. I low ugly a man is.
6. How straight a path is.
7. How interesting a book was. (For example, " It absorbed me."')
8. How eager you were to do something.
9. How happy a certain day was.
10. How horrible some sight was.
11. How something surprised you. (For example, " It slapped me
in the face.")
12. How dull the lecture was.
13. How long something is.
14. How a girl wept.
15. How cross a person was.
EXERCISE 203 - Written
TEST THEME
Write a narrative on any subject you choose. In telling
this story give attention to all devices that will acid interest
and give variety. Then revise for sentence structure.
RULES AND EXERCISES IN GOOD FORM 1
I. IYnctuatiux
Exercise A
Explain the punctuation and write from dictation :
The carriage arrived in front of us, a pace distant from the pillar.
" Hurrah ! " shouted many voices.
" Hurrah ! " shouted Coretti, after the others.
The King glanced at his face, and his eye dwelt for a moment on
his three medals.
Then Coretti lost his head, and roared, " The fourth battalion of the
forty-ninth ! "
The King, who had turned away, turned towards us again, and looking
Coretti straight in the eye, reached his hand out of the carriage.
Coretti gave one leap forwards and clasped it. The carriage passed
on ; the crowd broke in and separated us ; we lost sight of the elder
Coretti. But it was only for a moment. We found him again directly,
1 Continued from page iSi.
VARIETY 231
panting, with wet eyes, calling for his son by name, and holding his
hand on high. His son flew towards him, and he said, " Here, little one,
while my hand is still warm ! " and he passed his hand over the boy's
face, saying, " This is a caress from the King."
And there he stood, as though in a dream, with his eyes fixed on the
distant carriage, smiling, with his pipe in his hand, in the centre of a
group of curious people, who were staring at him. " He 's one of the
fourth battalion of the forty-ninth ! " they said. " He is a soldier that
knows the King." "And the King recognized him." "And he offered
him his hand." " He gave the King a petition," said one, more loudly.
" No," replied Coretti, whirling round abruptly : " I did not give him
any petition. There is something else that I would give him, if he
were to ask it of me."
They all stared at him.
And he said simply, " My blood."
Amicis, "Cuore" (translated by Isabel F. Hapgood)
Rule 27. Use the dash to mark a sudden change in thought
or in feeling or in sentence-form.
Rule 28. Use a semicolon to separate parts of a compound
sentence when a heavier mark than a comma is needed, or
when the conjunction is omitted. •
Find examples of their use in dictation exercises already studied.
„. . r Exercise B
Write from memory :
All service ranks the same with God —
With God, whose puppets, best and worst,
Are we ; there is no last nor first.
Browning, " Pippa Passes "
Exercise C
Account for the use of ever}- mark of punctuation in this para-
graph, and write from dictation :
Every violation of truth is not only a sort of suicide in the liar, but
is a stab at the health of human society. On the most profitable lie the
course of events presently lays a destructive tax ; whilst frankness
invites frankness, puts the parties on a convenient footing and makes
232 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
their business a friendship. Trust men, and they will be true to you;
treat them greatly, and they will show themselves great, though they
make an exception in your favor to all the rules of trade.
Emerson, " Prudence"
Exercise D
Explain the punctuation, and write from memory :
" The ill-timed truth we might have kept —
Who knows how sharp it pierced and stung?
The word we had not sense to say —
Who knows how grandly it had rung ?
" Our faults no tenderness should ask.
The chastening stripes must cleanse them all ;
But for our blunders — oh, in shame,
Before the eyes of heaven we fall."
Edward Rowland Sill, "The Fool's Prayer"
Exercise E
Write from dictation :
Beside the moist clods the slender flags arise filled with the sweet-
ness of the earth. Out of the darkness under— that darkness which
knows no day save when the ploughshare opens its chinks — they have
come to the light. To the light they have brought a color which will
attract the sunbeams from now till harvest. Seldom do we realize that
the world is practically no thicker to us than the print of our footsteps
on the path. Upon that surface we walk, and what is beneath is noth-
ing to us. But it is out from that underworld, from the dead and the
unknown, from the cold moist ground, that these green blades have
sprung. Yonder a steam-plough pants up the hill, groaning with its
own strength, yet all that might of wheels and piston and chains can-
not drag from the earth one single blade like these. Force cannot
make it; it must grow.
Richard Jeiki.kii.s, "Out-of-doors in February"
Rule 29. Use a colon to separate particular instances or
examples from a general statement or summary.
Notice the use of the colon in the following examples:
After the first of July the yellow flowers begin, matching the yellow
fire-flies: Hawkweeds, Loosestrifes, Primroses bloom, and the bushy
Wild Indigo.
VARIETY 233
The soul is like a musical instrument : it is not enough that it be
framed for the most delicate vibration, but it must vibrate long and
often before the fibres grow mellow to the finest waves of sympathy.
Thomas Wentworth Higginson, " The
Procession of the Flowers "
During the whole of February and March (1863) Grant was busy
with two experiments: 1. He tried, by digging canals and deepening
channels, to make a connected passage through the network of bayous
west of the Mississippi, so that supply ships might be sent below
Vicksburg without coming within range of its guns. 2. He tried to find
a passage available for gunboats through the labyrinth of bayous to the
north, so that with the aid of the fleet he might secure a foothold for
the army beyond Haines' Bluff, and thence come down upon the rear
of Vicksburg. — John Fiske, " History of the United States "
Exercise F
Write from dictation the three examples given above.
Exercise G
Supply commas where they are needed in the following lines,
and give the rules illustrated. Why is a colon instead of a comma
used before the quotation ? Notice that the first sentence is an
excellent example of a long but well-unified loose sentence.
Think of the innumerable boys who at almost this very hour are
going to school in every land ; see them in your imagination going
through the lanes of quiet villages through the streets of noisy towns
along the shores of seas and lakes under burning sun through fogs in
boats in the countries of canals on horse-back across the broad prairies
in sleds over the snow through valleys and among hills across forests
and torrents up over the solitary pathways of the mountains alone by
twos in groups in long files all with books under their arms clothed in
a thousand fashions speaking a thousand tongues from the farthest
school of Russia almost lost amid the ice to the farthest school of
Arabia shaded by palm-trees millions' and millions all going to learn
under a hundred forms the same thing ; imagine this vast vast throng of
boys of a hundred races this tremendous movement of which you make
a part and think : " If this movement should cease humanity would fall
back into barbarism ; this movement is the progress the hope the glory
234 FIRST. BOOK OF COMPOSITION
of the world." Courage then little soldier of the mighty army. Your
books are your arms your class is your company the battlefield is the
whole earth and the victory is human civilization. Be not a cowardly
soldier my Enrico. — AMICIS, " Cuore "
Exercise H
Give a rule for the use of each capital and mark of punctuation :
" Burn the fleet and ruin France? That were worse than fifty Ilogues!
Sirs, they know I speak the truth ! Sirs, believe me there 's a way !
Only let me lead the line,
Have the biggest ship to steer,
Get this ' Formidable ' clear,
Make the others follow mine,
And I lead them, most and least, by a passage I know well,
Right to Solidor past Greve,
And there lay them safe and sound ;
And if one ship misbehave,
— Keel so much as grate the ground.
Why, I Ye nothing but my life, — here 's my head ! " cries Herve Riel.
Browning, "Herve Riel"
II. Correct Usage
Exercise I
Never use where except to give some notion of place, nor 7v/ien
except to give some notion of time. It is absurd to say. " Mumps
is when your cheeks are swelled out," or " Courage is when a per-
son is not afraid," or " A glacier is where ice has been forced into
a narrow valley," and to call these definitions. State in good sentences
what you think the following sentences are intended to express :
1. " Inventiveness" is where a person is never at a loss for means to
his end.
2. I read about where Hiawatha made a canoe.
3. He told us about when he ran away.
4. A good paragraph is where you divide the subject matter logically.
5. Paragraphing is when you make a new division of a composition.
6. A complex sentence is where you have a clause included in a
principal statement.
VARIETY 235
7. An island is where a body of land is entirely surrounded by water.
8. Rhyme is when two or more lines of poetry end with the same sounds.
9. Definiteness is where a writer finds the exact way of expressing his
thought.
10. A " jam " in the river is when logs are stuck in the channel and
block the way and pile up on each other.
11. The rotation of the earth is when the earth turns on its axis.
12. Real reading is where you get the meaning and the pictures and the
feelings suggested by the printed page.
Exercise J
1 . Fill the blanks below with the past participle of ten commonly
misused verbs. If necessary, supply an object.
2. Substitute had for have and has ; fill the blanks as before,
and read aloud.
3. Read as questions, with have and has, then with had ; fill
the blanks and read aloud.
4. Insert not or n't with have and has, then with had ; fill the
blanks and read aloud.
I have . We have .
You have . You have .
He has . They have .
Exercise K
Fill the blanks below with the past form of ten commonly mis-
used verbs. If necessary, supply an object. Read aloud, following
the model:
I came yesterday. We came yesterday.
You came yesterday. You came yesterday.
He came yesterday. They came yesterday.
I saw it yesterday. We saw it yesterday.
You sa?v it yesterday. You saw it yesterday.
He saw it yesterday. They saw it yesterday.
I yesterday. We yesterday.
You yesterday. You yesterday.
He yesterday. They yesterday.
236 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Exercise L
Distinguish between some place and somewhere, etc. Make cor-
rections where they are needed.
1. Some places are not well situated for business centers.
2. Take it to some place where you can examine it quietly.
3. I have never seen any place more beautifully clean.
4. There is no place like home.
5. Every place in the state lost something.
6. I find you even' place I go.
7. Are you going anyplace this afternoon ? Aa place.
8. I have looked for it every place.
9. I put that some place, and now it seems to be no place.
10. I am going some place during the holidays, but I don't know where.
Exercise M
After than or as some words are often omitted : for example,
: ' He is as tall as /" means " He is as tall as lam tall" ; " I like
her better than him " means " I like her better than I like him"
In order to determine which form of the pronoun to use, complete
the sentence.
1. She is stronger than (am strong).
2. We are not so wise as .
3. If you 're not so happy as , it is your own fault.
4. If I 'm not so tall as , he 's not so strong as .
5. They are wiser than .
6. We thought her more refined and courteous than .
7. They walked farther than , but not so far as did.
8. You are older than ; but I am older than Robert and as tall
as
9. You are not so kind as
Notk. Use so instead of as with not.
Exercise N
At some time in the future it may be correct to use like to intro-
duce a clause, but it should certainly be avoided now. Use as or
as //followed by a statement ; like followed by a noun or pronoun.
VARIETY 237
Say " He looks like my little brother " ; " He looks as my little
brother used to look" or " He looks as if he might be my little
brother." Tell why like, as, or as if is correctly used in the follow-
ing sentences :
1. It looks like rain.
2. It looks as if it would rain.
3. She walks as her mother does.
4. She looks like her mother.
5. The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold.
6. We came down as if we were wolves ready to devour them.
7. Do as I do ; fold your hands like this.
8. I ran like a madman, and arrived breathless as if from a race. 1
Exercise
Fill the blanks with like, as, or as if:
1. He acted he had never seen anything it before.
2. He sprang up a jack-in-the-box.
3. The kitten looked ashamed, she had overturned the milk.
4. He followed he were bewitched.
5. If you act a child, why should I treat you you were a man ?
6. The river looks there had been heavy rains on the hills.
7. The roar at the dam is thunder.
8. You look — — you were worn out.
9. It seems he would never come.
10. Does n't it seem the party had just begun ?
11. He does n't act he felt well.
12. He dresses a tramp, or at least he were utterly careless.
13. I did it just you told me.
14. He runs a deer.
15. He came in he were afraid.
SUGGESTED THEME TOPICS FOR CHOICE OF WORDS
a. For Colors :
(1) The Greengrocer's W 7 indow.
(2) A Sunset.
(3) The Heart of an Opal.
1 Part of the clause ; s omitted here. Supply it.
2$S FIRST LOOK OF COMPOSITION
b. For Sounds :
(i) The Birds Sing.
(2) Sounds at Night.
(3) At the Station.
For Smells
d. For Touch
(1) Grandma's Pantry (Cellar).
(2) Waiting for the Second Table.
(3) After the Rain.
(1) When I Couldn't Find a Match.
(2) Blind Man's Buff.
e. For Movement :
(1) The Passing Crowd.
(2) The Wind among the Trees.
(3) The Birds Fly Past.
General
(1) Deacon Jones Takes the Collection.
(2) His First Long Trousers.
(3) The Crowd at a Fire.
(4) The One I Loved Best of All.
(5) Overheard.
(6) The Farm Sale.
(7) Moving Day.
(8) His Neckties.
(9) An Old Album.
(10) My Ideal Man (Woman).
(11) ( , uiiiic Valentines.
(12) Spoiled.
(13) A Faded Flower.
(14) Just a Tramp.
(15) Tramps I Have Met.
VARIETY 239
(16) Embarrassment.
(17) Driving a Pig.
(18) The Old Swimming Hole.
(19) Politeness and — Politeness.
(20) A Small Boy's Pocket.
(21) Two Clerks.
Many proverbs that are suggestive as topic sentences may
be found in the Standard Dictionary, pages 2351-2364, and in
Hazlitt's " English Proverbs " (Charles Scribner's Sons).
(22) The bad workman finds fault with his tools.
(23) Beware of a silent dog and still water.
(24) Idle folks have the least leisure.
(25) Lazy people work the best
When the sun is in the west.
(26) We are apt to believe what we wish for.
(27) It's a long lane that knows no turning.
(28) Love. me, love my dog.
(29) A cat may look at a king.
(30) It 's the early bird that catches the worm.
CHAPTER VII
COHERENCE
Every thought has threads of connection with many other
thoughts, and upon any one of these threads the mind may
seize. If the word tomatoes were pronounced to a class of
twenty, and each member of the class let his mind follow its
own way among the possibly connected thoughts, at the end
of one minute probably these twenty minds would have ar-
rived at twenty entirely different stopping-places. Tomatoes
and church are far apart, but the path between them may have
been easy ; from tomatoes to cans, goats, initiation into secret
orders, Masonry and its founding by King Solomon, Solomon's
temple, and church ! There must, evidently, be some sort of
connection between any successive thoughts ; but connected-
ness as accidental as that in the series given is hardly worthy
of the name. What a scatter-brain would be the person who
habitually thought in this fashion !
By coherence, or connectedness, in composition is meant
the clear expression of vital connections among well-unified
thoughts or ideas. As this statement implies, unity of thought
is closely related to coherence in several ways. Frequently
the lack of unity is only apparent, and due to poorly ex-
pressed connections. For example, thinking how busy he
was all Saturday morning, a boy might say, " I put away my
football suit, sharpened my skates, oiled my heavy shoes,
and read the morning paper." He has mentally supplied the
binding element among these apparently separated thoughts,
240
COHERENCE 241
but he has not stated it. His sentence would be better unified
because more coherent if he should say, " Putting away my
football suit, sharpening my skates, oiling my heavy shoes, and
reading the morning paper kept me busy up to twelve o'clock."
On the other hand, no care in expression could make a well-
unified and coherent sentence out of the statements, " The
woman is ill," " She is the mother of the butcher," " Meat has
advanced in price," because the relation of the last thought to
the first two is an accidental, not a vital one. To coherent writ-
ing and speaking, then, two things are necessary : ( 1 ) vital con-
nection in thought, and (2) clear expression of that connection.
To this clear, coherent composition there are five principal
aids : ( 1 ) logical arrangement, or order ; (2) wise use of con-
nectives and words of reference ; (3) proper subordination of
the less important ideas; (4) forms of sentences ; and (5) avoid-
ance of all blurring ellipses. In this chapter you will have
practice that will help in securing a command of all these aids.
Use them not only in any compositions required, but in all
written work for which you have opportunity.
A. COHERENCE IN PARAGRAPHS AND SENTENCES
I. Order
a. Order of sentences. The order of details in a paragraph
of description has already been considered (Chapter IV),
though not with special reference to coherence. For good
connectedness not only must details of a description and all
ideas used in developing a topic be arranged in logical order, I
but the words in a sentence must lead naturally from one to an-
other, and the beginnings and endings of sentences must link
themselves together. In other words, not only the thought but
the wording of the thought must be carefully ordered.
24 2 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 204 - Written
ORDERING THE DETAILS IX A PARAGRAPH
Arrange in proper order the items in each group. Then
embody them in a paragraph, joining the sentences into a
connected whole.
1. A good fire all evening. Big back log. Fire started from the top.
Plenty of kindling. Back log of green wood. Fire eats down into wood.
Building a fire in this way requires skill.
2. Father yields at last. Slippers ready warmed ; easy chair drawn
up. Dislike for late parties. Mother on our side. Father comes home
tired from work. Waiting all day for him. The question proposed.
3. Fascinating story. Paper a sample copy. End at most exciting
point. Giles, the crafty news-agent. Subscription.
4. Planning to get Alice from home. Surprise party. Discovery of
her birth date. Her innocent stubbornness. Aid from unexpected
source. Alice's surprise and delight.
5. Discovery of "peeper" frogs. Catfish's disdain of liver. Deter-
mination to catch him. Seeing a big catfish. Stealing grasshopper bait.
Weight and length. Caught by trailing frog on bottom. Excitement of
landing him.
b. Order of modifiers. Place adjuncts close to the words that
they modify. If you do this, the chances are that each sen-
tence will be clear in meaning, even though it may be notable
for nothing else. If you fail to do this, \< >ur writing will be not
only confusing but also at times absurd. After only a moment's
thought the sign " Lunches put up for travellers in boxes " is
clear ; but at first sight it is suggestive of uncomfortable quar-
ters for the travellers. Errors of this kind in coherence are
usually due to misplaced adverbs, participles, or clauses.
I. Adverb adjuncts --words and phrases. While seeking
exactness of meaning through the position of the adjunct,
try to avoid awkwardness of statement
COHERENCE 243
EXERCISE 205 — Oral
PLACING ADVERBS AND ADVERB PHRASES
Decide what the following sentences, as they stand, really
say. Shift the troublesome adverb modifier so that the sen-
tences express what the writers probably meant.
1. She was looking at the man sitting in the chair, rather curiously.
2. This dress closes at one side under the braided band .with a blind
fastening.
3. We had only eaten a few mouthfuls .when the bell rang.
4. He neither was prepared to translate nor to construe the passage.
5. The boys were suspended a week for fighting by direction of the
superintendent.
6. I found the knife I lent to you in the table drawer.
7. The runaway was even glad to have bread and water for supper.
8. He gave the two last reasons first.
9. She read the poem that Riley wrote so beautifully that the audi-
ence both were laughing and weeping at the same time.
10. The farmer told me the story while driving along in a high,
excited voice.
11. Mary almost appears well again.
12. When he broke down not only was he studying too hard but also
taking too little exercise.
13. Janet wrote down in her note-book everything he said with her
new silver pencil.
14. We finished the work we had planned without interruption.
15. Mr. Jocelyn came from Chicago to see his brother who was shot
by the robber in the head.
16. The freshman class last year entered upon the study of botany
with some misgivings.
2. Participles. Participles sometimes give trouble because
they are so placed that they seem to modify the wrong word.
244 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 206 — Oral
PLACING PARTICIPLES
What do you think the writer meant in each sentence ?
Revise, so as to bring out the meaning.
1. The peddler had many strange experiences travelling about the
country.
2. My pony stepped into a hole yesterday trotting along on Fourth
S t reet.
3. The cars were full of people at all hours after supper, taking them
to the park.
4. I saw in the shadow of the woods ghosts and bears and other
scary things peeping out from the tent.
5. Shivering, dripping, crying, they got the unfortunate girl home
at last.
6. The coat was the hide of a bear made up with the hair outside.
7. Being made of Irish lace, Bertha put her hat away in its box.
8. Found, a black leather pocket-book in a hardware store containing
ten dollars.
9. The conductor collected from the tramp, being angry, double
the proper fare.
10. Being placed on the front page, the editor makes the cartoon
express the ideas of his paper.
11. He was lying on a bed bent double with pain.
12. Leaning heavily on the arm of his son, I could see the old man
plod away through the rain.
13. Being very much interested in the book, the morning slipped
away before I realized it.
14. When we returned there were only four of us in the great coach
drawn by four horses seated on the back seat under one umbrella.
3. Clauses. The connection of clauses with the words that
they modify should be shown by position. Otherwise am-
biguity may result.
COHERENCE 245
EXERCISE 207 — Oral
ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES
Revise these sentences so as to secure good coherence
through proper positions of the clauses.
1. Last evening Reverend J. B. Porpoise preached a sermon on the
Congo horrors, after which a resolution was passed urging the govern-
ment to interfere.
2. After the ceremony the happy couple sat down to the wedding
feast, surrounded by their friends, which consisted of oysters, dressed
chicken, celery, coffee, ice cream, and cake.
3. A little grayish cloud was pushing its way up into the sky, which
must have been smoke.
4. He said that his name was Beverly Travers, which sounded im-
probable.
5. We left Oxford at four o'clock, which was the starting point of
our trip.
6. One of the men was more excited than the others, whose name
was Jem Rodney.
7. I saw a large room with a table on one side near the wall which
was used as a counter.
8. Mr. Sinclair, proprietor of the theatre, gave a performance in aid
of the Cottage Hospital, which realized two hundred dollars.
9. She passed to the company some ice cream on her hand-painted
china, which was delicious.
10. There is one village between Boston and Sanetsville which con-
tains two thousand people.
II. Connectives and Words of Reference
Even when the order of words and sentences is logical,
the connection is generally not perfectly clear without words
which look backward or lead forward and point the way.
Though really adverbial modifiers, guiding words and phrases
are of great aid to coherence, indicating to a reader the direc-
tion he is expected to go. Pronouns, too, referring to an
246 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
antecedent, are really in a sense connectives when properly
used, and are a frequent source of incoherence when improp-
erly used. The following exercises in the use of pronouns
and connectives should make you alive to the importance of
considering them in your own composition. Consider how
beautifully coherence is gained in the passage quoted from
Stevenson on page 192.
a. Guiding words. The guiding words most frequently
used are then, after this, again, finally, next, moreover, in
addition, besides, further.
EXERCISE 208 — Oral
USING GUIDING WORDS
Is the sense of the following incident clear as it stands ?
Insert in order words from the list given above. Is the para-
graph easier to read ? Is there other improvement ?
The new dog sniffed at the meat ; he looked suspiciously at
the men. , he turned toward the meat -, never forgetting
for a moment those strange faces watching him. , just as the
men tired watching him, one of the old dogs sprang in and seized
the food. What happened no one could say with exactness,
but the intruder slunk away with a gash in his neck. he
seemed to have lost his appetite and to have gained strong
respect for the new-comer.
EXERCISE 209 — Oral and Written
ACQUIRING SOME GUIDING WORDS
Make a long list of guiding words, referring to some novel
or other well-written book for help. In class select twenty
of those most helpful and most frequently used.
COHERENCE 247
EXERCISE 210— Written
USING GUIDING WORDS
Write one or two long paragraphs, using all of the twenty
connectives. The subject-matter here need not be original,
though it should be as unified as possible in such an exercise.
Be careful to make the connection good.
By repeating in the beginning of a new sentence or para-
graph some word that has occurred near the end of the pre-
ceding, one may aid the effect of coherence. This he may
do, also, by using a contrasting word or by summarizing the
preceding thought by words like these, such, and the latter.
Find in some magazine or novel illustrations of connectedness
gained by these means.
This is such an easy way of tolling a reader along that a
writer must be careful to observe first of all his basic prin-
ciple of unity. Otherwise he might wander along somewhat
in this manner :
After we had endured the stuffy cars seemingly for hours, the
train rolled up to the station. This was a neat little box of a build-
ing set in the midst of a broad plot of grass. In the plot, too, were
beds of flowers wilting in the hot sun. Rain, it was evident, was
badly needed ; and, as a substitute, water was being sprinkled on
the flowers by a man in uniform. This was all white and reminded
me, except for the cap, of those worn by bakers. Hunger now
assailed us, and we began to look for a restaurant.
This runs along so as to give an impression of better unity
than it really has, solely because the author has used words
of repetition, contrast, and summary to bind the sentences
together.
248 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 211 - Written
REVISING THEMES FOR GUIDING WORDS
These exercises are intended to make you acquainted with
this trick of connection. Select one of your old themes and
revise it with these devices in mind. Apply them repeatedly
in your writing until you have acquired the habit of using
them ; but always be careful of the unity of the passage, and
seek, too, to gain connectedness in a variety of other ways.
b. Pronouns. Carefully used, pronouns will help bind sen-
tences together ; otherwise, they will surely interfere with
the reader's ready grasp of the thought, and hence prevent
an impression of connectedness.
It goes without saying that a pronoun without a clearly
understood antecedent is meaningless. If any one should
attempt to begin a conversation with he or she, his hearer
would be at a loss until the speaker mentioned the person
whom the pronoun represented.
Practiced writers are not likely to begin a paragraph in such
a mystifying manner ; but the inexperienced frequently use a
pronoun with no antecedent clearly expressed, leaving the
reader to guess from the sense of the passage who or what
is meant. The boy who wrote " The Civil War settled slavery
by freeing them " was thinking of course of slaves ; but, as
he had not mentioned them, he causes his reader to pause
for a moment to supply the connection that he should have
made clear.
In this particular instance it is not hard to understand the
writer ; the pause resulting from his careless writing is only
momentary. But frequently the same fault will cause real un-
certainty of meaning. "We had a late breakfast, which ."
COHERENCE 249
One would suppose the writer was intending to say something
further about breakfast ; as a matter of fact, however, he con-
tinued, "which made me hurry to get to school." What in
the writer's mind was the antecedent of which ?
EXERCISE 212 — Oral
EXPRESSING CLEAR ANTECEDENTS FOR PRONOUNS
Decide as well as you can what the writer meant in each
of the following sentences. Then reconstruct them so as to
bring out the meaning.
1. After sealing theenvelope Laura told me that itwas very important.
2. In a week he was feeling unwell, and this rapidly grew on him.
3. After he despaired of recovery, the invalid told me that he
probably contracted it from the public drinking cup on the train.
4. General Jackson bore the attack without dismay, at which the
commander dubbed him " Stonewall Jackson."
5. My uncle used to mystify us with cards and dominoes. He used
to say that he learned all these from the Chinese.
G. The tramp's hat had a hole in it, which made us think he was
the victim of our random shot.
7. At first we did not like cowboy life ; but after a while we learned
to admire them, and then it was more pleasant.
8. Catfish are hard to kill, but it is no sign that they are akin to cats.
9. Our neighbor's little girl could sing before she was three years
old ; but usually they are older before they can carry a tune.
10. Having no hair-ribbon, she let it hang loose down her back.
11. It is great fun to use a camera, but it is also expensive, unless
you develop them yourself.
12. They say that a rolling stone gathers no moss.
13. In the summer I tried to get a job, but they are scarce.
14. The orator was applauded, which made him think we all approved
of what he said.
15. At Polk's election Texas entered the Union, which Tyler signed
as one of his last acts as President.
250 I [RST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
16. After picking off all the feathers, we roasted it over the fire.
17. At any rate, those were not the boots I ordered, and as they had
done this same thing before, I returned them, and then they sent them
back to me, enclosing the bill, too.
Not only must pronouns have antecedents clearly expressed
but they must refer definitely to these antecedents. If several
substantives precede the pronoun, it is necessary for a writer
to take great care that his meaning be clear. " John told his
father that he " . Who ? If a statement is worth making
it is worth making in such a form that there is no doubt of
its meaning. Often the doubt may be cleared by a simple
change in order.
EXERCISE 213 — Oral
AVOIDING AMBIGUITY IX Till: USE OF PRONOUNS
Which is the best of the possible meanings in the follow-
ing sentences ? Revise each sentence so as to make it mean
clearly one thing. In some cases use direct quotation.
1. After the gang plow went over the field, it seemed to be worth
the price.
2. There is a bridge over the river, which is made of concrete.
3. The teacher took a paper from the boy that contained a detective
story.
4. The other boys took the oars out of the boats and brought them
into camp.
5. The girl asked her mother if she had ever been in New York.
6. He built himself a concrete house, which, some think, is the best
material for permanency.
7. The examiners told the boys that they should be ready at nine
o'clock.
8. The note was written by candle light, but it is all right for a camp.
9. The teacher reminded the young man that he had been prepared
when he called to present his case.
COHERENCE 251
10. I got the apple from the bin, which I ate.
11. There was a trunk in the attic, which we thought most interesting.
12. Lucy saw as much of Jane as she did of her.
13. When I bought the paper at the news store last week I saw that
it was better than we had in town before.
14. When the culprit was taken before the superintendent he looked
at him in surprise.
15. In botany the specimens are collected by the class and they are
then mounted for use.
16. The snow drifted ten feet deep over a part of the road, so that it
could not be crossed.
17. George's father died before he could remember.
You have noticed that incoherence through pronouns is
due not to their number so much as to the arrangement of
the parts of the sentence. Not infrequently the same pronoun
is used over and over in a passage, and if its meaning is per-
fectly clear, it helps rather than hinders the impression of
connectedness.
Billy Woods stopped short before reaching the gate, and opened
his mouth. First a look of childish dread came over his face. He
looked at Munson. Then he looked around at the staff. Then he
turned his face away and sat down at the nearest desk. Being a
born reporter, he had grasped the whole situation from beginning
to end. — Adapted from Williams, " The Stolen Story "
EXERCISE 214— Written
USING PRONOUNS TO AID COHERENCE
a. Make a list of words that will represent without naming r
(1) a man, (2) a woman, (3) a book, (4) your classmates,
(5) your studies.
b. Write a paragraph about any of these topics, using all,
if you can, of the words listed under one number. Make
these words bind the sentences into a connected paragraph.
252 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 215 — Oral
ORGANIZING A RECITATION
Organize for presentation to the class some topical recita-
tion that you have recently made, or are soon to make, in
history or some other school subject. Work both in your
organization and in your oral recitation to secure unity and
coherence.
EXERCISE 216- Written
TEST THEME
Write a character sketch of some one you know, giving
only so much personal description as helps to make the
character clear. Do not make this sketch a story, but illustrate
your points by telling incidents which bring out the traits of
character. Choose a subject of great individuality, but make
your sketch a portrait, not a caricature. This does not mean,
however, that you are to avoid humor. First be sure that you
understand your subject, and then sincerely try to make the
fellow members of your class know him. Be careful to intro-
duce variety into your sentence structure, and to connect your
statements well by all the means you have been practicing.
c. Conjunctions. As has been said, thinking proceeds with
regular steps, each thought being joined by some close con-
nection to that which goes before. The thinker can tell, if
questioned, whether his thought concerns the result or tin-
cause of what precedes or is a mere addition to it ; but in
expression he frequently fails to show this. There should be
an impression of coherence, and this is made frequently by
the connectives which we call conjunctions.
COHERENCE 253
In the chapters on Unity and Variety you have already
had some practice with conjunctions. You have found that
they are divided into two large classes : (1) co-ordinate, join-
ing elements of equal rank; and (2) ^ubojxJMate, joining a
dependent element to one of more importance.
1. Co-ordinate conjunctions. The co-ordinate conjunctions
you have found, furthermore, are divided according to the
meaning of the relations into four classes : (a) copulative,
(b) alternative, (c) adversative, and (d) illative. 1 These rela-
tions are sometimes shown by words which are not grammat-
ically conjunctions. See if you can add to the following lists
of conjunctive words or phrases :
(a) Copulative:
not only . . . but also 2
in addition
as well as
further
in like manner
thereupon
likewise
also
both . . . and 2
thereafter
besides
and
furthermore
moreover
again
too
to proceed similarly
EXERCISE 217 — Oral and Written
FINDING AND USING COPULATIVE CONNECTIVES
Which are the most common of these connectives ? Test
in several pages of your reading. Write enough sentences
to use each of these connectives at least once. Keep your
sentences as nearly as possible about one thing.
(o) Alternative :
neither . .
. nor -
either . .
. or 2
nor
otherwise
or else
or
1 See pages 213, 214.
2 Each of any pair of correlative conjunctions should usually be followed by
identically the same construction as the other.
254 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 218— Written
USING ALTERNATIVE CONNECTIVES
Write four topic sentences that contrast two things, one
of which you must choose ; for instance, ,r National revenues
may be raised by direct or by indirect taxation." Select one
of these and develop a unified paragraph, using in it at least
the last four alternative connectives.
(c) Adversative :
on the other hand in spite of however still
at the same time nevertheless whereas but
notwithstanding for all that only yet
on the contrary
EXERCISE 219 — Oral and Written
USING ADVERSATIVE CONNECTIVES
How many of these adversative connectives can also be
combined with but, yet, and still (as, still, at the same time)}
Write enough sentences to use each of the connectives at
least once. Make the contrast of thought worth contrasting
in expression.
(d) Illative:
in consequence
accordingly
therefore
thence
consequently
as a result
and so
hence
EXERCISE 220 — Oral and Written
I SING [LLATIVE CONNECTIVES
Which of the illative connectives can you insert in the
following blanks ? Use the best ones. Write another well-
unified paragraph, using the others.
COHERENCE 255
Sindbad soon grew tired of living an idle life ; he embarked
with some merchants on another long voyage. After touching at
several ports, the ship was overtaken by a dreadful tempest and
was rendered almost helpless ; it had to make harbor for re-
pairs. With difficulty the crew brought the vessel to an island, the
shores of which fairly swarmed with dwarf savages. These hairy
wild men danced about on shore, brandishing their knives and
shooting their poisoned arrows at the ship. Sindbad and his
fellows had no desire to land.
EXERCISE 221 — Oral
USING THE FOUR TYPES OF CONNECTIVES
Decide whether the second sentence in each of the fol-
lowing groups expresses a thought copulative, alternative,
adversative, or illative to that in the first. Revise so as
to express the proper relation. Wherever it seems best,
make one sentence of the two. Use a variety of connectives.
Review Rule 25, page 172.
1. The boys had mumps. They did not go to school.
2. Robert Louis Stevenson came to America in the steerage. He
crossed the plains in an immigrant train.
3. Stevenson went to California in search of health. Not finding it
there, he sailed for the South Sea Islands.
4. In this far-away part of the world he spent the remainder of his
life. He kept in touch with his old friends through charming letters.
5. One would think that a man so much confined to his bed would
have small strength for writing. Stevenson during these years of illness
did much of his best work.
6. Lee might have pressed on into hostile country. He might have
returned into Virginia.
7. The army had no adequate food supply. It retraced its course.
8. Dickens offended many Americans by his comments on this
country. On his return some years later to lecture he was greeted by
appreciative audiences.
256 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
9. He was a great novelist. He was a most entertaining reader of
his own stories.
10. Sherlock Holmes observed that his friend was poorly shaved on
the left side. He concluded that the light had been on the right.
11. At first his conclusions seem supernatural. When he explains
how he reached them, they are reasonable enough.
12. A detective must reason from evidence to find the criminal. A
scholar must use evidence to arrive at a conclusion.
13. The magician laid all the coins on the marble top of a table. We
selected one.
14. Those on the table soon became cold, while the one we chose
was warmed by our hands. He had little trouble in picking out from
the hat the penny that we had selected.
15. Time and tide wait for no man. It is wise to form habits of
promptness.
16. You must be at the station in time to check your trunk. You
may go without it.
17. The boys were warned to keep out of the field. They marched
boldly across it.
18. The early bird gets the worm, it is said. Why did the worm get
up so early ?
19. He frequently used in his talk proverbs and quotations. Gener-
ally he twisted them out of their usual sense.
20. The thought in one's mind may be clear and coherent. Unless
conjunctive elements bind the details together, it may be incoherent in
impression.
2. Subordinate conjunctions. Subordinate conjunctions in-
troduce adverb clauses expressing (i) place, (2) time, (3) man-
ner, (4) cause, (5) purpose, (6) condition, and (7) concession. 1
Following is a list of the most common subordinate conjunc-
tive words and phrases :
1. Place: where, whence, whither.
2. Time: when, whenever, after, before, till, until, since.
3. Manner: as.
4. Cause : because, as. since, for, inasmuch as. in that, seeing that.
on Variety, page 206, for illustrations.
COHERENCE 257
5. Purpose : that, lest, so that.
6. Condition : if, unless, except, but that, providing. (This relation is
often shown simply by placing the verb before the subject in the clause.)
7. Concession : although, though.
Some of these relations, as you have already seen, may be
expressed by other means. What are they ?
EXERCISE 222 — Oral
EXPRESSING SUBORDINATE IDEAS
Complete the following sentences :
1. Our plans were defective in that .
2. Lee Overstreet, who is an old college player, promised to help
us, providing .
3. He has been working for the express company since .
4. Though . he remained at his post.
5. Wherever , we saw advertisements of American goods.
6. Inasmuch as , we were heartily chagrined.
7. The bull dog held on until .
8. Since , he refused to take a refusal.
9. Lest , you must make complete preparations.
10. The door slammed as .
11. She would turn back and give up her errand whenever .
12. Sherlock Holmes knew so many details that .
13. As , no one could read his letters.
14. As , so the tree must lie.
EXERCISE 223 — Oral
PRACTICE IN SUBORDINATION
Decide which of the following statements to subordinate ;
then combine the elements into unified sentences, showing
the thought relation by the insertion of proper connectives.
1. The night was pitch black. Father carried a lantern.
2. The sun set into a bank of angry clouds. We sat and watched
the night close in upon us.
258 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
3. The thief returned the stolen goods and promised to lead a better
life. The state's attorney had him bound over to court.
4. Benjamin Franklin made many experiments with electricity. He
wished, among other things, to identify electricity and lightning.
5. The lion's roar shook the hills. Thunder shakes the hills.
6. Wilkins bought the old brick mansion. He was born there years
before.
7. a young man enters the army, he must serve three years.
8. the penalty of failure was severe. Bassanio boldly chose the
lead casket.
9. Antonio borrowed the money he might lend it to Bassanio.
10. Portia hurried back to Belmont, Jessica and Lorenzo were
awaiting her.
11. the pony had thrown him once, Carl was afraid to ride
again.
12. Robin Hood was an outlaw. He had to live in Sherwood Forest.
13. He was strong and skilful. Sometimes he was defeated.
14. Ceorge fed his pets so much they all became surfeited.
15. Laura fed the chickens regularly. They did not lay an egg all
winter.
16. Holmes's " Old Ironsides " appeared, the ship was saved.
17. The boxer's eye is quick. It notices the slightest motion of the
opponent.
18. Electrocution is more humane than hanging. It has been legally
adopted in many states.
19. The girls were late, they had been called in plenty of time.
20. the train was running on schedule, the conductor would
not wait.
21. Fashions often decree ridiculous things. Some people always
wear them.
22. Consumptives are now advised to sleep out of doors. They
there can get plenty of fresh air.
23. Public drinking cups are dangers to health, they transmit
disease germs.
24. Indians lived largely in the open air. They seldom had diseases
of the lungs.
COHERENCE 259
EXERCISE 224 — Oral
SUBORDINATING DETAILS
Consider with care the relations of the details in the fol-
lowing groups. Combine the details so as to make one good,
effective sentence of each group. If the results of mem-
bers of the class differ, see that the cause lies in different
understandings of the meaning.
1. The man was in a hurry. He did not see the wire. He fell
sprawling.
2. Stanley worked on a newspaper. He felt his importance. One
day he had an experience. It humbled his pride.
3. Father wished to get some exercise. He tried punching the bag.
He did not like it.
4. We boys offered to teach him to skate. He reflected that the ice
was hard, besides being nearly six feet from his head. He declined our
offer.
5. I chose the best seeds. These I sowed in rich soil. I cultivated
the plants every week until the crop was " laid by." I had the best corn
at the exhibit.
6. Sergeant O'Keefe saw a glint of money in the tramp's hand. He
arrested the tramp. He got the long-sought hold-up man.
EXERCISE 225 — Oral
VARYING METHODS OF SUBORDINATION
You will recall (pages 204-207) that instead of subordinate
clauses, sometimes participles, infinitives, and nominative ab-
solute constructions are used to express dependent ideas.
Review the two preceding exercises and see where these
three kinds of phrases — participial, infinitive, and nominative
absolute — can effectively be substituted for clauses.
260 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 226 - Oral
SHOWING CONNECTION BY SUBORDINATION
Combine the sentences in each group in as many sensible
ways as yon can. Show in what connection one of the ways
would be preferable.
1. Jack played third base in the last game. The game was on Sat-
urday. Our team did not win.
2. The lover hesitated just a moment. He walked quickly to the
right-hand door and opened it. Every heart stopped beating while he
did this. The story does not tell us whether the Lady or the tiger came
out.
3. Tom Sawyer did many amusing things. I have always envied him
one of them. This was hearing his own funeral sermon.
4. We planned to entertain the seniors at a party. The juniors knew
this. They got ahead of us.
5. Protective coloring is marked in many animals. When in their
natural haunts they are hard to see. The chipmunk is a good example.
6. Tom reached school ahead of time. This was unusual. He had a
plan.
EXERCISE 227 — Oral
DISTINGUISHING PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE IDI'.AS
Decide which sentences contain the principal ideas in each
group; then make them the bases of your new sentences.
The other sentences must be subordinated by being reduced
to clauses or phrases. If you find in any group ideas of equal
rank, you must, of course, combine them by one of the four
types of co-ordinate conjunctions.
1. Canada is and has long been a British possession. The inhabit-
ants are of the same stock as we. Across the line we find a difference
in traditions and a marked difference in attitude toward England.
2. Mother asked me to do some shopping for her. Matching ribbons
was never entertaining to me. I wanted to gel permission to see the circus
unload. I went off down the street with apparent willingness.
COHERENCE 26 1
3. We were late. We ran the last three blocks. The train was late.
This was usual. We had plenty of time to rest.
4. There are styles in dress. There are also styles in spelling. An
example is the spelling of honor. Once it was spelled h-o-n-o-u-r.
Some day it may be spelled o-n-o-r.
5. Caesar did not wish to seem afraid. He had been warned not to
go to the senate house. Calpurnia was his wife. She begged him to
remain at home. He went. He was killed.
6. There are many kinds of stoves and furnaces. In all of them the
principle is the same. Air contains oxygen. This is necessary to fire.
It is supplied below the fuel.
7. The " Merchant of Venice " was to be presented. The perform-
ance was to be a matinee. Our principal dismissed school at noon. We
could attend the play.
EXERCISE 228 — Written
USING SUBORDINATION EFFECTIVELY IN A PARAGRAPH
The sentences in the following paragraph are not only
monotonous in form, but, being all co-ordinate, they cannot
express the relations in the writer's mind. Decide what are
the chief points in the paragraph and what are the relations
of the details ; then rewrite the paragraph, trying by all the
means at your command to connect the details so as to show
their relative values.
Now night had drooped slowly upon the wide watery levels in
front. At no great distance from the men in the boat the shore line
curved round. It formed a long ribbon of shade upon the horizon.
There a series of points of yellow light began to start into exist-
ence. They denoted the spot to be the site of Budmouth. There
the lamps were being lighted along the parade. The cluck of their
oars was the only sound of any distinctness upon the sea. They
labored amid the thickening shades. .The lamplights grew larger.
Each appeared to send a flickering sword far down into the waves
before it. Finally there arose, among other dim shapes of the
kind, the form of the vessel. They were bound for it.
262 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
III. Loose and Periodic Sentences
As has been seen, it is tolerably easy to hold a reader's
attention by the use of close connectives ; but because this
is so, some writers are inclined to string out a sentence until
all unity of impression is lost. Ever}* item may be clear ; its
relation to what precedes and to what follows may be unmis-
takable ; but all the items together do not impress one larger
idea. Such sentences are almost always in effect loose. This
does not imply that loose sentences should be avoided, for in
the chapter on Variety it was shown that they are important
and effective ; but it does mean that loose sentences should
be used with care, lest both unity and coherence be lost.
EXERCISE 229 — Written
SECURING UNITY AND COHERENCE THROUGH PERIODIC
SENTENCES
Revise these stringy sentences so as to gain, through
unity and coherence, good effects. Make as many sentences
of each as unity requires.
1. Those that loved truth got out, fought for her, and did not only
dream of things that they would like to do, but dared and so did them,
and in the end or in death saw her sweet stern face, but in the mean-
while others would like to have seen her, but they did not try to find
her, but only sat with crossed hands and sighed for her, their belief
therefore not being strong enough to help them search for her like
others.
2. The little one, rising on its legs, toddled through the snow, the
old grimy shawl in which it was wrapped trailing behind it, and the
queer little bonnet dangling at its back — toddled on to the open door
oi Silas Marncr's cottage, and right up to the warm hearth, where there
was a bright fire of logs and sticks, which had thoroughly warmed the
old sack (Silas's greatcoat) spread out on the bricks to dry.
COHERENCE 263
3. When the time of maturity in the chrysalis state has been reached,
the coverings part in such a way as to allow the escape of the perfect
insect, which, as it comes forth, generally carries with it some sugges-
tion of its caterpillar state in the lengthened abdomen, which it with
apparent difficulty trails after it until it secures a hold upon some object
from which it may depend while a process of development (which gen-
erally lasts a few hours) takes place preparatory to flight.
IV. Parallel Construction
It is easier for our minds, as for our bodies, to repeat an
activity than to undertake a new one. Indeed, we are told
that, after doing something once with satisfaction, we incline
to do it again. For this reason we incline, on the side of ex-
pression, to use the same form of sentence or modifier again
and again ; and, on the side of impression, we expect the
repetition of a form. When this is continued too long it be-
comes, of course, monotonous and tiring. But when we have
a repetition of similar thoughts or modifiers, there is, within
limits, a gain in coherence through a repetition of the form
too. Shylock might have said, for instance: "Hath not a
Jew eyes ? A Jew hath hands, organs, dimensions, senses,
affections, passions." But the coherence of the passage is
improved greatly by the repetition of the interrogative form
of sentence.
This principle of parallel structure is often treated for other
ends. In this chapter the emphasis on parallel structure is
for the purpose of securing connectedness. The coherence of
a passage is materially aided if ideas similar in thought are
made similar in form. This applies especially to the form of
the sentence — declarative, interrogative, and imperative ; the
form of the modifiers — clause, phrase, and word ; and the
voice, mood, and tense of verbs.
264 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 230 — Oral or Written
SECURING COHERENCE THROUGH PARALLEL FORM
Improve the connectedness of the following sentences
by making parallel in form everything that is parallel in
thought :
1. Paul sat up in bed and listened. The muffled sound is repeated,
nearer this time.
2. " Oh," he thought, " if my father were only here or if I was a
man."
3. The letter finally was written and Florence blotted the last page
contentedly.
4. My little brother was very happy over his presents. He received
a book from Aunt Nellie, Uncle Joe sent him a toy gun, and there was
a wheelbarrow from Cousin Fred.
5. The tops of the trees held the sunlight awhile, then it rested on
the hills, and finally night chased away the last lingering rays.
6. " Ole Miss Robinson " never changed. She still rocked nerv-
ously in her chair; she had not ceased bowing in her jerky manner to
all who passed the house ; and she kept up her habit of making testy
remarks to her friends.
7. He remarked solemnly. "How are the mighty fallen and the
wicked have come on evil days."
8. She seated herself at the piano and the next moment the keys
were pressed by her long, slender fingers.
9. Give me liberty or I would rather die.
10. " Are you not a man ? " the captain shouted in his ear. " You
have courage enough to hold out a little longer."
11. A man of honesty and brave enough to tell the truth has a great
opportunity.
12. It is said to be the ghost of a trooper, whose head had been car-
ried away by a cannon ball, and the country people see him now hurry-
ing along in the gloom of night.
13. A whistling woman and a hen that crows will never, the "Id
proverb says, come to any good end.
14. The two brothers, hard-hearted and selfish, failed, while ("duck,
who was kindness itself, found the Golden River.
COHERENCE 265
V. Ellipses
Lack of coherence often results from' the omission of
words necessary to the expression of the thought. ' Boys
like 'Treasure Island' better than girls " may have either of
two meanings, whereas " I have always done this and always
intend to " expresses no meaning clearly, since it demands too
much of the reader — that he supply a form of the verb {do)
not already used in the sentence. The correction of such
faulty sentences is an easy matter. The only difficulty lies in
detecting the incomplete construction in one's own work.
What is clear to the writer when he sets it down will prob-
ably be clear to him when he glances over it ; but if he reads
the passage aloud, his ear will often detect ellipses that may
blur the meaning.
EXERCISE 231 — Oral
SUPPLVING OMITTED WORDS
Decide whether each of the following elliptical sentences
suggests too little, or a wrong idea ; then amend it.
1. Chop the raisins fine, then soak in water overnight.
2. John had done this once and intended to again.
3. Porto Rico is nearer New York than Florida.
4. The directors elected three officers : a president, a secretary and
treasurer.
5. I never have studied that subject and now I never shall.
6. In the cellar was a cider-barrel, and at the first invitation we went
to get some.
7. He did not like keeping books, so resigned it.
8. The twenty-second of December is shorter than any other day of
the year.
9. He studied as hard as he expected us to.
266 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 232 - Oral
SUPPLYING SUBJECTS OF VERBALS
The omission of any logical subject for a participle or a
gerund is often disastrous to coherence. As you have already
found (Exercise 206), participles need watching. Often a
change in the order of words is not enough to make clear
the connection of the participle ; the whole sentence must
be recast in order to express clearly a subject only vaguely
suggested. Correct the following sentences :
1. After sitting on a bench for some time, my eyes became accus-
tomed to the darkness.
2. Looking further down the street, things appear so small that I
cannot tell what they are.
3. Entering into the contest with great energy, his military knowl-
edge soon brought him promotion.
4. Listening carefully, the sounds seemed to come from behind a
chest of drawers.
5. Looking closely at the specimen, it appeared to be covered with
fine hairs.
6. Before beginning to write, all the material should be in hand.
7. On listening to the old man's story, a compromise was arranged.
8. While in the midst of the story, my reading was interrupted by the
dinner bell.
9. Having mounted a stair of corresponding rudeness, consisting of
huge blocks of stone roughly dressed with the hammer and of unequal
height, a strong iron door admitted them to the great hall of the donjon.
EXERCISE 233 — Oral and Written
STUDYING AND WRITING A COHERENT PARAGRAPH
This is a trick that will always mystify the younger members of
the family and some of the older ones too. In preparation, write in
milk on your forearm the letters GRAN r and let them dry. Then,
going in to the children, ask them to mention men prominent in
the Civil War. As they call out the name of each man, write on
COHERENCE 267
a slip of paper, without their seeing it, not the various names, but
each time Grant. Fold the slips and drop them into a hat. After
you have a number of slips, ask the children to draw out one, read,
and burn it, taking care not to let you see the name, which will, of
course, be the only one that you have written. Taking the ashes,
rub them on your forearm, and there, mystery of mysteries, will
appear the name Grant.
a. Is every essential detail for the successful performance
of the trick given ? Are the details given in order ? What
devices are used to bind the sentences together and thus to
give the whole paragraph connectedness ?
b. Write directions in a similar manner for performing
some trick. Take care to secure coherence
EXERCISE 234 — Written
TEST THEME — PARAPHRASE
With all these devices in mind for giving an impression of
coherence, we are well prepared to appreciate the connected-
ness in what we read and to learn from it how to write better
ourselves. It would hardly pay merely to copy what a master
has written, but there is much to be learned in trying to do
his work over in a slightly different way.
Write in good prose one of the following incidents. Keep
the language when it is good in prose, but be careful not to
use words or expressions or order distinctively poetic. Be
careful, also, to give unity and coherence to each paragraph
that you make. You may have excellent practice in point of
view (see Chapter III) by writing the same incident in the
first and in the third person.
1. Cowper, " The Diverting History of John Gilpin."
2. Whittier, "Abraham Davenport."
3. Longfellow, " The Children's Hour."
268 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
4. Longfellow, " Paul Reverc's Ride." (Tell this in the first person.)
5. Southey, " The Battle of Blenheim."
6. Wordsworth, " Lucy Gray.*'
7. Shakespeare, " A Midsummer-Night's Dream," Act III, scene ii,
lines 6-34. (Tell this in the third person.)
8. Lanier, " Nine from Eight."
9. Browning, "An Incident of the French Camp."
B. COHERENCE IN THE WHOLE COMPOSITION
We can learn much about the organization of longer arti-
cles by making outlines and synopses of those written by real
masters. If the outline of a good article is well made, it
should show, preferably in complete sentences, all the im-
portant parts in their relation to each other and to the whole.
It is seldom wise to carry the analysis beyond the second
subhead. The ability to make such outlines is necessary
before one can write long articles himself or even read with
intelligent appreciation such articles by others. Here is the
outline of a lecture by Thomas Henry Huxley. 1
YEAST
. /. What is yeast?
I. The microscopist has shown that:
a. It is a substance composed of an enormous multitude of
definitely formed grains floating in a liquid ;
b. These grains (torulae) constantly reproduce by budding.
II. The chemist has shown that:
a. The yeast plant is composed of a cellulose bag containing
a vegeto-animal semifluid ;
b. Its active parts contain protein,
1. which is similar to the fundamental substance of
every animal organism.
1 A part of a lecture (1781) on Protoplasm and the Germ Theory, quoted in
Andrews's " Specimens of Discourse." (If a minute and exhaustive analysis of a long
piece of writing is desired, see Lamont's edition of Burke's ''Speech on Con-
ciliation with America," pp. lvi-lxiv. (Jinn and Company.)
COHERENCE 269
B. What is the nature of the products of fermentation ?
I. The sugar is broken up into :
a. Carbonic acid gas,
b. Alcohol, and
c. A small quantity of succinic acid and glycerine.
C. What causes fermentation ?
I. The torula must cause fermentation ; for there is none if
a. The liquid of the yeast, from which the torula has been
removed by straining, is used ;
b. The torula is killed by heating ; or
c. Air, in which the torula floats, is excluded.
II. Theories of how the torula causes fermentation are:
a. Faulty theories :
1. Fabroni's,
2. Thenard's.
b. Accepted theory :
1 . Liebig's : that particles of sugar are shaken asunder
by the forces at work in the yeast plant.
D. Applications of these discoveries have proved :
I. That all plants are vitally related to animal life ; and
II. That many diseases are caused by a similar multiplication of
germs.
EXERCISE 235 — Written
Make a skeleton outline of one of the following, taking
pains to show by the form of the outline the relation of the
parts :
1. Irving, " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow/'
2. Hawthorne, " The Great Stone Face.''
3. Emery, " How to Enjoy Pictures " (any chapter).
4. Addison and Steele, " The Spectator " (a selected paper).
5. Parkman, " Conspiracy of Pontiac " (Vol. I, chaps, i, iv, or v, or
almost any chapter of Parkman's).
6. Stevenson, " Kidnapped " (chap. x).
7. Bible Story (David, Joseph, Esther, Ruth).
8. Kittredge, Introduction to " English and Scottish Popular Ballads."
270 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 236 — Written and Oral
SYNOPSIS AND OUTLINES
Using the outline that you made in Exercise 235, prepare
a three-minute synopsis of the article ; one of five minutes ;
one of one minute. Present to the class the synopsis called
for by the teacher. Can the rest of the class make a good
outline from your oral synopsis?
C. WRITING A CONNECTED COMPOSITION BASED
ON READING
I. Finding Material
It sometimes happens that you are called on to discuss
some subject about which you have little exact knowledge.
In this case you can do nothing sincere without first getting
a number of facts and then interpreting them ; consequently
you must learn not only how to find facts but also how to
interpret them before beginning actually to write. If you
know the first and not the second, you will surely become a
copyist and not a composer.
Every one should know what reference books are available
for him, and what, in general, they contain. Get acquainted
with tlie encyclopedias, dictionaries, and hand-books in your
library, so that you will have at least one valuable kind of
knowledge, the knowledge of where you may find informa-
tion. Then, when beginning to work on some topic, find
out what special aids on it your library contains. In large
libraries there is usually some one to show you the uses of
the catalogue and indexes ; in small ones you must depend
for the most part on the titles of books and then on their
tables of contents and indexes.
COHERENCE 27 1
Not all that you find, of course, will be equally reliable ;
therefore you must learn to weigh your evidence, to decide
what you may trust. Many books and articles called " au-
thorities " are obviously written in a partial or partisan vein
that makes them almost valueless for your purpose. Govern-
ment reports, most books that have survived long use (unless,
as in the case of the sciences, there have been many changes
in recent years), books written by men who have learned to
find the truth as well as to tell it — these you may trust. Of
course no general statement can do much more than put you
on your guard against such articles as are not trustworthy.
You must consider carefully for yourself each particle of evi-
dence offered. Frequently a very casual examination of a
book will show whether it is too detailed, too technical, or
too old for your use.
Learn to use the preface, the table of contents, and the
index. The preface in many a book will make clear at once
what the author's purpose is, what his attitude is, and what his
sources are. The table of contents shows in tabular form the
organization of the book, and from it you may find what part,
if any, is of interest to you. The index will tell where in the
book numerous details are discussed. Unfortunately prefaces,
tables of contents, and indexes vary in fulness, accuracy, and
excellence.
EXERCISE 237 — Oral
LEARNING TO USE BOOKS
t
Examine the preface, the table of contents, and the index
in three books that are not primarily literature. Report to
the class what each contains and how it differs from the
corresponding part in the other books.
272 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 238 — Oral and Written
LEARNING TO USE NEWSPAPERS
Books arc supposed to present final judgments ; news-
papers give what seems to be the truth from day to day,
often correcting or denying in one issue what has appeared
in a previous one. It is important for readers to learn to sift
the mass of newspaper statements for themselves, to throw
away what is clearly untrue or of no value, and to save the
kernel of fact in perhaps a page of chaff.
Select some subject now being treated in the papers ; for
instance, a strike, . change in football rules, a trip by the
President, preparation for a " sane " Fourth of July, munici-
pal improvements, or, best of all, some active local issue.
Read daily what is written about it and decide, as best you
can, what is true. Make a statement in your notebook each
day of the facts as they seem then. When the matter — or
some phase of it — is concluded, write an account of it from
the beginning of your note-taking to the end. Imagine that
your article is intended for a certain magazine, as this may help
you to determine what to include and what to omit.
II. Taking Notes
When working up an article you will need to take notes.
For these use loose leaves of a notebook or cards of a uni-
form size, since they can be so ordered at any time as to
bring together all the material on each phase of the subject.
Moreover, it is a considerable saving to write but one note
on each sheet or card. Taper is cheaper than time, and it is
no economy to save paper and secure an effect that is poor
through lack of organization.
COHERENCE 273
Take few notes ; usually you will find, when you come to
the actual writing, that you have far more material than you
can possibly use. Quote seldom. It is not often that you
will need to use a writer's exact words, — only when they are
in summary or when they are notably vigorous or striking.
And on each card make a memorandum of the source of the
data, citing volume and page ; this item will save you much
time in case you need to seek verification or more information
from the same source.
But even before beginning work on a book of reference,
decide what you expect to get from it. Not often does one
find time to read a whole book through for a single point.
By means of the index and the table of contents, particularly
if the latter is analytical, go after your particular information.
Practice going to the heart of the reference, finding the
essential thought, however it may be hidden in illustration or
elaboration. Do not fail to note the context of the passage to
which you are referred ; the meaning depends largely upon
what precedes or what follows it.
As you get the author's thought, add it to something already
in your mind and question what bearing it has on your topic.
Does it contradict something already accepted ? Is the contra-
diction oral or apparent ? If the latter, which fact is true ?
Does it add a new point or line of thought ? Does it modify
your point of view ? After you have considered the bearing
of the reference on your plan, make in your notes a state-
ment sufficient to bring to mind everything essential. But
learn not to record unnecessary matter. When you have
found in the reference what you need, lay the book aside.
A great deal of time is wasted in reading and recording what
is unnecessary in the development of the topic.
274 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
EXERCISE 239 — Written
Work up material on one of the following topics, reporting
all books and articles consulted and telling why you went
to them :
1. Did Pocahontas save the life of Captain John Smith?
2. Talking machines.
3. A Roman marriage.
4. Our spelling should be reformed.
5. What effect will the Panama Canal have on New Orleans ?
6. Some recent arctic explorations.
7. Birds and agriculture.
8. The problem of street cleaning.
9. The hygiene of drinking water.
10. Protective coloring of animals (or plants).
11. Insect architecture.
12. The movement of glaciers.
13. How vines climb.
14. Chemistry in industry.
15. The greatness of George Washington.
16. The inland waterways movement.
17. The parole system should be adopted for adult prisoners convicted
of minor offenses.
18. Women should have the right of suffrage.
19. The Boy Scouts (or Campfire Girls).
20. The moving picture show.
111. Writing from Notes
Having finished the collection of notes, you need to read
them and think them over until you have possession of the
subject-matter. This will necessitate your comparing the
statements of the various writers not only with each other
but also with what you know from your own experience. You
should, of course, have no aim except to find what is true.
COHERENCE 275
EXERCISE 240 — Written
MAKING A COHERENT OUTLINE FROM NOTES
With the subject-matter in mind, block out your theme.
It is well to use a large sheet of paper on which to indicate
your general heads and the subheads. Then if your notes
are on convenient cards or loose sheets, you can sort them
into piles corresponding to the topics in your outline. Your
outline may look somewhat like that of Huxley's lecture
on page 268.
Be sure that the outline has unity, that the connections are
clearly indicated, and that similar points have similar form.
At a glance you can tell from the form how many points
Huxley makes and what are the details under each head.
Finally comes the task of writing out your theme. If you
have made the outline with care, this expansion of it into
connected discourse will be the easiest part of the work.
There before you is the plan to follow ; the connections are
clear in your mind ; nothing remains except to set down in
its fulness what you have already thought. But what you set
down must represent your own thought, your own judgment,
your own conclusions. It would manifestly be dishonest to
write anything else.
It is hard to draw the line where the legitimate use of
material leaves off and plagiarism, or literary stealing, begins.
It is perfectly proper, of course, to write that Shakespeare
was born in 1 564 or that London is a larger city than Boston,
for these are matters of general information or data that every
one understands must be secured from history or gazetteer.
But it is quite a different matter to assert as your own that fools
use wagers for arguments or that you cannot hear what one
says because his character speaks so loud. These phrases
2;6 FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
are too thoroughly a part of Butler and Emerson to be
expressed as one's own, even though in paraphrases.
Some writers seem to have the idea that if they take only
a sentence or two here and there from an article they are not
stealing; but it is hard to see how this appropriation differs
from any other petty larceny. The plan of an article, the judg-
ment, the conclusion, the felicities of style, belong to an author
quite as much as his clothes do. If any of them is borrowed,
the owner must be compensated, at least by quotation marks.
But far better than any definition of plagiarism, as a guide
to what may be taken, is one's conscience.
EXERCISE 241 — Written
TEST THEME — WRITING FROM NOTES
Write the theme outlined in the preceding exercises.
Revise your work carefully to see, first, that you have, through
variety and other means, written so as to interest your readers.
Be sure that both sentences and paragraphs have unity and
coherence.
In a composition of several paragraphs a writer should be
sure that he makes each point clear before introducing the
next. There is no better means than this of securing con-
nectedness of the whole in the mind of the reader. Unless
at the end of each paragraph he knows exactly what has been
told him, how can he take the steps forward with the writer
to a general conclusion ? Consequently, before leaving a para-
graph a writer should be sure that he has made clear the
unified impression that he had in mind. Sentences of sum-
man- and clear topic sentences for paragraphs will aid cohe-
rence and unity. Apply all that you have learned.
COHERENCE 277
EXERCISE 242 — Written
TEST THEME
Write on one or more of the topics suggested at the close
of this chapter or of other chapters, choosing those involving
your own experience or imagination, not material gained by
research. It would be interesting to use one topic from an
early chapter (say III or IV) upon which you have written
before, and to write without consulting your former theme,
applying all that you have learned since that was written. In
class each pupil may criticize all the themes with regard to
one particular point. One set of themes may be exchanged
for careful written criticism by other members of the class.
SUGGESTED THEME TOPICS
1.
The Immigrant's Trials.
2.
My First Formal Call.
3.
The Persistent Agent.
4.
Being an Agent — the Other Side.
5.
Eclipses — What They Are.
6.
Meteors, Comets, and Shooting Stars.
7.
How Much Is a Million ?
8.
Tides.
9.
The Phases of the Moon.
10.
Advertisements.
11.
A Wild Goose Chase.
12.
Lost, Strayed, or Stolen.
13.
A Modern Crusoe.
14.
My Christmas Shopping.
15.
An Undeserved Punishment (Reward)
16.
Wires Crossed.
17.
Fun with a Camera.
18.
Unexpected.
19.
A Reformer and His Work.
APPENDIX A
SYMBOLS USED IN CRITICIZING THEMES
Amb ambiguous
Antec agreement of pronoun and antecedent
Bw better word needed
Cap use capital letter
Coh coherence
D see dictionary
Def definiteness
Form form needs improvement
Gr grammar at fault
Hy hyphen
Inex inexact
Int .".... interest lacking
K awkward
l.c use small letter
p punctuation
Quots quotation marks
S no sentence
Sine sincerity questioned
sp spelling
tr transfer
U unity
Var variety
W weak
\f any obvious error
Q) dele = omit
? . questions a fact
IT make a paragraph
ty apostrophe
~3 indent
279
APPENDIX B
WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED
I
Synonyms and Other Words
advice, advise
affect, effect
after, afterward
aggravate, annoy, provoke, ex-
asperate, irritate
allow, think, say
allude to, mention
allusion, illusion
almost, most
alternative, choice
among, between
amount, number, quantity
angry, mad
apt, likely, liable
awful, severe, unpleasant, etc.
bad, severe, dangerous
balance, remainder
beside, besides
calculate, intend
can, may
casualty, casuality
character, reputation
claim, assert, contend
clever, pleasant
cloths, clothes
condign, severe
conscious, conscience, conscien-
tious
eontemptible, contemptuous
continual, continuous
corporal, corporeal
couple, pair
credible, creditable, credulous
custom, habit, practice
deadly, deathly
deceased, diseased
decided, decisive
dependent, dependant
device, devise
either, each
elegant, delightful
estimate, esteem
exceptionable, excepti< >nal
expect, suspect, think
:So
APPENDIX B
281
farther, further
female, woman
fix, mend, repair
fly, flee
formerly, formally
funny, odd, queer
get, have
guess, think, suppose
hanged, hung
healthy, healthful, wholesome
home, house, residence
human, humane
immanent, imminent, eminent
in, into
indorse, approve
infer, imply
informed, posted
intelligent, intellectual
its, it 's
jewelry, jewels
lady, woman
last, latest, preceding
later, latter
learn, teach
leave, let
less, fewer
lightning, lightening
like, as if, as though
loathe, loth
lose, loose, loss
lots of, much, many
love, like
majority, plurality
man, gentleman
migrate, immigrate, emigrate
musical, musicale
mutual, common
necessities, necessaries
nice, charming, pleasant, etc.
notorious, noted, notable
O, oh
observance, observation
o/off
or, o'er
oral, verbal
part, portion
partly, partially
party, person
persecute, prosecute
pillar, pillow
pistol, pistil
plenty, plentiful
practical, practicable
prescribe, proscribe
proceed, precede
promise, assure
prophesy, prophecy
propose, purpose
quiet, quite
quite, somewhat, very
raise, rear, bring up
real, really, extremely
recollect, remember
relation, relative
reverend, reverent
ride, drive
282
FIRST JiOOK OF COMPOSITION
scholar, pupil, student
sewage, sewerage
some, somewhat
splendid, pleasing, etc.
statue, statute, stature
stay, stop
team, equipage
transpire, happen
ugly, vicious
unique, unusual
valued, valuable
venal, venial
vocation, avocation
which, who
without, unless
woman, women
II
Homonyms
There are in the English language more than three hundred
groups of words called homonyms, which, although pronounced
alike, are spelled differently and have different meanings. In the
following lists one word is given from each of the more important
groups. Find two homonyms for each word in the first list, and
one for each in the second. Note carefully in each case the spelling
and distinguish the meanings.
carat
ore
rain
so
feign
paii-
sack
two
I
peak
seer
vain
idle
praise
B
beer
sight
you
air
bail
bough
canvas
aisle
ball
bell
bowl
capital
ale
barren
berry
breach
cast
alter
base
berth
bread
cause
ark
beach
blue
browse
censor
ascent
bean
board
build
cents
bade
bear
bolder
cannon
cereal
APPENDIX B
283
choir
gate
mantel
raise
steak
claws
great
marshal
rap
steal
climb
guild
maze
red
straight
colonel
guilt
meat
reed
style
complement
hail
medal
rest
sucker
corps
hair
metal
ring
surge
council
hall
might
road
sweet
course
heal
miner
roe
symbol
cue
hear
need
roll
tale
currant
hew
night
rough
taper
Dane
him
none
rung
taught
desert
hole
nose
rye
tea
die
holy
not
sail
their
done
hoop
ought
sane
threw
dual
in
our
sealing
tide
dying
indict
pain
seam
tier
earn
jam
palate
seed
time
fair
key
pale
seen
trout
fawn
knave
peace
sell
vale
feet
lane
peal
sent
vice
ferule
laps
pedal
serf
wait
flee
leaf
peer
shear
waste
flower
leak
plain
shoot
wave
four
led
plait
sign
way
fourth
limb
plum
skull
weak
fowl
load
pole
some
weather
freeze
made
pour
sore
write
fur
mail
principal
soul
wrote
gamble
main
rabbit
stationary
wry
APPENDIX C
Principal Parts of Verbs often Misused
Present
Past
Past Participle
attack
attacked
attacked
be
was
been
begin
began
begun
bid
bade
bidden
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
burst
burst
burst
buy
bought
bought
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
climb
climbed
climbed
come
came
come
dive
dived
dived
do
did
done
drag
dragged
dragged
draw
drew
drawn
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
drown
drowned
drowned
eat
ate
eaten
flee
fled
fled
fly
flew
flown
freeze
froze
frozen
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grow
grew
grown
:8 4
•
APPENDIX C
28;
Present
Past
Past Participle
hang (execute)
hanged
hanged
hang (suspend)
hung
hung
heat
heated
heated
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lend
lent
lent
lie
lay
lain
lose
lost
lost
plead
pleaded
pleaded
prove
proved
proved
raise
raised
raised
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang, rung
rung
rise
rose
risen
run
ran
run
see
saw
seen
set
set
set
shine
shone
shone
sing
sang, sung
sung
sit
sat
sat
speak
spoke
spoken
spring
sprang, sprung
sprung
strike
struck
struck
swim
swam, swum
swum
take
took
taken
tear
tore
torn
throw
threw
thrown
write
wrote
written
APPENDIX D
One Thousand Words often Misspelled
abbreviation
aggravate
apparent
abdomen
aggrieve
appeal
abscess
agreeable
appearance
acceptance
all right
appendicitis
accessible
allusion
applaud
accidentally
alluvial
appliance
accommodate
ally
appreciate
accompaniment
almost
appropriation
accumulate
already (cf. all ready)
approval
accurate
always
architecture
ache
ambassador
arctic
achieve
amount
are n't
acquaintance
anaesthetic
argument
acquire
analysis
arouse
acre
analyses
arrangement
across
analyze
arrest
adjective
angel
arrival
admissible
anniversary
articles
admission
annoyance
artificial
admittance
annual
asked
advantageous
annuity
assassinate
advertise
anxious
assemblies
aeronautics
appall
assistance
aeroplane
appalling
association
aesthetic
apparatus
assure
again
apparel
athlete
2S6
APPENDIX D
287
athletics
break
ceiling
Atlantic
brethren
cemetery
attacked
brief
central
attention
Britain
century
attorney
bruise
certain
attract
brute
changeable
auction
bureau
characteristic
audacious
burglar
chariot
automobile
bushels
chauffeur
autumn
business
chemistry
avenue
cable
chieftain
bachelor
Caesar
chimney
baggage
calendar
chivalry
baking
camera
cholera
balance
campaign
choose
balloon
camphor
chores
bananas
canal
chosen
bankruptcy
candidate
circular
barbarous
can't
cistern
bargained
capabilities
civilize
because
capacity
cleanse
becoming
capillary
coast
beginning
careful
Colosseum
believe
caricature
combated
beneficial
carrying
comedies
benefited
cartridge
comical
bereave
casualty
coming
beseech
catarrh
commander
bicycle
catch
commemorate
biting
catechism
commerce
bitten
Catholic
commission
blamable
caught
committee
boaster
cautiously
commodious
bought
ceased
commotion
boundary
cedar
companies
2XS
1IRST HOOK ()!•' COMPOSITION
comparatively
court
devise
compelling
* courtesy
diamond
competitive
covetous
diary
conceit
creatures
difference
conceivable
creek
difficulty
concern
crisis
dignified
condescension
cruel
dignitary
confectionery
curiosity
dilapidated
confederation
curtain
diphtheria
conferees
cylinder
diphthong
conferred
cylindrical
disagreeable
confidants
daily
disappear
confidence
dairy
disappoint
congenial
deceit
discernible
conqueror
deceive
disciple
conscience
decimal
discipline
conscientious
dedicated
discriminate
conscious
defendant
disease
consent
definite
disguise
considered
deity
disinfectant
consistent
delegate
dismissal
constant
delicious
disobey
contemporary
derivative
dissatisfied
contemptible
descend
dissipation
contour
descendant
distance
contract
description
distinguished
control
despair
divisible
controlling
desperate
doctor
convalescence
despicable
does
convenient
despise
does n't
corporation
despondent
domestic
could n't
destitute
don't
councilor
destroy
doubt
counterfeit
detached
drier
courageous
develop
driving
APPENDIX I)
289
drowned
essays
field
dubious
etc.
fiend
duly
exaggerate
fierce
duteous
exasperate
fiery
dutiful
exceed
figurative
dyspepsia
excel
finally
early
excellence
financial
earnest
except
flue
eccentric
exceptions
forcible
ecstasy
excitement
fore
edible
executive
foreign
effect
exhaust
forfeit
eighths
exhilarate
forty-four
either
existence
fourteen
elapse
exorbitant
fraudulent
elector
expense
freight
elegant
experience
French
eligible
extraordinary
friend
embarrassment
extravagance
fundamental
embroidered
extremity
further
emergency
familiar
gardener
emigrate
famous
gayety
employees
farthest
gayly
employment
fascinate
genealogy
enemies
fatal
generally
engagement
fatiguing
geography
enough
faucet
George Eliot
enterprise
favorite
gnawed
enthusiasm
feasible
government
envelope
features
governor
environment
February
grammar
equally
feign
grateful
equator
felicity
grievance
equivalent
feminine
group
especially
fertile
guarantee
290
HRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
guardian
ignition
insistence
guests
illegal
intellectual
gymnasium
illusion
intelligible
hackneyed
illustrate
intermittent
hammer
imaginary
interpret
hammock
imitate
intimate
handkerchief
immaterial
intricacy
handsome
immature
introduce
harangue
immediately
inveigle
harass
immense
investigation
harbor
immigrant
irascible
hauled
imminent
ironical
have n't
immovable
irregular
height
impromptu
irrelevant
heinous
improvement
irresistible
hemorrhage
inaugurate
irrigate
hereditary
incidentally
is n't
heroes
increased
isthmus
hindrance
indefinite
itinerant
holiness
independence
itself
honey
indescribable
jailer
honorable
indestructible
jealous
hoping
indicative
jeopardy
hopping
indispensable
journal
hosiery
individual
journey
hospitable
indomitable
judgment
hugely
infinite
knead
humorous
infinitive
knew
hundredths
infringement
knowledge
hurrying
ingenious
laboratory
hygiene
inhabitant
laid
hypocrisy
injunction
language
hypocrite
inquiry
languor
icicle
insatiable
latitude
identically
insignificant
laugh
APPENDIX D
291
launch
manageable
mitigate
lead
maneuver
modifier
leave
manufacturing
moisture
ledge
many
molasses
legal
marine
monastery
legible
maritime
moneys
legislature
marriage
monoplane
leisure
massacre
monstrosity
length
mathematics
month
leopard
meanness
morality
lettuce
meant
morally
level
medicinal
moreover
library
medicine
mosquitoes
license
medieval
motor
lie
medium
mottoes
lief
melancholy
mountainous
limit
melodies
movable
liniment
mercenary
much
liquor
merchant
municipal
literature
merciless
murmuring
living
merely
musician
loathsome
merrily
muslin
longevity
messenger
mysterious
longitude
military
national
loose
millinery
naturally
loss
millions
navigable
lucrative
miniature
necessarily
luscious
minutes
negative
lying
miracle
negroes
Macaulay
miraculous
neighbor
Macbeth
miscellaneous
neither
machinery
mischievous
nervous
magnificent
misshapen
neuralgia
majority
missionary
Niagara
manacle
misspell
nickel
292
FIRST I!()()K OK COMPOSITION
niece
parallel
pierce
ninety
paralysis
pitch
ninth
paralyze
pitiable
noise
parents
pitiful
noticeable
parliament
plagiarism
novelist
participle
plaintiff
numerous
particularly
planned
obedience
partition
plateau
objection
partner
plausible
occasionally
partridge
pleasant
occupant
peculiarly
pleasurable
occurrence
pecuniary
pliable
o'clock
pendulum
poetry
officer
people
popular
often
perceive
portentous
omission
per cent
possession
omitted
peremptory
possessive
oneself
performed
potatoes
onions
permanent
practical
operation
permissible
practicing
opportunity
persecute
prairies
opposite
perseverance
preach
optician
perspiration
preference
orange
persuade
preferred
orator
petition
prejudice
ordinarily
Pharisaical
preliminary
organization
phenomenon
preparation
original
phrase
preposition
ornaments
physical
prerogative
outrageous
physician
prescription
pacific
physics
presence
palatable
physiology
presentiment
Palestine
picnic
president
pallor
picnicking
prettily
panicky
picture
prevalent
APPENDIX D
293
primary
reason
reserving
primitive
rebellious
reservoir
prisoner
recede
residence
privilege
receipt
resident
probably
receive
respectfully
problem
recess
respectively
procedure
reciprocity
responsible
proceed
recognition
restaurant
procession
recognize
resurrection
profession
recollect
retribution
professor
recommend
retrieve
proficient
reference
revenue
prohibitory
referred
reversible
promenading
region
review
pronunciation
rehearsal
rhetoric
proprietor
relative
rhythm
prosecute
released
ridiculous
Protestant
relief
righteous
prove
religious
rinse
pumpkin
remedy
Roman
punctuation
remembrance
route
purity
remittance
routine
pursue
remodeled
ruffian
pursuit
removal
sacrilegious
quantity
remunerate
safety
quarrel
renunciation
sailor
quarter
repetition
salable
quotation
reprehensible
salad
rabid
represent
salary
raisins
representation
scarce
rarity
repressible
scenery
ready
reprieve
schedule
reality
republicans
scheme
really
rescue
scholars
realty
resemble
scientific
294
FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
scintillate
skeleton
success
scissors
skies
sufficient
scrutinize
sleigh
sugar
sculpture
sleight
suicide
scythe
slyly
sulphur
secede
sociable
summary
secretary
solicitous
superintendent
sedentary
soliloquy
supersede
sediment
sophomore
superstitious
seize
sorry
sure
senate
southern
surface
sensible
souvenir
surfeit
sensitive
speak
surprise
sentence
specialty
surrounded
sentinel
specimen
surveillance
separate
speech
surveyor
serenade
spherical
susceptible
sergeant
spying
suspicious
serial
squalor
sword
servants
squirrel
syllable
shepherd
stately
symmetry
shield
statistics
taming
shoulders
stature
tariff
shovel
steadfast
temperament
showing
stereotype
temporary
shriek
stirrup
tenants
sickle
stories
tendency
siege
strategy
tenement
sieve
strawberries
Thackeray
significant
strength
theater
similar
stretched
their
simile
striking
thief
simultaneous
studied
thousandths
rity
subtract
tidal
situated
succeed
till
APPENDIX D
295
tobacco
valley
wherever
together
valuable
which
tolerable
variegated
whistle
tomatoes
vegetable
whither
to-morrow
vengeance
whoever
torrid
vertical
whole
torturing
vessel
wholesome
totally
vicinity
whose
tourist
vicious
why
tournament
vicissitude
wield
traceable
victorious
witness
traction
view
women
tragedy
village
wood
transferred
villain
worries
transitive
visitor
worse
traveler
vocabulary
would n't
treasurer
volume
wrecked
tremendous
voluntary
writing
trial
vying
wrong
trudged
was n't
wrought
truly
watch
yacht
undoubtedly
wealthy
yeast
until
weapon
yesterday
untying
wear
yield
useful
weariness
young
using
weather
zoology
usually
Wednesday
vacillate
whereas
INDEX
Abbreviations, in letters, 30, 32 ; on
envelopes, 37
Accurate observations, 60-67
Adjective modifiers, 203-204, 243-
245
Adjuncts. See Modifiers
Adverb modifiers, 204-209, 242-
243, 244-245
Adversative conjunctions, 213-215,
252-254
Almost and most, 57
Ambiguity, 243-245, 250-252
And, 160-165
Antecedents, 249-251
Apologies, in letters, 89
Apostrophe, 22-23
Appositives, 135
Argumentation, 45, 111-112, 145—
146. See also Exercises 24, 26, 29,
95- to 2 * r 33> IQ 3- '97
Author's comment, 125, 195-196
Beginnings, 89, 11 5-1 17
Brevity, 132-133
Business letters, 27-40
But, 160-165
Can and may, 58
Capitalization, 13, 15-19, 22, S7
Cause and result, in developing
paragraphs, 224-227
Character sketch, 197, 252
Clauses, arrangement of, 244-245
Climax, 1 18-123
Coherence, 165-167, 240-277 ; in
sentences and paragraphs, 241-
268 ; in the whole composition,
268-277
Collective nouns, 167
Colon, 87, 96, 232
Color-words, 61-64
Comma, 13-15, 19-20, 2S-29, 75-76,
87. 134. 135- I 7-~'74
Comma blunder, 13-15, 157-158
Comparison, 128-129, 227-230
Complex sentences, 215-216
Compound sentences, 213-215
Conjunctions, 160-165, - I 3 _2I 4>
252-261 ; co-ordinate, 160-165,
213-214, 253-256; subordinate,
256-261
Connectives, 160-165 > use m secur-
ing coherence, 245-261
Construction, shifts in, 165-170
Contrast, 130-132
Conversation, 123-128, 194-197
Co-ordinate conjunctions, 160-165,
213-214, 253-256
Co-ordination in sentences, 160-165
Copulative conjunctions, 213-215,
-53
Correct usage, 25-26, 57-58, 67-68,
78-81, 174-181, 234-237
Dash, 87, 96, 231
Definiteness, 41-75 ; in business let-
ters, 30-40; indetail,47~48; in point
of view, 48-55 ; in words, 55-75
297
298
FIRST BOOK OF COMPOSITION
Description, 100-105, 110, 133.
See also Kxercises 23, 29, 30, 33,
36, 37, 42, 48, 51, 52, 55, 56
61, 66, 81, 83, 85, 86, 89, 93. i iS,
123, 175, 216
I >etails, 47 ; choice of, 99-107, 1 13-
115, 266-267, 272-274; in devel-
oping paragraphs, 218-219; order
of, 107-11 2, 241-242; subordinat-
ing, 259-261
Dictation, 59. 61. 75, 76. 134, 135,
172, 230-233
Direct and indirect discourse, 178,
1S1, 193-197
Disjoined expressions, 15S-159
Do, 138
Double negative, 137
Dramatizing. 1 28
Each, 136, 165
Either, [36, 165
Kllipses, 236, 265-266
Endings, 94-95, 117-118
indorsement <>f themes, 13
Envelopes, 35-3S
Esquire, 37
Every, 136, 165-166
Exclamation mark, 15
Explanation, in developing para-
graphs. 220-221
Exposition, 46-47, m, 127-128,
26S if. .S',v also Exercises 3, 5, 6,
22, 27, 29, 31, 75, 90, 94, no, 112,
113, 114, 120, 193, 194, 195, 196,
198, 215, 233, 239, 2 1 1. 242
Figures of speech. 128-129, 227-230
Finding material, 165, 270-274
Form of compositions, n-13; of
letters, 28-38, 85-89, 94-96
Formal letters, 95-96
Friendly letters, 84-95
Get, 67-68
Good form, 10-40; rules and exer-
cises in, 76-81, 85-88, 94-96, 134-
138, 1 72- 18 1, 230-237
Grammar, 25-26, 57-58, 67, 78-S1,
1 36-I37. 165. l74-l8l, 203-207,
234-237, 242-245, 252-261, 266
Guiding words, 246-248
Homonyms, 282-283
Hyphen, 77
Illative conjunctions, 213-215, 254
Illustrations, in developing para-
graphs, 219-220
Insincerity, of ignorance, 2-5 ; of
purpose, 6
Interest, 43, 47, 83-133; in letters,
93-94 ; of details, 99
Interrogation point, 15
Interviews, 165
Invitations, 14S-152; answers to,
150-152
Lay, 174-17S
Letters, 27-40, 83-98, 147-155;
address. 30. 86 ; apologies, 89 ;
body. 3 1 -32, 88-94, 1 48 ; envelope,
35-3S; heading, 30, S6, 148;
leave-taking, ^2, 94-95; saluta-
tion, 31, 86-88, 96; signature,
32-33. 95. See also Exercises 20,
69, 70, 72, 73. 74, 76, 78, 79, 133,
'35- '36, 137. i3 8 >'39. '40, 141.' 12
Library-work. 270-271
Lie, 17 1 -17S
Like, 236-237
Loose and periodic sentences, 209-
211, 262-263
May and can, 58
Memorizing, 76, 78. 135. 172, 174,
-3 1 - 232
INDEX
J<;9
Metaphors, 128, 229-230
Modifiers, 203-209, 242-245
Mood, 16S
Most and almost, 57
Motion, 68-70
Narration, 105-107, 112-113, 118-
119, 123. See also Exercises 3, 22,
2 9- 39- 47' 8 7* 9 6 > 97- I01 ' I0 5' Io6 '
107, 108, 109, 113, 115, 123, 174,
203, 234
Neither, 136, 165-166
Newspapers, 272
None, 165-166
Notes, accompanying gifts, 152-
153; formal, 147-148; miscel-
laneous, 155; of gratitude, 154;
of introduction, 154; of invitation,
14S-152; unity of, 147-154; use
of, 274-276
Note-taking, 272-274
Odors, 66
Oral composition : incidental, Exer-
cises 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 17,
19, 21, 24, 26, 2S, t,i, 34, 35- 3 8 '
40, 43, 44, 45, 47, 50, 53, 57, 60,
64, 65, 67, 71, 75, 77, 80, 82, 84,
88, 91, 92, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103,
104, 105, 106, 116, 117, 119, 122,
124, 125, 132, 134, 143, 144, 147,
14S, 149, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156,
157, 158, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164,
165, 167, 168, 171, 176, 177, 178,
179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185,
186, 188, 189, 191, 192, 200, 201,
202, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 212,
213, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223,
224, 225, 226, 227, 230, 231, 232,
237, 23S ; formal, 3, 27, 29, 31, 37,
48, 51, 56, 85, 90,93,95, 126, 127,
128, 131, 174, 199, 215, 233, 236
Order of sentence elements, 200-202
Organization of a theme, 143-145,
274-276
Outlines, 142-144, 26S-270, 275-276
Paragraphs, 72 ; coherence in, 241-
268 ; developed by cause and
result, 224-227 ; developed by
combination of means, 222-224,
226-227 ; developed by details,
218-219; developed by explana-
tion, 220-221 ; developed by illus-
tration, 219-220; developed by
proof, 224; good form in, 11;
subordination in. 261 ; unity in,
140-146, 217 ; variety in, 216-227
Parallel construction, 263-264
Paraphrase, 267-268
Participles, 243-244, 266-268
Period, 13-15, 1S-19, 22, 24
Periodic and loose sentences, 209-
211, 262-263
Point of view, 48-55, 84, 145, 147,
150, 152
Post-cards, 97
Pronouns, 57, 80-81, 131-137, 165-
167, 236, 248-252
Proof, in developing paragraphs, 224
Proportion, 11 2-1 15
Punctuation, 13-25, 36, 51, 76-77,
87,96, 134-135- I 57-'59. 172-174.
2 3°- 2 34.
Question mark, 15, 24-25
Quotation marks, 19-21, 24-25
Raise, 17 7-1 So
Reporting an interview, 164
Rise, 177-178
Scientific description, 100-105
See, 137
300
FIRST ]}()( )K OF COMPOSITION*
Semicolon, 61, 135. 231
Sentences, coherence in, 241-268;
co-ordination in, 1 60—165 ; declar-
ative, interrogative, and impera-
tive, 197-199; ellipses in. 236.
265-266 ; guiding words in, 240-
2 |S; loose and periodic sentences,
209-211, 262-263; order of, 241-
215; order of elements in, 200-
203 ; parallel construction in, 263-
264 ; simple, compound, and com-
plex, 21 1-2 16; unity in, 1 56-1 71 ;
variety in, 197-216
Set, 177-178
Shall and will, 178-1S1
Shifts in construction, 165-170
Similes, 128, 229-230
Simple sentences, 212-213
Sincerity, 1-9, 44-47, 55, 59,87-89,93
Sit, 177-178
Slang, 70-71
Social letters, 84-95
Somewhere, 236
Sound-words, 64-66
Spelling list, 287-296
Subject and predicate, order of, 201-
202
Subjects for composition, 1-5, 85;
finding definite, 43-46, 270-272;
narrowing. 43-44 ; suggested lists,
82, 138-139. l82 > 2 37-239> 2 "7
Subordinate conjunctions, 256-261
Subordinating details, 259
Suggestion, 129-130
Symbols used in theme correcting,
2S0
Synonyms. 71-72, 125, 1S4-193,
205-206
Synopsis, 270
Tense, 169-170
Texture, 67
Themes, endorsement, 1 J ; prepara-
tion of, 11-12; suggested li
topics, S2. 138-139, 182, 237-239,
-77
There, 169-170
Titles of themes, 44-46
Topic sentence, 108, 144-145, 217-
227
Topical recitation, 145,-252
Tropes, 128-129, 227-230
Unity, 46, 1 40-1 7 1 ; in thought, 1 56—
157; of form, 1 57-17 1 ; of notes,
147-155; of paragraphs, 140-146;
of sentences, 1 56-1 71
Usage. See Correct usage
Variety, 183-230, 259; in para-
graphs, 216-227; i n sentences,
132, 197-216; in tropes, 227-230;
in words. 125, 1S4-193
Verbs, 7S-S0, 137-138, 166-170. 174-
[81, 235; principal parts, 285-
286
Vocabularies, 184-193
Voice, active and passive, 168, 199-
200
When and where, 234-235
Whole composition, 268-277
HVll and shall, 17S-181
Words. 2, 6-9, 25-27, 51, 55, 57-58,
67-68, 70-71, 75,78-81, 125, 1S4
193, 203-207. 245-261. 2S0-283
Written compositions : formal, Exer-
cises 3, 20, 22, 23, 29, 30, 31, 33,
36, 37- 39^ 42, 48, 5". 52, 55- 58.
61, 66, 69, 70, 72, 73, 76, 79, 81.
83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 93, 94, 97, 107,
108, 109, no, 112, 114, 115, 123,
127, '3°. l 35> *35» '3 6 ' "37- U 8 *
140, 141. 142, 152, 160, 169, 174,
175, 187, 190, 193, 194, 195, 196,
107. 198, 203, 204, 210, 214, 216,
218, 228, 223, 234, 236, 241,
242
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